Text
                    С.В. Млявая
English Grammar Difficulties
Английский язык: Трудности перевода грамматических конструкций
Рекомендовано Научно-методическим центром учебной книги и средств обучения Министерства образования Республики Беларусь в качестве пособия для студентов экономических специальностей высших учебных заведений
Минск «Амалфея» 2002
УДТГ8О2.О^О75^33
ББК-8Ь2Англ=923
М72
Автор:	С.В. Млявая
Рецензенты: Ю.В. Стулов, канд. фи до л. наук, проф., зав. каф. МГЛУ;
В.И. Гречишкина, канд. филол. наук, доц.;
ЛЛ. Бедрицкая, ст. преподаватель каф. междунар. экон, отношений БГЭУ;
ТА. Иванова, ст. преподаватель каф. иностр, яз. БГЭУ
Млявая С.В.
М72 English Grammar Difficulties. Английский язык: Трудности перевода грамматических конструкций: Пособие/С.В. Млявая. — Мн.: Амалфея, 2002. — 176 с.
ISBN 985-441-238-5.
Пособие предназначено для углубленного изучения и практического применения грамматики английского языка при чтении оригинальной английской и американской экономической литературы.
Для студентов, аспирантов и научных сотрудников экономических специальностей вузов и для специалистов, самостоятельно совершенствующих свои знания английского языка в сфере экономики.
УДК 802.0 (075.8):33
ББК 81.2Англ-923
ISBN 985-441-238-5	© Млявая С.В., 2002
© Оформление. ООО «Амалфея», 2002
Предисловие
Пособие содержит теоретические сведения и практические делания по основным разделам грамматики английского языка, необходимые для понимания и перевода оригинальной английской и американской экономической литературы.
Учебный материал содержит специфические английские грамматические конструкции, вызывающие естественные трудности при чтении оригинальных экономических текстов по причине отсутствия подобных грамматических конструкций в русском языке.
Наличие базовых знаний по грамматике английского языка (в объеме грамматического раздела пособия: Л.В. Хведче-ня, Р.В. Хорень. Английский язык для поступающих в вузы. М., 1996.) является необходимым условием для работы с пособием.
Пособие состоит из двух частей:
1. Грамматика простого предложения.
2. Грамматика сложного предложения.
Каждая часть состоит из разделов. Раздел содержит:
•	грамматический комментарий, в котором изложены основные особенности и способы перевода данной грамматической конструкции на русский язык. Теоретические изложения иллюстрируются примерами перевода английских предложений, содержащих рассматриваемую грамматическую конструкцию, на русский язык;
•	упражнения по переводу предложений с английского языка на русский.
Лексический материал для упражнений подобран из оригинальной экономической американской литературы, а также из экономических изданий различных авторов*.
* An Outline of the American Economy. United States Information Agency. 1992: В.Д. Медвииская. Учебное пособие no английскому языку для студентов-экономистов. Ч. 2. М.. 1979: Жданова И.Ф. и др. Учебник английского языка для делового общения. М., 1982.
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Разделы завершаются упражнениями, позволяющими повторить. обобщить, закрепить и проконтролировать усвоение грамматического материала данного раздела.
Этой же цели, но уже на уровне обобщения грамматического материала всего пособия в текстах, а не в предложениях, подчинен и ряд тестов.
Дополнительный материал для перевода, завершающий каждую часть, может быть использован в качестве тестов.
В конце книги помещен лексический справочник, включающий английский перевод специальных экономических терминов, что значительно облегчает работу по чтению и позволяет сконцентрировать внимание на грамматических трудностях текстов.
Часть 1
Грамматика простого предложения
Страдательный залог
Обучающее правило
С радательный залог (Passive Voice) означает, что подлежащее пассивно, т.е. оно не выполняет действия, выраженного сказуемым. Это действие направлено на лицо или предмет, выраженный подлежащим.
1. By the summer 1837 business was paralyzed. К лету 1837 деловая жизнь была парализована.
2. The agreement was reached yesterday. Соглашение было достигнуто вчера.
В русском языке существует несколько равнозначныхепо-собов выражения пассивности подлежащего при сказуемом в страдательном залоге.
This system и as referred to as «a free enterprise system».
i.	Эта система была названа системой свободного предпринимательства.
2.	Эта система называлась системой свободного предпринимательства.
3.	Эту систему называли системой свободного предпринимательства.
В английских предложениях за сказуемым в страдательном залоге (Passive Voice) часто следует дополнение с предлогом by. Поскольку это дополнение является формой выражения лица или предмета, производящего действие, выраженное сказуемым, то его перевод на русский язык возможен двумя путями:
а)	существительным в творительном падеже при сохранении формы страдательного залога сказуемого;
б)	существительным в именительном падеже, при этом английский страдательный залог передается действительным залогом:
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Expenditures are listed by government departments and • agencies.
1.. Список расходов составляется правительственными мини-стерствами и организациями.
2.- Список расходов составляют правительственные министср- ства и организации.
При переводе английских предложений со сказуемым в страдательном залоге (Passive Voice) сохраняется прямой порядок слов английского предложения. Обратный порядок слов (русское предложение начинается со сказуемого) используется в том случае, если подлежащее является .носителем новой информации. „
A presidential commission was appointed to investigate the causes of the crash.
Для расследования причины катастрофы была назначена президентская комиссия.
In fact many services are used in the production of goods.
На самом деле,- при производстве товаров используются многие виды услуг.
При замене дополнения с предлогом by после сказуемого в страдательномзалогс на существительное в именительном падеже при переводе на русский язык (см. выше) сохраняется порядок слов английского предложения, за исключением тех случаев, когда подлежащее английского предложения является Носителем новой информации и, следовательно, при переводе его необходимо поместить в конце русского предложения.
1	.' The problem was solved by a well-known economist.
Эту проблему решил известный экономист.
2	. An Interesting phenomenon was registered by this economist.
Этот экономист отметил интересное явление.
При йереводе английских предложений со сказуемым в страдательном залоге следует учитывать, что сказуемое может быть в различных' временных формах (время сказуемого в Passive Voice определяется по глаголу to be), а также может иметь в своем составе модальные глаголы.
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Упражнения
I. Utptttdmt следующие предложения, у потребляя различные способы передачи инглндского страдательного залога.
А
I.	The United States is generally described as a mixed economy.
2.	The great majority оГproductive resources in the United States arc privately owned.
3.	This is determined on the base оГ an assessment оГ the wants and needs of those who buy goods and services what is known as consumer demand.
4.	The United States has what is usually described as a capitalist economy.
5.	The first ingredient of an economic system is the natural resources from which goods are produced.
6.	In this system, when economic forces are unfettered, supply and demand establish the prices of goods and services.
7.	Often control is exercised to protect a public.
8.	At this time federal agencies were encouraged to be more flexible in applying regulations.
9.	Because of this ratio, the nation is sometimes characterized as «a consumer economy».
10.	In 1990 a family of four with an annual income below S 13.600 was classified as being in poverty.
II.	People at poverty level sometimes get cash income from casual work and in the underground sector of economy, which is never recorded in official statistics.
12.	The first international Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791.
13.	Their agricultural skills were limited.
14.	These people arc sometimes depicted as being fiercely independent.
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15.	The same plot oHand was often sold several times, each time at a profit.
16.	River traffic also improved, when the steam engine was fitted to bouts.
В
1.	An astonishing total оГ 53 million hectare of land were eventually granted to railroad butchers.
2.	Often, unsuspecting buyers were cheated with stock that was artificially inflated.
3.	Urbanized industry was limited primarily to the North East.
4.	Thcj are concerned about the state of the national economy and America’s relationship with other countries.
5.	The 1950s in America are often described as a time of competency.
6.	The disadvantage is that interest payments ordinarily are made on bonds even when no profits are earned.
7.	Although the stock market recovered, the financial industry was particularly placed with problems.
8.	In 19-th and 20-th - century America, the economic individualist was envisioned in rural settings as a homesteading farmer.
9.	As a city dweller, he was seen as a small merchant, independent craftsman or self-reliant professional.
10.	When the individuals are taxed again on these dividends this is known as «double taxation».
11.	Some directors arc selected to give prestige to the board (company).
12.	Occasionally this trust is abused.
13.	In large measure this chapter is written from the standpoint of the small buyer and seller of stocks.
14.	In addition to this information, company executives are required to disclose the extent of their holdings in the company.
В
15.	Each transaction is carried out in public and the information is sent electronically to every brokerage office in the nation.
16.	Some of mutual funds are designed for income.
C
1.	The balance is borrowed at interest from the brokerage house and the stock certificates are deposited with the broker as security.
2.	The investor may pocket the profit and pay the broker the amount that was borrowed plus interest and commission.
3.	If the owner cannot produce cash, some of the stock is sold at the investor’s loss.
4.	Speculating in commodities is done primarily at commodities exchange.
5.	They are called organized markets because members are required to follow set trading rules.
6.	When this happens, prices are driven higher.
7.	Proponents of either of these views are often labeled in the terms of contemporary American politics.
8.	The successive stages in budgeting are known as the budget cycle.
9.	The budget is designed to indicate major categories of revenue sources.
10.	An appropriations bill is then presented to the entire House of Representatives where it is passed and sent to the Senate.
11	During the late 1800s and early 1900s the U.S. currency was based on the gold standard.
12.	Checking amount deposits are considered a form of money because they are spent when people write checks.
13.	When this check is deposited in a bank, it creates new reserves.
14.	The farmers were paid to take their lands out of use.
15.	Railroad cars were refrigerated and heated, helping preserve perishable goods.
16.	Soil was tested to determine the kind of fertilizers needed to increase grain production.
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II. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод дополнения с предлогом by после сказуемого в страдательном залоге.
А
1.	An economy based on free enterprise is generally characterized by private ownership and initiative, with a relative absence of government involvement.
2,	Once a nation of farmers, the United States was changed dramatically by successful adaptation of the machinery and production processes of the Industrial Revolution.
3.	This is a voluntary association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise that is marked by limited liability.
4.	Clear evidence of the American people’s pragmatism is demonstrated by their actions: to establish, and maintain economy based on the principles of free enterprise.
5.	The public education systems are primarily paid for by state, country or city governments.
6.	Imports are sometimes taxed or limited by volume so that American products can better compete with foreign goods.
7.	These early efforts were often marked by corruption and economic disaster.
8.	They were replaced by «technocrats» who became the heads of corporations.
9.	In general the role of the federal government was influenced by the concept of «laissez-faire».
10.	The rights and duties of a partnership are regulated by laws of the state where it is formed.
В
1	- Federal taxes are paid by individual partners on their share of earnings; beyond that the business is not taxed.
2.	Farmers’ problems continued, and their suffering was compounded by serious droughts in 1966 and 1988.
3.	In the late 19th century, the corporation was viewed by many as the chief instrument of monopoly.
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4.	The entire process is supervised in great detail by the securities and exchange commission.
5.	Before the Security Exchange Commission was created in 1934, securities were regulated by individual states.
6.	The SEC has five commissioners who are appointed by the president.
7.	The requests for funds are defended in open sessions by officials of each agency.
8.	The size of the money supply is determined by the cost of producing the commodity and the rate of production.
9.	In fact, in the United States about three-fourth of all payments are made by check.
10.	The payments were funded by a use tax paid by food processors.
III. Переведите предложения co сказуемым в страдательном залоге, при необходимости используя обратный порядок слов в русском предложении.
А
1.	New laws were passed, regulating many economic activities from sales of stock to the right of workers to form unions.
2.	Regulations or the implementation of regulations designed to protect workers, consumers and the environment were cut back.
3.	In addition a voluntary approach was taken to some regulations.
4.	The remaining one-third of goods and services is bought by government and business.
5.	A new word - «privatization» was coined and quickly gained acceptance world wide.
6.	Charter companies were formed of stockholder, usually merchants and wealthy landowners.
7.	The United States was greatly affected by the Industrial Revolution taking place in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries.
8.	Shipyards were opened to build fishing fleets.
9.	Big business leaders today are often involved in many areas of public life.
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10.	A law regulating the railroads was entered in 1887.
11.	These laws were not rigorously enforced.
12.	During this time, many of today's regulatory agencies were created.
13.	Fortunes were made overnight by financial manipulators.
14.	In 1861 a protective tariff was adopted.
15.	In 1862 the first Pacific railroad was chartered.
16.	In 1863 and 1864 national bank code was drafted.
В
1.	Soon large copper and silver mines were opened.
2.	In 1893 at the World Exposition a dynamo was displayed.
3.	Such mechanisms were soon built into dams to harness vast amounts of electricity.
4.	In 1990 some 12.4 million people were employed by these firms.
5.	Many new social welfare programs were created during the administration of Kennedy’s successor, President Zyndon B. Johnson.
6.	Farmers were especially hard hit.
7.	In practice however, a definition based on control of a specified percentage of total sales was often used.
8.	The corporation is not damaged by the death or disinterest of a particular person.
9.	A chief executive officer is permitted a great deal of freedom in the operation of the company.
10.	At annual meetings new directors are added as needed and major policy decisions are made.
11.	Local markets persisted in these cities, but trading was limited.
12.	Industrial stocks are also listed.
13.	In 1906 laws were passed to make sure that food and drugs were correctly labeled, and that meat was inspected before being sold.
14.	In addition, stricter controls were put on the manufacture and sale of food.
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15.	All citizens have the right to review the audits and inspect how public funds were received and spent.
16.	Advocates of cutting tax rates for middle-class Americans were again being heard.
IV. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на разные временные формы сказуемого в страдательном залоге.
А
1.	Gov ernment intervention has been found necessary from time to time to ensure that economic opportunities are fair and accessible to the people to prevent flagrant abuses, to damper inflation and to stimulate growth.
2.	Ever since colonial times, the government has been involved, to some extent, in economic decision - making.
3.	The social security Program, enacted in 1935, has been expanded to help retired people to meet theirmedical costs.
4.	In any event Americans have often been described as pragmatists.
5.	Yet government has to some extent been involved in regulating and guiding the U.S. economy.
6.	Regulation is usually considered necessary in areas where private enterprise has been granted a monopoly.
7.	Americans have been troubled over the years by the persistence of poverty in parts of their country.
8.	The statistics in this case is based solely on cash income.
9.	The difficulty in measuring the effectiveness of a social sector that has been privatized is one problem.
10.	The first colonists were being left to build their own lives, their own communities and their own economy - in effect, to start constructing the rudiments of a new nation.
11.	Confidence in the nation’s financial system was shaken, even shattered, and Western banks began to close.
12.	Many of Kennedy's more far - reaching economic proposals were not enacted.
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13.	If profits are limited, the owners of preferred stock will be paid dividends before those with common stock.
14.	By the end of the 1960s, economic prosperity was being eroded by persistent inflation.
15.	In the last 100 years many persons have been concerned about what is viewed as breakdown of domestic competition.
16.	The question of how much regulation are optimal - for meeting producer and consumer needs - was still being hostly debated in the 1990s.
В
1.	But now product development and manufacturing processes are being examined.
2.	In recent years much capital has been raised through bond markets and in other ways.
3.	The price will be determined continuously during the trading day by what buyers will pay and what sellers will take.
4.	But in the early 1990s the costs and benefits of the deregulation of these industries will be debated.
5.	The theoretical basis of government policy toward American business has been provided for more than 200 years by «laissez-faire» or «leave-it-alone», in translation from the French.
6.	But many Americans were not totally convinced that the problem of inflation had been permanently solved.
7.	A new factor of significance in the market is the volume of funds from abroad that is being invested.
8.	The SEC also requires companies to provide information for the public about how many shares of their stock are being bought or sold by officers of the company.
9.	Seeds have been scientifically developed to be productive and increasingly resistant to disease and drought.
10.	The federal income tax had been implemented by the congress according to the principle of progressively.
11.	Several factors have been credited with contributing to reduction in inflation.
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12.	Inflows of capital from abroad have been used to help fill the gap between U.S. savings and investment levels.
13.	Forest had been cut or burned to provide additional cropland.
14.	In the late 20th century, farms were increasingly being passed into the hands of corporations.
15.	In the 17th century many colonies were founded principally as business ventures.
16.	Presidents elected after Jackson also came from the West, or were allied to those who reflected rural settlement.
V. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на наличие модальных глаголов в составе сказуемых в страдательном залоге.
А
1.	Once the first entrepreneurial investment of capital has been made, someone must be hired to manage the new business factory or other endeavor.
2.	Free enterprise as an idea can be simply described.
3.	The resources must be directed as efficiently as possible into the areas where they will be most productive.
4.	This system often referred to as a «free enterprise system» can be contrasted with a socialist economic system, which depends heavily on government planning and public ownership of the means of production.
5.	The assets can be inherited by a person who may then become an operator, but legally the business dies with its owner.
6.	This product may be brought by a larger firm.
7.	One partner may be qualified in production, another in marketing.
8.	A lack of competition can be demonstrated to hurt the consumer.
9.	The tools of restructuring can be used to diversify or concentrate product links.
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10.	The rate of interest charged by a lender can be influenced by the amount of funds in the overall money supply available for loans.
11.	A major company may be owned by a million or more people.
В
1.	Also groups that challenge management must be permitted access to mailing lists of stockholders.
2.	It was known as a market where many of the fastest growing «high-technology» stocks could be bought and sold.
3.	Information about trading activity can be required through newspapers, magazines or «electronically».
4.	The Federal Reserve Board regulates the minimum margins, the amount that can be paid in cash as a percentage of a purchase.
5.	Automobiles must be built according to safety standards.
6.	Prices for goods must be clearly marked and advertising must be honest.
7.	If the necessary number of votes cannot be mustered, a new compromise appropriations bill has to be worked out and voted into the law.
8.	This budget-making process permits Congress to establish its own national priorities, which can then be negotiated with the President.
9.	In addition, it (money) can be used like property of precious metals - as a store of wealth that people can save for future purchases.
10.	These percentages cannot be used for loans.
11.	Some of the richest farmland in the world can be found in the American Midwest.
12.	No agreement could be reached by the targeted deadline of December 31.1990.
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VI. Переведитепредложения, учитывая, что:
а)	страдательный залог с подлежащим it переводится неопределенно-личным предложением.
1.	It must be expected that for the next five to ten years the oilexporting countries will be able to use only a comparatively small proportion of their surpluses for imports.
2.	It can be expected that a large proportion of the resources spent on oil imports by the oil-consuming countries will flow back again to these countries.
3.	Also, it is to be expected that the oil-exporting countries are only prepared to commit substantial resources to the IMF if the interest rates are attractive.
4.	It is estimated that the $500 million combined annual sales of the 90 largest corporations in the United States and 90 largest in the rest of the world equal roughly one sixth of total world GNP (gross national product).
5.	It was found necessary to meet the situation by allowing the price of gold to find its own level on the basis of supply and demand.
6.	It could be argued that the developing countries should seek to reduce their dependence on exports of primary products to the EEC and turn to industrialization.
7.	it is hoped that the international payment balance will be restored.
8.	It was recognized that its collapse would be extremely harmful to the interests of all monopolies.
9.	It was stated in the report that only the organization of skilled workers can do this job.
10.	It would be folly to assume that a banking crisis is forestalled, this would be no more credible than the claim that a crisis of overproduction was ruled out by government regulation.
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6)	предлог, стоящий после сказуемого в страдательном залоге и не относящийся к последующим за ним словам, при переводе на русский язык ставится перед тем словом, которое в английском предложении является подлежащим, или опускается.
1.	The results can be relied upon.
2.	The terms were agreed upon.
3.	Wage increases were fought for to catch up to the sudden increase in prices.
4.	. Expansion of services is referred to by economists as a source of economic stability and a symptom of the increasing welfare.
5.	There is no doubt that the external sources of inflationary tension are in some cases followed by a certain number of internal factors.
6.	The provisional agenda for the Consultative Committee was agreed on at the last meeting.
7.	The new problems that might arise during the two months before the signing of the Treaty should appropriately be dealt with in the framework of the conference.
8.	For more detailed report the reader is referred to the preliminary notes on this subject.
VII. Переведите предложения, повторив правила перевода сказуемых в страдательном залоге.
А
1.	The growth in output is limited by the capacity of the market i.c. by consumer goods sales.
2.	In our life time wc have never lived in a period when Britain has not been faced with an economic crisis.
3.	Conditions are created for passing to the phase of restoration in economy.
4.	Excess inventories are partly destroyed and partly sold off at reduced prices.
5.	The idea has been raised al the Washington energy conference of creating an international investment institute.
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6.	This facility should be financed principally by funds from the oil-exporting countries.
7.	The drastic worsening of the balance of payments situation of the oil-exporting countries cannot be remedied by normal adaptive measures.
8.	According to the plan introduced by International Monetary Fund (IMF), the oil-exporting countries should be granted an additional IMF-facility.
9.	Many items of expenditure for this purpose are listed in the estimates of other Ministries.
10.	The non-oil-producing developing nations with small resources of raw materials can only be helped by short-term aid.
11.	But this crisis should also be seen in the contest of other non-cyclical processes.
12.	A consolidation occurs when all the combining firms disappear as distinct and separate corporate entities and a new consolidate corporate entity is created.
В
1.	If a company’s sales could be equated to a country’s gross national product then the world’s 100 largest economic units would comprise 51 corporations in 49 countries.
2.	Under US dominance international capitalist co-operation was developed in trade and finance.
3.	The traditional division between line and staff functions may be eliminated to some extent.
4.	There are some other methods that can be used to evaluate the investment climate of countries.
5.	This has to be done by putting obstacles in the way of new firms setting up in the industry in question.
6.	Many new products are first developed in the United States or in other developed nations because of existing research and technological capabilities.
7.	A stock book will be kept in which amounts of new stock and goods sold are recorded, so that the amount in stock in any time can easily be seen.
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8.	Monetary policy, in effect, is also carried out by government or quasi-govemmental banks.
9.	And always this has been reinforced with easier money policies.
10.	The British bill for armaments has been met by economizing on education, the health services and revenue from income.
11.	Economic growth is needed to meet the US expanded international responsibilities.
12.	Sales competition can only be met by increased efficiency in production, and improved selling techniques.
13.	The economic processes are increasingly being influenced by the monopoly sector.
C
1.	The financial resources of the US economy are employed today under the high pressure which contributes strongly to economic instability.
2.	American society is confronted with different problems and conflicts.
3.	The rise in raw material prices was also heightened by speculation arising from lack of confidence in paper money, caused by the inflation.
4.	Recent experience has shown that these crises cannot be overcome by any single country and require coordinated action.
5.	But such action is impeded by the selfish interests of national monopolies.
6.	The relative decline in the British economy was especially marked in the last two decades.
7.	It is useful at this stage to examine what is being attempted by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
8.	They were motivated by the economic factors relating to their own development.
9.	Millions of peasant producers were brought face to face with large monopoly firms.
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10.	At present, the serious payments imbalances are linked with increasing instability in the international currency and capital markets.
11.	The developing countries are subjected to uneven conditions of trade.
12.	Their major resources are generally owned, and controlled by foreign monopolies.
13.	The OPEC countries are being blamed in the West for producing inflation, but they too are hit by it.
14.	Many acute national problems are experienced by newly independent states.
D
1.	Industrial development so far undertaken can be divided into four categories.
2.	For the overwhelming majority of people in this country life is based on subsistence farming.
3.	The industrialization which exists is circumscribed closely by the requirements of the overseas markets.
4.	Wages as a factor of inflation can hardly be separated from other factors.
5.	This tendency has been further aggravated by the enormous expenditures on armaments.
6.	The price-raising tendency has been supported by a sustaining growth in the flood of credit created by the spreading network ofbanks.
7.	There was instituted a period of relative stagnation during which a turn-about in the balance of payments position was achieved.
8.	The means of payment were greatly added to by the use of bank cheques.
9.	Unemployment is being used explicitly as a weapon to curb wage increases.
10.	Technically, the money isn’t just arbitrarily printed; it is based on borrowings from private banks and individuals.
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Ц. Generally, central bank policy is coordinated with budget policy to achieve the desired result smoothly.
12-	The commitment to international co-operation was profound: conflict and rivalry were to be confirmed within the framework of a system which itself would never been allowed to collapse.
13.	Exchange rate stability was best achieved through a system by which rates were fixed in the short run but could be varied from time to time.
14.	Only the United States was co'mmitted freely to exchange dollars for gold held by central banks, at the fixed rate which had been established in 1934.
Инфинитив
Обучающее правило
Инфинитив может выполнять функцию подлежащего, если он стоит в начале предложения, где нет другого слова, которое могло бы быть подлежащим. Переводится инфинитивом или отглагольным существительным.
То таке а 2% discount on the price is unprofitable for the seller.
Сделать 2%-ную скидку - невыгодно для продавца. (Предоставление 2%-ной скидки...)
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели может стоять в начале или в конце предложения. Он отвечает на вопрос «для чего?» и может вводиться союзами so as (to) «так чтобы», «с тем чтобы» и in order (to) «для того чтобы». Переводится инфинитивом с союзами «для того чтобы», «чтобы», «с тем чтобы» или отглагольным существительным с предлогом «для».
То overcome the crisis a new economic policy was proposed.
Для того чтобы преодолеть кризис (Для преодоления кризиса...). была предложена новая экономическая политика.
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Measures were taken to hold down the increase in money-wages.
Были приняты меры для того, чтобы сдержать рост зарплаты (для сдерживания роста...)
В конце предложения инфинитив может употребляться в функции обстоятельства следствия и обстоятельства сопутствующих условий. В функции обстоятельства следствия инфинитив соотносится с ранее стоящими наречиями too - слишком, sufficiently, enough-достаточно, с прилагательным sufficient -достаточный или стоит непосредственно после союза as и соотносится с ранее стоящим наречием so или с местоимением such, as... as too - так (такой, настолько)... что (чтобы), each... as to -такой... что (чтобы).
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства следствия имеет модальный оттенок возможности. Переводится неопределенной формой глагола с союзом <<для того чтобы»; «чтобы», а также личной формой глагола-сказуемого придаточного предложения с союзом «что».
The delays were not serious enough to charge a penalty.
Задержки поставки были недостаточнд серьезными, чтобы накладывать штраф.
The infringement is so gross as to refer the dispute to the arbitration.
Нарушение настолько серьезно, что следует обратиться в арбитражную комиссию.
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства сопутствующих условий по формальным признакам не отличается от инфинитива в функции обстоятельства цели, но он употребляется только в конце предложения и не выражает целенаправленности действия. Переводится деепричастием, отглагольным существительным с предлогом «с», глаголом в личной форме (сказуемым) с союзом «и».
Inadequate packing of the goods adds to the frequent delays to make the claims of the customers well-grounded.
Частые задержки в доставке товаров сопровождаются их неудовлетворительной упаковкой, придавая претензиям
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покупателей обоснованный характер (...что и делает жалобы покупателей обоснованными).
Инфинитив в функции определения относится к существительному и обычно следует за ним. Переводится существительным с предлогом, неопределенной формой глагола, придаточным определительным предложением со сказуемым с оттенком долженствования или соотнесенности с будущим.
The chapter is an attempt to explain how the stock market works.
Эта глава представляет собой попытку объяснить, как действует рынок ценных бумаг.
Инфинитив часто употребляется в составном сказуемом после глагола-связки to be. Глагол to be в этом сказуемом встречается во всех временах группы Indefinite и Perfect. Инфинитив в таком сказуемом обычно имеет форму действительного залога. Глагол to be в функции связки переводится «заключаться (состоять) в том, чтобы (что)», «это», а в настоящем времени часто опускается.
Their aim is to raise maximum profit.
Их цель заключается в том, чтобы получить максимальную выгоду. (Их цель - получить максимальную выгоду.)
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива в функции обстоятельства цели, следствия и сопутствующих условий.
А
1	- But the expansion of the market has not been sufficient to yield the same rate of profit.
2.	The difficulties became sufficiently general to cause many owners to hesitate to make new investments.
3.	Under such circumstances monopolies will find an excuse for limiting oil production so as to recreate the artificial shortage of oil.
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4.	The Cartel in its complete form is a selling syndicate formed to take over or control the marketing of the output of the member firms.
5.	Large numbers of American corporations became multina-fiotufls simply in order to mainitnn or to expand markets in Canada or in the EEC.
6.	The multinational corporation may onjjiiftflty establish an overseas plant to protect an existing market to which it is exporting or in order to sales.
7.	They try to adapt their polices and tactics to meet the new con-Sftibns.
8.	The term «programming» is used here to make a distinction between this and the planning in other countries.
9.	This is clearly insufficient to justify the assertion that we have entered a technocratic epoch.
В
1.	Individual firms were not large enough to exercise a perceptible influence over the market.
2.	The developed countries desperately need foreign markets to keep their industries running.
3.	Provisions exist in the constitution of the Fund for modification of rates if circumstances are such as to гефцге it.
4.	When too many laborers arrived to be absorbed on the East Coast, they could usually move on to Farmland in the interior.
5.	Some of these men were honest, according to business standards of their day; others used force, bribery and guile to achieve their wealth and power.
6.	Firms merged to create huge, diversified «conglomerates» for example International Telephone and Telegraph Co.
7.	Some individual proprietors join forces with others to form chains of independents or cooperatives.
8.	Some directors are selected to give prestige to the board, others to provide certain skills or to represent lending instructions.
9.	Hedgers are business firms (or individuals) that enter into the commodity contract to be assured access to the commodity at a guaranteed price.
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с
I Computers arc programmed to order the buying and selling automatically in large volume of shares when certain circumstances occur.
2.	Filling out forms to satisfy government rules costs money and' adds to the prices they must charge.
3.	Strict regulations arc needed to keep businesses from cheating or harming workers or consumers in order to increase business profits.
4.	The government used the act to break up the Standard Oil Company and overall other large firms that have abused their economic power.
5.	The agency sets and enforces tolerable limits of pollution, and establishes timetables to bring polluters into line with standards.
6.	The federal budget includes savings accounts that cannot automatically be converted to make purchases.
7.	The new conditions may interact with the size of the money supply to create a totally unintended result.
8.	Spending and taxing policies work together to increase or decrease, aggregate demand.
9.	The economic «pie» was always getting large enough for new generations of emigrants to carve themselves a slice.
10.	This method is not sufficiently accurate to be used for any economic analysis.
II.	Сделайте грамматический анализ следующих предложений и переведите их, определив, где инфинитив - обстоятельство цели, а где — подлежащее.
1.	То fulfil its commitments to the people a trade union needs the support of a strong and influential party.
2.	In order to maintain price there is generally a system of output quotas allotted to each firm.
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3.	To achieve any serious improvement in their economic conditions, the American working people must fight to realize their goals.
4.	11 is obvious that «to slow down» inflation and to cut taxes was the first aim of the policy.
5.	To solve the problems these countries issued paper money.
6.	To maintain itself as a social system it was obliged to create an intricate mechanism of state intervention in economic system.
7.	To combine the advantages of both systems and avoid the drawbacks of both systems was the aim of the International Monetary Fund.
8.	To increase exploitation of British workers it is necessary to impose policies by force of law.
9.	To assist developing countries in meeting their own needs the Peace Corps sends volunteer Americans overseas.
10.	To affect these factors, legislation was enacted creating the Small Business Administration, an independent federal agency.
11.	To consider policy related to operational decisions and to review accomplishments the board meets monthly or quarterly.
12.	In order to legalize the collection of revenues and expenditure of funds the federal budget must be enacted into law.
13.	To participate in this programme, farmers must again take some of their lands out of production.
14.	To find its own way of economic development was then of prime importance for the country.
1П. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива в функции определения.
А
1.	The Congress called for efforts to raise the cultural level of labour.
2.	The rapidly raising capability of production to expand goes counter to the consuming power of the masses.
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3.	The creation of larger free-trading regions created opportunities to capitalize upon economies of scale.
4.	Joint ventures are a major way for the multinational company to raise local financing and to regulate the risk from devaluation of currency and inflation.
5.	The USA has shown a tendency to expand her investments and control on the American continent.
6.	The campaign to eliminate the controls of domestic oil and gas prices is an indication of the more profits for the corporations.
7.	It proclaims the right of states to take over their natural resources and develop them in the interests of their peoples.
8.	Attempts of the producers to intervene into prices and supply are provoking fierce resistance.
9.	Some West European governments did employ measures to restrict the movement of «hot money».
10.	Enlargement of the EEC to include Britain made the problems facing the developing countries in finding markets for their manufactures worse for another reason.
В
1.	Both theburrent inflation and recession are the outcome of the attempt to prolong the historic life of the system.
2.	The instruments of dollar sterilization will be applied, and this means measures to withdraw the dollar from circulation.
3.	The proportion of imported raw materials to be used in the manufacture of producer goods increased in comparison with the proportion to be used in the manufacture of consumer goods.
4.	There are difficult problems to be tackled, the solution of which will call for changes in policies.
5.	The price of Japanese made vessels to be sold abroad could rise under efforts by Transport ministry to expand controls on the shipbuilding industry.
6.	Conglomerate mergers have recently been motivated by the profits to be made from stock manipulation.
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7.	So far as the free trade arrangements are concerned. Switzerland attached particular importance to the treatment to be given to the watchmaking industry.
8.	New national leaders spreadheaded a drive to cut government spendings and level of taxation.
9.	Public policy permits such companies to make reasonable profits, but limits their ability to raise prices «unfairly».
10.	John D.Rockefeller realized the potential wealth and power to be gained by concentrating the production of oil and outlets for its distribution,
11.	The large corporation has grown to its present size in part because it has found ways to rise new capital for further expansion.
12.	The agency has the authority to coordinate and support research and antipollution efforts of state and local government.
13.	The Federal Farm Board established the direct interference with supply and demand, and it represented the first national commitment to provide greater economic stability for farmers.
IV. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод составного сказуемого с глаголом-связкой to be и последующим инфинитивом.
А
1.	The British working people aim is to prevent production cuts and the closing of enterprises.
2.	Their objective was a new bloc of Britain plus the six in economic competition with the USA and Japan.
3.	The aim is to win a leading position for Britain within this bloc.
4.	The policy adopted was to combine the direct measure of incomes policy and a rising level of unemployment.
5.	The aim is, by this means, to right the US balance of payments.
6.	The aim of the system of foreign exchange rates was to promote the flow of international trade and capital investment.
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7	The function of every currency is to serve as a payment medium in international economic intercourse.
8.	One major effort of the new programme was to halt the upward trend of auto imports.
10. Two ways to maintain the rate of profit are to advance technology and productivity, and to increase the exploitation oflabor.
В
1.	The Bank of England is the Central Bank and its principal business is to act as banker to the Government and to the other banks.
2.	In less centralized industries the policy of manufacturers is to set a ptice equal to twice factory cost.
3.	The aim of price policy has generally been to keep prices from increasing much faster than in other countries.
4.	The motivation was not to meet any requirement of law.
5.	Canada’s policy has always been to encourage and assist the exploitation of its natural resources.
6.	With respect to personnel, the company may specify that at the end of planning period the aim will be to have Ipeal executives occupy all the top management positions in overseas subsidiaries.
7.	Their goal was to stimulate the private sector initiative and investment.
8.	The agency mandate is to control and abate pollution in the air and water.
9.	The intent was to raise prices by limiting the supply of farm goods.
К Переведите следующие предложения, учитывая различные функции инфинитива.
А
1	- A devaluation of the pound against the dollar requires more goods produced in Britain and exported to balance the account.
31
2.	To reject the claim off-hand may result in settling the dispute in the arbitration commission.
3.	At the peak of the boom there is a surplus of commodities and shortage of money to buy them.
4.	This multinational corporation made an attempt to bring pressure to bear on some national governments to obtain special concessions and reap higher profits.
5.	The aim of financial oligarchy was to keep annual inflation in the range of 1-3% per year so as not to sharpen economic conflicts with labour.
6.	The British and international bankers have devoted all their efforts to impose deflatory cuts on the standards of the people in order to save the pound.
7.	American financial and government policy exercised every effort to maintain this system, which established the dollar as statutory world currency to be a compulsory part of the country currency reserves of every country.
8.	Substandard packing aggravates the situation to make the good unsaleable.
9.	The agency also administers an aggressive program to identify international markets and joint venture opportunities for small businesses that have export potential.
10.	Since the mid 20-th century. U.S. policymakers attempted to use a mixture of monetary policies and fiscal policies to promote the twin goals of full employment and price stability.
11.	Economists were using this term to indicate the level of dexterity they believed they had achieved in controlling the economy to support the nation’s principal economic objectives.
В
1.	To prevent this Congress and the Bush administration agreed on the Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990.
2.	The oil price shocks of the 1970c, the ensuing worldwide recession, and increases in the foreign exchange value of the dollar acted to hurt the U.S. trade balance and to reduce domestic support for trade liberalization in the 1980s.
32
3	These nations needed export markets - particularly in the huge U.S. market - in order to regain economic independence and achieve economic growth.
4.	In these negotiations, the United Stales pushed for the development of rules to eliminate the use of agricultural subsidies.
5.	But efforts to get agreement on the package of reforms proved difficult.
6.	Yet U.S. savings were not large enough to meet expanding demand for investment at a time of record federal budget deficit.
7.	These firms conduct work that is too crucial to national security to allow foreign investment.
8.	Efforts to use monetary policy to achieve price stability sometimes have hampered efforts to achieve fuller employment.
9.	Congress gave the Fed (Federal Reserve) the authority to vary reserve requirements and to regulate stock market margins.
10.	When the commercial banks sold large amounts of Treasury securities, the Fed bought heavily to keep security prices from falling.
11.	It has become increasingly clear that the existing patterns of world trade will continue in being for several years to come.
2 Зак. 3256
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Инфинитивные обороты
Обучающее правило
Инфишпив может употребляться в составном сказуемом с модальным значением глаголов to be (to have): be (have) + инфинитив: глаголы to be и to have выражают долженствование. Инфинитив употребляется с частицей to, в действительном или страдательном залоге.
Import of goods to the country is to be governed by new regulations.
Импорт товаров в эту страну должен регулироваться новыми правилами.
Инфинитив в функции определения после порядковых числительных first, second и других или после прилагательного last переводится личной формой глагола в том времени, в котором стоит сказуемое английского предложения.
Germany was the first country to adopt the system.
Германия была первой страной, которая ввела эту систему.
the American teenagers find jobs they are the first to be laid off.
Когда молодые американцы находят работу, их увольняют в первую очередь.
Инфинитив может входить в составное глагольное сказуемое после личной формы глаголов в страдательном или действительном залоге. При переводе глагол в личной форме переводится глаголом в неопределенно-личной форме, который часто становится перед подлежащим. Остальная часть предложения переводится дополнительным придаточным предложением с союзом «что». Подлежащим становится английское подлежащее, а инфинитив - сказуемым.
A crisis is expected to be followed by a depression.
Ожидается, что за кризисом последует депрессия.
34
Инфинитив в таком сказуемом может стоят также после словосочетаний: be likely - верояпю: be unlikely, be not likely - маловероятно, вряд ли: be sure, be certain несомненно, конечно.
The deflation produced by these policies is likely to increase unemployment.
Дефляция, к которой привел этот политический курс, вероятно. увеличит безработицу.
Конструкция « for + сушест вительнос (местоимение) + инфинитив» переводи гея различными способами соответственно выполняемой данной конструкцией функции в предложении. В частности, предлог for может переводиться «для того чтобы» или опускаться, инфинитив переводится сказуемым, а стоящее перед ним существительное - подлежащим придаточного предложения. Инфинитив выражает действие, которое производит лицо или предмет, обозначенное данным существи гельным или местоимением.
For this prospect to he realized, the national programme should be directed towards tariff reduction.
Для того чтобы этот проект был реализован (для реализации...), национальная программа должна быть направлена на сокращение тарифов. (Конструкция в функции обстоятельства цели.)
Throughout the past two hundred years there has been a tendency for the scale of production to increase.
В последние два столе! ия существует тенденция к увеличению масштабов производства (к тому, чтобы размеры производства увеличивались). (Конструкция в функции определения.)
Инфинитив в сложном дополнении стоит после существительного или местоимения в объек гном падеже, являющихся вместе с инфинитивом сложным дополнением к предшествующему глаголу. Переводится придаточным дополнительным предложением с союзами «что», «чтобы», «как».
Инфинитив становится сказуемым, а стоящее перед ним существительное или местоимение - подлежащим.
Не wants the debt to he paid.
Он хочет, чтобы долг был уплачен
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Упражнения
I.	Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива в составном модальном сказуемом после глагола t0 be (to have).
1.	As was to be expected while the struggle was at its height and victory within sight, the union leaders signed a compromise agreement.
2.	The source of profit is to be found in the value created by the application of labour power to the machines which turn raw materials into a product for sale on the market.
3.	The consolidation of big capital is to be seen in the formation of the Federation of British industries and the National Confederation of Employers’ Organizations.
4.	Of twenty-two strategic materials required by the US economy, ten were to be found in Canada.
5.	An import declaration is to be submitted by the importer to the appropriate authorities, within 14 days after the conclusion of the import contract.
6.	Since no revival of demand is to be expected in the near future the experts are concerned to avert unemployment.
7.	Commercial banks are legally forbidden to engage in other forms of business, that’s why the producer for evading this prohibition is to set up a holding company which holds the stock of the given bank and acquires the stock of other corporations.
8.	Ruling class strategy must involve the cutting back of real wages in relation to profits. Profit is to be boosted by class dictatorship and intensified exploitation.
9.	If the private sector was to survive in the new Portugal, it needed technical and financial help from the industries of the other European countries.
10.	Britain is to reduce her export prices relative to American export prices if she is to maintain her trade in balance.
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] i This act focused on full employment, but it did not specify how the goal was to be achieved.
12 The Employment Act declared that the promotion of maximum employment, production and purchasing power was to be the policy of the federal government.
13. The farmers wanted a policy that would provide «cheap money», or low interested rates, on the money they had to borrow.
II. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод ш/фянитива в функции определения после числительных first, second и др. или прилагательного last.
1.	The worst hardships inflicted on the Black, Chicano and Indian peoples. Last to be hired during booms they are first to be fired during depressions.
2.	The Swiss National Bank was the first to express doubts about a policy which concentrated too much on the supply of credit.
3.	The developing countries find themselves forced to export goods in order to acquire the foreign exchange necessary for the import of raw materials and industrial goods, and among the first goods to be exported are often textiles.
4.	Japanese foreign trade experts developed a theory that their exports were the last to be bought in a boom and the first to be dropped in a depression.
5.	The nationalized industries have always been the first to suffer because of a crisis in the balance of payments.
6.	Many new products are first to have been developed in the United States or in other developed nations because of existing research and technological capabilities.
1-	While in many cases products are first to have been introduced in the USA, in other cases European countries have developed products that they have later marketed in the United States.
8. The progressive forces in these countries were the first to recognize the necessity to come to terms with the new world of the countries of national liberation.
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HI Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива в составном глагольном сказуемом.
1.	Since the possibility of raising export prices is thought to be very limited, industrialists fear that there will be a sharp drop in US-Finland trade.
2.	The cost of shipping of an article from one country to another may be said to depend on a number of considerations: its weight, bulk, value, etc.
3.	A firm is said to be in equilibrium when the entrepreneur has no motive to change its organization or its scale of production.
4.	Management was seen to have been handed over to the same people who had run the privately owned enterprises.
5.	A recession is supposed to cause a shrinkage in imports, while encouraging manufacturers to promote exports to replace smaller domestic markets.
6.	Until the early eighteenth century England could be said to be on a silver standard, but early in the eighteenth century Great Britain went over to a gold standard.
7.	The commission's recommendation seems to represent a new approach to the problem of inflation.
8.	The country appears to be spending some of the oil money in advance.
9.	The statistics seemed to show that the Swedish investment flow was directed toward the EEC.
10.	The Penn Central bankruptcy was expected to be only the first. At the time six other railroads were known to be on the verge of collapse.
11.	The firm is reported to have been subjected to intensive « speedup» methods.
12.	In Norway the balance of payments deficit happened to provoke grave Government concern.
13.	Latin America’s economic future was thought (to be) dim for the lack of coal.
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13	Japan was believed (to be) condemned to a low standard of living because it lacked basic resources.
IУ Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод цнфииитива в составном глагольном сказуемом со словами likely, unlikely, to be certain.
] The participants of the forthcoming conference are certain to arrive tomorrow.
2.	Decisions on goxernment economic regulations require knowledge of where the economy is, in what direction it is moving, and, above all, where it is likely to move.
3.	The further stages of integration are more likely to be a series of pragmatic compromises than economic union in any realistic way.
4.	The Asian Commonwealth countries are likely to be more critically affected after Britain entered the Market than any other country or gi oups of countries.
5.	A review of general economic policy measures in the past ten years was undertaken but is not yet complete, and is likely to be soon interrupted.
6.	Various speakers agreed with the analysis of the report that there was likely to be an insufficiency of new manufacturing projects for some reason.
7.	Exports to Japan are also expected to rise, but are unlikely to match last year’s 66 per cent gain in light of the marked slackening in the Japanese economy.
8.	Inflationary speculation and growing primary producer organization are likely to keep material prices high.
9.	When trade is opened up consumers are likely to alter their tastes because of the opportunity to buy foreign goods.
10.	The efforts of these economists to arrrive at a coherent and consistent explanation of the cycles, let alone to find a magic key to their elimination, are most unlikely to succeed.
11	- Next year Norway is likely to emerge as an exporter of petroleum and in a few years it will be enjoying a comfortable payment surplus.
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12.	The new needs are likely to continue to increase import as income grows but beyond a certain point the rise is likely to be slower than the increase in imports.
V. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод конструкции for + существительное (местоимение) + инфинитив.
I.	There arc no reasons Гог the business cycle to exist in the planned economy.
2.	Keneys theory reflected the need for a theoretical framework to explain economic intervention under compulsion of the great economic crisis.
3.	International trade and other financial dealings between countries make it necessary for them to make payments to one another.
4.	It is usual for a score or more of major new construction projects in a dozen countries to be under construction simultaneously.
5.	It is common in new modern factories for fixed capital per worker to reach several hundred thousand dollars.
6.	The post-war food shortage and Britain's balance of payments problems made it necessary for Britain to maintain increased grain production.
7.	The speeding up of the scientific an technological revolution calls for such an increase in capital investment as to strengthen the tendency for finance capital to expand the whole credit structure in an inflatory way.
8.	There will undoubtedly be tendencies for monopoly states to break away from international ties in order to rescue their national economies from the crisis.
9.	A further complicating factor will be the tendency for the interests of the ruling circles of some oil-producing countries to become tied up with the interests of the international finance capital.
10.	During inflation there is a tendency for prices and wages to rise, that is, for the value of money to fall.
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11.	It is necessary for the struggle for higher living standards and democracy to be waged in the interests of international cooperation.
12.	It is not possible for the oil-producing countries to use up all the funds in buying the exports of the oil-consuming countries in proportion to their oil debt.
VI.	Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод инфинитива в составе сложного дополнения.
1.	The society wants enterprises to work at capacity and to use their means most effectively.
2.	The workers want a monetary system to supply ample low-interested credit for housing and consumer durable goods.
3.	The Buyer would like the guarantee period to be extended by months and some faulty two parts to be replaced.
4.	The Buyer wants special service visits of the seller's engineers to be arranged after the guarantee period.
5.	The Sellers expect a Release Note for shipment to be signed immediately after the tests are carried out.
6.	The Buyers would like the Notification of Readiness for the Test to be sent rather early (at least 45 days before the date of the test).
7.	They (the workers) want the tax burden to be shifted off their shoulders.
VII. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различные конструкции с инфинитивом.
А
1.	Evidently direct investment appeared to be a relatively profitable use of corporate funds.
2.	When the government receives more in taxes than it spends, or has a budget surplus, this is expected to slow down the economy by draining off purchasing power.
3.	Sweden believes that some sort of cooperation between Swedish Rikstag and the European Parliament would appear to be of mutual interest.
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4.	Those policies of the state that are vital for the industrial system are believed to be of the highest social urgency.
5.	The Black people are last to be employed during booms and first to be fired during depression.
6.	The boom is likely to end in a big slump, protracted inflationary recession or runaway inflation.
7.	An increasing proportion of this vast overseas outlays have to be paid for in the period of growing inflation.
8.	The US balance of payments moved into surplus, although it is now expected to show a small deficit as a result of the oil price increases.
9.	In modern society it is impossible for every man to run his own productive process.
10.	The rise in the volume of international transactions made it necessary for the stock of international reserves to rise over time.
В
1.	There is likely to be little check to imports, with the result that in these circumstances the devaluation of a currency is unlikely to achieve its objective.
2.	It is usually for the same person to serve concurrently on several different corporate board.
3.	This trend is likely to continue.
4.	Capital markets are said to be efficient when they can match quickly vast numbers of stocks put forth by sellers with vast demands for stocks put forth by buyers.
5.	Those who make money are often professional traders, well versed in the way the market is likely to react.
6.	In part investors' concern about US federal budget and international trade deficits were found to be responsible.
7.	Big stock markets can be highly volatile,‘and wide fluctuations are expected to continue over time.
8.	This type of pollution was thought to be causing serious damage to forests and lakes.
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9.	Kcncys was the first to argue that it was the special duty of government to actively influence the economy through fiscal policies.
10.	One would like to hope that the members of the upper house will understand the benefits that this document is supposed to give to the country and the regions that they are representing.
Причастия и причастные обороты
Обучающее правило
При переводе английских причастий в функции определения (в том числе и образующих причастный оборот) следует учитывать залог причастия. Причастия, образующиеся с помощью окончания -ing (Participle I), соответствуют русским действительным причастиям. Причастия, образующиеся с помощью окончания -ed или 3-й формы неправильного глагола (Participle II), соответствуют русским страдательным причастиям.
Planning bodies- плановые (планирующие) органы (т.е. те, которые сами планируют);
Planned period - плановый (запланированный) период (т.е. тот, который кем-то запланирован).
In Washington D. С. trained specialists provide professional expertise andfinancial assistance to those wishing to form small businesses.
В Вашингтоне опытные специалисты предоставляют профессиональную и финансовую помощь тем, кто желает начать свой бизнес.
Английские причастия могут употребляться в составе обстоятельственных причастных оборотов, которые относятся к сказуемому и отвечают на вопросы: когда? почему? как? и т.п.
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Обстоятельственные причастные обороты могут вводиться союзами when, while - когда, if - если, whenever - всякий раз когда, unless - если не; until - пока не. though - хотя, once -когда, поскольку.
Английские обстоятельственные придаточные обороты переводятся: 1) деепричастным оборотом; 2) группой отглагольного существительного с предлогом «при»; 3) обстоятельственным придаточным предложением. Время протекания действия, выраженного причастием, определяется временем сказуемого.
When planning a budget it is important to ensure unity in the incomes and expenditure of an enterprise.
Планируя бюджет (при планировании бюджета, когда планируют бюджет), необходимо обеспечить соответствие доходов и расходов предприятия.
When completed the new building will accommodate a lot of offices.
Когда новое здание построят, оно вместит целый ряд офисов.
Действие, выраженное перфектным причастием, относится к прошедшему времени.
The government, having carried out the will of the big business group, helped implement the policy of gradual inflation through monetary and fiscal measures.
Правительство, выполнив волю крупной группы бизнесменов, содействовало проведению политики постепенной инфляции посредством денежных и финансовых мер.
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод причастий в функции определения.
А
1.	The procedure adopted has so far been applied mostly in the field of trading agreements.
2.	The actual price of labour power - the actual wages paid is influenced by supply and demand.
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3.	The most typical approach among Establishment economists is to find specific «errors» committed by businessmen as the causes of each cycle: the remedies offered are similarly specious.
4.	In the United States, for years, additions to proved reserve of oil just about equaled reserves utilized.
5.	The chief services rendered by the savings banks is the safekeeping of individual savings.
6.	In addition to the executive departments, there are numerous independent agencies charged with specific functions.
7.	Electronics has become a major industry, employing more than a million people.
8.	About 14 percent of the population is below the poverty line established by the federal government.
9.	The buying habits of Americans have changed in recent years.
10.	There are more than 57 million students in the U.S. enrolled in schools and universities.
В
1.	In the United States the term «college» refers to an institution requiring Secondary School certificate for admission and granting a degree after a four years of study.
2.	Today, almost 54 percent of all women of working age are employed.
3.	Wages are determined basically by the real cost of the commodities required on average to keep the worker and his dependants.
4.	In all the other operations - insurance, sale, mortgage - market appraisal conducted by independent experts is used.
5.	The spokesman for the State Property Committee points out that a number of legislative acts regulating the sphere of real estate are currently being prepared.
6.	The increase of import duties on food products imposed on July could also push inflation.
7.	Last week, new state liabilities known as federal loan bonds appeared on the stock market.
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8.	This is explained, on the one hand, by the increasing flow of capital into the sector of corporative securities.
9.	There is a continuing demand for the stocks belonging to leading companies of the power complex.
10.	This shows that the mounting tendency for growth on the stock market is stabilizing.
//. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод причастий в функции обстоятельства.
А
1.	Compared with what had gone before the tempo of development became exceedingly rapid.
2.	Located at the company’s headquarters in the United States, the regional manager travelled to Europe frequently.
3.	Confronted with rapid changes and increased uncertainty in their business around the world multinational companies have developed a more analytical framework to facilitate complex decision making.
4.	Because of the general rise in family incomes, factory workers, owners of small business, school-teachers and sales personnel can be found living together in the same suburban communities, in homes very much alike.
5.	Attracted by visions of profits and playing a role helping to build a better nation, they also voted for state and local taxes to support the railroads.
6.	But these precious metals were in short supply, having been sent abroad, to pay for imports.
7.	Faced with the growing size of their enterprises, many companies have responded by decentralizing management of domestic as well as international business.
8.	Similarly, new farming technology has transformed the American agricultural sector, allowing more food and fiber to be produced by a constantly dwindling number of farmers.
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9.	Based upon the above assessments the company identifies major future opportunities and problems in terms of regions and countries.
10.	Beginning in 1870 and lasting for around a century, the U.S. became the world manufacturing power-house leading the world in the production of steel, automobiles and other products.
11.	Added up. the deficit picture seems less than bright to those counting on a strong fiscal stimulus.
12.	The cognition of economic laws is not an aim in itself; when recognized laws are applied in practice.
В
1.	Granted that economic decisions are centrally planned, should such decisions be guided by economic indices based on market prices?
2.	Given the wide range of possibilities, variations among countries. and other factors, multinational companies face many complexities with financing.
3.	Faced with a balance of payments problem, any government has to list its order of priorities.
4.	Frederick W.T aylor pioneered in the field of scientific management. carefully plotting the functions of various workers and then devising new, more efficient ways for them to do their jobs.
5.	Even after the embargo ended, prices stayed high, fueling inflation and eventually causing rising rates of unemployment.
6.	Furthermore, it (the partnership) has a favorable tax position when compared with corporation.
7.	Hard-pressed as they are to keep up with the ravages of inflation, most Americans would be inclined to write off this kind of the explanation of their behavior as outrageous and seek other reasons why expending has stayed so high.
8.	Financed jointly by the federal government and each state’s land grant colleges, the service hired agents to establish officers in each local governmental district to provide advice to farmers.
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9.	The state could provide them with minimum guaranties by this demonstrating its interest in preserving the existing conditions.
10.	The typical corporation likes to keep a balance among these methods of raising money for expansion frequently plowing back about half of the earning into the business and paying out the other half as dividends.
11.	The U.S. government has tried to reap the advantages of large-sca 1 e organization while minimizing the dangers through legislation.
12.	Uncontrolled forces such as weather or wars can affect supply and demand, and send commodity prices up or down very rapidly, thereby creating great profits or losses.
Независимый причастный оборот
(абсолютная причастная конструкция)
Обучающее правило
В независимом причастном обороте перед причастием стоит существительное в общем падеже или местоимение в именительном падеже. Это существительное или местоимение является субъектом действия, выраженного причастием, и не совпадает с субъектом действия, выраженного личной формой глагола (т.е. не совпадает с подлежащим). Независимый причастный оборот отделяется от глагольной части предложения запятой. Переводится обстоятельственным придаточным предложением с союзами «так как», «после того как», «когда», «если», «и». Союз ставится перед существительным (местоимением), предшествующим причастию. Причастие переводился личной формой глагола в функции сказуемого, а стоящее перед ним существительное (местоимение) - подлежащим.
Время глагола, которым переводится причастие, зависит от времени сказуемого. Перфектные причастные обороты всегда переводятся глаголом в прошедшем времени.
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Agreements having been reached on important questions, it only remains to agree on some minor questions.
Так как соглашения но важным вопросам были уже достигнуты, осталось только договориться по некоторым мелким вопросам.
The Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund stated that the era of inflation was coming to an end. the threat now heing deflation.
Директор-распорядитель Международного валютного фонда заявил, что эра инфляции приходит к концу и опасность теперь представляет собой дефляция
It will! be a long time before researen workers will be able to make any significant comments on economic trend, figures produced at such intervals.
Научным работникам потребуется много времени, чтобы серьезно проанализировать экономическое положение, если данные будут поступать с такими интервалами.
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом.
А.	С причастием 1
1.	The government negotiated with the mineowners and trade unions, representatives of the European Coal and Steel Commodity taking part in the talks.
2.	When levying specific duties on the same machinery, it became necessary to break the classification down into weight groups, lower rates applying to the heavier machines.
3.	The level of interest rates generally soaring, the average rate has increased during past decade.
4.	Trade depends upon the efficiency of the means of transport, the expansion of trade having gone hard in hand with the development of transport.
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5.	The chief payments and receipts arise from trade in goods, payments having to be made for imports and being received from the sale exports.
6.	The difficulty of the forecasts in some countries cannot be underestimated but they should be undertaken for planning purposes it being recognized that there can be a considerable margin of error.
7.	The United States is divided into twelve Federal Reserve districts, each with its own Federal Reserve Bank, their activities being coordinated through the Federal Reserve Bank in Washington.
8.	On the gold standard the rate of exchange was determined by the amount of pure gold in the standard unit of each country’s currency this being known as the mint par of exchange.
В.	С причастием II
1.	Under perfect competition there would be no advertising of a competitive kind, the products of all producers of a commodity considered homogeneous in these conditions.
2.	When a commodity is sold by auction bids are made by prospective buyers, the commodity sold to the person making the highest bid.
3.	In modem society, its elaborate and costly technique, and productive processes conducted with intricate specialization and mechanization it is impossible that every man could run his own productive process.
4.	Trade moves in channels, shaped by the communications network and by transport routes the latter themselves affected in part by the former.
5.	The productive forces their development accelerated by the new discoveries, are seeking outlets for expansion.
6.	The price of enterprise could remain uneffccted, the difference between it and the retail price covered by turnover tax.
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II. Переведите предломсения с независимым причастным оборотом.
А. С предлогом with при причастии I
1.	Inflation in the United States profits both industrial and financial monopolies, with the biggest accretion of power going to the great banks.
2.	The rate for markets is uneven, with J apan threatening to seize almost the entire shipbuilding industry.
3.	The international division is most commonly organized along geographic lines, with regional managers having line responsibility for specific areas.
4.	At that time the pound was fully convertible into other currencies and into gold, with a small gold reserve being kept in British banks.
5.	Strategic planning should be both top-down and bottom-up with the final responsibility in certain key areas resting with control headquarters.
6.	The national affiliates should make most of the manpower projections, with review and consolidation being performed by the divisions and central headquarters.
7.	With the inflation growing, the people's purchasing power has declined.
В.	С предло! ом with при причастии 11
1.	With investment spending expected to remain at high levels, the outlook for machinery sales is particularly good.
2.	Confidence in Britain’s future can be restored, with prices pegged and production planned.
3.	In April 1970, with the Nixon Administration scared by the deepening crisis, the Federal Reserve board turned already to an easy money policy even though inflation was still at its peak.
4.	The trade agreement was concluded, with deliveries of industrial equipment paid for by the primary products and manufactured goods.
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5.	As companies diversify their product lines and technologies, they develop decentralized multiproduct divisions, with many functional responsibilities delegated to the division managers.
6.	With a long history in international business and with more than one third of its revenue derived overseas, the company strives to be better prepared for changes that take place in various countries.
7.	The price of enterprise could remain unaffected, the difference between it and the retail price covered by turnover tax.
Герундий
Обучающее правило
Герундий по форме совпадает с причастием I или перфектной формой причастия. Его можно отличить от причастия по следующим признакам.
Глагольная форма с окончанием - ing является герундием, а не причастием, если перед ней стоит предлог, существительное или притяжательное местоимение.
Герундий отличается от причастия по синтаксическим функциям: он может выполнять в предложении не только функции определения и обстоятельства, но и подлежащего и дополнения.
If the losses prove to be greater than the investment, the individual is responsible for paying them.
Если затраты оказываются больше вклада, то каждый отдельный пайщик лично отвечает за их возмещение (за то, чтобы их возместить).
Small businesses provide a service where knowing each customer is important.
Небольшие предприятия предоставляют услуги, при которых необходимо знать каждого клиента.
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Герундий переводится инфинитивом, отглагольным существительным. деепричастием или личной формой глагола в функции сказуемого придаточного предложения, вводимого союзом «что (чтобы)» с предшествующим ему местоимением то в соответствующем падеже (тем, о том и др.).
The partnership has the advantage of pooling managerial talent.
Партнерство имеет преимущество объединения управленческого таланта (в том, что оно объединяет управленческий талант).
Действие, выраженное перфектным герундием, относится к прошедшему времени, поэтому он переводится на русский язык личной формой глагола в прошедшем времени.
At the same time, by the 1990s the number of federal government officials occupied with regulatory matters was on the increase again after having been cut back during the 1980s.
В то же время к 90-м количество чиновников федерального правительства, занятых вопросами регулирования, снова увеличилось после того, как оно было сокращено в 80-х.
Притяжательное местоимение или существительное, стоящие перед герундием, указывают на субъект или объект действия, выраженного герундием.
The U.S. labor has an interest in their government implementing policies which will reduce the deficit.
Работающее население США заинтересовано в том, чтобы их правительство проводило политику, которая бы снизила дефицит.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод герундия в различных функциях.
А
1.	This attitude started to change during the 19-th century when small business Tans and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf.
53
2.	England was the most successful of the European nations at colonizing what would become the United States.
3.	By contrast, economic growth can contribute to pollution and exacerbate the difficult problem of maintaining a clean and healthy environment.
4.	Asa result of the slowing economy and other factors the federal budget deficit began heading upward again.
5.	Self-employed businesses are famous for being able to respond almost instantly to changes in demand.
6.	One of the advantages of sole proprietorship is that an owner can make decisions quickly and decisively without having to consult others.
7.	Like printing paper money, issuing too much stock diminishes the basic value of each share.
8.	Legally, the owners of this stock stand next in line to the bondholders in getting paid.
9.	Even if the rate has gone down, the lender benefits by having increased the size of its original loan at a lower rate of interest.
В
1.	Most experts now diminishes the idea of rapidly eroding U.S. industrial base.
2.	Buying stock on margin gives speculators the opportunity to extend the scope of their operations.
3.	Speculating in commodities is done primarily ata commodity exchange, and there are a dozen such exchanges in the U.S.
4.	Japan and other part of the world feel that their best opportunity for searching their wealth is to invest in American stocks.
5.	Their buying or selling can indicate to other investors their degree of confidence in the future of the company.
6.	Repeated devaluation can only result in other countries completely losing confidence in a currency.
7.	There were deficits in 1930s, without bringing about a real recovery.
54
8.	The rapid progress of those countries can be achieved without bettering the development of highly advanced states.
9.	We consider the curbing of inflation as a key factor in solving the problem of stabilization.
II. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на различие при переводе причастий и герундия.
А
1.	Yet conservative people in rural areas were tremendously enthusiastic about buying shares of railroad stock, often mortgaging their farnis or businesses to do so.
2.	Beginning in 1825 various state government began to play an active role in stimulating the construction of an internal system of transportation.
3.	A certified public accounting firm, after performing an audit certifies that the figures and statements about the finances reflect generally accepted accounting principles.
4.	Many persons who do not feel qualified to decide which stocks . to purchase, but who nevertheless want to participate in the stock market in hope of making a profit by doing so, turn to mutual funds.
5.	A mutual fund combining funds of its shareholders, which may be in small amounts invests large blocks of money.
6.	Their available cash will buy many more shares, giving them the opportunity of making more profit and also the risk of suffering greater losses.
7.	The laws have some success in preventing fraud and secret dealings aimed at manipulating stock prices.
8.	Congress has charged the SEC with seeing that American corporations abide by American business ethics even when doing business in another country.
9.	In its history the SEC has taken on the responsibility of overseeing corporate policies, particularly by requiiing reports designed to uncover illegal company payments to political figures or others for the purpose of buying their influence.
55
10.	Мопсу saved by individuals is usually deposited for safekeeping in interest-bearing accounts in one of four types of private institutions: commercial banks, savings banks, savings and loan associations and group credit unions.
11.	The money for insurance company lending comes from the annual premiums paid by individuals and businesses for insurance policies.
В
1.	Most of the money deposited in these individual savings accounts is used by the institution to finance the purchase, building or remodelling of private homes.
2.	By the 1990s, advances made in such fields as chemistry, electronics and biotechnology were producing goods and services ranging from semiconductor circuit to laser surgery.
3.	The typical corporation likes to keep a balance among these methods of raising money for expansion frequently plowing back about half of the earnings into the business and paying out the other half as dividends.
4.	When acting in concert, individual and institutional stockholders can have tremendous power over corporate management by selling or buying their shares to drive the price of the stock down or up.
5.	Although based largely on the concept of free enterprise, and organizing economic activity through open and competitive markets, the U.S. economy also has a tradition of government intervention for specific economic purposes-including limiting monopoly, protecting the consumers, providing for the poor, handicapped and elderly, and preserving the environment.
6.	«Laissez-faire» or «leave-it-alone» in a translation from the French is a concept allowing private interests to have a virtual free rein in operating business.
7.	In 1890 Congress passed a law aimed at restoring competition and free enterprise by breaking up big business combinations known as monopolies.
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8.	The new law reasserts the objective of collecting tax revenue fairly, reemphasizing the idea of using taxes to accomplish some other social or economic good.
9.	By increasing or decreasing its spendings or taxing programmes, the federal government may reduce or increase demand for goods or services.
10.	By raising or lowering the discount rate, the Fed can promote or discourage borrowings and thus alter the amount of revenue available to banks for making loans.
11.	As viewed by the industrial firm, planning consists of foreseeing the actions required between the inflation of production and its completion and preparing for the accomplishment of these actions.
Существительное в функции определения
Обучающее правило
В отличие от русского языка в английском языке существительное или несколько существительных могут употребляться перед другим существительным в функции определения. Перевод возможен всеми способами передачи определения в русском языке.
Market research firms can also he used for the purpose of analysis
Фирмы, занимающиеся исследованием конъюнктуры рынка. также могут быть использованы для проведения анализа.
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Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод существительного в качестве определения к другому существительному.
А
1.	Sales and market penetration goals may be combined with profit goals, but they should be consistent.
2.	The government farm income support programme which awards farmers on the basis of agricultural output is a bonanza to the large monopolistic firms.
3.	Multibilliondollar farm price supports not being financed by worker-taxpayers should be drastically reduced at the expense of the profiteering corporations.
4.	As soon as England went off gold in 1931 her commodity price level ceased to fall.
5.	Many consumer-goods manufactures make use of more intensive advertising through available mass media accompanied by sales promotional activities.
6.	Usually the market research staff will use internally generated company data and analyze secondary data and key market indicators.
7.	A common response is the creation of product line groups or divisions with a considerable degree of decentralization of decision making.
8.	One way wo uld be to carry out the projects of the 21 -st century European economy infrastructure, such as the creation of new, highly powerful united power-supply systems, telecomunications and transport.
9.	Prospective investors are to be chosen through competition, except when defence and security interests require the choice of a certain investor.
10.	The law also brings the existing tax confusion in order by naming only two dues to be paid: profit tax and natural resource use tax.
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11.	Assessors, developers, experts in mortgage crediting and other specialists are now working in domestic real estate market.
В
1.	In this case, the rate of exchange is determined in the foreign exchange market by the demand for a currency in relation to the supply available in the market.
2.	Inflation is accompanied through the government budget and through credit and money controls.
3.	Government deficit results in an increase in the money supply.
4.	Exchange control systems all aim at giving stability of exchange rate without the drawbacks of the gold standard.
5.	Nationalization measures need to be linked with extended control over foreign trade.
6.	Despite a nearly 2 billion dollars surplus in farm commodity exports overall foreign trade was in 2 billion dollars deficit.
7.	At the same time the conversion of exporters' hard currency earnings and received Western credits into rubles causes the dollar to fall.
8.	I would describe the present situation on the market as search for a new equilibrium where the ratio of the ruble to the dollar would approximate purchasing power parity.
9.	We are not denying the possibilities and even the benefit of the development of partnership constants between European countries which are not members of the alliance.
10.	Central Asia, in order to avoid the fate of being raw material appendage of advanced countries, must formulate some general rules of cooperation with «rich» states.
11.	This disadvantage is that interest payments ordinarily are made on bonds even when no profits are earned.
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Слова-заменители
Обучающее правило
Местоимения this (these), that (those) могут употребляться в предложениях для замены ранее употребленных существительных. Для этой же цели может употребляться и местоимение one (ones).
При переводе на русский язык они обычно заменяются на эти существительные.
The most widely quoted estimate of property distribution in Britain before the war is that made in 1936.
Оценка распределения собственности, на которую чаще всего ссылались в Англии перед войной, сделана в 1936. (Это оценка, сделанная...)
Financed in this way is the import of mainly industrial goods on special lists and these are raw materials, plant and equipment.
Так финансируется импорт, в основном, промышленных товаров по особым спискам, и эти товары - сырье и промышленное оборудование.
Strategic planning of the multinational company is far more complete than that for domestic business.
Стратегическое планирование многонациональной компании гораздо более сложно, чем планирование хозяйственной деятельности внутри страны.
Among the key problems those of the allotment of land and financing were listed.
Среди основных проблем были названы проблемы выделения земельных участков и финансирования.
Every major economic crisis in history has had its peculiar features - but this one was perhaps the most peculiar, yet.
Все основные экономические кризисы в истории имеют свои характерные особенности, но этот (кризис) был, по всей вероятности, наиболее характерным.
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Private enterprise can't operate without hotels — businessmen need places to stay and preferably comfortable ones.
Частное предприятие не может существовать без отелей -бизнесменам необходимы места для проживания, и предпочтительно комфортабельные (места).
В качестве глагола-заменителя может употребляться глагол to do вместо ранее употребленного глагола. При переводе может заменяться на этот глагол.
The problem of cyclical development attracted as much attention in the 1920s as it does today.
Проблема циклического развития привлекала такое же большое внимание в двадцатых годах, как и сегодня (привлекает).
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на употребление глагола to do в качестве заместителя ранее употребленного глагола.
1.	The boom may break because productive power outruns consuming power, and probably often does, but it need not always do so.
2.	The U.S. 100 largest corporations today have a greater share of manufacturing assets than did the 200 largest in 1970.
3.	Companies making whole line of product spend much more money trying to sell the goods than they do to produce them.
4.	A labor intensive, land-poor country need not start off in foreign trade through labour intensive exports but Japan did.
5.	British production grew at a slower rate than the production of its capitalist rivals and so did British exports.
6.	The planning of foreign trade follows the same principles as does national economic planning as a whole.
7.	Holders of bonds have lent money to the company, but they have no voice in its affairs, nor do they share in profits or losses.
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8.	In the United States «failure» of a small business venture does not carry with it the social stigma or opprobrium for the failed owner that it does in some countries.
9.	According to the theory of pure competition, companies should have raised prices. That they did. both small firms and large.
10.	Those countries do not really produce the goods which can benefit from this fund - if they did. the EEC could almost certainly step up its restrictions.
II.	Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод местоимений this (these), that (those), one (ones) как заменителей ранее употребленных существительных.
А
1.	The breadth and depth of capital markets vary among countries, and these hardly exist in many of the less-developed countries.
2.	The Latin American countries are compelled to pay more for imports from the U.S. when these are purchased with dollars.
3.	Export of capital has some positive impacts on the domestic economy - it creates a market for machinery for the U.S. installations overseas and certain markets in countries dominated by US corporations. But negative effects are tending more and more to overbalance these.
4.	Absolutely and relatively, military spending in the U.S. vastly exceeds that of any other country.
5.	Labour power is a commodity owned by those who do not own the means of production. And thus they have to sell it to those who do in order to exist.
6.	The existing nationalized industries in Britain are being asked to make economies and arc being forced to introduce higher fares or increased prices. These have fallen very heavily on the consumer.
7.	In nearly all industries and occupations workers in Great Britain are organized into numerous Trade Unions. These have grown up gradually over a great many years
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8.	The United States tends to export to Britain those commodities in which its labour productivity is more than twice that of Great Britain.
9.	The most interesting case is that of Canada, which is major producer of primary products. Canada export structure has changed less in the direction of exports of manufactured goods than has the United States.
10.	The third objective, that of increasing the long-term growth rate, became part of official US government policy.
11.	Headquarters can better integrate the plans for overseas divisions and subsidiaries with those for the home country.
В
1.	Of these crises that of 1929-33 in the USA was in major respects the most severe in record.
2.	The time came when the rate of growth in productivity in Britain fell behind that in America.
3.	It was stated by the government that free trade structural difficulties and those coming outside (e.g. higher oil prices) has afflicted the economy in the past year.
4.	Britain complains today that it lacks the resource ingredients of a continental nation especially those of oil, rich iron ore and nonferrous metals.
5.	The most striking discoveries of the last decade have been those of oil in North Africa.
6.	During the year, with the expected slowing down of world trade and faster expansion of the domestic economy, the volume of the exports cannot be expected to rise faster than that of imports, and it did last year, and it is, indeed, expected to rise slowly.
7.	The most comprehensive indication of an economy’s economic performance is that of gross national product.
8.	The growth in the circulation of paper money in its various forms, including that of bank credit has grown out of all proportions to the growth in the output of goods.
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9.	The prices of these goods rise at much faster rate than those of American raw material exports.
10.	Payments for services form the so-called «invisible» items in a country’s balance of payments, these entering into balance of trade being called «visible» items.
11.	Next year the current account deficit of this country is expected to reach a higher level than that of this year.
12.	As far as the UK is concerned, her trade experience in the second half of the 1960's appears to be significantly different from that earlier.
C
1.	Although the sequence and emphasis of strategics can vary the marketing ones frequently arc the key to the others.
2.	The crisis of inflation and overproduction is a new phenomenon, one which poses new problems.
3.	Improvement since World War II results from various factors, but certainly government economic regulation has been a significant one.
4.	Already in 1938 the gold problem was shifting from one of scarcity to one of excess.
5.	The multinational company has to establish strategies to select, train, and develop managers, especially national ones.
6.	West-European military integration needs a much more developed economic and political integration than the existing one.
7.	It (the company) should move more rapidly toward replacing home-country managers with local ones and internationalizing the selection and development of executives for positions through-out the enterprise.
8.	External sources abroad differ among countries and especially between the industrial nations and less developed ones.
9.	Such a corporation can be characterized as one that operates in many countries.
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10.	Such a company is one that looks at the entire world as an area of operation and acts that way.
11.	Basically this direction is one of giving no real concessions.
12.	A horizontal merger is one that unites two or more firms engaged in the production or sale of the same product or products.
13.	This definition forces one to look at the concrete dangers which the peoples of Europe are facing.
14.	This is the prescription which many Swiss textile enterprises have always successfully applied.
15.	The crisis of inflation and overproduction is a new phenomenon, one which poses problems.
III. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на слова -заменители существительных и глаголов.
1.	For this reason, a corporation is an ideal vehicle for the conduct of business by many smaller enterprises as well as larger ones.
2.	Some 500 major corporations occupy an important role in American business, although in some respect it has been a declining one.
3.	And an individual proprietor by law pays fewer taxes and al lower rate than does a corporation.
4.	The U.S. went through a period of rapid economic concentration characterized by the merger of small companies into bigger ones.
5.	An important influence was that of Keynes, an English economist, who developed a way to analyze and explain economic depressions.
6.	Its mandate is to control and abate pollution in the air and water, as well as that due to solid waste, pesticides, noise and radiation.
7.	This law made it a crime to dump and liquid wastes except those from sewers into navigative waters.
3 Зак 3256
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8.	A brokerage house usually handles purchases and sales of these stocks along with those on the major exchanges.
9.	The reason is the huge number of new businesses formed each year, particularly those with fewer than 20 employees.
10.	Of course, many of the new service jobs did not pay as highly as did manufacturing jobs.
11.	While there are literally thousands of stocks, the ones bought and sold most actively are usually listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
12.	If profits are limited, the owners of preferred stock will be paid dividends before those with common stock.
13.	While this makes management easier, some managers are tempted to act more in their own interests than those of the stockholders.
14.	In both theory and practice, large companies can become monopolies by absorbing smaller ones through stock purchases on the open market.
Местоимение one в функции подлежащего
Обучающее правило
Английское предложение, в котором подлежащее является местоимением one, переводится на русский язык неопределенно-личным предложением.
One hears a great deal about the problem of «technological unemployment» - of men being put out of work by the process of automation.
Много говорят о проблеме «технической безработицы» - о людях, вытесняемых автоматизацией.
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One should not ignore a possibility that development of economic integration may need active political means.
He следует игнорировать такую возможность, что экономическая интеграция может потребовать активных политических мер.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод местоимения one в функции подлежащего.
I.	The role of the dollar as an alternative parity standard to gold placed on other countries a peculiar responsibility one scarcely anticipated at the time of Bretton Wood.
2.	It is not enough to announce the need for cooperation: one must also accept certain measures that can lead to it. If one wishes to receive something, one must also give something in exchange.
3.	One should not exaggerate the speed with which the transformation to factory industry was established.
4.	One must consider not only wage rates but labour costs.
5.	One should remember first of all that West European countries and Japan had suffered considerable capital destruction and lost millions of lives.
6.	One should expect monopoly to sabotage technical progress (in order to maintain the values of capital sunk in older methods) and not to pioneer it.
7.	One must remember that an important element in the higher profit-rate of the monopoly sector is the additional profit (or «super-profit») derived from economic relations with colonial regions.
8.	One could not, of course, stop at introducing such a principle for the consumer goods sector alone. One would have to work out analogous prices for capital goods.
9.	One can assume that the oil nations won't lodge capital abroad on short-term basis.
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Местоимение it, предваряющее последующее высказывание
Обучающее правило
Местоимение it может вводить следующее далее подлежащее или дополнение, выраженное инфинитивом или придаточным предложением. В этом случае «it» не переводится на русский язык.
Л is planned also to expand imports of up-to-date equipment for various industries.
Планируется также расширить импорт современного оборудования для различных отраслей промышленности.
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод местоимения it.
1.	It becomes no longer possible to sell everything produced at a rate considered satisfactory.
2.	It is to be expected that the oil-producing countries are only prepared to commit substantial resources to GMP if the interest rates are attractive.
3.	It was proper for a country to expand its exports without expanding its imports in order to get large amounts of gold.
4.	It is important for a business such as that of a wholesaler or retailer, to stock the goods it sells in sufficient quantities to meet the demand.
5.	A firm may find it difficult to obtain accurate and specific information.
6.	It is useful at this stage to examine what is being attempted by the OPEC.
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7.	It is not possible for the oil producing countries to use up all the funds in buying the exports of the oil consuming countries in proportion to their oil debts.
8.	It must be remembered, that in Japan wage rises have been faster than in the U.K.
9.	It stands to reason that branches of American firms do not adhere to the policy of the countries where they are operating.
10.	Each further IMF conference makes it more obvious that these conflicts are no nearer resolution.
11.	It was realized, however, that in certain circumstances devaluation might be desirable.
12.	It must be expected that for the next five or ten years the oilexporting countries will be able to use the greatest part of their surpluses for imports.
Эмфатические конструкции
Обучающее правило
Эмфатические синтаксические конструкции служат для выделения одного из членов предложения.
А. Глагол do может употребляться для усиления значения последующего глагола. На русский язык чаще всего переводится словами «действительно», «фактически», «на самом деле», «все же».
The problem of national sovereignty do arise whenever the multinationalists operate.
И действительно, проблемы национальной независимости возникают повсюду, где действуют многонациональные корпорации.
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Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на эмфатическое употребление глагола do.
1.	In some backward regions the movement of labour from agriculture to industry does result in some reduction of agricultural production but raises industrial output by greater amount.
2.	The devaluation of dollar did contribute to declines in imports but reserve inflow of capital did not materialize.
3.	There is a combination of the dynamic and progressive forces on the world scene that can, and to a growing degree does determine the cause of history.
4.	Some split docs exist between domestic and international business.
5.	The effects of bank-rate changes do still have a profound influence on the flows of foreign short term capital.
6.	To the extent that growth docs occur, to the extent that productivity in Britain is raised, the benefit will go as ever to British monopolies.
7.	Inflation does occur, of course in times of economic slack, but it Ls generally of the cost-push variety.
8.	In the United States the system of superhawks directly controlling galaxies of conglomerates has made a mockery of antitrust laws. Nevertheless the development does not result in the strengthening of capitalism even while it does give rise to new dangers of war and fascism.
9.	The main point is that an alternative solution for the problems of the world economy does exist.
10.	Only when an enterprise confronts the problems of designing, producing, marketing and financing its products within foreign nations it becomes a true multinational.
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Обучающее правило
Б. Эмфатическая конструкция It is (not)...that (who, which)... употребляется для выделения внутри этой конструкции одного из членов английского предложения. Переводится на русский язык простым предложением, употребляя слово «именно» перед выделенным с помощью этой конструкции словом. Возможно также поместить выделенный член предложения при переводе в конец русского предложения.
It is the group of ten that determines the monetary policies of the capitalist world.
Именно группа десяти определяет финансовую политику капиталистического мира.
Финансовую политику капиталистического мира определяет «группа десяти».
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на употребление эмфатической конструкции.
1.	It is the developing countries who are perpetually in deficit to the United States.
2.	It is the working class which pays the price of inflation.
3.	It was with the rise of modern industrial capitalism that a regular cyclical pattern of industrial and trade booms, crises and slumps became established..
4.	For a variety of reasons the most rapidly expanding sector of world trade and capital has become the industrial sector. It was towards this sector that British capital needed to orient itself.
5.	The lion's share of the value of the products the boss keeps as profits. It is this system that placed capitalism on the rails of no reform, on the track of its imperialist development.
6.	It is not only the rate of profit but also the total amount of corporation profit that changes direction before the major turns in business activity as a whole.
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7.	It is not only economic necessity that can give impetus to development of political integration.
8.	It is not monopolies that should get compensation when industries are nationalized.
9.	It was not inevitable that the need for a new international alignment would take the form of seeking entry’ into the EEC.
10.	In peopled areas such as the Middle East. Asia and Africa, it is often not labour that is needed as much as capital, organization and access to markets.
Обучающее правило
В. В английском языке для выделения отдельного члена предложения он может быть вынесен на первое место, что обычно приводит к обратному порядку слов (инверсии). При переводе выделенный член английского предложения следует также выделить средствами русского языка.
Of particular interest at this meeting is the report on the economic situation of the country.
Особый интерес на этой встрече вызвал доклад об экономическом положении в ст ранах.
Thus not only are the war orders used for private profit but they also aggravate the condition of the domestic economy.
Таким образом, военные заказы не только используются для личного обогащения, но они также ухудшают внутреннее экономическое положение страны.
The export of capital does not stabilize the pound, nor does it serve national interests of the United Kingdom.
Экспорт капитала не стабилизирует фунт стерлинга, не служит он также и национальным интересам Соединенного Королевства.
Had U.S. pursued full employment policies its gross national product could have increased rapidly.
Если бы Соединенные Штаты проводили политику полной занятости, их валовой национальный продукт мог бы быстро увеличиться.
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There followed at the start of the 1970s a more protracted recession in the U.S.A.
В начале 70-х в США последовал более длительный спад производства.
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на обратный порядок слов (инверсию).
А
1.	And never before has the ramification of world ties, growing in step with the objective internationalization of spheres of human activity, so forcefully spurred the growth of integration processes.
2.	Along with capital accumulation and investment marched continuous improvement in technique.
3.	Of special importance arc government policies of the home country that they restrain or facilitate various types of international activities.
4.	To the wages of production workers should be added that part of the salaries of employees who are also really contributing to the production process-engineers, designers, and so forth.
5.	With more complex mechanical technique, carrying with it a more complex division of labour and separation of distinct processes and stages within the factory, came the economic necessity for larger production units.
6.	With such decentralization goes responsibility or accountability on the part of divisions and overseas affiliates.
7.	Under the managing director are regional directors.
8.	Up to now. so low has been the price of made-to-order clothing that often the cost was below ready-made clothes.
9.	Below are examples of two companies.
10.	Not only are most of Great Britain’s imports and exports carried in British ships, but a good deal of trade in which Britain
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has no direct interest undertaken by British shipping companies.
II.	Not only has expenditure on equipment increased but nowadays larger numbers of more highly qualified personnel are needed to fight pollution.
12.	Not only do companies differ in their organizational evolution but they also arrive at different patterns depending upon their history*, their business philosophy, and other things.
В
1.	Not only do resources alter, and remain unmeasurable, frequenly natural resources cannot be separated from other factors, and especially from capital.
2.	Never has the relative loss of position of the USA been more rapid than during Nixon’s reign.
3.	The control is necessary for the survival of giant firms, because only by raising prices sufficiently above the competitive level, can they make sure of sufficient profits to carry on the essential process of concentration of capital.
4.	Monopoly capital will not combat inflation by freezing, or rolling back its swollen prices and profits. Nor will it do so by cutting military spending.
5.	The organizational charts cannot show all of the informal relationships, nor can they show the multichannels of communication and consultation, in decision making and control that operate in many countries.
6.	The pound should no longer serve as a vehicle for the export of private capital and the return flow of profits and dividends, nor should it be used to pay for military expenditures abroad.
7.	The consequences for trade of the 10 per cent surcharge on imports exposed by Nixon attracted immediate attention, but the surcharge does not apply to all products, nor is it invariably 10 per cent.
8.	The big business groups do not want a complete end to discrimination in industry. Nor do they want a radical change with higher wages and living standards.
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9.	No one political group is supported by the majority of militant students; nor is there a majority within any political group.
10.	Should any of the parties find that planned measures concerned their interests in a high degree, consultations between member countries should take place on request.
11.	Personal consumption expenditures in the United States were less than they would have been, had the same level been maintained.
12.	Were the rate of exploitation constant and the surplus value invested and consumed by the capitalists in fixed proportions production would develop more or less smoothly, without cycles.
C
1.	The persistent and increasing deficit in the U.S. balance of payments would have led to currency devaluation long ago had it been suffered by any country.
2.	Were both the paper industry and agriculture exludcd from the free trade system, a very big part of Finland’s trade would be consequently excluded.
3.	Had notTorics denationalized road transport, there might have been a co-ordinated national transport system.
4.	The U.S. has had the slowest per capital growth rate. Should this continue, U.S. economic dominance will be ended much more rapidly than it came into being.
5.	Had it been possible for the countries simultaneously to pursue expansionary fiscal policies, the deflation need to have occured.
6.	President Kennedy wrote in 1962 Report: «There remains the problem of keeping the economy from straying too far above or below the path of steady high employment».
7.	There has emerged a deep conviction for many, a rude awakening that the resources, the reserves of the United States are not unlimited.
8.	In the eighteenth century there existed a member of trade patterns followed by ships and merchants.
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9.	There remains a possibility for certain consolidation of moderate political integrational tendencies and growth of political integrational elements.
10.	There remain specific institutional differences between the particular positions of banks and industrial companies and between particular financial-industrial groups which often lead to conflicts over inflationary policies.
11.	There is a feeling in EFT A countries that there remains much to do particularly in the field of non-tariff barriers.
12.	Favoring the first decision is the lack ofelection laws and, more importantly, the lack of organization among the political blocs.
Обучающее правило
Конструкция there is (there are).
Перевод предложений с конструкцией there is (there are) следует начинать с обстоятельства места, если оно есть. Сама конструкция there is (there аге) переводится «есть», «существует», «находится». Сказуемое может быть в различных временных формах.
There is a shift in the balance of economic production.
В балансе экономического производства имеется сдвиг.
There is a certain inflation threshold that we must reach to start the normal investment process.
Существует определенный порог инфляции, которого мы должны достигнуть, чтобы начать нормальный инвестиционный процесс.
Упражнения
1. Переведите предложения, обращая внимапие на перевод конструкции there is (there are).
A
I.	There is the original redistribution of budgetary means. Lately there have been many scandals touching upon this subject.
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2.	Then there will be a constantly rising flow of investment.
3.	When there is more money to lend, credit is «loose» and interest rates tend to drop.
4.	Steel was not a monopoly because there was no «unreasonable» restraint of trade.
5.	There is also a «verse process»: international developments such as the energy crises, react on the situation in individual.
6.	There were to be no tariffs or taxes on interstate commerce.
7.	There was little gold and mining was not economical on the East Coast.
8.	There were areas where increasing numbers of Americans appeared to be troubled by disturbing events or trends.
9.	In the recession of early 1930s, however, there were increasing examples of union willingness to forgo wage increases in favor or employment security and enhanced company competitiveness.
10.	There were other violent strikes during the era, some of which resulted in numerous deaths.
В
1.	There have been unions in the United States since the end of the 18-th century.
2.	There are dozens of kinds of mutual funds.
3.	There are variety of indexes that measure market activity broadly.
4.	There are disadvantages to this form of business organization.
5.	There are various ways for defining small and medium businesses.
6.	During the decade of the 1980, there was a net growth of 7 million new businesses in the United States.
7.	There was a day when the long- accumulated know-how of an enormous organization became a margin of superiority.
8.	There is no clear answer regarding the degree to which multinational companies should decentralize their decision making.
9.	There can be little doubt that if the Labor Party is returned to power there will be a further development of the role of the management of industrial firms as public administrators.
10.	In 1970 as the economic crises developed there were widespread layoffs in some financial and service industries.
11.	There are then looser forms of market agreement, which leave firms independent as producing units but bring about some measures of coordination of their marketing.
Различные способы выражения отрицания
Обучающее правило
В английских отрицательных предложениях перед различными частями речи возможно употребление слов not, по, попе, пог, двойного отрицания neither...nor или either ...or с предшествующим not.
При переводе следует учитывать, что в английском отрицательном предложении возможно употребление только одного отрицания, которому в соответствующем русском отрицательном предложении могут соответствовать несколько отрицаний.
No country must he isolatedfrom the decisions dealing with the future of the region.
Ни одна сграна не должна быть устранена от участия в принятии решений, касающихся будущего этого региона.
A conglomerate merger unites firms whose products are neither horizontally nor vertically related.
Конгломерат объединяет фирмы, продукция которых не связана ни по горизонтали, ни по вертикали.
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Упражнения
I. Переведите следующие отрицательные предложения.
А
1.	No industrial and labor practices and policies can avert the cumulation of contradictions.
2.	Neither of these is likely in the near future.
3.	None of these circumstances, however, would make an enterprise «multinational» because none would require a substantial direct investment in foreign countries assets nor entail a responsibility for managing organizations of people in alien countries.
4.	They (American firms) don’t want either to conduct the talks or to ease the pressure within these countries.
5.	In the service industries output is not subject to inventory accumulation nor for wide fluctuations in consumption, and they use more technical and white collar workers.
6.	Excessive unemployment in America, cannot be traced to single cause nor eliminated by a single cure.
7.	Japan, Britain and Germany are not well equipped to feed themselves during a war, nor Argentina and Venezuela to provide themselves with heavy steel products.
8.	Up through the mid-1960s the aim of the financial oligarchy was to keep annual inflation in the range of 1-3% per year, so as not to wipe out the interest return on bonds and loans, nor to cause excessive strain in the banking system, nor to unduly sharpen economic conflicts with labour.
9.	Monetary inflation has not been the sole factor involved in the rising prices of recent decades, nor the sole policy instrument, designed to bring about selective price increases.
10.	So far no significant results have been achieved at the second round of the talks.
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в
1.	Neither the former nor the latter participated in negotiations in person.
2.	There is no single registration base, the property is disposed of by several departments at a time with virtually no coordination (besides who gets to the mayor first) and there is no objective valuation of costs (payments are levied arbitrarily).
3.	So state has the right to strengthen its security to the detriment of others.
4.	But the problem is that, putting it in the words of the United Nations «Common Plan of Action», no such strategy has been created so far.
5.	Naturally, no one mentions the real amount of damage to the budget.
6.	On most contracts, the со-signees are by no means sports organizations, but all sorts of little known limited, jointstock and closed- end companies.
7.	I have no claim on ready-made formulas for the solution of this complex problem, but neither do our partners.
8.	Neither the law «On Natural Resources» nor the President’s decree could guarantee the security of the investment.
9.	At any rate, there are no weighty reasons to believe that these economic measures will be taken in recent future.
10.	No conclusive evidence exists that multinational companies are destined to eliminate international divisions.
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Дополнительный материал для перевода
А
1.	Entry into the Common market was supposed to be the way to revitalize the British economy. It has not.
2.	Because British is increasingly unable to sell as much as she buys, she has been plagued by a persistent balance-of-trade deficit and inflatory pressures.
3.	Enterprises can be divided into various categories according to the probability of their regaining economic viability.
4.	The state-owned commercial banks are expected to split their good and bad assets, creating special divisions to administer the bad assets, in other words, their non-performing loans.
5.	Well-qualified bank-managers will be empowered to turn those assets into performing assets through restructuring or liquidation.
6.	Market instruments can be applied, such as converting enterprise debts into equity or trading enterprise debts.
7.	As an exceptional method, limited funds should be made available to save enterprises that are commercially viable but need time to recover.
8.	There arc even psychological issues to consider: systemic transformation will require overcoming old habits, such as unproductive work attitudes and negative attitudes toward income differentiation.
9.	Apart from the theoretical aspects, there is a need for well-structured research to give policy advice to governments.
10.	Macroeconomic stabilization could be accomplished fast.
11.	A shock treatment - in other words, fundamental shifts in macroeconomic policy using such instruments as exchange, rate, interests rate, and, budgetary measures - could bring quick results.
12.	We had to act su iftly to avoid a complete economic breakdown and, paradoxically, this proved less risky than a prudent but time consuming gradualist strategy.
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13.	When inflation is relatively low, as was the case in Hungary, a more gradualistic healing process might be appropriate.
14.	Liberization is not a technically complicated process and could also be accomplished rapidly.
В
1.	In fact, price liberalization needs especially fast action or a distortion of the price structure is unavoidable.
2.	If administered stored prices and market prices «coexist» then the national price indicator, such as enterprise profits, do not convey much meaning.
3.	Asa consequence, decisions based on those financial indicators are not very reliable; for example, restructuring based on distorted prices would be counterproductive.
4.	Conversely, the elimination of tariff barriers can be a more gradual process.
5.	Many of these enterprises are not economically viable and privatizing loss makers is not easy.
6.	First of all, state subsidies should be eliminated, and hard budget restraints imposed.
7.	Some small Polish township could be ruined if the local enterprise - the sole source of jobs, social services, and financial support for the population - were to go bankrupt.
8.	Radical restructuring - for example, break-up of the enterprise, into smaller but more viable units - could help in these cases.
9.	For the time being those are rather exceptional ventures.
10.	The Federal Reserve Board, an independent government agency, was established in 1913 to help stabilize and coordinate the nation's commercial banks.
11.	By increasing or decreasing cash reserve requirements and by racing or lowering interest raises banks must pay for loans from Federal Reserve Banks, the Federal Reserve Board can influence the availability and cost of money for loans, and thereby check inflationary or deflationary trend in the economy.
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12.	Cheeks that you write are called «personal» checks. You can get cash by cashing (exchanging a check for currency) a personal check instead of having to make a trip to the bank.
13.	The bank statement provides a record and a review of your expenditures for the period covered.
14.	Never give anyone your bank card or your personal bank code, even if that person offers to help you.
15.	Not having a credit card can make daily life somewhat more difficult.
C
1.	One way to avoid building up too much debt is to delay applying for a credit card or making large purchases involving longterm debt. Instead, make your initial purchases with cash or by check.
2.	Some garment ind ustry workshops have only twenty or thirty workers.
3.	Advertising plays a very important part in modern merchandising.
4.	This great business of merchandising employs millions of whitecollar workers, from clerks in the stores to top executives in the big department stores and the advertising agencies.
5.	The more goods they make or trade, the more goods people will have.
6.	The more people who manufacture and trade, the greater the competition.
7.	Because they wanted a profit for themselves and a chance to establish even more factories later, they started a whole new American industry.
8.	This industry helped cotton growers by increasing the market for cotton.
9.	The practice started in Europe centuries before the American Revolution, but the stock trading practice was greatly increased in the vigorous free-market climate of the young United States.
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10.	The business of buying and selling shares in enterprises has become so big that offices have had to be set up where the selling of shares, or stock, can take place.
11.	Entrepreneurs also took full advantage of the lack of government oversight, under the doctrine of laissez-faire, to enrich themselves by forming monopolies, eliminating competition, setting high prices for goods and producing poor quality merchandise.
12.	The competitiveness of the worldwide economy can be expected to intensify in the years ahead.
13.	American business people can draw upon their long experience with the give-and-take of free market forces to sharpen their competitiveness and help them to make a good showing.
14.	But the competition is certain to be rigorous.
15.	The lists of best-selling books often include works by successful business people relating their personal formulas for getting ahead.
D
1.	One of many activities sponsored by United States businesses is a nationwide program called Junior Achievement.
2.	The give-and-take of the democratic political process provides answers to such questions in a continuing process of adjustment and change - increasingly offering protection to the consumer against false or harmful advertising.
3.	Americans have been able to contemplate their differences with a certain detachment, largely avoiding the desperation and extremism that are the enemies of democratic discourse.
4.	Generally the time allowed to pay is one month.
5.	By increasing and, decreasing this reserve requirements, and by changing the interest rate for loans to banks from the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks, the Federal Reserve Board can regulate the money supply and thereby attempt to control the rate of inflation in the economy.
6.	Americans also have the option of placing part of their money in savings bonds and treasury bills issued by the federal government, or in privately operated mutual funds that invest the money in the stock market.
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7.	Almost all private banks and savings institutions have insurance offered by the federal government to protect individual savings accounts up to S 100,000.
8.	Over several years, the colonists had become increasingly dissatisfied with Great Britain’s rule over the colonies
9.	The colonists were being taxed without having the right to affect the way in which they were governed.
10.	Britain dictated the economic development of the colonies, forcing them to serve as a source of raw material for the «mother country» and a market for its manufactured products.
11.	Today, the American economic system is far different from that of the 19-th century.
12.	Except for granting financial support to companies building the railroad system in the late 19th century the government took little role in business affairs.
13.	To ease the hardship caused by the Depression President Roosevelt and the Congress passed many new laws regulating sales of stock, recognizing the right of workers to form unions, and setting rules for wages and hours for various workers.
14.	Stricter controls were put on the manufacturing and sale of food, drugs and cosmetic.
15.	No drug can be sold until it is thoroughly tested and then approved by a federal agency.
E
1.	Laws also prohibit discrimination in hiring, forbid the hiring of young children, set standards for working conditions, and protect the rights of independent labor unions to organize bargain and strike peacefully.
2.	On the other hand, other Americans believe that, without some regulations, at least some businesses would cheat or harm workers and consumers in order to increase business profits.
3.	There have been others who failed, however, and many others who have not wanted to take a chance at becoming a business owner.
4.	Working with the Congress, drug manufactures helped shape new laws which have led to new types of drugs being
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manufactured, to assist in the treatment of rare diseases - with the help of government money.
5.	Although the American economy is not perfect, it does do what Adam Smith expected of marketplace competition.
6.	Early American industries depended largely on skilled artisans working in small shops to serve a local market.
7.	This, in turn, allowed the final product to be assembled, in stages, each worker specializing in a specific operation.
8.	Banking policy was highly controversial and early attempts to establish a national or central bank were short-lived.
9.	Not until 1863 did the United States create a truly national, banking system with a standard paper currency.
10.	Connecticut, in 1837 became the first state to pass a general act of incorporation, making it relatively simple for any group to get a corporate charter by complying with a set of standard rules.
11.	Railroad construction created a growing demand for coal, iron and steel, helping to support the heavy industries that expanded rapidly in the decades after the Civil War (1861-1865).
12.	No single factor is responsible for the successes of American business and industry.
13.	The American people have possessed to an unusual degree the entrepreneurial spirit that finds its outlet in such business activities as manufacturing, transporting, buying and selling.
14.	By channeling economic initiative into activities that promised the greatest return on investment, free-market institutions fostered dynamic growth and rapid change.
15.	Smith argued that the actions of private individuals, motivated by self-interest, worked together for the greater good of society, as if individuals were guided by «an invisible hand».
F
1.	But it was Smith's criticisms of mercantilism and his advocacy of laissez - faire that spurred his popularity among Americans.
2.	Devotion to laissez - faire has not prevented private interests in the United Statas from turning to the government for help on numerous occasions.
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3.	Instead, they are likely to judge the merger according to whether or not it promotes «economic efficiency» — that is, more efficient operation for United States-based industry,
4.	While management has usually held the upper hand in management-labor disputes in the United States, organized labor, promising higher wages and improved benefits, made major gains under laws adopted by Congress in the 1930s.
5.	However, support for unions in the United States has always been sporadic and lacking an ideological or even specifically political component.
6.	In liberalizing trade quantitative restrictions should be removed rapidly, as was the case in Poland.
7.	A safety deposit box is a good place to keep valuables like passport, jewellery, foreign currency you do not want to exchange, legal papers etc.
8.	A cashier's check is easier to cash than a personal check, and it is safer than carrying a large amount of cash.
9.	The key point now is to launch and maintain the process of «dedollarizing» the economy without injuring the stabilization process.
10.	Considering the lack of experience with the new securities, as well as the comparatively remote paying off date, the activity of banks at the first auction may be regarded as more than high.
11.	At the beginning of the week the bulk of stocks belonging to privatized enterprises experienced a significant price increase.
12.	Asa result, the entire issue was floated, and the average price exceeded the face value.
13.	Special importance is attached to these securities, which became evident based, on how quickly they were prepared and distributed.
14.	Then would come the inevitable state of emergency, with the subsequent dissolution of parliament and extraordinary authority being transferred over to the power ministries.
15.	One cannot disregard the view of Western expects who maintain that «a good design is less expensive than a bad one».
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G
1.	Privatization of the entire industry will cause even more drastic changes than it did when this company had a share issue.
2.	The Government hopes that, having believed in the rubles stability citizens will increase their savings.
3.	In order to pay the debt one of the plant’s buildings will be sold, which is empty because of the plant's being under capacity.
4.	. A considerable number of goods from abroad, including those for production and technical use, get into the country accidentally.
5.	Neither the state-run nor the privatized enterprises, with some exceptions, buy new technologies or start producing new goods.
6.	Then the commercial banks were to be persuaded to buy the Treasury bills, each valued at 10 million rubles.
7.	There is virtually no western supply of funding due to short term leases being granted.
8.	The light industry is the most marketable one with the production of goods, enjoying demand and with the maximum speed of assets turnover.
9.	Rights will be evidenced by a notarized contract for sale and purchase. These should be examined by a purchaser
10.	Mentioned among shortcomings was the 20 percent arrears on incomes from foreign economic activity.
11.	Trade company experts note the reduction of demand for imported equipment with the increasing time for capital to circulate.
12.	It is the currency market that is the first to react to the stabilization effort.
13.	Property rights can be investigated and when acquired, protected.
14.	The country’s investment climate is favorable for resource extraction industries.
15.	There are a number of steps to be carried in order to achieve this.
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Часть 2
Грамматика сложного предложения
Бессоюзное присоединение придаточных предложений
Обучающее правило
В английском языке в отличие от русского возможно бессоюзное присоединение придаточных предложений (определительных, дополнительных) к главному предложению, что следует учитывать при переводе, используя требующиеся в этих случаях в русском языке союзы.
The brokers in turn depend on the faith of the customers they represent.
Брокеры, в свою очередь, зависят от доверия потребителей, которых они представляют.
Many Americans feared the hard time of the Depression might return.
Многие американцы опасались, что тяжелые времена этой депрессии могут вернуться.
Возможно также бессоюзное соединение в сложное предложение простых предложений, начинающихся с прилагательных или наречий в сравнительной степени. При переводе такого сложного предложения используются слова «чем..., тем...».
The more goods they make or trade, the more goods people will have.
Чем больше товаров они изготовят или продадут, тем больше товаров будет у людей.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на наличие в них бессоюзного соединения простых предложений в сложные.
А
1.	In privatization this usually means there must be more than one bidder before a contract is awarded.
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2.	Americans believed the United States should pursue economic growth through diversified shipping, manufacturing and banking.
3.	Their agricultural skills were limited and all the farms animals they owned amounted to no more than a horse, a cow and a swine and perhaps some chickens.
4.	Sole proprietors arc reassuring to customers who believe an individual who is accountable will do a good job.
5.	People who believe they can outguess the market try to buy before prices rise and sell before they fall.
6.	There is virtually nothinga person can buy in the United States that is not affected by some kind of governmental legislation.
7.	Commissioners are sometimes influenced by the business interests they are suppoted to regulate.
8.	A government may make the currency legal tender, which means people are required by law to accept the money as its full value.
9.	Almost every agency in government makes strong bids for funds it wants, often supported by special interested groups.
10.	A number of the reforms they had favoured were eventually enacted at federal or state levels.
11.	The prices of the items farmers bought remain constant, while prices they received for their products fell.
12.	The more people who manufacture and trade, the greater the competition.
В
I.	These governmental payments were designed to compensate farmers for the difference between the market price farmers receive for a crop and a set target price.
2.	Management wants increased productivity from its workers and has shown a willingness to fight against the rules or benefits it believed are detrimental to this end.
3.	They fill that some of the rules they must follow arc unnecessary.
4.	The larger a business grows, the lower its overhead costs per unit tend to be.
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5.	Among the features of the program the government has succeeded in implementing is the basic changeover in the import system.
6.	The big monopoly concerns reduce the prices they pay for agricultural products.
7.	The measure this programme provides for aroused angry protests.
8.	Organizational charts indicate the line and staff relationships within the company and the way the organization combines functional products and geographic units.
9.	The multinational company can shift profits from one country to another to some extent through transfer pricing and charges for services it provided.
10.	This determination considers the way the company contemplates supplying various markets from exporting or manufacturing in a country.
11.	The company should consider the dominant type of distribution in countries it wishes to supply.
12.	The underdeveloped countries constitute a satisfactory market for goods we may have available for export.
Придаточные предложения подлежащие
Обучающее правило
В английском языке, так же как и в русском, подлежащее может быть выражено придаточным предложением, которое обычно начинается с союзных слов what, where, when, whatever.
What may be common in business practice in many countries is in some cases unlawful in America.
To, что является общепринятым в деловой практике многих стран, в некоторых случаях может оказаться незаконным в Америке.
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Следует отметить, что при переводе английское придаточное предложение подлежащее может иметь свой эквивалент в конце русского предложения.
That wars are engines of inflation is well known.
Хорошо известно, что войны являются фактором инфляции.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на то, что подлежащее в них выражено придаточным предложением.
А
1.	Whatever colonial prosperity there was resulted from trapping and trading in furs.
2.	What we have presented here has been mostly the historical records as explained by reason, the theory and past experience.
3.	Whatever ruling the agency makes is subject to review and possibility revised by federal courts.
4.	What may seem new in the field of political thought is one of old concepts in new conditions.
5.	Where it is more advantageous to establish a new plant overseas remains an important issue.
6.	When the demand elasticity for imports will change depends upon a variety of circumstances.
7.	How far experts will rise depends in part on the relationships between trade and economic growth.
8.	What may be expected with certainty is that the devaluation will be accompanied by an intensification of the «antiinflation» campaign.
9.	What form this coalition takes in terms of political parties is not decisive.
10.	What the Americans want is an international currency set-up that would enable them to conduct their domestic economic policy with a total disregard for balance-of-payment implications.
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11.	What matters is not having oil in one's territory but getting it cheaply.
12.	How necessary the foreign skill is to the domestic producers, especially if they- can appropriate the foreign capital, will vary from case to case.
В
1.	What is called foreby technological change, discovery, or alteration in demand is adaptation.
2.	What is unique is the deep involvement of many US and other Western companies in international business and the emergence of many multinational companies.
3.	What counts is the organizational structure for decisionmaking purposes.
4.	Where it is important to establish a steady pattern of remission of dividends (in order to ensure future repatriation) is to be determined by the company.
5.	What can be said is that with a radical reduction in military spending economic growth could be faster than it would be with the continuation of relatively very high military spending.
6.	What this amounts to is that in modern society a system of individual ownership of means of production must mean at the same time a concentration of such.
7.	What needs to be done is a continuous development of the trend of trade.
8.	What is unusual about the development of inflationary trends in the Swiss economy is that to a very large extent it arises from the impact of external factors.
9.	What is required is not cuts in public expenditure, housing, health and education but a major extention of public ownership.
10.	How to use the new conditions that arise from the new' situation in the world, has emerged on a new level for all progressive forces of the country.
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11.	What gave export in the new epoch a qualitative difference was that it increasingly took the form of direct business investment in mining and plantations, public utilities and later manufacturing concerns.
12.	How to unite these tasks has always been a challenge to the progressive movements.
//. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на возможность помещения эквивалента придаточного предложения подлежащего в конце русского предложения.
А
1.	That the population of developing countries with export textiles at cut prices should scarely be able to acquire vitally necessary textiles out of the low prices is very regrettable.
2.	That financial capital has increasingly emerged into a specific statue is not accidental.
3.	That this large Europe (an optimal geographical area of integration) should be one that is open to the world for trade was another objective of the EFTA countries.
4.	That the economic role of the governmental has vastly increased is today generally acknowledged.
5.	That the form of the participation in an integrated European market cannot be the same for all European countries follows from the differences in their economic stage of development and from the individual foreign policy position.
6.	That the discussion of the US policy has taken root among the masses is indicated by important changes in outlook among major sector of the people.
7.	That the stock market boom was of speculative origin is shown by another fact.
В
1.	Whether the council will be able to work out a more consistent economic policy, which will contribute to bring down the rate of inflation remains to be seen.
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2.	Whether EFT A would be able to move on to a «third stage» of full economic integration, common policies, is an open question.
3.	Whether technological change has accelerated, or is in progress of accelerating, is a factual question.
4.	Whether the board will tend to act favourably on investment policy recommendations of majority of the council remains to be seen.
5.	Whether different policies would have produced different results is a matter for debate.
6.	Whether or not improvements in American industry were concentrated upon the production of products which compete most closely with European imports is a problem more difficult to resolve.
7.	Whether these measures are sufficient to meet the urgent needs of the workers depends on the success of popular strugglers.
Придаточные предложения причины с союзами because, for, as, once, since
Обучающее правило
Ahi лийские придаточные предложения причины присоединяются к главному предложению союзами because, for, as, once, since. На русский язык союзы переводят ся «потому что», «так как», «поскольку».
При переводе следует отличать эти английские союзы от совпадающих с ними по форме, но отличающихся по значению предлогов и наречий (например: союз for, предлог for).
The British trade with the former colonial territories should be allowed unrestricted for this can be of mutual benefit.
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Следует разрешить Брит ании бсснреня гственно торговать с нашими колониями, потому что такая торговля взаимовыгодна.
Once the financial projections are approved, they should be achieved.
Поскольку финансовые планы приняты, они должны быть осуществлены.
A s the monopolies shift the burden of crisis into the workers the latter are faced with the production cuts, mass layoffs, more wage freeze.
Поскольку (так как) монополин взваливают бремя кризиса на рабочих, последние сталкиваются с сокращением производства. массовыми увольнениями, дальнейшим снижением заработной платы.
Since there are по other types of energy production, oil remains the most important energy source.
Так как (поскольку) не производятся никакие другие виды энергии, нефть остается самым важным энергоист очником.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод придаточных предложений причины с союзами for, as, since, once.
A
1.	Once full employment has been achieved any further expansion of demand will accumulate inflation.
2.	This is understandable for the appearance of the capital has a substantial influence on its international prestige.
3.	Once the first entrepreneurial investment of capital has been made, someone must be hired to manage new business, factory or other endeavor.
4.	Gains in productivity led to agricultural over-production, as farming became a big business.
4 Зак. 3256
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5.	If one automaker, domestic or foreign, produces a better car at a lower price, the market will begin to shift as that car attracts more sales than the competitors.
6.	The dull words «housing costructions» evoke in the memory the image of uniformity-dull multy-storeyed districts, for mass architecture in our country was never original, nor mass housing comfortable.
7.	Since it (the business) is depended upon the amout of money the owner has saved or can borrow, usually it does not develop into a large-scale enterprise.
8.	As one federally sponsored highways created better access to suburbs, business patterns began to change.
9.	Since most of the requirements are of recent origin industries are given reasonable time, often several years, to confirm to standards.
10.	Some officials are offered high-paying jobs in those industries, once their tenure at an agency is ended.
11.	The dream of «being in business for oneself» evolved as the nation shifted from rural to urban and from farming to other types of business.
12.	Some complain that government regulations dealing with business often become obsolete after they are written since business conditions frequently change.
В
1.	By the early 1980s many savings and loan institutions were insolent, but as deposits were insured by the federal government, the institutions did not close immediately.
2.	The specific economic laws are closely interconnected and supplement one another, for in their totality they express the identical mode of production and distribution of material wealth.
3.	Once the company defined its business, it can formulate its broad objectives.
4.	There is no guarantee that a reduction in US military spending would speed economic growth, since many others factors as well are tending to slow it down.
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5.	The aggregate amount of investments will not be very considerable, for it is important to shift the emphasis to fuller utilization of existing equipment and capacities.
6.	Since the rate of inflation in the first months of this year exceeded 8 per cent, this would imply a slower price rise in the second half of the year.
7.	Once full employment has been achieved any further expansion of demand will stimulate inflation.
8.	The inflationary effects of investment has been sharply revealed in the developing countries, for in those countries the alliance between inflation and industrialization takes place.
9.	Once the prices of capital goods have been regulated the choice of method of production by each enterprise will be evidently decided by what is profitable to the enterprise.
10.	Since no standard measure is possible, we cannot say with certainly whether France has more natural resources than Britain.
11.	Technological advance means increased concentration of ownership, for the largest corporations are best able to develop and introduce new techniques.
12.	Iffaster economic growth is desired the tax structure is called for to permit a higher rate of investment once full use of resources is achieved.
C
1.	Demands in regard to the work and cooperation of planning agencies are mounting, for elaboration of common strategy should be closely linked with the drafting of annual economic plans.
2.	Farm prices increased even more rapidly, as the War created a pressing demand for farm products.
3.	In developed countries movement of labour from agriculture to industry increases total output since productivity is greater in industry.
4.	Since the strategic and technical plans of major competitors are highly secret, a firm may find it difficult to obtain accurate and specific information.
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5.	The problem is that once the precedent had been established, a case could be made for avoiding investments in any company.
6.	Once the strategic plan for the multinational corporation has been adopted, it should become a basis for future decisionmaking.
7.	Since for most EFTA countries relations with the EEC were very important, they needed to preserve enough independence to be able to safeguard their own interests.
8.	Frequently, the foreign firms are family-owned enterprises in which the family wants to retain its managerial authority since it has devoted major effort to building up the business.
9.	An increase in the price of gold profits the U.S. even more, since it still holds the world's largest stockpile of gold.
Придаточные условные предложения с союзами if, unless, provided (providing)
Обучающее правило
Английские придаточные предложения условия, присоединяемые к главному предложению союзными словами «if», unless, provided (providing), переводятся путем употребления соответствующих русских союзов, а именно: if, provided (providing) «если», «в том случае если»; союз unless имеет отрицательное значение и переводится «если... не», «пока... не».
Provided (that) any serious interruption to chemical production does not occur, the market is bound to fall.
В случае если в химической промышленности не произойдет каких-нибудь серьезных срывов, цены (на химические товары) обязательно снизятся.
According to the Charter no decision is valid unless it is supported by the majority.
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В соответствии с уставом ни одно решение не имеет силы, если его не поддерживает большинство.
If you buy more goods, we'll make a discount on the price.
Если вы купите больше товаров, мы сделаем скидку на цену.
Упражнения
I. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод придаточных предложений условия с союзами if, unless, provided (providing).
A
1.	The money can come from friends or relatives or it can be borrowed from a bank - if the bank is willing to take a risk on that business.
2.	If the market becomes increasingly unreliable, industrial planning will become increasingly impossible unless the market also gives way to planning.
3.	Britain would be capable to aid the developing countries. Provided that British production is lifted out of its present stagnation and pushed upwards and provided that the economy is relieved of the burden of military expenditures.
4.	When temporary imbalances occur, the indebtedness must be settled, usually in gold or convertable currency, unless a credit has been arranged.
5.	Provided that the capital was used to pay wages, the rate of return would be fabulous.
6.	Knowing about business is important if one wishes to make a profit in the stock market.
7.	It might be expected that automation would lead to a reduced demand for labour unless total production were raised correspodingly with productivity.
8.	If the company loses money, the stockholders will not make г profit or the value of their shares will drop.
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9.	It won't be possible to make any substantial net savings unless there is a major change of policy on defence.
10.	If the company makes a profit, shareholders receive a share of it. If it loses money, they also lose money.
11.	We cannot expect the country to buy the goods from us unless we provide a market here on an equal exchange basis.
12.	The country's economic capacity is doubling every ten years, and the immediate future of its people is bright indeed -provided there is no war.
В
1.	If the price of com rises above $2,55, the farmers will sell it on the open market, and pay off the loan.
2.	If we really intend to extend public ownership into the commanding heights of the economy, we shall not achieve this unless we move into a finance sector.
3.	Unless surplus value increases in step, the rate of profit must be adversely affected and further investment discouraged.
4.	If these resources prove insufficient, then during the year the total amount of credit may exceed its quota.
5.	If the price stays below this level, the farmers will decide to default on their loans.
6.	Much of the opposition to the war is based on the conviction that the U.S. is losing more in other parts of the world than it can gain in this region, providing its aggression succeeded.
7.	Unless victory in elections is followed up by a vast offensive of a popular majority the result may be defeat.
8.	It would be both proper and sufficient to take the difference between the current (retail) price of the product and its costs, provided that these were expressed as a ratio to the total capital involved in its productions.
9.	Payments are accepted immediately in cash; but if payment is made in cheque, the goods will be held until the cheque has been cleared unless the cheque is certified.
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Придаточные предложения с союзом whether
Обучающее правило
Английские придаточные дополнительные предложения с союзом whether (иногда if) переводятся на русский язык бессоюзными придаточными, начинающимися со сказуемого с частицей «ли».
Economists disagree on whether or not unions have significantly effected workers' wages.
Экономисты расходятся во мнениях по поводу того, оказали ли профсоюзы значительное влияние на размер заработной платы.
Упражнения
1. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод придаточных дополнительных предложений с союзом whether . (if).
А
1.	The major concern of many Americans was gradually shifting from fears of renewed inflation to questions about how soon there would be an economic recover and whether after the initial upswing the economy must suddenly slide downwards.
2.	Americans were raising more and more questions about whether the structure of the U.S. financial system was suitable to global competition.
3.	Meanwhile the interested parties await for the announcement of the tender, the result of which will show whether the product will consolidate its position on the world market.
4.	Many thoughtful observers were questioning whether government was the most efficient provider of needed services.
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5.	The critical element in privatization questions is not just who provides the service, but whether there is an element of competition present.
6.	The manufactures often wondered if it was difficult to advertise and sell their products.
7.	The minimum margins vary, depending on whether there is need to stimulate the market or curl its speculative enthusiasm.
8.	The SEC (Securities and Exchange Comission) determines whether the registration statement is complete and accurate.
9.	He believed that the amount of private investment taking place on an economy dictates whether or not the system stagnates or expands.
10.	It is difficult to determine whether firms are maximizing their profits over the strategic period.
11.	The point under discussion was whether the prediction about unemployment was too gloomy.
12.	The problem is whether this country will remain independent or whether it would go into a merger with the monopoly.
В
1.	What are the guideposts which may be used in judging whether a particular price or wage decision making may be inflationary?
2.	As far as customs policy is concerned new arrangements were introduced providing for minimum and maximum duty depending on whether most-favoured-nation treatment is extended on our goods in the country concerned.
3.	A company may have to determine whether it is more advantageous to establish a single large integrated plant or multiplants to serve substantial and growing markets.
4.	Low-wage labour is not necessarily cheap in terms of efficiency. Much depends on whether the labour is disciplined to the tempo of factory work.
5.	The economic literature of the 1920s suggests that a country's relative position in foreign trade depends on whether the commodities which it produces for export are in rising or falling demand.
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6.	Such an investigation will throw some light on whether the creation of a free trade area has a once and for all effects or whether its impact is continuous over some short period of time.
7.	Economic policy continuously faced the dilemma of whether to adapt to the dictates of a market, or of efficiency.
8.	Whether price rises are due to world causes, to leaps in military expenditure, to government cuts in subsidies, they arc countered by the workers demanding wage increases.
9.	The price, whether it is one cent or a hundred dollars, is determined by the labour time used in producing the article.
10.	The issue is whether general shortening of the length of the standard workweek still would be a useful tool in preventing and overcoming the no-hour workweek of the many unemployed.
11.	A major clement in hours reduction is whether the reduction was put into effect fully at one time or spread gradually over a period of time.
12.	Whether any particular group of consumers suffers in its real income depends on whether or not it is able to obtain a rise in its money income to match the rise in the cost of living.
Придаточные предложения co словом what
Обучающее правило
Английские придаточные предложения, которые начинаются со слова what, при переводе на русский язык обычно присоединяются к главному предложению с помощью слова «то» (в различных падежах) с последующим союзом «что».
England was the most successful of the European nations at colonizing what would become the United States.
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Англия наиболее успешно из всех Европейских стран колонизировала то. что станет Соединенными Штатами.
Упражнения
/. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на перевод придаточных предложений, начинающихся со слова what.
А
1.	Asa rule, consumers look for best values for what they spend, while producers seek for the best price and profit for what they have to sell.
2.	Once a nation of farmers, the United States was changed dramatically by successful adaptation of the machinery and production processes of the Industrial Revolution - and then transmitted again by what amounts to a «second» Industrial Revolution.
3.	There has been a conflict on what should be a proper role of government in the economy.
4.	The United States has what is usually described as a capitalist economy.
5.	Owners and managers make decisions on what and how to produce, relying on what they think the public will buy.
6.	Quite the reverse is true for what are known as «equity» investors who buy common stock.
7.	Once a company has sold its original stock to the public and it is traded freely in the market, the price will be determined continuously during the trading day by what buyers will pay and what sellers will take.
8.	Federal laws were created to supplement rather than to replace what were often inadequate state laws.
9.	A large number of Americans began questioning the usefulness of what they considered excessive governmental regulation.
10.	In early America farms produced much of what they consumed.
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11,	Countries strengthened existing programmes or put new policies in place to shield their farmers from what was often regarded as a «foreign» desruption.
12.	Soon there was a sharp reaction against what many people considered to be unwarranted power of unions.
В
1.	In the early days of the nation the U.S. mostly pursued the development of its own economy, irrespective of what went on abroad.
2.	For then America was still what it had been: the land of opportunity.
3.	Americans have what might be called a love-hate relationship with business.
4.	Many of the currently rising industries are among what are known as high-technology or «high-tech» industries because of their dependence on the latest developments in technologies.
5.	By injecting new capital into other countries, American investors are doing what British, French and other European investors did for the United States in the last century.
6.	The competition in the marketplace gives Americans the opportunity to compare quality and prices and to decide what they really want to buy.
7.	America's capital market is the biggest in the world. Yet what really matters is not the abstract notion of prestige, but tangible economic expediency.
8.	Government funding is what ensures impartiality of the judiciary and the federal budget as the only source of financing for the judiciary.
9.	This means that the interest rate demanded by creditors is about twice higher than what borrower can afford to pay.
10.	In 1607, a daring band of Englishmen built the first permanent settlement in what was to become the United States.
11.	In the last 100 years, many persons have been concerned about what is viewed as breakdown of domestic competition and control of basic industries by a few large corporations.
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12.	This is determined on the basis of an assessment of the wants and needs of those who buy goods and services - what is known as consumer demand.
Дополнительный материал для перевода
Переведите следующие сложные предложения, обращая внимание на союзное и бессоюзное соединение простых предложений в сложное. При необходимости уточните значение союзов по словарю.
А
1.	Careless farmers did not worry too much about the consequences, for they could always move west, or south, or at last somewhere else.
2.	If the market price that the farmers receive when they sell the crop falls short of target price, they receive a check from the government to make up the difference.
3.	Because the banks have traditionally had a high credit rating, they have been able to borrow at low interests rates, and this has served to keep farm credit costs low.
4.	As the 20th century nears to end, many Americans have been contemplating the successes and shortcomings of the country's agriculture.
5.	While the high productivity of American agriculture has kept food prices low for consumers, farmers have been perhaps too successful.
6.	As they face the future, American farmers can be sure of only one thing - that more changes lie ahead.
7.	No drug can be sold until it is thoroughly tested and then approved by a federal agency.
8.	At the same time, as many traditional manufacturing enterprises in the United States decline or grow slowly, new
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companies spring up that are developing high computers, aerospace or biochemical products and services.
9.	They could not have opened that very important original textile factory unless people had been prepared to provide money to buy the land to build the factory.
10.	Because they wanted a profit for themselves and a chance to establish even more factories later, they started a whole new American industry.
11.	The Constitution of the United States bars all kinds of internal tariffs, so manufactures do not have to worry about tariff barriers when shipping goods from one part of the country to another.
12.	They are likely to judge the merger according to whether or not it promotes «economic efficiency» - that is, more efficient operation for United-Statcs-based economy.
13.	While the IMb complained about the government's inability to increase tax revenues, it has supported the Central Bank.
В
1.	The Board could order elections in which it votes for the union they wanted to represent them.
2.	As the number of union members has decreased as a percentage of the total work force, unions have responded by broadening their organizing efforts to include employees of federal, state and local governments as well as other professionals.
3.	Some employers make special arrangements so they can hire more handicapped workers.
4.	So unless economic growth is achieved at the right time, even at the cost of reducing taxes and printing money, the more active market players and the economy as a whole can lose what they achieved during the years of reforms.
5.	The placement of new shares is becoming better organized as new issues enter the market and managers of formerly state-owned enterprises increasingly orient themselves towards the market.
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6.	Since the law represents a sharp contrast to the tougher tax policies advocated by the federal government and many regional leaders, the governor felt compelled to discuss the law with first deputy prime ministers.
7.	The more you prove, in a sensible and professional manner, that the budget cannot possibly be implemented, the greater will be the chance that it will be approved.
8.	If one producer of cigarettes is given manufacturing rights, it would lend its police forces to the tax service and pay for their upkeep, and even give the tax bodies some extra money -provided they see to it that not a single pack of cigarettes is sold without an excise stamp.
9.	The deposits in this region have already been explored and will be ready for exploitation as soon as platforms are in place.
10.	The access granted to a-company to trade transactions on our exchange is the best indicator for credit organizations when deciding on whether to grant a loan of guarantee.
11.	The prices of the items farmers bought remained constant, while prices they received for their products fell.
12.	Groups that challenge management must be permitted access to mailing lists of stockholders so that all sides present their views.
13.	What we are doing now in general outline was coordinated when Union existed.
C
1.	Unless entrepreneurs can provide goods or services of a quality and price to compete with others, they are driven from the market, so only the most efficient and those who best serve the public remain in business.
2.	Since the business is dependent upon the amount of money the owner has saved or can borrow, usually it does not develop into a large-scale enterprise.
3.	An increase or decrease in the money supply may not affect the economy until other economic conditions have changed; the new conditions may interact with the change in the size of the money supply to create a totally unintended result.
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4.	These settlers campaigned to get the law changes so that some оГ the land was declared Tree, while other lands could be bought at a minimal price and paid for over a period of years.
5.	This marked the end of more radical phase of the farmers' movements: however, a number of the reforms they had favored -including regulation of transportation - were eventually enacted at federal and state levels.
6.	Even if the government has good reason to assume control over the trademarks it will have to find a legal framework to introduce this control.
7.	However, there is still work to be done since the rates of many deductions, especially employers' social security contributions and personal income taxes, remain high.
8.	The sooner we create a legal framework that can help revive industry, the better.
9.	It also provides a legal framework for suspending creditors" claims until the records or the bank concerned are sorted out.
i 0. Since the bancruptcy of banks perturbs both the population and numerous firms, serious preventive measures are needed.
11.	Actual tax revenues are well below budget projections. That's why there is a huge hole in the budget.
12.	As most jobs in cotton factories required neither great strength nor special skills, the owners thought women could do the work as well as or even better than men.
13.	As towns grew into cities, the demand for manufactured goods increased and some workshop owners began hiring helpers to increase production.
Ill
Test 1
A Mixed Economy: the U.S. System
The economic system of the United States is principally one of private ownership. This system, often referred to as a free enterprise system, can be contrasted with a socialist economic system, which depends heavily on government planning and public ownership of the means of production.
Yet government has to some extent always been involved in regulating and guiding the U.S. economy. At the same time. U.S. citizens have always had the freedom to choose for whom they will work, most importantly. Americans vote for the officials who set economic policy.
In the U.S. economic system consumers, producers and the government make decisions on a daily basis, mainly through the price system. The dynamic interaction of these three groups makes the economy function. The market's primary force, however, is the interaction of producers and consumers; this has led analysts to dub the U.S. economic system a «market economy».
As a rule, consumers look for the best val ucs for what they spend, while producers seek the best price and profit for what they have to sell. Government, at the federal, state and local levels, seeks to promote the public safety, assure reasonable competition, and provide a range of services believed to be better performed by public than private enterprise. Some of these public services include the administration of justice, education, the postal service, the road system, social statistical reporting and, of course, national defense.
1	Найдите в тексте слово-заменитель ранее употребленного существительного. Переведите его, определив заменяемое им слово.
2.	Выпишите из первого абзаца причастный оборот и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
3.	Выпишите из предпоследнего предложения текста инфинитивный оборот и переведите его.
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4.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащим.
5.	Выпишите из текста союзы, присоединяющие предложения к I лавным, и переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст, учитывая выполненные задания.
Образец выполнения тестов
Задания теста 1
1.	Слово one замешает ранее употребленное в предложении существительное system (первое предложение текста). Слово one переводится «система» в соответствующем падеже.
2.	«. ..often referred to as a «free enterprise system» определяет существительное system. Переводится «...система, часто называемая (которую часто называют) «системой свободного предпринимательства...».
3.	«.. .a range of services believed to be better performed by public than private enterprise.». Переводится «...ассортимент услуг, которые, как полагают, лучше выполняются общественным, чем частным предприятием».
4.	«...system can be contrasted...». Переводится «...система может быть противопоставлена...».
«.. .government has to some extent (always) been involved...». Переводится «...правительство, в некоторой степени, всегда принимало участие (привлекалось к...)».
5.	«.. .which...» - «... которая...»(см. второе предложение первого абзаца):«.. .for whom...»-«... для кого...»(см. второе предложение второго абзаца);«...who...»-«... которые...» (см. третье предложение второго абзаца);«.. .for what...» /2/ - «... для того чтобы...» - «...while...» - «...в то время как...» (см. первое предложение последнего абзаца).
6.	Текст следует перевести полностью, не исключая уже переведенных в заданиях предложений или их частей.
5 Зак- 3256
ИЗ
Образец выполнения некоторых заданий следующих тестов (на материале текста 1)
1. Существительное «system» определяется существительным «price». Группа «...through the price system» переводится «...посредством системы цен» (см. первое предложение третьего абзаца).
2. «...in regulating and guiding...» - герундий в функции дополнения. Переводится «... в регулирование и управление. ..» (см. первое предложение второго абзаца).
Test 2
A Mixed. Economy: the U.S. System (continued)
In the United States, most people are simultaniously consumers and producers; they are also voters who help influence the decisions of government. The4nixture about consumers, producers and members of government changes constantly, resulting in dynamic rather than a static economy. In recent years consumers have made their concerns known, and government has responded by creating agencies to protect consumer interests and promote general public welfare.
The U.S. economy has changed in other ways as well. The population and the labor force have moved dramatically from farms to cities, from fields to factories and, above all, to service industries. In today's economy, the providers of personal and public services far outnumber producers of agricultural and manufacturing goods. Statistics also reveal a rather starting shift away from self-employment to working for others.
Generally there are three kinds of business: single owner operated business, partnership and corporations. The first two are important, but it is the latter structure that best permits the amassing of large sums of money by combining the investments of many
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people who. as stockholders, can buy or sell their shares of the business at any time on the open market. Corporations make large-scale enterprise possible.
1.	Выпишите из текста деепричастные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Выпишите из первого абзаца текста инфинитив, определите его функцию и переведите его.
3.	Выпишите из последнего предложения второго абзаца слова с окончанием -ing, укажите, какой частью речи они являются, а также их функцию, и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
4.	Укажите, как переводится конструкция there + be в первом предложении третьего абзаца.
5.	Найдите в тексте предложение с усилительным оборотом, выпишите этот оборот вместе с выделенными им словами и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 3
Government *s Role in the Economy
While consumers and producers obviously make most decisions that mold the economy, government activities have at least four powerful effects on the U.S. economy.
DIRECT SERVICES. Each level of government provides direct services. The postal system, for example, is a federal system serving the entire nations, as is the large military establishment. By contrast, the construction and maintenance of most highways is the responsibility of individual state governments. The public educational systems are primarily paid for by state, country or city governments. In general, police and fire protection are the responsibilities of local government.
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REGULATION AND CONTROL. The government regulates and controls private enterprise in many ways in order to ensure that business serves the best interests of the people as a whole. Regulation is usually considered necessary in areas where private enterprise has been granted a monopoly, such as in electric or local telephone service, or in other areas where there is limited competition, as with the railroads. Public policy permits such companies to make reasonable profits, but limits their ability to raise prices «unfairly» (as defined by the regulators) because the public depends on their services. Often control is exercised to protect the public, for example, when the Food and Drug Administration bans harmful drugs, or requires standards of quality in food, in other industries, government sets guideline to ensure fair competition without using direct control.
1.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
2.	Выпишите из третьего абзаца текста инфинитивы в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из текста причастный и деепричастный обороты с причастием I (с окончанием -ing) и переведите их.
4.	Найдите в третьем абзаце предложение с конструкцией there + be и укажите перевод этой конструкции.
5.	Выпишите из второго абзаца предложение с инверсией и переведитеего.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 4
Government's Role in the Economy (continued)
STABILIZATION AND GROWTH. Branches of government, including Congress and such entities as the Federal Reserve System.
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attempt to control the extremes of boom bust, and the inflation and depression, by adjusting tax rates, the money supply and the use of credit. They can also affect the economy by changing the amount of public spending by the government itself. Normally, the aim is a balanced federal budget. But since 1960 a deficit has prevailed in the federal accounts in every year except 1969. and it has generally widened, reaching a high of some $200 thousand-million in the mid-1980s, before dropping back again.
DIRECT ASSISTANCE. The government provides many kinds of help to business and individuals. For example, tariffs permit certain products to remain relatively free from foreign competition: imports are sometimes taxed or limited by volume so that American products can better compete with foreign goods. Government also provides aid to farmers by subsidizing prices they receive for their crops.
In quite a different area, government supports individuals who cannot adequately care for themselves by making grants to low-income parents with dependent children, by providing medical care for the aged and indigent, and through social insurance programs that assist the unemployed and retirees. Government also supplies relief for the poor and help for the disabled.
1.	Выпишите из текста деепричастные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
3.	Выпишите из третьего абзаца существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти групп ы существительных.
4.	Выпишите из второго абзаца союз, присоединяющий придаточное предложение к главному, и переведите его.
5.	Найдите в тексте придаточное определительное бессоюзное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
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Test 5
Basic Ingredients of the U.S. Economy
Every economic system tries to anticipate and then meet human needs through the production and distribution of goods and services. The economic system is the mechanism that brings together natural resources, and labor supply, technology, and the necessary entrepreneurial and managerial talents. Although the type of economic system used by a nation is the result of political decision, it is also in even larger part the result of a historical experience that, over time, becomes a national culture.
The first ingredient of an economic system is the national resources from which goods are produced. The United States is a land rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, together with a moderate climate.
Secondy, the amount of available labor helps determine the health of an economy. Generally, the United States has been fortunate in having enough people to provide the labor necessary for a constantly expanding economy. The U.S. economy usually grew fast enough to absorb the newcomers, provided they were willing to work productively at slightly less than the wage rates paid to acculturated workers. Overall, immigrants prospered, earning far more than they would have in their native lands, and the economy of nation prospered as well. Although the United States has sometimes experienced periods of acute unemployment or the reverse, labor shortages, on the whole, immigrants came when work was plentiful.
1.	Выпишите из текста причастные обороты и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
2.	Выпишите из третьего абзаца инфинитивы, определите их функции и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из текста слова с окончанием -ing, определите их функцию и переведите вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
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4.	Выпишите из текста существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.
5.	Выпишите из третьего абзаца текста союз, присоединяющий придаточное условное предложение к главному, и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 6
Basic Ingredients of the U.S. Economy (continued)
But the existence of abundunt natural resources and a skillful and willing labor force accounts for only part of structure of an economic system. The resources must be directed as efficiently as possible into the areas where they will be most effective. In the American economy, managers of enterprises responding to signals from markets perform this function.
Large blocks of resources must be available for major investments. In America, entrepreneurs accumulate money and then invest in projects that seem likely to give a high return on the original investment.
In the United States, the corporation has proved to be an effective device for accumulating funds for investment. This is a voluntary association of owners, known as stockholders, who form a business enterprise that is marked by limited liability.
Once the first entrepreneurial investment of capital has been made, someone must be hired to manage the new business, factory or other endeavor. Modem America has developed a chain of managerial command, from the foreman at the loading dock to the chief executive in the boardroom, whose job is to see that the business runs smoothly and efficiently. Good management often can make the difference between a successful and unsuccessful operation. In early 2O'h-century America, management was said to
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be based heavily on systematic analysis. But later in the century, views on management became more diverse.
1.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге, имеющие в своем составе модальный глагол, и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
2.	Выпишите инфинитивные обороты из текста и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из текста деепричастный оборот и переведите его.
4.	Выпишите из текста герундий и переведите его.
5.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главным, и переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 7
Setting Economic Policy
When Congress passed the Employment Act of 1946, it declared that the promotion of maximum employment, production and purchasing power was to be the policy of the federal government. It authorized the president to appoint a three-member Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) to study economic conditions and advise the president of needed action.
This fact focused on full employment, but it did not specify how the goal was to be achieved. The law recognized freedom and competition as important goals in themselves. The nation, the law stated, should rely on free competition - not on government directions of business - for running the vast economy.
The CEA advises the president on economic problems and helps set the tone of government policy as it decides what kind of actions
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is required. The CEA has no direct authority, but keeps constant watch over changes in income, production and employment. It recommends economic policy to the president and helps in preparation of reports to Congress.
The federal government's chief economic policy official is the secretary of treasury. Created by Congress in 1789. the Treasury has responsibility for formulating and recommending fiscal (spending) and tax policy for the economy.
I.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые с глаголом to be в качестве модального глагола и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
2.	Выпишите из первого предложения третьего абзаца придаточные предложения и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из первого предложения последнего абзаца группу существительного, имеющую существительное в качестве определения, и переведите эту группу существительного.
4.	Выпишите из текста герундии и переведите их.
5.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите их.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 8
Economic Growth and Stability
In the 1930s with the United States reeling from the Depression, the U.S. government began to take an active role to promote economic growth and stability. An important influence was that of John Maynard Keynes, an English economist who developed a way to analyze and explain economic depression. His influential work «The General Theory of Employment. Interest and Money» (1936), seemed for a time to revolutionize economic thinking in America.
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Keynes observed the interrelationship among income, savings, consumption, investment and interest rates; he believed that the amount of private investment taking place in an economy dictates whether or not system stagnates or expands. Keynes was one of the first to argue that it was the special duty of government to actively influence the economy through fiscal policies. He saw government spending or tax reduction as the primary instrument for meeting the twin goals of expansion and stability.
This perspective on how to deal with the economy proposed a much larger role for the government than had been acceptable up to that time. Since the 1930s, the cleavage dividing American economists often has been related to the extent of validity they are willing to accord the Keynesian analysis. In the 1970s and 1980s Keynesian policies came under attack as allegedly responsible for contributing to the era of stagnation, which was an indesirable combination of high inflation and slow growth.
1.	Найдите в тексте слово-заменитель ранее употребленного существительного и переведите его, определив заменяемое им слово.
2.	Выпишите из первого абзаца инфинитивные конструкции и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из первого абзаца придаточное предложение с союзом whether, переведите его.
4.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца придаточное определительное бессоюзное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
5.	Выпишите из текста независимый причастный оборот и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
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Test 9
Foreign Trade and Global Economic Policies
U.S. foreign trade and global economic policies have changed direction dramatically from the early days of nation, when the United States mostly pursued the development of its own economy, irrespective of what went on abroad. In the years since World War II. the United States has generally pursued the liberalization of international trade and coordination of the world economic system.
The United States dominated many export markets for much of the postwar period, thanks to an industrial machine untouched by war damage as well as advantages in technology and manufacturing techniques. But in the 1970s and 1980s the gap between the United States and other countries' exports increased more rapidly than those of the United States.
The oil price shocks of the 1970s, the ensuing worldwide recession, and increases in the foreign exchange value of the dollar acted to hurt the U.S. trade balance and to reduce domestic support for trade liberalization in the 1980s.
As a result of these events, hundreds of protectionism bills were introduced in Congress during the 1980s. Although some protectionist measures were inacted, the U.S. leaders were to a large extent successful in deflecting the most regressive proposals. In fact, the United States led the drive to begin the most recent series of multilateral trade negotiations, launched as a vehicle for achieving greater trade liberalization.
1.	Выпишите из текста причастные обороты и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
2.	Выпишите из текста герундии и переведите их.
3.	Найдите в тексте слово-заменитель ранее употребленного существительного и переведите его, определив заменяемое им слово.
4.	Определите функцию инфинитива в последнем предложении текста и переведите его вместе с относящимися к нему словами.
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5.	Выпишите из первого предложения текста придаточное предложение со словом what и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 10
The U.S. Money Supply
A nation's money supply is based on either the production of a commodity or governmental fiat. Commodity money typically is based on valuable metals, particularly gold or silver. When a nation uses commodity money, the size of the money supply is determined by the cost of producing the commodity and the rate of production. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, U.S. currency was based on the gold standard, which is to say that the United States promised to redeem its currency for a specified amount of gold.
Flat money, on the other hand, does not have intrinsic value. It has value because people are willing to accept it. To increase a fiat money's acceptability, a government may make the currency legal tender, which means people are required by law to accept the money system, in which the national government through its central bank, the Federal Reserve System, controls the money supply. U.S. currency is legal tender.
Yet the money supply in the United States consists of more than just coins and paper money. Checking accounts deposits are considered a form of money because they are spent when people write checks. In fact, in the United States, about three-fourths of all payments are made by check.
I.	Выпишите из текста слова с окончанием -ing. Укажите, какой частью речи они являются и их функции, и переведите их.
2.	Найдите в тексте случаи употребления слова which, определите его функции и переведите вместе с относящимися к нему словами.
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3.	Выпишите из текста инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите его.
4.	Выпишите из текста существительные, определяемые другими сушествительными. и переведите эти группы существительных.
5.	Выпишите из последнего предложения первого абзаца причастия, определите их функции и переведите вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 11
The U.S. Money Supply (continued)
When commercial banks make loans, they can create checking deposits by giving the borrowers additional credit in their deposit accounts. The Federal Reserve System maintains control over this money creation by administering reserve requirements, rules which require that commercial banks hold currency in their vauls - or deposits with Federal Reserve Banks - in a set minimum proportion to their deposit liabilities. By controlling the dollar amount of the reserves, the Federal Reserve thus controls the dollar volume of bank loans.
Economists measure the money supply in several ways that differ according to which assets are included in the measurements. One measure includes deposits in all interest-bearing accounts that can be used like checking accounts. Another includes savings accounts that cannot automatically be converted to make purchases. Banks can require advance notice of withdrawals from these accounts.
When the money supply increases, people have more money to spend, and demand for goods and services increases. As demand increases, businesses hire additional workers to increase output. This is an economic growth scenario. But, if output does not keep
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pace with demand, prices increase. When prices rise continuously, inflation results. This tends to cause problems for people whose incomes do not increase at a rate cosistent with inflation.
1.	Выпишите из текста деепричастные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге, имеющие в своем составе модальный глагол, и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
3.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите их.
4.	Выпишите придаточные предложения из первого предложения второго абзаца и переведите их.
5.	Выпишите из первого абзаца существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 12
The Federal Budget
Federal spending constitutes one of the significant roles of the government in the U.S. economy. The federal budget provides an analysis of expected future income and a detailed plan of spending for the upcoming year. It must be enacted into law in order to legalize the collection of revenues and the expenditure of funds.
The budget is prepared under the supervision of the president, then submitted to Congress for modification and approval. Budget accounts are maintained by the Department of the Treasury and are audited at the close of each year. Except for areas of sensitive national security, all citizens have the right to review the audits and inspect how public funds were received and spent.
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The successive stages in budgeting - preparation, authorization, execution and audit - are known as the budget cycle. The budget is designed to indicate major categories of revenue sources such as personal income tax, ad valorem sales tax and business tax. Expenditures are listed by government departments and agencies, and are often enumerated in broad terms such as amounts for health, national security or education. The document also shows the amount requested for each program, as compared with amount actually authorized by Congress. These amounts are listed for three years so that anyone reading the budget can get a sense of the direction in which expenditures for a particular program are moving.
1.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы, определите их функции и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
2.	Выпишите из первого абзаца причастия в функции определения и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
3.	Выпишите из текста причастные обороты и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
4.	Выпишите из текста сказуемое в пассивном залоге, имеющее в своем составе модальный глагол, и переведите его вместе с подлежащим.
5.	Укажите союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главному в последнем предложении текста, и переведите их.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
TEST 13
The Federal Budget (continued)
Preparation of the budget is complex political progress, beginning almost a year in advance. Almost every agency in government makes strong bids for funds it wants, often supported
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by special interest groups. The president makes the final decisions on how much request from congress for each program and what the total amount will be.
The initial congressional examination of the president's budget is made by the House of Representatives Appropriations Committee. Through subcommittees, it holds hearings for each department and agency included in the budget. The requests for funds are defended in open sessions by officials of each agency. Hearings are often very detailed: members of Congress often question closely those officials who spend money.
An appropriations bill is then presented to the entire House of Representatives, where it is passed and sent to the Senate. The Senate Appropriations Committee holds hearings of its own and sends its recommendations to the full Senate. A committee from each body then meets to reconcile differences in the two budgets, item by item. The resulting bill is then enacted into law and sent to the president for his signature. Should the president veto the appropriations bill, it goes back to Congress. If a two-thirds vote of each House approves the bill, it becomes law despite the veto of the president. If the necessary number of votes cannot be mustered, a new compromise appropriations bill has to be worked out and voted into law. The total budget for all agencies and departments of government is broken down into 12 to 15 different bills.
1.	Выпишите из первого абзаца придаточное определительное бессоюзное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
2.	Выпишите придаточное предложение из последнего предложения первого абзаца и переведите его.
3.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите его.
4.	Выпишите сказуемые из предпоследнего предложения текста и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
5.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца предложение с инверсией и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
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Test 14
The Federal Budget (continued)
The president's budget request reflects the economic policy priorities and goals of the administration. In general, the government seeks to stabilize the economy by spending more or less money during the year. Stability is generally considered in terms of full employment, control of inflation or deflation, and national economic growth. Other considerations can include distributing funds equitably among various regions of the country, meeting needs of the poor, and attempting to achieve a relatively balanced budget. Achievement of the latter goal seems uncertain in view of the fact that most federal budgets over the last quarter of a century or more have been in deficit.
In 1974 Congress set up a staff of its own, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), to advise it on the likely economic effects of government spending on the economy, including the federal budget. Work of the CBO has helped improve congressional discipline. This budget-making process permits Congress to establish its national priorities, which can then be negotiated with the president.
The U.S. budget process, then, is complex and comprehensive. It permits input by citizens at many political points, and it is always a compromise among the various interests and political philosophies of the American people.
I.	Выпишите из текста деепричастный оборот и переведите его.
2.	Выпишите из текста герундии и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
3.	Выпишите из текста причастия в функции определения и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
4.	Выпишите из первого предложения текста существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.
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5.	Выпишите из текста придаточное определительное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 15
Banking and Finance
The Federal Reserve Board, an independent government agpncy, was established in 1913 to help stabilize the nation's commercial banks. About 6,000 of the 14,000 banks belong to the system, which operates through a Federal Reserve Bank in each of 12 geographical districts. The member banks handle more than three-quarters of all U.S. bank deposits. The Federal Reserve Banks lend money to member banks for the cash reserves they are required to hold, issue paper money, act as check clearing houses and provide other services. By increasing or decreasing cash reserve requirements and by raising or lowering interest rates banks must pay for loans from the Federal Reserve Banks, the Federal Reserve Board can influence the availability and cost of money for loans, and thereby check inflationary or deflationary trends in the economy.
Most business and industrial activity in the United States is financed by Ioans from commercial banks and insurance companies. The pool of funds for bank Ioans comes from deposits by businesses and individuals and from bank investment profits. Banks return a portion of investment profits to depositors in the form services and interest on savings accounts. The money for insurance-company lending comes from the annual premiums paid by individuals and businesses for insurance policies.
I.	Выпишите из текста деепричастные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Найдите в тексте причастный оборот и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
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3.	Выпишите из текста существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.
4.	Выпишите из первого предложения текста инфинитив, определите его функцию и переведите его.
5.	Найдите в первом абзаце придаточное определительное бессоюзное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 16
The Federal Reserve
The Federal Reserve System, also known as the «Fed», is an independent U.S. government agency. Its most important function is to manage the country's supply of money and credit.
The Federal Reserve System includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and 25 Federal Reserve Bank branches. All nationally chartered commercial banks are required by law to be members of the Federal Reserve System; membership is optional for state-chartered banks. In general, a bank that is a member of the Federal Reserve System uses Reserve Bank in its region in the same way that a person uses a bank in his or her community.
The Federal Reserve System is administrated by the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, a group of seven individuals who are appointed by the president of the United States and serve overlapping 14-year terms. Although the Federal Reserve System is directly responsible to Congress, the governors are, by law, independent of political pressure from cither Congress or the president. The board is expected, however, to coordinate its policies with those of the administration and congress. Additionally, the Federal Reserve does not rely on Congress for funding: it raises all of its own operating expenses from investment income and fees for
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its own services. When a conflict arises between making a profit or serving the public interest, however, the Fed is expected to choose the latter.
1.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Найдите в тексте слово-заменитель ранее употребленного существительного и переведите его, определив заменяемое им слово.
3.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца слова с окончанием -ing, определите, какой частью речи они являются, а также их функцию, и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
4.	Выпишите из текста причастия II, укажите их функции, переведите вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
5.	Укажите перевод союзов, присоединяющих придаточные предложения к главному, в последнем предложении второго абзаца.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 17
The Federal Reserve (continued)
The Federal Reserve has three main tools for maintaining control over the total supply of money and credit in the economy. The first is the discount rate, or the interest rate that commercial banks pay to borrow funds from Reserve Banks. By raising or lowering the discount rate, the Fed can promote or discourage borrowing and, thus, alter the amount of revenue available to banks for making loans.
The second is reserve requirement. These are percentages of deposits, set by The Federal Reserve, that commercial banks must set aside either as currency in their vaults or as deposits at their
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regional Reserve Banks. These percentages cannot be used for loans. In 1980 the Federal Reserve gained the authority to set reserve requirements for all deposit-taking institutions.
The third tool, which is probably the most important is known as open market operations. It is the buying and settling of government securities. When the Federal Reserve buys government securities from banks, other businesses or individuals, it pays for them with a check (a new source of money it prints) drawn on itself. When this check is deposited in a bank, it creates new reserves - a portion of which can be lent or invested - further increasing the money supply.
1.	Выпишите из текста деепричастные обороты и переведите их.
2.	Выпишите из текста герундии и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из текста герундии в пассивном залоге, имеющие в своем составе модальный глагол, и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
4.	Выпишите из текста инфинитив в функции определения и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
5.	Найдите в тексте придаточное бессоюзное определительное предложение и переведите его вместе с определяемым им словом.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 18
The Federal Reserve (continued)
These tools allow the Federal Reserve to expend or contract the amount of money and credit in the U.S. economy. When there is more money to lend, credit is «loose» and interest rates tend to drop, in general, business and consumer spending tend to rise when
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interest rates fall. When there is less money to lend, credit is «tight» and interest rates tend to rise. Tight money is considered a particularly powerful tool for fighting inflation.
Y et certain factors complicate the ability of the Federal Reserve to use monetary policy to obtain specific goals. First, it is hard to use monetary policy precisely because changes in the money supply do not cause immediate changes in economy. An increase or decrease in the money supply may not affect the economy until other economic conditions have changed; the new conditions may interact with the change in the size of the money supply to create a totally unintended result. In fact, efforts to use monetary policy to achieve price stability sometimes have hampered efforts to achieve fuller employment, while efforts to use monetary policy to reduce unemployment sometimes have led to inflation. Additionally, the task of monetary policy is also complicated by the nation's balance of payments difficulties. For these reasons, the Federal Reserve tends to move cautiously, making very gradual changes in the money supply.
1.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы, укажите их функции и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
2.	Выпишите из последнего абзаца слова с окончанием -ing, определите, какой частью речи они являются, а также их функции, и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
3.	Выпишите из предпоследнего предложения текста группу существительного, имеющую существительное в качестве определения, и переведите ее.
4.	Найдите в первом абзаце предложение с конструкцией there + be и укажите перевод этой конструкции.
5.	Выпишите из второго абзаца текста союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главным, и переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
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Test 19
Market Dynamics
Markets in stocks and commodities form a vital part of the American economic system. Millions of individuals buy and sell small lots of stocks and commodities while mutual funds and trusts trade in large lots. In good times, when it appears that prices will rise, money from savings or from other types of investment flows into the market. When this happens, prices are driven higher. Often a period of speculation follows in which the «bulls», those who make money on a rising market, dominate the market. When the market can no longer sustain the speculative fever, a reaction sets in, selling develops and prices begin to fall. At this point the «bears», or those who make money in a falling market, are the gainers.
During this process the Federal Reserve board may be trying to curb excesses and stimulate or dampen the market by raising or lowering the margin. The flurry of buying and selling also creates a temptation for some «insiders» (those with access to special information) to try and manipulate the market in a given stock. While this illegal activity was once commonplace, it happens much less frequently now, owing to active policing by the SEC.
A new factor of significance in the market is the volume of funds from abroad that is being invested. Not only has Middle Eastern oil money made its way into American securities, but many people in Europe, Japan and other parts of the world feel that their best opportunity for securing their wealth is to invest it into American stocks.
1.	Выпишите из текста слова с окончанием -ing, определите, какой частью речи они являются, а также их функцию, и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
2.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
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3.	Найдите в тексте предложение с местоимением it, предваряющим последующее высказывание, и переведите это предложение.
4.	Найдите в тексте предложение с инверсией и переведите его.
5.	Найдите в тексте сложные предложения. Укажите союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главному. Переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 20
Manufacturing Industries
More than 18,5 million Americans are employed in manufacturing, including over two million engaged in the manufacture of machinery excluding electrical and transportation equipment. Other industries with more than a million workers each include production of food and related products, clothing, metal goods, electrical machinery, wood products and furniture, textiles, printing, publishing and paper products.
In recent years there has been a great increase in the number of engineers and scientists employed in American industries as companies emphasize research and the development of labor-saving machines. For example, electronic computers now do in a few hour mathematical problems that once took weeks of human effort. Some plants in the oil and chemical industries are built almost entirely around self-acting controls. Machines are doing more and more of the work of processing, assembling, packaging and distributing products. To meet the demands of the rapidly increasing population, industry today turns out more products at greater speed and with less labor.
The growing use of machines to perform routine tasks in agriculture, industry and other fields has brought about a shift of
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workers to new employment. Though some have been displaced because of automation, most have been absorbed by new industries and by the growth of service and leisure industries.
1.	Выпишите из текста придаточные обороты и переведите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами.
2.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы в функции обстоятельства цели и переведите их.
3.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
4.	Найдите в тексте предложение с оборотом there + be и переведите его.
5.	Выпишите из текста союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главным, и переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 21
Manufacturing Industries (continued)
Other changes have taken place in the business world. Today industry reinvests twice as much of its profit in modernization and development as it did century ago. New industries are formed as new discoveries are made. Atomic energy, for example, has created a wide range of new activities. So has the invention of plastic materials, which are used in many products. Electronics has become a major industry, employing more than a million people. About 80 per cent of the products of one leading electronics firm did not exist 10 years ago. Scientists head many small electronics companies.
Throughout American industry greater emphasis is being placed on management training. Schools, such as the Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration, are training young people for business and industrial leadership.
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Most American industry is located in the eastern and midwestern parts of the country, but the West and South are now turning more and more from dependence on agriculture. And industries are spreading out, building modern factories far from the home plant, closer to natural resources, markets and supply of skilled labor, industries have been able to scatter their factories because power sources are nowr widely available, transportation facilities are plentiful, and rapid communication systems make it possible for main plants to keep constantly in touch with branch factories.
1.	Найдите в первом абзаце текста глагол to do в качестве глагола-заменителя. Определите, какой ранее употребленный глагол он заменяет, и переведите его вместе с подлежащим.
2.	Найдите в тексте предложение с местоимением it, предваряющим последующее высказывание, и переведите эту часть предложения.
3.	Выпишите из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
4.	Выпишите из текста слова с окончанием -ing, определите, какой частью речи они являются, а также их функции, и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
5.	Найдите в первом абзаце предложение с инверсией и переведите его.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
Test 22
Social Security
Most Americans today have some insurance against long-term illness or injury, or the death of the family wage-earner. Nearly all who work, including the self-employed, are covered by retirement
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programs. Four out of five employees now have access to unemployment benefits.
The Social Security law. which covers more than 90 per cent of the work force, provides a national system of payment in old age and survivors' and disability benefits. Over the years the law has been broadened to give greater protection in all categories.
The Social Security system is financed through a tax paid by workers and their employers during the years of employment. Selfemployed persons, who also pay into the system, are covered as well. When workers retire at age 65, they receive monthly payments on a scale related to their previous earnings; reduced benefits are paid to those retiring at ages 62 through 64. Benefits are also paid to non-working widows and widowers, to children under 18 and to dependent parents. More than 35 million people currently receive these monthly payments. A 65-year-old worker retiring in 1984 could receive as much as $703 per month, a limit that rises to $ 1,232 if the workers has a dependent spouse and children.
1.	Выпишите из текста причастные обороты и переведите их вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
2.	Выпишите из текста существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.	»
3.	Выпиши те из текста сказуемые в пассивном залоге и переведите их вместе с подлежащими.
4.	Выпишите из второго абзаца инфинитив, определите его функцию и переведите его.
5.	Выпишите из текста союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главным, и переведите эти союзы.
6.	Переведите текст с учетом выполненных заданий.
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Test 23
Social Security (continued)
Unemployment federal program is financed through a payroll tax paid by the employer. The federal government provides money to the states to cover the cost of operating this program; the states determine the conditions under which benefits are paid. In some industries wage contracts with labor unions provide for higher payments.
Civilians who work for the federal government share the cost of their pension system and group health insurance programs. Most state and city government workers have similar protections. The federal government also has programs to protect railroad workers and members of the armed forces. In addition, all the states have «workers' compensation» laws that provide payments to workers or their families for job-connected injury or death.
The federal government makes grants to the states to help them finance public assistance and social services programs for the needy and those who have exhausted their unemployment benefits. The federal government also helps the states meet the medical costs of the needy aged, the blind and disabled, and dependent children.
Millions of workers in industry get extra protection through private plans offered by their employers on a fully paid or share-the-cost basis. They usually provide sickness and accident benefits, hospitalization and medical care costs, disability and retirement payments.
1.	Найдите в тексте сложноподчиненные предложения. Укажите их количество, а также союзы, присоединяющие придаточные предложения к главному.
2.	Найдите в тексте сказуемые в пассивном залоге. Выпишите их вместе с подлежащими и переведите.
3.	Найдите в тексте герундий, определите его функцию в предложении и переведите вместе с относящимися к нему словами.
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4.	Укажите количество причастных оборотов в тексте, выпишите их вместе с определяемыми ими словами и переведите.
5.	Выпишите из текста инфинитивы, определите их функции в предложении и переведите вместе с относящимися к ним словами.
6.	Выпишите из текста существительные, определяемые другими существительными, и переведите эти группы существительных.
7.	Переведите текст, учитывая выполненные задания.
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