/
Text
Primers for the Age of Plenty No. 3 T-HE LOOM OF LANGUAGE
PRI-MERS FOR THE AGE OF PLENTY died by LANCELOT HOGBEN , Mathematics for the MilIion by Lancelo Hogben 2. Science for the Citizen by Lancetot Hogben 3- The Loom of Language by Frederick Bodner 4. I-I/story of the Fiomeland by Henry Hamilton ; (forthcoming)
THE LO0/gi OF LANGUAGE A Guide to Foreign Languages for the Home Student FREDERICK BODMER echted aoE arranged by LANCELOT HOGBEN London GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD
FIRST PUBLISHED IFT JABTUARY I944 SECOITD I MPR]SqIOBI FLBRUAR¥ 1944 TIII IMPRESSION APRIL 194 5 i BE PAPER ATD BIIBTG OF THIS BOOK CONFOttYi TO IIE AUOEHORIZED WOKIN'«
Up to the very present day» the irons» the steels, chrect and rule and change lïfe as no Alêxanders, no Caesars, no Jengas Khans or Mussokms have ever done You can see the thmgs that anse out of 1ton from thê first 1ton spear-head and the first axe to the steel raff, the battleslmp and the motor You can see t.hem temptmg and obhgmg and compelhng men to change thelr ways of lffe and ther relataons to one another There were no parncular ron-mmded peoples It was a marrer of quate secondary importance to everyone but the gangs and mdvlduals concerned, what collectwn of people first got hold of the new flamg But the new bastory xs hot smaply an account of the general matenal hfe of mankand . Its subtler and more maportant business s the study of the develop- ment of soclally bmdmg deas through the mechum of speech and wntmg. t-Iow dld language» speech and wrmng anse? .. Thê old-type tustonans bave done nothmg to show how the ïmposmon of a language or a blen- dmg of languages gaves a new twlst and often a new power to the com- mumty's mental processes. A language s an xmplement qutte as much as an maplement of stone or steel, ltS use mvolves socml consequences» It does thmgs to you just as a metal or a machine does tbangs to you It makes new precislon and also new errors possible H G WELLS, In Search of Hot Water The evolutlon of language has bcen almost as unconscmus as that o an embryo FIe (man) grasps, necessanly wthout reflectmn, thas fascanatang but gnarled product of evolutmn, nethêr he nor bas relatives and teachers condenng at al1 whêther the têchmque of commumcatmn he s learnïng s modérn Fie ls m the posmon of a person who bas just chscovered he can ride a bcycle and rushcs off to buy the first he can find rrespectave of whethêr It s new or of the latest design It s a bcycle and gets ktm along somehow» that s enough I-te takes t, wlth all ts defects Thë language hë learns s the unconsïdered end-product of an evolutton from the sound-commumcauons of ape-hke ancêstors The mmemonal words change less quckly than the enutes they represent, uutfl to-day we find words often extremely rmsleadmg tants n complex thmkang A coIossal quantty of phalosopbazmg upon every sde of hfe s entrely vmated because persons use words quate unsuted to descnbe the tlungs they are dascussmg» as f men must always sculpture wth a hatchet because that was (perhaps) the first nstrumënt usêd for the purpose ]'. G. CROTI-IER» Ouline of the Umverse
CONTENTS Editor's Foreword CHAPTER I. Introductmn Part I THE NATURAL HISTORY OF LANGUAGE PAGE Ii 15 II. The Story of the Alphabet 47 III. Accidence--The Table Manners of Lan- guage 89 IV. Syatax--The Traffic Rules of Language 9 V. The Classification of Languages 176 Part H OUR HYBRID HERITAGE VI. How to Leam the Basic Word List VII. Bird's-Eye Vicw of Teutomc Grammar VIII. Thë Laun Legacy IX. Modem Descendants of Latin 219 261 309 349 Part III THE WORLD LANGUAGE PROBLEM X. The Diseases of Language XI. Pioneers of Language Planning XII. Language Planning for a New Order 405 443 48I
8 The Loom oJ La,guage Par IV LANGUAGE MUSEUM APPENI) IX I. Basic Vocabularîes for the Teutonic Lan- guages II. Basic Vocabularies for tte Romance Lan- guages III. Greek Roots in Cornrnon Use for Technical Words of International Currency PAGE 577 636 Index 660
LIST OF FIGURES FIG PAG I The Rosetta Stone facng IO 2 Inscnpuon from Mme Shaft m the Sna Penmsula 18 30ld Persmn Cunefform Syllabary 22 4 Cunelform Tabler Recordmg Babyloman Legend of the Deluge faczng 30 5 Bhngual Seal of Kmg Amuwandas II» a Httate Kmg 36 6 Brmsh Traflïc Sgns 49 7 Pctographc Wnung of Aztec Cvhzauon m Memco 52 8 Ideograms of the Eghteen Twenty-Day Months of the Calendar of the Anclent Maya Cmhzauon of Central Amenca 54 9 Ancrant Pmture Wrmng of the Httutês from an Inscnptmn at Hama m Syna 56 o Dscus of Phacstos «howmg as yet Undecphered Pcto- graphtc Wntmg of the Ancrent Cretan Cmhzauor 59 Consonant Symbols of some Contemporary Alphabets 60 OE Vowel Symbols of Some Contemporary Aiphabets 3 Thê Ancrent Cypnouc Syllabary 64 4 Stone Inscrpuon from Paphos (Exghth Century c ) facmg 64 5 Some Sgrs from Early Alphabets 7 o 6 Early and Later Form of Some Greek and Latin Letters 7 7 Key to Rumc and Ogam Scrtpts 75 8 Bhngual Inscnpuon m Laun (Romart Létters) and Celuc (Ogam Sgns) ïrom a Church at Trallong m Ireland 76 9 Semaphore, Morse and Braille Codes 78 o Facsmaïle Note m Ptman's Shorthand by Bernard Shaw 86 2 The Drecuves of PlacWx4: z2 The Drecuves of Mouon 44 z3 The Instrumental Dtrecuves 45 a4 The Drectwes of Tune 46 25 Assocmuve Dtrecttves 47 26 Coin of Maccabêan Tmes wzth Early Hëbrew Characters 7 Threc Verses from the Oid Testament tu the Oldest Dateable MS of thê Hebrew Bblc 8 Page from the "Codex Argënteus" now m Uppsala facng 2o4 faczng
iO The Loom of Language FIG. PAGL 38 Stone Slab from Lemnos wth Early Grcck Lcttcnng 39 Stone wlth Celtac Inscription m Ogam Sgns from Aboyne near Aberdeen m Scotland facmg 44 4o Postage Stamp of Kemal Ataturk Teâchmg the Turks to Use the Roman Alphabet jacmg 4r5 41 Mongols Lcarmng the Latin ABC facmg 415 42 Compound Chmese Characters wth Two Meamng Compo- nents 4OE6 43 Compound Chînese Characters wrh Meamng and Phoneric Component 427 44 Paent Chmese Characters of the Katakana (older) Japanese Syllabary 435 45 Parent Chmese Characters of the I-hragana (later) apanese Syllabary 439 46 japanese Katakana Syllabary 440 334 340 29 Rumc Stone m Nauonal Park of Stockholm facmg 30 Earhest Teutomc Inscvpton 3 Cuttmg from icelandlc Newspapcr Showmg the "iwo th Symbols p (as in thm) and 6 (as m them) 278 32 Cuttmg from a Norwegian Newspaper Showng the Scandl- navlan Vowel S)mbols o and cï 28I 33 Very Early (6th Centmy B C ) Latin Imcnptwn on a Flbula (clasp or brooch) 3 t 34 The Oldest Roman Stone inscupuon--The Laps Niger from the Forum (about 600 I c ) jacmg 3I. 35 Fanerai inscription ol the Consul L. Cornellus Scpo in an Early Latin Script (259 I3 c ) 32I 36 Oscan Inscnpuon from Pompen 325 37 Inscnpuoa m Early (about 59o c) Greck Lcttermg trom Egypt Chpped on the Statuary of a Rock Temple by Iomc Mercenanes
"I hls lnscnptmn, whcl came to hght dumg Napoleon's campmgn m Egypt, made t possible to dccphet tlm ancrent pcture wntmg (top thlrd) oi the Egypuan pnestlod he ()çek translauon s at tlac bottom The mddlc part s the cquvalcnt n a latcr totm (demot) of Igyptmn wrmng Thc dcmouc was an dcogtaphtc sçtpt oi whtch thc symbols had lost thctr pctonal ctaracter (sec pages 58-6)
EDITOR'S FOREWORD DURIIG the past fifteen years mstrucraoI1 in school and college has undergolle a drasuc reorïematton in Germany and Italy Its expressed alm ls to consohdate and to promote the sentamems and mstttuttons of' the totahtarlan state Durmg the ssme perlod no country vath an ostenslbly dêmocrarac iorm of government had an educauonal system deslgncd mth êqual smglcness of" purpose to promote the democrarac way of" hfe. In En#and school educatlon is the 1,1s bulwark of caste pnvllege. In Bntam, as in Scanchnavla, umverslty educauon xs a patchwork ruade up partly of rehcs from the cathohc authorîmrian trachuon of medleval Europe» partly of vocauonal speclahucs reluc- tandy addcd to meet the demands of modern techmcs The basxc dcfect of Bntsh educatlon beyond the elëmemary school ievel--at wtuch t bas an mtelhglble and necessary funcuon as an msurance pohcy agamst national llhtêracy--lS that selectïon and prcsentatlon of materlals for teachmg of sub]ccts most relevant to the construcrave tasks of modern soclety lS largcly in the hands of experts whose mare preoccupatton is to produce other experts hke r.hemselves We learn out mathëmatcs wlth scant reference to xts sc,enrafic apph- cations Wc leam namral science wlthout regard to the xmpac of sclênufic dlscovcry on the SOClery in wluch we hve We struggle w,th one or more modern languages in complete mchfference to the part whtch language dlfferenccs play in prov,dmg fuel for international Imsunderstanchlag and wlthout the shghtcst concern for OEe problem of cornmumcàtlon on a plaretary scale m an age of potenual plenty. Lîke that of its predccessor, Sczence for the Cztzzen, the project of The Loom of Language lS based on the convlcraon r.hat the orientation of srudlcs in out schools» umversiues» and Adult Educauon Movement does no provlde a sufficlcnt eqmpment for the construcaïre tasks ofthe sociëty m whïch we hve» that radical changes in the scope and methods of educauon arc a necessary conchûon of contmued social progress, that such educatïonal reforms w, ll hot corne about unless there is a vlgorous popular demand for them» and that mere precept or contro- versal crmcxsm ls hot hkely to smnulate popular demand for reform unless the plain man can exaïmne substantml examples of instruction vltahzed by a new mfïlsion of social relevance Le other prîmers for the Age of Plenty, The Loom of Langua.e does hot set out to add to number of popular books wrrteïï to stlmulate superficual mterest
12 The Loom oj Language among curlo hurlters, to promote urmecessary veneraïon for pro'essors, to provde materlal for hght conversation at cocktail parties» or o nutlgate the mcovemence of msomrua Fxrst and £oremost i s a self-educator for the home student, a book whlch members of" the Adult Educatlon Movement can use as a basls for sustamed study» and a book from wlch teachers alert to the need for a new onelltatlon to meet the needs of the ordmary cmzen m a progressive democratlc soçety can get helpful suggestions wlth a chrect beanng on thexr dmty tank An attempt of ttus kmd needs no apology on accouru of ts novelty or break wth tradmonal methods of school teadung Less than a century ago, fixe mtroductaon of modern languages mto schools where language teachmg had been crcumscnbed by translation i'rom classical authors of alltlquity, was greeted as a welcome mnovaLlon it seëmed at iast as if the teachmg of languages had been brought to hfe Af'ter two gellerataons of expermaent, educaliomsts are hot conwnced that the rêsults of school-teacballg jusoEy the rame devoted to thëm in lnghsh- speaking countnes It would hot be an exaggeratlon to say that the prevmlmg attitude among Amencan educataomsts is one of alarm at the poverty of return for êftort put mto fixe task Subsdzzed bv the Carnege Corporatton, the Amencai1 Councll of Education bas under- taken a survey of methods and rësults in order to revîew OEe çurrent stuataon in Amercan schools The pubhshed report s an honest admission of chsmal faflure Years ago, when Dr. Bodmer was my colleague on thê staff of the Umversity of C@e Town, we chscussed the twm proect of oecence for the Ctzen and The Loom of Language m a preltlmnary way. Shortly belote the war we drew up a detalled plan based on oint discussion, chiefly m Enghsh country pubs dunng the course of a motor top from Aberdeell to London vza the Yorkslur moors and Suffolk, back agam by way of the Lake chsmct Thêr¢, as I expêcted, my job as echtor fimshed, at least tlll I read the page proofs In rêahty collabôratton bas beén closer, and the author bas urged me to explam the éxtëm of It Durmg the wmmg of the book Dr Bodmer hved m a smaïl croft wlch I used to rent on Deeside So I saw hîm durmg the week-ends colltmuously. I read thë first drafts of each chapter, and was able to suggest how to get round chificulties of orchnary peoplë who are hke myself poor lmgmsts I shall always be grateful for what was a highly educative experience and one which kept me mtellectually ahve during a penod of somewhat curtaled oppommtms for my own research
Edztor's Foreword As tme passed the task became more and more a co-operauve effort m wbach I acted as a seve, or, f you hke t, as a bt of htmus paper. Dr Bodmer subrmtted to suggesuons for the benefit of readers who find languages as forrmdable as I do wth more reachness than those of us who have a normal mochcum of egottsm and a less developed social conscience When the nsmg cost of paper forced us to curtafl the scope to some extent, I took a hand m the lob of condensmg and rewntmg some secttons Consequently I have had the greatest chtfi- culty m preventïng Dr Bodmer from refusmg to pubhsh the book wthout my mme as a co-author on the cover I havc got bain to see that hmttauons wbach xnnchcate my echtonal quahficauons for recog- mzmg thê chtlîcuiues of or&nary people would make me a laughmg stock m the capacty of lomt author So we have cornprormsed on the understandïng that I make clear the extent of my contnbuuon ïn a forword Therê s one thmg to add. The ments of the two predecessors of The Loom of Language m thcr Iater echuors are due m no small measure to the co-operatmn of scores of readers who have sent m suggesuons for further danficataon or have drawn attenttor to author's shps or to prmter's errors In a book of ttus sze, produced under excepttonaIly chfficult conchuons, blermshes are mewtable m a first echtion Echtor, aur.hor and pubhshers hope that readers wRl show apprecaatton of what has been acheved by contnbutang construcuve cntacasm for use m later mpressons or èduons Because ths book s a successor to Mahematzcs for the Mzlhon and Science for the Czzzen, ts mouf s social and ts bas s practical. It doês hot ouch on the aesthetzc aspects of langage What aësthêuc ments somc péople find, and--wc may hope--wl continue to fmd, n thër home languages bave httlë to do wth chfficulues wtnch beset the begmner learnmg a new one, or wth techmcal problems of de- vîsmg ways and means of commumcauon on a planêtary scale m an age of potenual plnty. LANCELOT HOGBEN October z94r
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION WI-IAr language we habtually speak depends upon a geograplncal accident It bas nothmg to do mth the composmon of the human sperm or of the human egg A chïld grows up to speak or to wnte the languagê used at home or at school If born m a bflmgual country tt may grow up to use two lauguages wlthout any formal mstmcuon in either Many Welsh, Breton, Belglan, and South Afncan cktldren do so There ls nothmg to suggest that thë chromosomes of the Welsh, Belgians, Bretons, and South Afncans bave an extra share of genes which bestow the glft of tongues. Expenence also shows that adult enugrants to a new country evenmally acqulre the knack of com- mumcaung moffensIvely wïth the natlves So scarcely any one cau bave any ratlonal basls for the behef that he or she ls congêmtally incapable of becommg a lmguist, if a language-phobm exists, t must be a by-product of formal educatîon or othcr agences of socïal envïron- ment. By the saine token It ls hot dficult to understand why Scandmavxans or the Dutch enloy the reputauon of bemg good hngtusts In small speech commumtïes the market for talhes or for specaahst textbooks ïs small, and It xs hot econormcally pracucable to produce them Thus thê Norweglan boy or girl who hopes to enter a profession grows up wïth thc knowledge that proficlcncy in Enghsh» German or French is an ëssenual educauonal tool In any part of Scandanavxa a wslt to the cmema ls a language lesson Translatton of the Enghsh, German or French dialogue flashes on the screen as thc narrattve proceeds. To ail the cul,al bamers wluch lmgtusuc tsolauon imposes on a small spcech commumty we bave to add exagenctes of extemal trade and a stronger Impulse to travel. In short, membërs of the smaller Europêan spêech communiuês expenence a far greater nêed to study foreign ianguagês and enloy greater opportumues for domg so Speclal carcumstances combzne to encourage a chstaste for hngmsttc studies among those who speak the Anglo-Amencan language One is that the water fronfiers of Bntam, and sull more those of flac Umted States, lsolate most Bntish and Amencan cmzens from datly experiênce
6 The Loom oJ Language of Imgmsuc contacts. Another s that formal educauon fals to supply a compellmg reason for a pursmt whch bas httle connexaon wth the needs of everyday hfe. Reasons commonly gven for learmng foregn languages are mamfestly msmcere, or, to put t more chantably, are out of date For instance, t s obvmusly easy to exaggerate the uuhty of lmgmsuc accomphshments for foregn travel Only relauvely pros- perous people can continue to travel after mamage, and tout,st fach- ttes for young peoplë of modest means rarely, ff ever, take them mto smauons where nobody understands Anglo-Amencan There s cven less smcenty m the plea for hngmsuc proficency as a këy to the trcasure- house of the world's hterature Amencan and Bnush pubhshers scour the Continent for translauon nghts of new authors So the doors of the treasure-house are wde open Indeed, any mtelhgent adolescent wth access to a modem lendmg hbrary can catch out the tcacher who enthuses about the pleasures of readmg Thomas Mann or Anatole France m the original People who do so are content to get ther know- ledge of Scandmawan drama, the Russmu novel or the icelandc Sagas from Amencan or Bnush translauons In spzte of al1 obstacles, anyone who has been brought up to speak the Anglo-Amencan language enioys a pecuharly favourëd posmon it s a hybnd It has a basc stratum of words denved from the same stock as German, Dutch, and the Scanchnavn languages it bas assrmlated thousands of Laun orgm It has also mcorporated an gnpressvë battery of Greek roots. A random sample of one word from each of the first thousand pages of the Conczse Oxford Dctwnary gves the followmg figures" words of Romance (Laun, French, itahan, Spamsh) ongin 53 6 %, Teutomc (Old Enghsh, Scandmawau, Dutch, German) 3 ï/o, Greek o.8 ï/o Wth a httle kïaowledgc of thë evoluuon of Enghsh tself, of the parallel evoluuon of the Teutonic languages and of the modern descendants of Laun, as set forth m the second part of tins book, the Amencan or the Bnton bas therefore a key to ten hvmg European languages No one outsde the Anglo- Amencan speech commumty enloys tins pnvlege, and no onê who knows how to take full advantage of t need despmr of getting a good workmg knowledge of the languages whch our nearest ïaeighbours speak Though each of us s enttfled to a personal chstaste» as each of us xs enutled to a personal preference, for smdy of ths sort, the usefulness of learnmg languages is hot merely a personal affar. Lmguimc dfffer- entes are a perpetual source of international masunderstandmg a well-
Introductzon 17 mgh lnexhaustlble supply of inflammable materlal whlch warmongers can use for thetr own ewl ends $ome knowledge about the languages people speak Is thereïore Olae prerequlslte of kêepmg the world's peace Keepmg the world's peace fs everybody's proper business, but keepmg the world's peace ls IlOt thê only reason why study oflanguages concems all of us as cïttzens. Lmgmsrïc chffèrellCeS lead to a vast leakage of mtellëctual energy which nught be enhstêd to make the potenttal plemy of modern science avaflable to al] manlmd Human bemgs are umque in two ways Mail ls a tool-bearmg ammal and a talkattve ammal In the pursmt oï thelr tool-bearmg actlvïtles, men and women bave learned to co-operate on a planetary scale; but such co-operatlon ls perpetuaLly thwarted by local kmltatlons of" thelr speech habits What ls characterlstlc of" the mtellectual achlevêmelltS of" mazlkmd in the age of hydro-elecmclty, magnesmm-alurmmum alloys, broadcastmg, awatmla, syntheuc plastlcs» and chemoerapy ls a com- mon possession o all ilatlolls wlaxch encourage sclenlafic research, but natxolls bave no common ldlom through Much workers by bram or hand can commtmcate results of" research or coLtaborate in applymg thëm to human wel£are Modem techrology s a supernatlonal culture wlxIch rmnisters to the common ileeds of humalx beîngs» whlle language lmxps behmd the human elldeavour to satsfy neêds wlch ail human bemgs sharë. To canallze the mterest of" mtelhgent men and women mto the constructive task of dewslng or of adoptmg an auxihary medlum to supplement exstmg nauonal languagcs ls therefore one of the forêmost needs of our ume Thïs concerns us all, and it calls for a hvely knowledge of the hmltauons mposed on laxaguages by the laws of their giowth It wll therefoe be one of the tasks of The Loom of Lan- guage to trace the lustory of the languages m wbach the techmcal resources of out age bave been recorded, it wtll hot be a record of dehberate and mtelhgent prevlsmn It s partly a story of confusxon resultmg from a commuous record of lovênhness and of obstmate complacency towards the rmstakes of out grand-parents. It ls also a story of ancestor-worshp, and of makeshs to conserve the meputudes of a supposedly heroic past It affects us more lntmately than the fate of the Dmosaurs. It unearths remams hot less dramatm than the jaw-bonê of the ape-man oI Java. !t points thë way down data paths of prehstory from whlch wê return with imagmatmn fired by a wsta of future possbilmës. Ths does hot mean that The Loom of Language is first and forëmost
18 The Loom of Language a plea for language-plannmg. There are other good enough reasons why ts readers may need or wsh to srudy exstmg languagcs Travelhrïg fachues are becommg cheaper and dafly less mconvcment or t.tmc- consmnmg if the states of Europe are ever umted undcr common democrauc govemment, wth ts own ar serwce, many o us who had never expected to travel far afield may hope to sec more of the world FIG Z--INSLRIPTION FROM MIN SIIAFT IN THI: SINAI PFININSOEA Tracmgs on a mine shaft in the Slnsl l)cmnsula ronde by a workman who sxgns hunelf as Number 4 and gves hs naine as SAttMI/ before we che Inevatably we shall become more ïnterested in the speech habits 'of out nelghbours Though a knowledge of foregn languages ïs hot mchspensable to an Ameïacan or an Enghshman who wlshes to travel, it adds to the fun of if and promotes a more fnëndly under- standing wxth people one may meet The hterary arguments for language study are mamfestly bogus when based on the clanus of timon or drama for wtuch chëap translauom are reachly accesstble None the lss, somc types of ltterature are acces- stble oaly to peoplë who know languages other than thetr owa. A large
Introduction 9 volume of sctenttfic publications whtch record new &scovenes m physcs, mechcïne, chermstry, agriculture, and engmeermg appear m many OEerent languages. Ther content do hot become accessible m books tïll several years bave elapsed. Professonal sctenufic workers are therefore hanchcapped f they bave no lowledge of such languages as German, French, or Spamsh What s more unportant from th, e standpomt of the wder pubhc whch T]e Loom of Language may reach s tins. OEallengmg stattsttcs of social welfare from foregn countnes may never find their way mto the columns of out newspapers So the only way of gemng a thorough first-hand knowledge of foregn affars s to read year-books and penochcals pubhshed m other countnes. For these and other reasons many people who bave httle or no knowledge of foreign languages would hke to bave more, and many would study them, f they were hot dïscouraged by the very poor results whtch years of smdy at school or m college prduce One thmg The Loom of Language auns at domg s to show that there s no real reason for bemg chscouraged Though the dcultes of learmng languages are real, they are also easy to exaggerate. Generally, the adult has more to show after a three months' course at a Commercial Instaure than an adolescent after three years' study of a foreign language m a Bntsh secondary or Amercan lgh school Oe reason for ths s that the adult pupîl s clear about why he or she is takmg the course Another s that the teacher s usually clear about why he or she s guvmg ït Thts xs hot the whole story. To sms of onusston we bave to add all the posture obstacles whch early formal educatton places tu the way of those who have no strong personal mdmauon for hngutsuc stuches The greatest xmpechment, common to most branches of school and umversty educatïon, ts the dead hand of Plato We bave hot yet got away from educauon desgned for the sons of gentlemen. Educauonal Platomsm sacrtfices realizable proficenEy by encouragmg the pursmt of unattmnable perfecuon The child or the unmgrant leams a language by blundermg his or her way mto greater self-oenfidence Adults acccpt the m_tstakes of chïldren wth tolerant good-humour, and the gemal flow of soctal mtercourse x hot mterrupted by a barrage of pedanttc protests. The common sense of orchnary parents or customs officals rëcogmzes that commonplace communicauon unhampered by the stmg of grammatacal gutlt must precede real progress m the arts of verbal precsïon Most of us could learn languages more easfly tf we cotfld learn to forgnve out own hngmsuc trespasses Vdhëre perfecuonist pedantry bas mserted the stmg of grammatical
The Loom of Language gudt a sênse ot socml lnfenorlty rubs salt xno the woand Accordmg to thê standards of educated adults, very few adolescents can speak and wnte tle home language wlth fluency and grammaucal precislori before eghteen years of age To be able to speak more than two new languages wlthout any trace of forelgn accent or lchom ïs a hfe-work. So hngtnsnc pohsh Is a pm qulslte of prosperous people whosc ormal educaton bas been supplemented by the attenuons of foregn govemêsses and by frequent reps abroad it s the culturaI tradë- mark of a lestre class Indeed no type of knowledge bas moe osten- tanon value No one who wants to speak a foregn language hkë a nauve can rely upon tins book or on any other Its alto s to hghten the burden of leammg for the home student who s less ambmous Onë of the useful results of" recent at'tempts to dewse languages for world citzen- slip bas been to show how educanonal pracuce, chctated by social theones which gratffy the tch for lesure-class ostentanon, exaggerates thë dficulraes ansmg flore the mmnsc charactensncs of language The mtrmsac dculraës depenâ on thé large amount of effort expended belote tangable rêsults of self-expression or compre- hension bnng thelr own reward Self-assurance depends on reducmg thas penod of unreqmted effort to a minimum Pmneers of mternauonal commumcanon such as C K Ogden, the mventor of Bastc Enghsh bave ruade a specal study of tins, because the success ot ther work depends on the case wth whïclï a language for world-wide use eau be learned Whether ther own proposais pospc, or fatl, they have rcvo- luuomzed the problêm of learning existmg languagcs Tncks dscovêred in the task of devïsmg a stmple, dtrectï and casly acqmred language for world-cmzenstup have not yct found thêr way mto most gramrnar-books, and the reader who starts to icarn a foreïgn language can get al1 dïe fun of tackhng a new problèm by applying them To understand the essental pêcuhanties or sImîlarittes of ianguages most closely related to one another doês not demand a specal study of each. If you compare the following eqmvalents of a rêquest whtch occurs tu the Lod's Prayer» you can sec ths for yourself Gb uns heure unser taghch Brot Geef ons heden ons dageh?ksch brood Gv os i Dag vort daghge Brod Giv oss dag vïrt daglga brod Gel oss dag vort daglcgt brau6 (German) (Dutch) (Damsla) (Swedsh) (Icelandc)
Introduction Now compare these wlth the followmg translations of the same petmon m Latin and ts daughtei languages" Da nobls hoche panera nostrum quotchanum (Latan) Donne-nous aulourd'hm notre païn quotidien (French) Danos hoy nuestro pan cotlchano (Spamsh) Daccl ogg111 nostro pane couchano (Itahan) O pâo nosso de cada &a dal-nos hole (Portuguese) By the urne you have read through the first rive, you wzll probably have reakzed wlthout recourse to a chcuonary that they correspond to the Englîsh sentence Gzve us thzs day out daily bread. That the next rive mean the saine mght also be obvlous to a Frenchmano though it may not be obvlous to us if we do not already know Flench, or a language hke French If we are told that all ten sentences mean the same thing, it ls hot dcult to seë that German, Dutch, Swechsh, Damsh, and Icelandlc share wth Enghsh common features whlch Enghsh does hot share th the other rive languages, and that French, Itahan, Spamsh, and Portuguese share wlth Latin common features whlch they do hot share wlttl the Grmamc group It ls a common behef that leammg two languages calls for twce as much effort as ]eammg one. Thts may be roughly t.rue, if the two laxaguages are hot more ahke than French and German, and if the begmner's mm ls to speak ether hke a native If they belong to the same famfly, ald zf the begînner bas a more modcst end m vlew, t s hot truc Many people wfll find that the effort spent on bullchng up a small» wotkmanhke vocabulary and gettmg a grasp of essential grammaucal peculianues of four closely relatêd languages ls hot much greater than the effort spent on getung an eqmvalent knowledge of one alone. The reason for ths s obwous ue we approach learmug languages as a problem of apphed bmlogy The êase with wklch we remember ttungs depends on bemg able to assoclate one tlung wth another In many branches of knowledge, a httle learmng s a dffi,ult thmg As an solated act it s dcult, because extremely techous» to memor- ze the pecuhanues of each mchvldual bone of a rabbxt. When we reahze that bones are the alphabet of the wrltten record of evolutlon m the sedmaemary rocks» the study of theïr pecuhanties s lu11 of mterest Blologlsts wath ëxpenence of elementary teachmg know that it xs far more satisfymg--and therefore more easy--to leam the essenttal pecuhantles of the bones of representatve types from all the various classes of vertêbrates than to memonze m great detml the skeleton of
OEz The Loom of Language a smgle solated specimen So may well bê that many people wth a knowledge of Anglo-Amencan would benefit by trymg to leam German along mth Dutch» which s a hàlf-way home between German and ideoqrams Cegorm is the ame for a te of svllable wtltmg woE owes tts stmve raenscs to the imçress of a wedge-sped tool on soif day Relted syabarle of e about ooo scrtpts Mayfloer English. Every gammancal tule thea becomes a ftesh layer of ock from which to chîsël vestiges of creation. Each word is a bon hbelled wth a questïon-mark.
Introduction 3 Tins suggesuon may hot appeal to everyone or suî every type of home studen Suif» most people who fmd t dcult to leam a foregn language can reheve themselves of some of ther dffficulues, f they start wtth a htfle knowledge of how languages have evolved Part of the task whch The Loom of Language bas undertaken s to brmg the dead boncs to hfe wth tins elxar Somc people may say that the dcultaes are too great» because we start wth so httle raw matenal for com- panson They wKl say that t s posstble to gtve the general reader an mtelhgïble account of orgamc evoluuon» only because any mtelhgent person who first meets a text-book defimuon of such words as fish, amphzbzan, reptzle, bzrd» mammal» can already gtve several examples of each class Indêêd» most of us can subchwde some of them» as when we speak of dogs and cats as carmvors, rince and rabbts as rodents, or sheep and cattle as rummants. Most of" us could also guve some outstândmg anatorrucal pecuharmes wlch serve to chstmgmsh speces phced m a parucular group, as when we define rummants as beasts wluch chew the cud and chwde the hoof Admttedly, there s no such common basxs of umversal knowledge about language specles and ther anatormcal pecuhantes Most Bntons and most Amencans speak or read only onê language At best» very few well-educated people can read more than three Those we usually leam are hot recogmzably of a kmd, and there are no Pubhc Language Museums wth attractive and mstrucuve exhbts Ail the saine, t s hot mpossble for an mtelhgent person who has had no trammg m foregn languages to get some msght mto the way m wtnch languages evolve There are no straght lines m bologcal evoluuon, and there are no straght hnes m the evoluuon of languages We can recognize sRMar processes m the growth of al1 languages Vre can seë charactensucs whch predommate m hnguages so far apaoE as Chmese» I-Iunganan, and Greek competmg for mastêry m the grow of Anglo-Amerîcau from the Enghsh of Alfred the Great When we begm to take the problem of language planmug for world peace senously, we shall bave pubhc lauguage musëums m out centres of culture, and they wKl be essential instruments of cvïc ëducataon. In the meanume we have to be content wth s'omethmg less comprehensve. ]For the reader of tlus book, Part IV s a language museum m mïmature The home student who loters m ts corndors wfll be able to get a prospect of ttïe famfly hkeness of lauguages most closely alhed to out own, and wfll fmd oppormmues of applymg mies wtnch hghten thê tedmm of learmng hsts, as the extnbts m a good
24 The Loom of Lazguage museum of natural hlstory hghten the tcdlum of leammg name for the bones of the skeleon WHAT LEARNING A LANGUAGE INVOLVtS If supplemcnted by techmcal terres whlch arc thc samc, or almost the same, ln nearly aH modern languagcs, a basic vocabulary of scvcntccn hundred nanve words ls abundam for oichnary conversanon and mtelh- gent dascïslon of serlous sublects in any European language Accord.mg to a recent arude m Nature, a new encyclopaeda of medlclne pubhshed recenfly m the Sowet Umon, comams 8o,ooo techmcal terms, and safe to say that durmg hls professoml trammg a medlcal student has to master a new vocabulary of at least ten thousand new words. Indëëd, the mtemauonal vocabuiary of modem science as a whole s mmënse tu companson wath the number of words and mies which we bave to master before we can express ourselves m a foregn hngmage wth free use of techmcal terres m world-wde use. Tins fact does hot prevent the pubhcauon of a datly growmg volume of good popular books which explam for the beneft of any eader wtl average mtelhgence basc prmclples and mteresung facts dealt wlth in natural sciences Wth the help of the exlubts m out own language museum (Part IV) there s no reason why mteresnng facts about the way m wtuch languages grow, the way m wtuch people use them, thc daseascs from whch thcy surfer, and the way m whch oller soual habits and human relaraonshps shape them, should hot be accessible to us There ïs no reason why we should hot use knowledge of tl.s sort to hghten 11ê drudgery of assm'alatmg &sconnected înformataon by sheer effort of memory and tedmus repeunon. , Helpful tncks wtuch êmerge from a comparative study of language as a bass for promoung a common language of world-cmzenshtp turn up m the followmg chapters, and wfll bê set forth collectavely at a later stage. In fle meamimë, any one appalled by thè amo unt of drudgery whtch leaming a language supposedly entatls can get some encouragement from two sources One s that no expenditure on tmuon can supply the sumulus you can get from spontaneous mtercourse wth a correspondent, ff the latter s mterested m what you have to say and has somethmg mteresting to contnbute to a chscussion The other s that unavoidable memory work s much iess than most of us suppose; and it nêed hot be dull, if we forufy out efforts by sccntafic cunosity about the relative defects and ments of the language we are studyîng» about its relauon to other languages which people speak and about the
introduction z5 social agencles whach have affected lts growth or about clrcumstances wluch have moulded ts character m the course of history. In short» we can staffen self-confidence by recognmg at the outset that the ducultes of learmng a languagê» though real, are far less than most of us usually suppose. One great obstacle to language- leammg s that usual methods of mstrucuon take no account of the fact that learmng any language mvolves at least three kmds of stull as dnTerent as anthmettc, algebra and geometry. One s learnmg to read easfly One s leammg to express onesdf ïn speech or m wntmg The thrd ls bemg able to follow the course of ordmary conversatwn hmong people who use a language habltua/ly. Thas chstmcuon helps to resolve some of the greatest dcultaes wbach confront begmners. Whether xt s best to concentrate on one to the exclusion of others m the miraal stages of leammg depends partly on the temperament of the begmuer, partly on how the forelgn one resêmbles the home language, and parfly on the social cnrcumstances whach control opportumtaes for study or use We can best sec what these crcumstances are» ff we first get clear about the separate problems whïch anse m readmg» m self-expressmn, and m oral recogmtmn» about the several uses to whch we can put out knowledge of a language, and about the vanous opportumties for gettmg pracuce m usmg t NIost educated people find that oral recogmtaon of ordmary conversa- taon s the last stage m mastermg a language, and does hOt come unless they havê spent at least a few weeks or months m a country where t s habltually spoken It then comes qulckly to anyone who can read and wrlte lt. The reason why at demands a skdl qtute derent from the skl of learnmg to read quackly or to wrlte and to speak correctly, ls that no one pronounces dïstanctly the separate words of a sentence as one wntes t, and as a begmuer or a chtld speaks at. In speakang, people fuse one word wïth another, and blur syllables whach form an essenraal part of the vzsual pcmre of the mchvdual word What we recogmze ls hot a succession of separate umts, but a compostte pattem of wluch the character s parfly determmed by emphasls and rhythm Tins dffficulry does hot anse m readmg or wrttmg a foretgn language. When we are learmng to read or to wnte a language, we concentrate on the mchvidual words as separate vasual symbols, and when we are leammg to speak, we concentrate out attenuon on the sound values and stresses of each syllable So it xs possible to detct thê meanmg or to pronounce flawlessly the mchvadual words of I ara kïnd of fond ofyou baby without recognizmg it when xt împinges on the car as ymkynna-
26 The Loom of Language fonevubaybee. Of course, the extent of the dlfficultaes whxch the begttmer bas to face depends partly on personal make-up, and parfly on that of the language Some people with hlSmOmC glffs pck up word-pattelnS qulcldy, and may therefore benêfit more than others from gramophone records, wluch are an mvaluable help for gertmg good pronuncmtlon Some languages are more staccato than others Inchwdual words as spoken are more clear-cut Peoplë who speak t.hem habitually do hot slough off syllables Stress s evenly chstrlbuted In s sense, German lS more staccato than Enghsh, and Enghsh far more so than French From knowledge of the wntten Language, it s a small step for the student of German to ïollow a conversauon or a broadcast From a good readmg knowledge of French to an undërstanchlg ot what a French taxt-dnver says when he as quarrellmg wïth the pohceman is a much longer road Formal mstrucuon s at best a very labonous way of surmountmg these dafficulttes. The element of cunosity wtuch plays such a large part in mouldlng everyday speech s sttfled by the cêrtamty that the teacher s hot saymg anythmg partlcularly nterestmg, or, f nter- estmg, auythmg whlch he or she could hot explam wth less trouble in a language we already tmderstand The saine remark also apphês to formal mstructaon in wntmg, to exercîses m tanslataon, or to convcr- sauonal mstructaon. The teacher then plays the role of cztc in a stuauon whlch proffers no vital problem for soiuuon Though this is hOt true of wreless whïch glves us opportumues for gettmg a new slant on foretgn affatrs, the ume we can devote to a forega broadcast s generally short. Radio does hot mapose on us the sheer necessîty of proficiency» as do the disadvantages of fallmg to reserve a sêat m a ratlway carnage, or the need to replace a broken collar smd Worst of ail, It wfll hot repeat Itself for the benefit of the hstênr. Since the need for oral recogmuon does hot anse ha an acute form unless we are hvmg ïn a foreign country, these dxfficultaes are hot as chscouragmg as they sêem If occasion arses, any one who can read ând wrIte or speak can qmcldy learn to understand a language when he or she hears xt spoken zmessantly. So thé best advïce for most of us xs to concentrate on reading, writing, and speaking, with what help we can get from hstening-m, ull we go abroad. Opportumues for conversation wath chtldrelï are often reassurmg, when we first do so In large Enghsh and Amencan canes there are colomes of foreIgners, many of them« tradêspeopIe, who do hot mmd ff we add to our purchases a bit of talk, however defecttve m..grammar and pronuncaauon.
Introduction 7 From a practacal point of vlew, It ls more important to be clear about the OEerence between what ls mvolved m leammg to read, and what s mvolved m leaming to speak or to wnte a ianguage. When engaged m ordmary conversataon or letter-wntmg the vocabtflary of most people, even haghly educated people» ls very small m comparison wth the vocabulary of a newspaper or of a novel. In bas professonal capacaty the lournahst hnnself, or the novehst herself, uses many more worcls than suffice for the needs of everyday kfe, and the vocabùary of onë author &fiers very much from that of another. If only for these reasons, the vocabulary whach suffices for fluent self-expression ls much smaller than the vocabulary needed for mdïscrmamate readmg There are many other reasons why tbas s so. One xs the fact that ordinary speech nngs the changes on a large assortment of common synonyms and common expresslons whach are for practïcal purposes interchange- able Such eqtuvocataons are mnumerable. In everyday hfe, few of us pay much attentaon to the dfferent shades of meanmg m such expres- sons as he wouM hke to, he wants to, he prëfe s to, he deszres fo, he wshes to, he would rather Another Important dlstmctaon ls colmected wlth the use of tdtom, 1 e expressmns of wluch the meanmg cannot be mferred £rom the usual slgncance of the mdlvadual words and a knowledge of the grammatical rules for arrangmg t.hem. How do you do? xs an obvious example of xchomatac speech; but everyday speech xs saturated with ldaoms whxch are hot obwous as such. In Enghsh, the fact that a car is m the room can also be expressed by saymg there zs a car m the room. We could hot mfer thas from the customary meanmg of the word there and the other words m the sentence, as glven m a pocket chcuonary. From the standpomt of a person learnmg a forelgn language, there s à bag dffterence between the two forms of statement We can translate the fïrst word for word mto Dutch, German» Swechsh» or Datush. The expression there zs must be trans]ated by ,daomatac combmattons wch do hot hterally, e. m the usual sense of the separate words» mean the saine m any two of r.hem in French we bave to translate there s by zl y a, wtuch hterally means zr there bas In fle same context, the German would wrate es zt» htelally tf zs The Swede would say det finns, e. t ,s round. We could hot use r.he German es zst, as we could tall use thê Damsh der er» xf we had to translate there are no snakes m Iceland. The Enghsh dlom there zs would make way for es gzbt or hterally t gves. To re.ad a lauguage wth ease wë tlaerefore need to have a retatvely big battexy of s3naonyms and îdioms wth wbach we can daspense in
8 The Loom o Language speakmg or wrltmg To somê extent, srmlar remarks apply to gram- matca! convenuons. In modem Enghsh it ls never obhgatory to use what ls called the gemtîve case-form of the words father or day, as m my father's kat» or hzs day's wages. When speakmg or wrltmg Enghsh we are at hberty to say» the hot of my father or hzs wagês for the day So we do hot need to knqw the grammatical rule whxch tells us how to forrn the smgular gemuve father's, or the plural gernuve fathers'. A forelgner (i e. one who does hot speak the Anglo-kmencan language) does hot need to know that it xs out custorn to apply the rule only to narnes of angnate objects, astronomxcal or calencklcal terrns and measures. To ths extent, it looks as if self-expression xs rnuch casier to rnaster than a good readmg knowledge of a language. In other ways It s more dcult On the debxt side of out account we have to reckon wth two other features of the art of learmug. One s that out knowledge of the words we use m expressmg ourselves s hot prornpted by the sxtuauon» as out recogmtton of words on a prmtêd page is helped by the context Though the number of words and expresslons we need ls fewer, we need to know them so thoroughly» that we can recall thern without promptmg Another crcumstance makes eadmg more easy than wntmg or speakmg Most languages cary a load of glammaucal convenuons wlch have no more value than the coccyx (vesugml tazl) of the human skeleton The rule that we add -s to the stern of the Enghsh veb, ff precedêd by he, she, or zt» as when we say he needs, s a convenuon o usage. We rnake no chstmcuon between the form of the verb when we say I need you need, we need» they need. Though we should correct a chxld (or a foregner), we should luow what he oz she rneant by saymg. the train leave at . 5 So It contnbutes nothmg to out fachty m gemng at the rneaning of a sentence, lrorn this point of view, proficent oral self-expression rnakes less dernads than writmg. Many grammatïcal conventions such as the apostrophe m fathers' bave no phonetc value. That s to say, wê do hot recognize t.hem as sounds. This is specially true of French What The, Loom of Language bas to say about phonetzcs, ..e. principles of pronunciauon, and the practical hmts xt gves» w be of lïtfle use to anyone who hopes to speak a foregn language mtelhglbly unless supplemented by other sources of rnstrucuon We can surrnount the particular dafticulûes of oral expression pamlessly with the use of gramophone (p 6o) records, if we bave the rnoney to buy them. Whether speaking or wntmg ls easer when the gramophone s avail-
Introduction able, depends ctuefly on the mchvïdual. People who are good Immlcs wll make more progress m spea'llg wlth the saine expenchmre of effort Indlvaduals of the Vlsual or motor types, 1 e those who learn best by eye or touch, wlll get on better at wntang For many of us the cholce ls hmïted by whether we can find a wïlhng correspondent or an accessible acqualntance through business cormexaons, or through some such orgamzaraon as the educauonal department of the International Laches' Garment Workers m New York No teacher can supply the stlmtdus that cornes from commumcatlon wluch ls spontaneously grarafymg, because novel, to both parties We may sum up the essentlal chfferences between the skdl required for wlde readmg and the skdl reqmred for proficlent self-expresslon in thls way To express ourselves correctly we need to have a ready knowledge of a relatwely srnall number of words--flfteen hïmdred or two thousand at most--and a preczse knowledge of the essentïal gram- matacal conventaons of stralghtforward statement To read wldely wlthout a chcraonary, we need a noddmg acquazntance wlth a relatlvely large vocabulary (fifteen thousand words may be glven as a rough estimate), and a general famahanty wath a wzde range of grammatical conventions, wluch we can recogmze at slght, ff meanmgful We can waste an immense amount of rame, if we are not clear at the outset about what thas chstmctlon Imphes, or if we proceed on the assump- tion that learnmg how to read ïs the saine job as learning to express ourselves. TtlE BASlC VOCABULARY When we arc reachng a flmller or a hlstoncal novel, wc contmually meet unfamfllar words for articles of dotlung and inaccessible tems of a menu hst We also meet £orbddmg technlcal terres for architectural features, nautacal expressIons, hayseed dlalects, and mthtary slang The t"act that we should hesltate to attempt a preclse defimtion of them doës not bother us We do hot keep a chctionary at the bedslde, and rarely ask a frlend the meanmg of a word whlch we bave hOt met belote If we do mee t a word for the first lame, we orteil notice it several ttmes durmg the course of the ensumg week Sooner or later the context in which we meet t wall reveal lts meanmg. In thas way, the vocabulary of ouï: home language contmually grows wthout dehberate effort In the saine way we can acqmre a good readmg knowledge of a foreign language when wë bave mastered a few essenfials It ls discouraging and wasteful to torture the mêamng of evêry word of a forexgn novel page by page,
3 0 Thë Loom oJ Language and so destxoy the enloyment wbach the narrauve supphes To get to ttus stage wath the minimum of effort involves reahzmg clearly what the bare minimum of essential knowledge Analogous remarks apply to self-expessaon When we reahze what ls the essential mmamum for onë or the othe, we can declde on what we have to memortze dehberately, and what we can leave to look after itself For self-expression or for readmg, the essentaals are of two kmds, a minimum vocabulary of mchwdual words, and a mimmum of grammatical rules, a e. raies about how words change and how to arrange them an a sentence. Tall recently, language text-books paîd httle attention to the problem ofhow to budd up thas mimmum vocabu- lary. More moderg, ones have faced it and tackled t by basïng selection on words whach are used most frequently. There ae sevëral oblectaons to the method of extractmg from fixe contents ofa chctionary the thousand or so words whlch occur most often in printed matter One s that many of the commonest words are synonyms So whtle at as true that we can express ourselves clearly wïth a httle drcxtmlocution tf we know about fifteen hundred words of any language (1 e. about rive months' work at the rate of only ten new words a day), we mght bave to leam the fifteen thousand most common words before wê had at out dlsposal aH the fffteen hundred words we acmally need. At best, word-frequency s a good aecape for the first step towards rea&ng, as opposed to wnting or to speaklng Even so, It ls hot a very satasfactory one, because the relative frequency of words vataes so much an accordance th the kmd of materîal we mtend to read Words such as hares and hawthorn, byre and bzlberry, plougtz and pzgsty, are the verbal smffing of Nobel Prze novels They rarely mtrude mto business correspondence, or even mto the news columns The stattstacal method used in compthng word-hsts gîven m the most modem text-books for teachîng foregn languages evades the essence of out problem If we want to get a speakmg or wrltmg eqtup- ment vatth the mmmaurn of effort, fuss and bother, wë need to know how to pick the assortment of words whch suffice to convey the mean- mg of any plain statement Any one who bas purchasêd one of thê mexpensïve little books* on Basic Englsh wRl ftnd that C K. Ogden has solved tlms problem for us. The essential hst of only 85o words goes on a single sheet. Mr. Ogden dad hot choose these words by first askmg the irrdevant question: wtnch words occur most often m Nobel Pnze novels or in Presdential orattons ? The questaon he set himself was: * Espeeudly Basz¢ Engluk A General Introduction and Brzgheïe
t'I6 4--CUNLIIOIgI TtBILI RICORDIN6 IIABYIONIAN I I(,INI 01 IIIL I)LIUçal
introduction what other zoords do we need n order to define somethmg when we do hOt alrëady know he rzght word for zt? For example, we can define a plough as the machine we make use of to get the ground ready for the seed. For ordmary clrcumstances tNs wtll make suftïcxenfly clear what we are taikmg or wntmg about If hot, we can elaborate our defimtïon by usmg other general words hke machine, or verbs hke make and get, wltch serve for all sorts of defirattons In Baslc Enghsh there are only soEteen of these verbs to learn If we use only words m the 85o-word hst, t may take us a httle longer than otherwse to explam what we mean; but the result s sull correct, smaple and lucld Enghsh. Indeed, the fact that we have to examine the prectse meanmg of words wbach do hOt occur m the hst compels us to be more prectse than we rmght otherwse be. It s possible to go so far wxth so few words m good Enghsh because a large number of words wtuch belong to the verb class are hot essenual We do hOt need burn, finzsh, err, because we can make a tire of, make an end of, make a rmstake about We do hot need tofly m an aeroplane, drive m a cab» cycle on a bcycle, travel m a train, rzde on a horse, or walk I t ts enough to say that we go on foot, on a horse, or m a vehïcle For stratghfforward, mtelhglble and correct statement in other Euro- pean languages, we have to add between 30o and 600 words of the verb class to out hst of essenttal words. Ths thrffty use of verbs s a peculmr charactensttc of Enghsh and of the Celtïc group among Eut opean languages Where a Swede mes a chfferent verb, when a cMd goes n a train, and when a ttam goes, or when an avator goes up, and when hê goes across the road, one Enghsh word sulfices. If we also make allowance tbr the usefulness of havmg smgle ordmary mmes for cormron objects hot mcluded m the Basxc Word-Ltst, a vocabulary of less than tvo thousand words s sutfictent for fluent self-expression m any European tongue Thts ls less than a tenth of the vocabulary whïch wê meet when readmg novels mchsmmmately So reachng is a very labonous way of gettmg the thorough knowledge of the ëlattvely few words we need when speakïng or wntmg. One of the reasons why Baste s so tlarffty m ïts use of verbs ts that we can do much m English by combmang some verbs wth another class of words called direcveç. We do so when we subsutute go zn for enter, go up for ascend, go on for contznue, go by for pass, go through for traverse, go off for Ieave, and go away for depart. In modern European languages, these words recur constanfly There is a relattvely small number of t.hem Unltke nouns (name-words), such as tratn or auto-
3 'he Loom of Language mobde, wlch are someumes the same and often smdar m chfferent languages, they are dcult to guess The saine remarks apply to hnk- words such as and, but, when, because, or, and to a large class of words called adverbs, such as often, agam» perhaps» soon» here, f orward These three groups of words together make up the class wtuch grammanans call partcles Smce they are essemaal words for clear statement, and are hot the sort of words of wlch we can guess the meanmg, t s mterest- mg to know how many of them there are, and how frequently they occ1.1,t'. Companson of two passages prmted below aLlustratcs a type of expenment whach the reader can repeat wlth other matenals, if or when able to recogmze words put m ths class The first (a) fs from the Dream of ,lohn Ball, by Wflham Motos. The second (b) s from Elementary Mathematzcal Astronomy by Barlow and Brya_u So the sources represent wdely OEerent types of expression and charac- tensttcs of our language In descnbmg the arnval of one of Wychfle's poor preachers» Morns tnes to foilow the essenually Teutomc ldaom of the people for whom Wychffe translated the Btble The text-book spectmen uses many words wtuch are enurely forexgn to the Enghsh of Wyclzffe's Bble, or to the later version dechcated to ames I They corne, chrecfly or mchrectly, from Latin or Greek sources, ctuetly from the former. In each passage, words whach carmot be traced back to the blendmg of Teutoalc dlalects m Enghsh belote tle Norman Conquest» are in ltahcs. (a) BUT WHEN John Ball FIRST mounted thë steps OF the croçs, a lad AT some one's bxddmg b.ad rtm OFF TO stop the nngers, AND SO PRESENTLY the ronce OF the beils fell dead, leavmg ON men's mmds that sense OF blankness OR EVEN &sappozntment wch is ALWAYS caused BY the sudden stoppmg OF a sound one has got used TO AND round pleasant BUT a great expecraton b.ad fallen BY NOW ON ail that thxong, AND NO word was spoken EVEN IN a whasper AND all hearts AND eyes were fixed UPON the dark figure standing strmght UP NOW BY the tall wlute shaft OF the cross» lzas hmads stretched OUT BEFOI_E lama, one palm laid UPObI the other AlXVD FOR me AS (I) ruade ready TO hearken» (i) felt a joy IN my sou1 that I had NEVER YET ielt (b) AS the resulr OF observauons exending OVER a large number OF lunar months, xt xs round that the moon does NOT descrbe EXACTLY the sarne elhpse OVER AND OVER AGAIN, AND that THEREFORE the laws çtaed are ONLY approx.
Introduction 33 mate EVEN IN a smgle month OEe departure FROM smple elhptc motzon xs QUITE apprecable» OWIIqG GHIEFL Y TO the dzsturbance called the Varzatzon The dzsturbance known AS the Evectwn causes the eccenrczty TO change APPRE- CIABLY FROM month TO month FURTHER, the motions descrzbed cause the l oughly elhptcal orbzt TO change lts postwn. The complete mvestrgatwn OF these changes belongs TO the domam OF gravztatwnal astronomy I t wlll be necêssary HERE TO enumerate the chier perturbatwns Olq account OF the zmportant part they play IlXI determmmg the czrcurnstances 0t 7 echpse$ In these selectxons words belongmg to the class called partwles are m capxtal letters, if you count the vanous classes of words, you can tabulate your results as follows: Dream of Mathematzcal rohn Ball Astronomy Words of Lat.m or Greek orlgm x I per cent 30 per cent Partacles ..... BI per cent z7 per cent Though the sources of the figures are so dffferent m content» and though they use such a dlfferent stock m trade of words, they contaïn almost exactly the sarne nurnber of partwles, x e. z9 z z per cent, or nearly a thtrd of the total. A snmlar estlmate would hot be far out for languages spoken by our nearest European nexghbours Smce more than a quarter of the words we mect on the pnnted page are partacles, ït xs mteresnng to ask how many essental, and how many common, parucles we necd or meet For two reasons xt xs mlposslble to cte absolute figures. One xs that people who speak some languages make dastlnctaons whtch others do hot recogmze Thus a Swede or a Frenchman bas to use dfferent words for the Enghsh before accordmg as t sxgnlfies at an earher tzme than, or in front of Apart from ts, somë common parncles are synonymous n a parracular context, as whn we substltute as or smce for the more exphct lmk-word because. Wxth due allowance to these conmderatlons, we may put the number of essental partlcles at less than one laundred, and the total number wlmch we commonly meet ïn speech or readmg at less than two hunclred Tlaxs leads us to a very simple recxpe for gëtting ahead quicldy wîth the task of butlchng up a word-hst whicla wR1 suffice for self-expression It also shows us how to rëducê by more than 25 per cent the tedïtma of contmual reference to a chcraonary when we first begm to read. Out first concern, and t xs usually the last thmg grammar books help us to do, should be what a foreagner bas to do when he starts to leam Basic Enghsh. We should begm out study of a modern Eurpean language B
34 The Loom oj Laguage by comrmttmg to memory the essenal parzde, and a very small class of exceedmgly common words» such as I» hzm» who, called ;pronouns (pages 96-o) At the same ume we shofld farmhanze ourselves wth the less essenual paucles so tha we recogrze them when we meet them That s to say» we should begm by lëarning the EQUIVALENTS for the exghty or so most ESS£N2EEIAL oncs» and, smce It ïs always casler to recogmze a foregn word wc have prevxously met than to recaI1 lt, the ENGr.ISI EQtrIVALrN ïor about a hundrcd and fifty other most COMWON forelgn synonyms of tins clas. I-Iow we should choosê out baslc partlclcs and pronouns, how t ,s best to set about memorlzmg them, and what we should then do, w111 turn up later ESSEN'I IAL GRA3MMAR Frst we bave to declde what to do about grammar, and ths means that we must be clcar about what s meant by the grammar of a language Havmg a hst of words of wtuch we know the usual meanïng does hot get us very far unless we bave knowlëdge of another hnd We cannot rely on the best chcr.tonary to help us out of ail out dïfficulttes To begm wth, most chcuonarxes 1cave out many words whtch we can construct accordmg to more or less geneal ru/es from those mcluded m them. A Spamard who wants to lëarn Enghh wfll hot find the words fattzer's, fathers, or father', in ther place, the dacraonary would g, ve the smgle word father. An ordmay chcraonary does hot tcll you another thmg wh, ch you need to know It does hot tel1 you how to arrange words, or the cïrcumstances m whïch you choose between certain words wh, ch are closely related, if a German tried to learn Enghsh wth a dïcraonary, he mght compose the followmg sentence. probably wzll the gzrl to the shop corne f t knows that ts swëethearl, there be wzll. A German does not arrange words m a sentence as we do, and hxs choxce of words eqmvalent to he, she, and zt does hot depend upon anatomy, as m out own hnguage. So we should have some dtdîculty tu recograzmg this assemon as hs own way of str, mg: the gzrl wzll probably corne to the shop zf she knows that her sweetheart wzll be thcrc There are three hnds of rules wbach we need to gtude us when ]earnîng a language, whether to rêad, fo wnte, to speak, or to hsten mtelhgently We need rules for formîng word denvaraves,* rules for the * Here and elsewhere denvatzve means any word deved from some dc- nonary tem accordmg to ules gven n gmmmar books So deIxned, xt use in hts book xs the edor's suggestmn, to whtch the author assets wti some msgvmg, because phïlologtsts employ xt m a more retrcted sen8e ïhe usraficatmn for the meanmg xt bas xn The Loom as the absence of any other exphcxt word for ali t sgmfies.
Introduction 35 arrangement of words, and rules about wluch of several related words we bave to use m a parttcular sxtuatîon Closelyalhed European languages OEer very much wxth respect to the relatave maportance of such mies, the dtfficttltaes wktch they put m the way of a beguer, and how far they are cssentaal to a readmg, wrtmg, or speakmg knowledge Bble Enghsh has very sample and very ngtd rules about arrangmg words, and these mies, whtch are nearly the saine as those of Scandmavian languages, are totally OEerent from the less smple but ngad rules of German or Dutch Word order does hot courir for so much m the study of Latin and Greek authors Latin and Greek wrtmg abounds wth dervataves comparable to loves or loved, from love, or father's from father m Enghsh. The coïmeraon between words of a statement depends less on arrangement than on the xdïomatac (p. o) use of dertvataves Thus t xs mapossxble to read these languages wxthout an xmmense number of rules about derxvatave words If we aun at leammg a language wth as httle effort as possxble, rules of one kmd or another may be more or less Important from another point of wew In Enghsh we use the denvatïve speaks after he, she, or zt, mstead of speak after I, you, we, or they. Smce we pronounce the final -s, at xs maportant for a foregner, who wshes to conform to out customs, to kuow how to use ths rule m speakmg as well as an wntmg When we use he, she, or zt, we do hot add an -s to spoke So the -s xs hOt really essenraal to the meanmg of a statement, and a foregner would sttll be able to understand a wrtten sentence f he chd hot know the rule. French has more comphcated rules about these endmgs Ther useful- ness depends on whether we are talkmg, wrtmg or readmg If a Frenchman wants to wnte I speak, you speak, we speak, they speak, he mes chfferent endxng, for each The French eqmvalents of what s called the "present tense" (p. o3) of peak, are Je parle I spe«uk Nous parlons we speak Tu parle you speak Vous parlez you speak Il parle he speaks. Ils parlen fley speak. None of these endmgs adds ang to the meanmg of a statement. They are lust there as vestages from the urne when Romans chd hot use words such as/, we, they, m front of a vërb, but mchcated them by the endmg. As such they are hot relevant to a reachng knowledge of Freneh. Four of the sx, tahcazed because they are vesuges m another sense, are hot audzbly chstinct They bave no real extstence tu the spoken laguagë Thus some mles about detavattve words are mportant only
36 The Loom o.î Language for wnung» some for wntmg and speakmg» others for readmg as well That many mies about correct wntmg deal wlth vestiges wlnch bave ceased to have any funcnon in the hvmg language does hot mean that wmmg demands a knowledge of more grammar than readmg. I t signifies that t calls for more knowledge of a partcular îype Comph- cated mies for t.he use of many French denvatves are hot essemal for self-expression because we can dispense wth them as we chspense wlth file Enghsh denvatlve day's For readmg we need a nod&ng acquaintance with many rules whïch we are hot compelled to use when writmg or speaiung The dflcultles of leammg the essëntlal minimum of rules which are helpful from any point of vlew bave been mullaphed a thousandfold FIG. 5--BILINGUAL Thc Hlttxte language was probably 2kryan The seal shows cuneform syllabc slgns round thc margm and pxctograms in the centre. (Sec also Fag 9 ) by a practlce whlch bas ts roots m the Latin schohrshlp of the human- zsts, and in the teachmg of Greek in schools of the Reformauon. As explamed in Chapter III, Latin and Greek form large classes ofdenvatîve words of two mare types called conjugatzons (p. o7) and dedenszom (p 115). The rules embodled m these conjugattons and declemîons tell you much you need to know m order to translate classxcal authors the help of a dlcuonary. Grammanans who had spent their hves in learnmg them, and usmg them, carried over the saine ttack mto the teackmg of languages of a OEerelït type. They ransacked the hteraturë of hvmg languages to find xamples of slmflanttes whlch they could also arrange in systems of declensions and conjugatmns, and thëy so wxthout regard to whêther we really need to know them, or ff" so, in what cïrcumstances. The words whïch do hot forïn such denvauves,
Introductzon 37 that is to say, the partMes wch play such a large part m modem speech, were pushed mto tlae backgrotmd except m so far as they affected the endmgs (see p e6e) of words placed aext to em Any specîal class of denvattves charactensttc of a parucular language was neglected (seê p. 7e) The effect of ttas was to burden the memory wth an tmmênsê store of tmaecessary luggage wthout fia-mshmg rules which make the task of learamg easer * When sensible people began to see the absur&ty of ttas system, preserved m many grammar-books, there was a swing of the pendulum from tBe perfemomst to the nu&st (or cr) metlaod of teachmg a language by conversauon and pctures, wïot any rttles. Tire alleged justrficaûon for tins s that clnldren first leam to speak wthout any rules, and acqmre grammar rules govemmg the home language, fiat ail, when they are word-perfect Tlns argument ts based on several masconcepuons. A cd's experience s shght Its vocabulary s pro- pomonately small Its ichom s necessartly more stereotyped, and ts need for grammar ts hmtted by ts abthty to commumcate comphcated statements about a large vanety of things and their relauons to one another. Apart from tins, the clnld s m conunuous contact wth per- sons who can use the home language accordang to approved standards, and bas no other means of commumcatmg mtelhgbly with them. So netther the condauons of, nor the motives for, leaming are thosê of an older person makmg zntermtttent efforts to acqmre a language whach s netther heard nor used dunng the greater part of the day Stnce The Loom of Language s not a chddren's book, there xs no need to dwell on the luoecrous excesses of educauonal theonsts who For the benefit of the reader who already knows some French, the follow- mg quotauon from Dmanet (French Grammar Made Clear) emphastzes lack of common sensc n text-book sull used m the schools "Are the four conugauon equally trnportant? Most grammars very unwscly lcad thc tudent to magme that x a o. In rcahty there are (accordmg to I-iatzfeld and Darmcster's wcil-known Dwtlo,ary) only verbs u-OIR» some 8o m-RE, 3oo tu-IR» and all the other verbs (about 4»ooo) end tu -ER Whcnevcr the Frerch rayent or adopt a new verb» they conlugate it hke miner (m a few cases hke tirer) and for thas reason the two coniugattons m-ER or -IR are called 'hvmg,' whale the ïess nnportant eon- lugauon m-OIR and -RE are tcrmëd 'de.ad ' The conlugauon m -ER s the easest of the four» and bas only two rrcgular vcrbs m daly use" To tlus wë may add that there are only four coInmon verbs wtnch behave ltke recevoir» the type spectmen of the so-called rfird conlugauon of thë ":egular" verbs m the school-books. The -re verbs of the fourth conlugauon of «regula" verbs mclude four dastmct types and a mascellanêous collecuon of other..
38 The Loom oJ Language advocated the drect method* and fooled some teachers mto takang it up. The most apparent reason for lts vogue s that it exempts the teacher from havmg any mtelhgent understandmg of the language whmh he or she s teaching. Common expenence shows that adult ïmmïgrants left to plck up the language of thexr adopted country by ear alone rarely leam to speak or to wnte correcdy; and adults who wlsh to leam the lan- guage of another country rarely have the le,sure to waste on tame- consummg mstructaon of the type gven m urban schools where mslpid plcmres of rural scenes molhf'y the techum of repeutave conversatmn Because the kmd of grammar you most need depends parfly on how you mtend to use a language, t s unpossîble to glve a general recèpe for wrîtmg a compact and useful grammar-book The learner who wxshes to get as far as possxble wth as httle mconvenîence generally has to pck and choose from books whach comam more than ênough To do thas mtelhgenfly ls easler ff we start wth a general da of how lan- guages differ. The relatave unportance of ru/es of grammar depends, among other thmgs, on whether the language one s leammg more or less closely resembles one's own or another already mastered, mïd ff m what way. If we aun at iearmng to wnte a modern language, the forma1 grammar of conlugataons and deciensxons explamed m Chaptêrs iii and IV usually bo down to a comparafively small number of rules, far fewer than those gaven m most prmaers On the othër hand, few except the more advancëd text-books have much to say about other equally important rules. One class of such rules already mentaoned depends on the fact that each language or group of dosely related languages has lts own charaeteristic types of derivattve words. Thus reader and buzlder, chddhood and w,dowhood, reshape, rebuîld, restate and fellowsh,p, kmg- sh,p, fllustrate four ways of buîIdmg new words m Enghsh and ïn other Teutomc languages. Such mles may be as useful as the rules for formmg such denvatves as father's If two languages are closely related as are Swëchsh and Enghsh, or Spanish and itahan, t is also helpful to know rules wbach tell us how * The sfllmess of the dtrect method when tred out on adults was pomted out by Hem-y Swcet m z899 "The fundamental objection» rhen» to the natural mcthod s that t put,, the adult mto the posmon of an infant, whch he s no longer capable of tmltzmg, and, at the same tmae, does hot allow haro to make use of bas own pecaal advantages These advantagés are, as wê bave seen, the power of analysis and generahzatmn--m short, the power of usmg grammar and a dletlonary."
Introduction 39 the spelling or pronuncalaon of a word tu one of them dlffers from the spellmg or prommcatton of a correspond_mg word m another. For example, the SH m the Enghsh shp becomes SK m the Swedsh skepp» wbach means the same thmg Smllarly the Swedish for to stzne s art skzna. The vowel symbol J U n Swechsh generally becomes I m correspondmg Enghsh words Thus art sunga» wlth the endmg -a common to al1 Swechsh verbs, preceded by art (to) means to stng. In English, ail verbs wkîch change as smg to sang and sung are old Teutomc words So we expect to find r.hem m Swechsh, whïch s also a Teutomc language, and can guess correcfly that the Swechsh eqtuvalent of to smk would be art sjunka. It s essenual to know one thmg about the use of words belote we can begm to make a basc word-hst Correspondence between the use of words m chfferent languages s never perfect It s moe or less complete accordmg to the grammatacal class to whtch words are assgned Thus numerals and name-words or nouns such as father, brd, or shp» offer httle dlctflty when we consult a chctmnary The greatest trouble anses wth partacles especally &rectzves, e. such words as m, on» to, at There îs never absolute correspondence between such words tu any two languages» even when they are very closely related s are S wedlsh and Damsh. The Enghsh word n usually corresponds to the Swechsh , and the Enghsh on to Swechsh pd» but the Brmsh expres- smn, m the street, is translated by pal gatan. A Swede nught get mto chflâcuiues f he gave bls Enghsh hostess a word-for-word translauon of en kvznnct Jag traffade (a lady i met) pd gatan. The &cttottary usually gives several synonyms for each foregn eqmvalent of any darêcuve» and leaves us to find out for ourselves when to use one or the other. To tell us how to do so s ont of the most important tasks of practtcal grammar. Thus t s qtute useless to have a hst of basc parudes urdess we know flac &stznctzve use of each. If we are clear about thïs, we can rêcogmze them whên we are using a par= ticle of out own language ïn an zdzomatzc sense If we do hot know the correct chomattc equtvalent m another language, we cau paraphrase the expresston m whch xt occurs wtthout usmg tt (see p. x39 ) When makang out word-hst for another language, we have also to be wary about one of thê defects of Enghsh overcome by the small number of verbs m Ogden's Bastc. Ichomattc Enghsh, as usuaLly . spoken and wrttten, has a large number of very common verbs wbach we should hot mdud m fixe Enghsh column of our word-hsts. Tf.y, wtach s one of them, meam tu dufferênt contexts the saine as (a)
4 ° The Loom oJ Language attempt, (b) endeavour, (c) test, (d) yudge Another very common Enghsh verb, ask, can mean (a) questzon, (b) request, (c) mwte So an Enghsh- Swedlsh or Enghsh-French dlctlonary wlll hot glve one eqtuvalent for try or one for ask If you look up these words you may find for the firsr four and for the second three forelgu substatutes whlch are hot true synonyms. The moral of thls xs" do hOt mclude such words as ask or try m the English cohmm of an essenttal word-hst In place of them put each of the more exphclt words glven above A forelgn languagê may bave a fixed word-order hke out own, or a fixed word-order whlch fs qtute dlfferënt If the order of words s very dlfferent from what we are accustomed to, rules of word-ordar are among the most important rules of ïts grammar; and st ls ïmposslble to get confidence an ieadmg, m speakmg, or m wrltmg till we bave got used to them. In the lmraal stages of learnmg an un£amflmr pattern of thas sort makes the task of readmg much more dxfflcult thân t would otherwIse be. That Is why German and Dutch, though closely related to Enghsh, offer greater dcultaes to an Erghshman or an Amëncan than French. A rock whlch helps to fix rules of thts kind ts to make a habit of twlstmg an Enghsh sentence mto fixe Germaine word-order wxthout translatmg it The results are often funny, and that makës it easler to ieam them In German word-order, the last few words would be- and that makês zt eas, er them to learn In the chaptërs wbach follow we shall first look at the way languâges differ from and resemble one another. Thas wtll help us to get dearer about thé best way to begm learmxxg any pamcular otm. We shall then bê in a position to udgë whether it ls best to coztcentrate on speakhag, writmg, or readmg m the early stages, and to declde what course to pursue m wntmg or speakîng m order to fix the mmamum vocabulary and grammatïcal rules we bave to use In so domg we shall also recog- mze defects whîch we ought hot to perpetuate» and merlts which we should moerporate, m a language of world-cmzenship HOW TO READ THIS BOOK Among other thmgs» The Loom of LanguaKe amas ai glvmg the reader who wlshes to learn the languages spoken by out nearcst Euro- pean nexghbours» a workmg knowlëdge of the Indispensable êlemcnts of grammar, wlth a baslc vocabulary for self-expression. Much of the materlal relevant to the subject-matter of the two chapters (VII and ÏX) primanly devoted to ttus s m tabular form The tables 1Llustratc aspects of the natural hîstory of language dscussed elsewhere. To get the best
Introduction 41 out of it as a self-educator, the wsest plan ls to rcad it through qmcldy Af-ter gettmg a btrd's-eye vaew, the reader can then settle down to detatled smdy with pen, paper, and a book-marker for reference backwards or forwards to tables prmted m some other context, as mchcated by thë cross-refêrences throughout the succeedmg chapters. Pen (or pencxl) and paper are essentaal helps We are most apt to forget what we take m by ear, least hkely to forgêt what we learn by touch No one who bas learned to swam or cycle forgets the rock of domg so The languages which we shall study m greatest detafl to tllustrate the way in wtuch languages gaow belong to the Teutonw and Romance groups, placed m the great Indo-European famdy The latter also con- tares the Slavomc group to wtnch Russmn belongs, the Celtc, m wtuch Welsh and Erse are placed, and the Indo-Iraman group, wtnch mdudes Perszan and numerous languages of Incha The Teutomc group Is made up of Gêrman, Dutch, and the Scanchnavlan chalects The Romance languages, such as French, Pormguese, Spamsh, and Itahan, are ail descendants of Latin Enghsh ls essentrally a Teutomc language whtch has asstmdated an enormous number of wotds of Latin ongm So Teutomc or Romance languages have most m common wth Enghsh Fortunately for us they mclude aH the languages spoken by the nearest nelghbours of Enghsh-speakmg peoples on the continents of Europe and Amenca. The reader, who has hOt yet reahzed how languages» hke dïfferent specles of ammals or plants, dnTer from and resemble one another» wtll find it helpful to browse among the extnblts set out as tables throughout The Loom. Above all, the home student wl find it helpful to lolter m the corndors of the home museum whtch makes up the fourth part of the book On xts shelves there xs ample materlalfor gemng clear mslght mto the charactensucs whach French, Spamsh, and Itahan share wth theïr Latin parent, as also of features cornmon to the Teutomc family. One shelf of extnblts shows Greek words whxch are the bncks of an mtemauonal vocabulary of techmcal terres m the age of hydroelectncty and synthettc plasracs The &version wtnch the rëader of the Loom can gêt from notacmg OEerences and detectmg essential word sure- larmes in adjacent columns in the hght of laws of language growth set forth elsewhere (Chapters V and VI) wRl help to fix xtems of an essenual vocabulary wxth a rmmmum of techum and effort One of the dlfficultms wbach besets the home studênt who starts to learn a new language ls the large number of gramrnaucal terres usêd m most text-books. The oblect of the four chapters that follow ls to show
4 The Loom of Larguage how hnguages grow» and the reader who does hot know many gram- matical terms wfll &scover the use of Important ones The readër who already knows the sort of grammar taught m schools and colleges may make the chscovery that grammar ls not lntrmlcally dull» and may learn somer_hmg about the pnnclples whch must motivate a rational judgment about language-planmng for a world at peace The popular myth that t ls more OElcul foi dn aduIt than for a chfld to learn hnguages has been chsproved by cxpcnmental reerch carned out by modem educatlomsts Much of the effort put lnto early educaton ls defeated by the hrmtatons of thë chfld's expc- ence and mterests The ease wlth whch we remember thmgs depend largely on the ease wth whch we can hnk them up to thmgs we know akeady Smce the adult's ezpenënce of hfe and the adult»s vocabulary are necessanly more vanëd than those o" the chfld, the mental eqmp- ment of the adult provldes a £ar broader bass of assocmtmn for fiesh facts. Thus an mtelhgem grown-up peson approaches the study o a new language wth knowledge of social customs and of hstory» with a world plcture of change and growth amed by gëneraî rêadmg or study» and wlth a stock of foregn word$» foregn ldioms or denvauves of borrowed roots gleaned £rom daly readîng abou international aflars (cf. canard, dénarche, Qua d'Orsay, Wlhdmstrasse, bltzkrzeg), adver- ttsements of proprïetary products (glaxo, aspmn, cutex, mnoxa, oval- tme), or technical innovations (cyanamide, carb,de, hydrogenatwn, radw-therapy, calories, vztamms, sdemum). Chîldren learn thëlr own language and a forelgi1 one pari passu. The adult can capitakm the knowledge of lxls or her own language as a bass for lêarmng a new one related to ït Above all, an adult can vlsuahze a dïstant goal more easlly than a ctltld. One of file dttïlculues wxth whlch a cld bas to contend s fle haphazard way m whlch we plck up tlxê home language Chldren acquare a vocabulary wlth httle dehberate elucldatlon from parents or from brothers and slsters, and fley do so in a restncted enwronment Whlch exempts them from dangers of mlsunderstandmg m a larger, less mttmate one Before school age our language dlet ls nobody's business So the power of deftmtlon and substltUttOn, so essentaal to rapld progress m a forexgn language, cornes late in hfe, if at ail Indeed most of us never reahze the mherent xrrattonahtxes and obscumms o narural language untll we begin to grapple wlth a forelgn one The discovery may then corne as a shock, chscouragmg further effort Many dcultaes whxch beset the begmner are due to the fact that
introduction 43 few of us are alert to tricks of expression peculîar to out oon language. In fact we need to know something about the language we habîtually speak before we can learn another one wîth the minimum of effort. The obiect of Chapter ïV of The Loom is to gîve first aid to the home smdent who is hot as yet language-conscious in this seîase. The reader who întends to use it as a prelîminary to the study of a new language will find helpful hints ha it to repay what bas been an exploit of endur- ance for the publisher and type-set-ter. The reader who is on the look- out for a bright book for the bedside will do well to gîve it the go-by or drink an old-fashîoîaed one before getting down to it.
PART I THE NATURAL HISTORY OF LANGUAGE
CHAPTER II THE STORY OF THE ALPHABET LANGUAGE maphes more than learnmg to sgnal hke a firefly or to talk hke a parrot it means more than the umque combmauon whlch we call human speech, it also mcludes how man can commumcate across continents and down the ages through the tmpersonal and permanent record whlch we call zvntzng One dffference between speech and wnlang ls important to anyone who ls trymg to iearn a forelgn language, especmlly f t ls closely related to a language akeady famlhar The spoken language of a speêch commumty s contmually changmg Wlaere umformlty exasts, local chalects crop up In less than a thousand years what was a local dlalect may become the oflïcml speech of a nauon wluch cannot commumcate wlth ts nelghbours mthout the help of mterpreter or translator Wntmg does not respond qmcldy to thts process It may hot respond at all The wntten word Is more conservatlve than speech, it perpetuates smïlantaës whach are no longer rccognlzable when people speak, and where two languages bave spht apart in comparatlvely recent traits, it is often easy to guess the meamng of wntten words in one of thcm, if we know tlê meanmg of correspondmg words m the other. Indeed we can go far beyond guêss- work, if we know somcthmg about the bastory of sound corrcspondence (Chapter V, p 185) To make the best of out knowledge we should also know sometNng about the cvoiuuon of wntmg itself The reader wfll meet illustrations of this agam and agam m subse- quent chaptcs (cspecmily Chapter VI), and wfll be able to make good use of rulcs gven Lu them whfle wandenng about the corndors of thë rmmature language museum of Part IV. One example musl sutce for the present. The German word for water s Wasser, wluch looks hke ts Eghsh eqmvalent on paper As uttered, xt does hot The Ger- man lettcr W stands now for out sound v, as the German V m Vater (father) stands for out f sound. The reason for flus s that the pro- nuncatïon of the sound represented by W m older German chalects (mcludmg Old Enghsh) has changed smce what s now called German becamë a wntten language Belote German bec.ame a wntten languàge anothêr change of pronuncauon was takmg place tu the regon of southêrn and nuddle Germany Spclhng mcorporated thas change of
48 The Loom of Language the t-sound to a hass represented by sç» as also vanous othcr changes (p 231) wluch took place about the saine tlme Thus the home student of hvmg languages can reduce the dlfficulties of learmng by getting to know (a) how slrmlamtaes of spelhng wluch do hot correspond to slmlarties of pronunclatlon may conserve identzty of words m related languages that have drfted far apart» (b) how to recogmze borrowed words by spelhng conventmns chnrac- terlstac of the language from wbach they came» (¢) how chfferent ways of" spelhng equavalert words» once dentJcal, reflect changes of pronunclatmn which mvolve nearly all word at a certain stage in the divergence oi two languages wlth a common ancestry. Broaàly speakmg, we may dstmgmsh between two chfferent kmds of wrlung One mcludcs p»cture wrltmg and logographic wntmg Thë others sound or phonerac wntmg We can dlvdc the latter mto syilable wntmg and alphabet wntmg Pcrure writang and logographic wnting have no chrect conneraon wth sounds we make That s to say, people can commumcate by pxcture wrung or logograptuc wntang wthout bemg able to understand one another when they talk This is hot true of Old Persan cunezform (Fïg B), of the wntang of ancïent Cyprus (Flgs r3 and 4), or of modern apanese Kana (Fgs. 44 and 45). Such wntmg s ruade up of symbols whîch stand for the sounds we makê when we separate words mto syllables. They do not stand for separate oblects or drecuons, as do the symbols of pcture or logographic wnung Inchvldually, they have no sigmficance when isolatëd from the context in wbach they occur The same s true of alphabet writlng, whlch ts a sxmphfied form of sytlable wrîting The, chssecuon of the words has gone much further, and the number of elem-nrary symbols s less So t s easer to master Tbas fact about the alphabet is of great social mïportance In com- mumues whach now use alphabets, abïhty to learn to wrîte and to read what is wntten s generally accepted as the hnnt of normal mtelhgence. Vve regard people who cannot be taught to do so as mentally defectave. Thas s another way of saymg that the alphabet bas ruade the record of human knowledge accesstble to mankind as a whole. The use of pîcture or logographac scrîpts, hke éarly syllable wrmng, bas always bëen thë prerogatîve of a privaleged caste of pnests or scholars The inventmn of the alphabet ruade t possible to democratïze reading, as the mvëntmn of the number o made tt possible to democrauze thè art of calculatmn Unluke* the invention of zero, thîs hberatmg ïnnovatmn has only « 21¢arhematcs for rhe Mllon» pp 65, 286» 33:Z,
The Story oj the Alphabet 49 happened once m the bastory of mankmd Avadable evxdence seêms to show that all flae alphabets of the world are traceable to one source. AT / ROAD / 3 _oel!L IILIt .IllL I ROAD JUNCTION 4 JUNCTION 7 ROAD JUNCTION FIG. 6---BRITISI-I Tc SGïqS Nos 3 4» 6, 7, 8 show pzctograms No. 5 xs an deogrsm 0ogoam) No. z contmns an deogr wth alphabeuc wrmng No OE shows a poEogr, deogram, and alphabeuc wntmg
5o The Loom q[ La¢guage They came lnto use about three thousand years ago» but the mherent posslblhues of an invention whch we now recognIze as one of the out- standing cultural acbaêvements of mankmd mcubated sloïly durmg the course of successive rmIlema Thc frst p«oplcs who used alpha- beuc wntmg dad so for short mscnpuons m whlch ndvidual Ierters maght be wntten upsde down or reversëd sldeways, wlth httle con- sderauon for the reader (Flg 38) Even when a secular hteramre spread through the Greek and Roman world, the wrlttcn language remamed a hghly artfical product remote from da1Iy speech. Greek wnfing was never adapted to rapzd readmg, because Greek scribes never consutently separated words. The pracucê of domg so dld hot become umversal among Roman wnters. It bccame a gëneraI custom about the tenth century of oto own era Whcn pnnung began, crafts- men took pndc n the ready recogmuon of thë wntten word, and punctuauon marks, whch m&wdual wnters had used sporadtcally wthout agreement, came mto ther own Typographers first adopted an agreêd system of puncmatmn, attnbuted to Aldus Manuuus m the sxteenfla cemury In the ancrent world flac reader had fo be hs own palaeogralher To apprccmte thë gap between modeln and ancxent readîng, compare the sentences prmted bêlow. To do usuce to the story of the alphabet we must start by cxammîng the meamng of a few techmcal terms. Word xs xtself a techmcal terre It s hot easy to define what we mean by a sparate word ïn ail clr- ¢umstances So let us magme what a uaveller wouid do f hê came to hve wth an flhterate tnbe m the mtenor of Bomeo By pomdng at thmgs arotmd he rmght soon leam whch sounds stand for pzturable objects. By companng sumlar r.hmgs he rmght also learn fo recogmzë sounds slgnifymg quahues such as red, rough» or round By watchmg people together he could also dëtect sounàs whxch are sgaals of acuon hke lamesl Here! Corne/ Hurry! .ll ths would hot makë a complete mventory of the elements of a contmuous convêrsauon If the language contamed words correspondmg to and» durmg mean- whzle» for, or accordzng, he would take a long whfle to decde how to use them» because they never stand by themselves t«or the same reason it would also be dfftïcult to decde whether to regard them as leparate words.
The Story of the Alphabet 51 The dffIîculty of arnvmg at a defimtlon of what we call separate words is also comphcated by the ïact that languages are hot statlc Elemems of speech once recogmzed as &stmct entataes become ïused, as when we condense I am to l'm, or do hot to don't So long as you wnte I am m the form l'm, you slgmfy that t s to be regarded as two separate words glued together When you wnte t m the form Im, as Bernard Shaw wntes it, you sigmfy that we do hot break t up when we say t Thus we can chstmgmsh between words of three kands Some are the smallest elements of speech of whtch ordanary people can recognize the meamng Some, separated by careful study, are products of grammatacal comparson of situataons in whlch they recur People of a pre-hterate commumty would hot recognme them as separate elements of speech We recogmze others as separate, merely because of the usual conventkms of wntang The rmssmnary or trader who first commets the speech of a non-hterate people to scrxpt bas to use his own ludgment about what are separate words, and bas ludgment s necessatlly mfluenced by bas own laaguage For the present, we had better content ourselves wth the statement that words are what are ited m dcttonartes. Accordmg to the conven- fions of most Enghsh dïctlonarles, godfather, [ather, and god are dafferent words, and apples xs a denvatave footnote, p 34) of the word appIe We shall sec later why chcuonanes do m fact hst some noses as words, and omt other equally common oses, a e derzvatves m the sënse defined on p 34 Smce chctaoaarles are out usual source of accessible ecessary mformatton, when we set out to leam a language we shall put up wlth rhcr vagaucs for thc tmae bemg When baghbrows want a word for al1 pronounceable constttuents of a prmted page, each wth a dasranct meanmg or usage of ts own, they may speak of thcm as vocableç Vocables mclude words hsted m dacïtonanes, and dervattves which are hot We do hOt necessanly pronouncè two vocables m a chfferent way Thus several vocables correspond to thc spellmg and prontmctataon of bay, as in dogs that bay at the moon, a wreath of bay leaves, or the Bay of Biscay Such vocables whxch have thc same sotmd, but do hot mean the same thmg, arc callèd homophones Wê do hot speak of flem as homophones ïl dcrived from the saine word which once had a more resmcted mcan- mg. Thus boy, meaning mmamre male of the human spêces, and boy, meaning iuvenîle maie employec, are hot homophones m the strict sensc of the terre, as are sun and son To dtscuss scnpts intelhgbly we need to have somc labels for parts
5 2 The, Loom of Language
The Story of the Alphabet 53 of words. When we separate a word with a succession of vowels into the brcks whch corne apart most eastly as umts of pronuncaataon, we ca]l each brick a syllable A syllable usually contams a vowel Thus manager ls a tri-syllabm word ruade up of the syllables ma-, -ha-, -ger, or, f you prefer t otherwise man-, -ag-, and -er. Syllables need have no recogmzable meamng when they stand by themselves It s an accudent that the syllables man and age m the word manage bave a mearang when they stand by themselvês It has nothmg to do with the past bastory of the word, of whach the first syllable s connected wxth the Latin manus for hand, hence manual If we break up manlmess mto man-, -h-, and -nêss, the fact that man has a meamng s not an accident. It ls the fomadaton-brck of the word, which was origmally butlt up as follows man + ly = manly manly ÷ ness = manhness Such sy]lables whach have a meanmg relevant to the meamng of the whole word are called roots, though root-words are hot necêssarly stngle syllables. The part-ty, common to many Enghsh vocables, cornes from the Old Enghsh word (hc) for hke. Ongmally t stuck to names as compounds slgnffymg quahttes, 1 e manly s man-hke Later the process extendêd to many other words (e g normal--normally) long after -ly had lost Identaty as a separate element of speech We do hot caLl syllables of tins sort roots We call them prefixes or suffixes accorchng as they occur hke un- m unmanly, at the begmmng, or hkê-ly, at the end Suffixes or preflxes may be ruade up of more than one syllable ether because they came from words of more than one syllable (ê g ant-), or becausë the proccss of addmg an affix (prefix or suffix) has happcnêd more than once Thus manhness bas a bl-syllablc suffix The sttffix -ly m unmanly remands us that the hne between an affix and a foot ls hot a clëar-cut one Atfixes are the product of growth. in thas process of growth three thmgs occur We cal1 one of them agglutmatwn, « or glumg of natave words together A second s analo- gcal extëmon The tlurd wbach s self-explanatory, xs borrowmg words hke pre or ant from another language The saine natavê word may combine wlth several others to form a class of compound words lïke churchyard or brckyard, m wluch the two roots conmbute to the whole meanmg. At a later stage, the on- * Agglutinatlon has also a more restnctêd meamng (p 93) whach ls hot mportant m thas eontext
The Loorn oj Lang««ge
The Story of the Alphabet 55 gmal meanmg of one foot may begm to 1ose ts sharp outhne People may then attach xt to other roots wthout recallmg ts precse meanmg when t stands alonc Ttus proccss, wtuch s the begmnmg of ana- Iogzcal extenszo,z, goes on aftcr the original mearang of an affix has ceased to be chmly recogmzable The affn_x may tack tself on to roots merely bccause people cxpect by analogy that words of a partacular sort must end or bcgm m a parttctflar way The large class of Enghsh words such as durable and com»wndable, or frzghtful and soulful, are m an early stage of the process The sttffix -able bas hot yet lost xts mdwduahty as a scparate vocable, though t has a less clear-cut mean- mg than xt had, whcn the habit of glumg t on to other words began The suïfix -ful s sull recogmzable as a contracuon of full» whach preservcs ts hteral value m handful Such words as frzendshzp or horsemanshzp fllustrate a further stage of the process l"hey belong to a large class of Teutomc words such as the German W'zsemchaft, Swe«hsh vetenskp, or Damsh vzdenskab, whch havc glued on them a suffix formed from a common Teutomc foot word meartmg çhape Thus the Swechsh vetenskap, Damsh Vzdcnskb, or German Wzssenschaft, for wbach we now use the Laran sczencë» s rcaLty wzt-shape In such words a suffoE signffymg shape or fi)rm m a more or less metaphoncal sense of the word bas tacked xtself on to roots to confer a more abstract meanmg The -head m godhead and mazdenhead has no more connexton wth the anatomlcal terre than the -shzp m lordshzp bas to do wtth ocean transport Luke the -hood m wzdowhood, t s eqtuvalent to the German -hezt, Swechsh -het and Damsh -hed m a large class of abstract words for whxch the Englash eqmvalerts often have the Latin suffoE -zty In the oldest know Tcutomc language, Gotbac, hazduz (manner) was sttll a separate word. The ulramate bncks of a vocable are represented by the vowel symbols (m Enghsh script a, e, z, o, u) and the consonants whch correspond to the remammg letters of out Roman alphabet In com- panson wtth other Europcan languages, spoke Enghsh s astomshmgly nch ïn smple consonants In fact we have twenty-three simple con- sonants m the spoken ianguage for wbzch only stxteen symbols are avadable Three ot them (Q, C, X) arc supemumerary and one (J) stancls for a compouxtd souud Enghsh dtalects have at least twelve simple vowels. For these we bave rive symbols supplementêd by w after (as m saw), or y belote any one of them (as m yet) A complete Anglo-Amencan alphabet woE a symbol for each sïmple vowel and
56 The Loom oj La»guage consonant wouïd demand between forty and fifty symbols to accom- modate the range round m all the dalects taken together
The Story of the Alphabet 57 logograms, tk plctogram ls a more or less sunpled plcatre of an object which can be so represented A logogram may be @) a plctonal symbol substatuted for somethmg whch we cannot easlly represent by a plcmre, (u) any slgn used to mchcate an attnbute of a group (red, age, movement, nmse, wet), or a dtrectaon for actaon» such as Haltt Major Road Aheadt, or Go Stowt Brush traffic signs (Fig. 6) for motonsts Rlustrate ail such symbols A thlck line for the mare road wth a thmner one crossmg t is a pctogram for a cross-road The conventonahzed plcture of the torch of learnmg ls a pctonal logogram whch stands for schoot The tnangle and crcle whxch stands for Sopt bas no obwous assocauon wlth any other pcturable object. Lke the number 4, t xs a pure logogram. We sull use some logograms m prmted books Besdes numbers, we have sgns such as &, £, and $. The sxgns c, , and ç m books on astronomy stand for Mars, Venus, and Mercury In books on biology they stand for maie, female, and hermaphro&te The plural forms are cc (males), etc Srmlarly the Chmese use the sgn for tree, and wnte for forest Such sgns as , , ç mean the saine to astronomers and bolognsts ai1 over the world, whether they do or do hot speak the saine language. The êxpressmn pzcture-wrtmg, in contrachstmctmn to logographzc wntîng, is a httle msleadmg. Ang whch we can properly cal1 wnting, m contradistmction to cave-paînung, sculpture, or other ways of recordmg events wsbly, must be ruade up of somethmg more than convenuonal drawmgs of pxcturable oblects When we speak of pcturë-wntmg as the most pnrmnve levêl of script (Fgs 5 and 7-o), we mean a more or less exphct record or mstrucuon set forth m symbols, most of whch are êther pctograms or logograms of the School Ahead type If xt s hot possible to represent elements of speech by simple pictures, t may be possblê to suggest them represented by the picture of an oblect whch we assocate wth them Thus we hopefully assocmte OEg 6) the torch of learmng wxth a butldmg used for scholastic purposes The Chmesê sg for orxgmally a hne drawn over the top of a plant Tlus suggests that somethmg got in the way of it$ grow--obstrucuon, hOt proess, hOt gettmg bxgger, just hot. When we speak of logograptnc wntmg, we mean wntmg m wluch symbols for pcturable obiects, general charactenstcs, or drecnons for aeaon bave lost theïr exphct pctonal meanmg We can no longer guess what they do mean unless we havë somê key. Ths does hOt
5 8 Tke Loom oj Language mean that ail logograms start by bemg pxctures of" defmite objects. 2kt least one class of logograms or dêogamç, as some pëople call them) ls as old as the art ot wntmg it seems clear that the cluef pracucal advatages of the art of wntmg ata primmvê level of human culture are twofold One ls to put on record necessary mformatmn wtuch we should othelse forger. The other s to covey dectaons o mformataon to a chstance when the carrier rmght forger them or betray them The £ome s almost certamly the olde of" the tw The pnestly caste, as the custodan of a caleadar based on centures of preclse observauon, appear on the scene at the dawn of Egyptaan cvzhzauon Men began to keep accurate records of the sêasons as soon as there was settled agriculture, ,and it as unely that the need for wrtten messages arosë before man began to estabhsh settled grain- gmwmg commumtms. As man pogressed fmm a primîtve huntang or food-gathemg stage to hcrdmanshap and skalled agnculmxe, the need for countmg hîs flocks and keeping track of sêasonal pursmts foced lu to prime has memory by cutting notches on sticks or maki,g kuots n cords gre may thus take t for granted that one class of logograms, the umber symbols, are as old as, and possbly much oldêr, tlaa xy othex elements of tlïe most aaciet forms of wrmg The most ancaêt aumber symbols are pctonal m thë sease that the fa'st four Roman numerals (i, ii, III, IIII) are lust otclaes o the tally stack. Compansoa of the relacs of the temple civtzatïoïs of Ceïttral/kmerca Meso tamia, and Egyçt, idacates tlaat tlae imtulse to record soc evexats was mixed up wïth the prmaary fncrao of the ptaests as calexadar- makers at a rame when the perso of tlae prest-kmg was the focus of ax elaborate astroomacal magne and calendar rmal. "I bus pïcatre- wntmg was aecessarly the secret lofe of a pnestly caste ad, as sacla, a lealously guaded secret Smce pcture-wntmg s too cumbersome to covey more tlaan the mëmory ca easxly retam, ts furtlaer elabora- tao to serve the eeds of commumcatlo at a dastarce may laavë bee due to the dvamages of secrecy. Wlaether thas s or s xaot true, the fact that wntîg was orgmally a closely guardêd secret laad amlportmat coxasequeces for ts subsequent evolutaon The ancrera caleadar pnesthoods laad a vested mteïëst i keepmg kowledge trom tlae commo people. Tlae mapulse to presërve sêcrecy lPOssbly encouraged the gradal degradato of coxtventaoal pcmes mto logograms, wtfich, lake the elemets of moder Clamese wratig» ha'ce lost thetr power to suggest wlaat they stand for. Ia C.itiesë scrîpts
The Story oj the Alphabet 59 we bave examples of logogaphxc wnung sull largely the monopoly of a scholar caste Scnpts of thas class share one maportat charactensuc wath pcture-wntmg The mchvadual symbols bave no necessary con- nexwn wzth the sounds assoczated wzth them Thas s hot dafficult to understand ff you recall one class of logograms whach sull smwwe on FIG. O--DICUS OF PItAIL%TO$ StIOWING AS YEr UNI)EClPttERED PICTOGRAPHIC \VRIIING OP TIIE ANCIENT CRErAN CIVILIZTION the pnnted page. The Enghslmaan associates wth the deogram 4 the noise whch we wntë as four wth out mperfect alphabet, or f». m modem phonëuc script (p 83). The Frenchman wntes t quatre, stanchng for the sotmd katr The Enghshman and the Frenchman both recogmze ïts meanmg, though thëy assocaate t wxth OEerem sounds, and a Frênchman could learn to mterpret the Eghsh traffic sgns from a Fï'ench book wîtlaout knowmg a word of Enghsh In the saine way,
The Loom o/ Languagc . m B I3 F G C M N P V i(}. Il--CONSONANT SYMBOL$ O 0ME CONTMPORARY .A,L,I'IIAIttII% Pzonunciatlon changes in thc course of centuries So it ls somewhat arbltrary fo glvc flxed values to Grcck symbols whlch bave rctamcd i ouglily the samc shape for two thousand rive hundrcd years If: sccnlq clear that ¢ oIlginally stood for an asplrated p rendcred as PH m Latin transcrptlon Thc symbol for iv (vr) replaces 9 in the first syllable of the reduflhcazed pat tense iorm of verbs
The Story of the Alphabet people from chfferent parts of China can read the saine books wthout bemg able to utter any mumally mtelhglble words Evënmaily the pnesfly scnpts of Egypt mcorporated a th=d dass of slgns as phonogramç The leamed people began to make puns That ls to say, they somerames used thelr plcmre symbols to bmld up words of syllables wluch had the sound assoclated wth them Wlth a code of such plctograms we can combine for bee vnth for leaf to suggest the word behefby putung a flame round t.hem thus. Thts ls just what the Egyptïans sometzmes dad The consutuents of thas compound symbol bave now no conneraon wth the meanmg of the word We can know the meanmg of the word only f we know what t sounds hke when spoken A trïck of thls sort may be a stage m the development of one kmd of phoncuc script callcd syllabte wrztzng The charactensuc of sytlable wrmng s that each symbol, hke the letters of out alphabet, stands for a sound wbach bas no necessary meanmg by itsêlf. Syllable wnung m thxs sense chd hot evolvê chrectly out of Egyptaan plcture scnpts Whether thê fiÆst step towards phoneuc combmataons of tbas kmd was part of the priestly game of preservmg script as a secret code, whether the hghbrow pastame of makmg puns and puzzles encouraged t, we do hot know Exther because they lacked a sufficent social motave for smplifying thelr script, or because the mmnsc da/fictdttes were too grëat» the Egyptlan pnests never took the decasve step to a consistent system of phonetc wntmg. There is no reason to suppose that peoples who have taken tins step have donc so because they are parttcularly mtelhgent or enter- pnsmg Many useful mnovauons are the reward of ignorance. When flhterate people, ignorant of ts language, corne mto contact wth a community eqmpped wth script, they may point at the sgns and hsten to thë sounds the more ctùtured foregner makes when he utters whtch begmwxtJa the latter (cf voe = I loose and Aclvna = I bave loosedwth çpaoe . I declar and wards f whch tes xts piace m many Latin words of coon an cest, e g. çepoe - » fero (i carry) and value t had xn late Ro tmes» m tecxcal terres from Greek roots and modern Greek» t went mto the Slavomc pbet By then e sod corre- sponng to had fted towards out v, ts value m modem Greek. The symbol F occurs oy m early Greek, probably OEough evdently m to the Hebrew au
6 The Loom o] Language them m bas own language In thls way they leam the slgns as symbols of sounds wtthout any separate meamng Imagine what might have happened f the Enghsh had used pubhc nouces m plctme wntmg dunng the wars of Eward III Let us also suppose that the French had been wholly flhterate at the rame. When a Frenchman pomted to the pxctogram 4, the mformatave Enghshman woald utter the sound cock, correspondmg to the Fench coq When he pomted at the Iogogram ,, he would get the response lord, suf[ic,cntly near to the French vocable loz«rde, whach means hcazy Wthout knowmg precasely what s,gnificanee an Enghshman attaehed to the symbols, he might proceed to mak up the combmatmn ¢.m standing I,-k _ _ _ )Il 0o 0 0 [['0 [0 UU f' ttu'ooe 1"216 I2--'VowEL SYMBOL$ OI, SOME CONTEMPORARY ALPttAïIT$ for coquelourde (meamng a Pasque-flower) in the behef that he was learning the new Enghsh trick of wntmg thmgs dow. Neèdless to say, ths xs a parable We must hot take it too hterally. We know next to nothmg about what the hvmg languages of dead cavflazataons were hke, but one thmg as certain Tmnsmon from a cumbersomê script of logogram% or from a muddle of pctograms, logograms, and phonographic puns, to the relatave simphcaty of syllable writing, demands an effort whach no pnvfleged class of scholar-prîësts has êver been able to make It has happened when ilhteratê people wath no trachuonal preluchces about the correct way of domg thmgs have come mto contact wxth an already lîterate culture. Whethêr they eau succeed in doing so depënds on a lock and key relation between the strucuaxe of the livïng languages mvolved m the contact bëtween a lîterate and non-hterate culture. Thêy can succèed f, and only
The Story of the Alphabet 63 it is easy to break up most words they use mto bncks wth roughly the saine sounds as evhole words in the language eqmpped wlth the parent logograptuc script Our most prëmse mformauon about this lock and key relauonslnp s based on adaptauon of Chmese script by r.he Japanese In order to understand It the first ttnng to be clear about ls the range of possible combmauons of elementary sounds In round numbers, a language such as ours reqmres twenty chstmct consonants and twenty vowels mcludmg chphthongs Tins means that if out language were ruade up enurëly of monosyllablc words of the same open type as me, or exclu- svely of the saine open lype as at, we could have a vocabulary of ao × OEo, or four hundred words, wltkout usmg any compound con- sonants such as st, tf, or kw. To a large extent Chmese vernaculars (p. 4e3) constst of open syllablcs hke my and so The Chmese have to do everythmg wlth about four huuded and twenty baslc words The small sze of ts vocabulary s hot a necessary consequence of the fact that Chmese s monosyllabc If a language conslsted exclu- svely of monosyllabm words bélongmg to the closed type such as bed, more common or eght thousand words, wthout usmg double consonants A language such as Enghsh can therefore be immensely nch m monosyllables wtthout bëlng exclusively ruade up of t.hem. Chmese ls able to express so much wïth about four hundred and twenty monosyllables, partly because t makes combmauons hke the under-graduate slang go&box for church, parùy because t s extremely nch m homophones hke our words flea-flee or nght-wrte, and partly because t s able to chs- ungmsh some homophoncs by nuances of tone such as we make when we say "yes" as a symbol of dehberate assent, mterrogauon, suspense or excitement, romcal agreement or boredom The number of homo- phones m the Chmese ianguage is enormous, and ths ts mevtable because of the small nurnber of av'aflable vocables A çAnnese &c- uonary hsts no less than nmëry-eght OEerent meanmgs for the souud group, rcpresented by CHI Of these nmety eght, no less than forty eght bave the saine nsmg tone correspondmg roughly to out questionmg "yc-es ?". The Clfinese way of representmg a grove or forest by combmmg the pu'e symbols for ¢ree fllustrats one devtce by whtch a com- parauvely nch equipment of wntten words ts bmlt up by pamng a relauvely small battery--t e 4 m all--of elcmentary logograms called ra&calç (see Fg 4) Mere luxtaposïuon of the pcuïre symbol
64 The Loom o.f Language for each of them may represent a quahty or an acuwty c.ommon to two oblects Thus the logogram ïor the word MING, whch tan mean bnght, s ruade up of the character ïor dae moon next to the character for thê sun Ongmally the characters wére recogrn7able pctuxe symbols, and the composte slg would then bave been somethmg I'IG 13 --TIE ANCIINT CYIRIOTIC YLLABARY Showng the rive vowel sgns n the top row nd thc ynabols for open ylibIe mdc by combmn any or nll oi them wth thc cononat sound rcprcscntcd by the lettcr m thê lcft hnd vertical column. Thus thc syrnbo],s o thë ccond row ru ka, ke, kz, ko, ku ltke this 0 (. In thê course of cëntunes thc basic picture symbols bave becomê more and more convemïonahzed, pardy owlng to changes m the use of writmg instruments (style, brush, wood blocks), or of matenals (bon% lnk» paper). A second sort of compotmd characters (Fig. 43) is a half-hëarted stêp towards sound wntmg, based on the tïme-honotïred devlce of pg.
Iii, I4--'%1ON1 IN ,çl,[l»llON I. ROM PAI, IIOh (EI6ItiH CLNIURY B C ) '1 ho languag a (rk daIçt I h srxpt s Cprmuc (Fg 5) To represcnt thç çmpmnd cononant ot Greck word, thc pracucc was to use two ll,tblç wth thc two apptopnac consonants and thc saine vowel value» c g thc cqmvalcnt fo th nam 5taskrate m wch wc havc st and kr wa « tu t ka t a t e I ho dlftcultms and ambgmtms asng rom tire use ()t a syllable scrxpt as thç wtten medmm o an Aryan language corne out n thc hrst Imc ( YPRIOII(. SYLLABARY Ct- tO-rO -u-ka-t e-e-lo-ka-r-ja la-pa-to-ne zo-va-ra- mz-ka-la-te-o pt-lo-ta a-a-ra-vo-ne zo-vo-ro
The Story oj the Alphabet 65 Oe member of the pair suggests the meanmg of the character m a geeral way. The other stands for a homophone» that xs to say a word wch bas (or onginally had) the saine sound as the word represented by the paoE taken together A ficutaous example, based on two Enghsh words whach have f_ahar hornophones» lllustrates thïs trick. Suppose we represent the words sun and buoy respectavely by the pxcture symbols O and ,, as bologists use the character c for male What the Chmese do by tins method would then be eqmvalent to usng the combmauon 3 0 for our word son (whch bas the saine sound as sun) or c for boy. It ls hot certain how ttns practace arose. One possbhty s that it developed m response to the way in whîch a word wldens lts meanmg by the process calleà metaphorcal extensron. What ttns means s fllustrated by out word boy, whch ongmally meant.a sexually lmmature maie of the human specles» and may also mean a son or a uvemle employee AIl thls bas led to the accumulauon of an immense number of complex slgns There are between four and scven thousand reiauvely common ones Anyone who wants to be an accomphshed scholar of CAfinese must learn them Among the four thousand used most com- monly» about three-quarters consst of a homophone ,element and a classifier analogous to the symbol for male in the hypothctïcal mode1 cted above. Owing to changes of pronuncmtïon in the course of cen- tartes» the homophone part, wbach was once a sort ofphonogram» or sound symbol, may bave lost its slgnffcance as such It no longer then gives a due to thê spoken word To-day Chmese script s ahnos purely logo- grapbac. People who have the urne to toaster t assocmte the characters with the vocables they themselves utter These vocables are now very OEerent m OEerent parts of China» and have changed beyond recog- muon smce the script came mto use many centunes back. So educated Chmese who cannot converse ïn the same tongue can read the saine nouces m shops» or the same wntmgs of morahsts and poets who hved more than a thousand yems ago The remarkable thmg about Cnesë script s hOt so much that t s cumbersome accordïng to our standards» as that t xs possible to reproduce the content of the hvmg language m thts way Ths s so because OEe living language is hot hke that of any European people, except the Bnrash (OP zz). The C_Jamese word xs invariable, hke out "verb" must It does not form a cluster of derivattves hke lusts, lusted, lustmg, lusty. What we ¢ali the grammar of an Indo-European language s largely about thE form and choxce of such denvatives, and it would
66 'hé Loom oj La,,guage be utterly unpossble to lcarn a logoaplac script wth enough characters to accommodate all of r.hem A large proportmn of the aff:txes of such denvattves are uscless, e g the -ç m lusts (see p 96). So presumably they would have no place m a logographc script A large proportion of out affres do the saine lob, as Rlustrated by patermty, fatherhood, reproductzon, guardanshp. The saine character would there£ore serve for a sxnglc clustc t-Ience a logogaphc script m whch Frenchmen or Germans could commumcate wth thexr fellow cluzens would be a code based on convcnraons qmte dafferent from the gammar of the spoken language The Japanese, who got thczr script from China» speak a language whach s totally OEerent from Chmêse chalccts They usë symbols (Fgs 44 and 45) for syllablës, t e. fo the sounds of affxes whch go to xaake up ther words, and hot merely for obects» drecraons, quahues, and other categores of meanmg repcsented by separate vocables The sounds con espondmg to thesë symbols are more complêx than those represented by o own letters, wxth four of whch (a» e, m, t) we tan rnake up elevcn moosyllables (a, arn, at» are, êat, mate, mëat, me, mat, met, rame» tea» team) So syllable wrtmg calls for a largër battéry of symbols than an alphabet, reformed or otherwse Noe the less, t s much easier to leam a syllable script than a logograpktc script ïnwluch the words bave mchwdual sgns. The surpnsmg thmg about Japanese scrxpt s the small number of" characters whach make up xts syllabary. We have exammêd the essexxraal charactenstxcs of the Cnese key Let us now examine the Japanese lock, that s to say, the word-pattem mo whacla symbols correspordmg to Chmese foot words had to fit. We can do ths best, ff wê compare Japanese wth Eglîsh. if al1 Enghsh words wêre ruade up hke father» we could equtp t wxth a syllable script from thé logographac or pcture scrlpts of" any language wxth a sufficiently rich colleclaon of open monosyllables hke fa: (far) and o (he). This would take at most about four hundred signs. The saine would be truc ff all Enghsh words wëre bullt to the saine design as adage (ad + age) tu whch two open syllables wth a final consonant combine. The problem s mmaensely more comphcated ff a language contams a hagh proporuon of words hke handsome or mandrtll If there are twenty consonants and twenty vowels ail pronounceable elosed monosyllables then exceed eght thousand. Ts means that the word-pattem of the language whch borrows ts script decxdês whether the language tself can assumlate a syllabary whch s hot too cumbersome for use
The Story oj the Alphabet 67 Japanese, hke Fînmsh ad Hunganan, bas lts place m a class called agglutmatmg languages We shall leam more about er dlaraeterisues mlater chapters. Here t s enough to say that agglutmatng languages are languages of whach foot words ca attach to themselves a elatavely small range of affed syllables (pp I96-2oo). The sïgnîficaace of the aies îs easy to recogmze, and the aitLxes themselves are relatlvely few and regular. Thus words denved from the saine roots grow by addmon of a hmted aumber of fixed syllables hke the -mg wch we add to love, have, go, bmd and think, in lovng, hareng, gomg, bmdng, and thmkmg. They do hot adrmt of the great vanety among corresponchng denvattves of another class such as loved, had, gone, bound, thought Thxs, of course, means that the word-pattem of an agglutinatanglanguage ts necessartly more smaple than that of such languages as out own. The sound partem of Iapanese words s much simpler and more regular than that of Enghsh for another and more slgmficant reasoa. Afftxes of Japanese words are ail simple vowels or open monosyllables consistmg hke pêa of a smaple consonant followed by a simple vowel. The only exceptaon to thlS rule is that some syllables, hke some Ghmese words, end m n. Thus the famahar place mmes or vu-i-YA-m are typical of the language as a whole. We can spht up all Iapanese words m ths way, and the number of possible syllables xs ltmated by the narrow range of clear-cut consonants and vowels-- fifteen of the former and rive of the latter Thxs accounts for the possxble exastence of seventy-five syllables, to whtch we must add rive vowels standing alone, hke the last syllable in OEo-I-O, and the terminal n, makïtg â complte bartery of etghty-one (Fig 46) Thus the Japanese are able to represent all thetr words by com- bnmg the sgns for a small number of Chlnese (see Fgs 44 and 45) vocables Though thet wrng is based on syllabls, the Japanese use a script whïch need hot contam many more sxgns than the letters of an alphabet reformed to represent all English smple consonants and vowêls by mchvadual symbols * At first, the Japanese used ther Kana "In Amharc (an Etlaxopan language) whach s prmted syllabxcally there are 33 consonantal sounds, each of whtch may combine wth any of the seven vowels I-Ience to pnnt a page of an Amharc book, 7 x 33, or z3r dffferent types are reqmred nstead of thê 4o types whïch would uffice on an alphabet method In Japanese rahas deuIty fs less forrmdable tlaan m many other languagês, owmg to thê stmphcaty of the phonettc system whtch possesses only 5 vowel soands and x5 consonantal sounds There are therefore only 75 poss,ble syllabtc combmaraons of a consonant followed by a vowel. Sêveral of these potental cornbmataons do hot occur m the language, and hence tt posstble wtth somewhat less than 5o chstmct syllabtc sïgm to wrtte down any }'apanesë word "--Taylor The Alphabet, vol , p 35
68 The Loom oJ: Language or syllable slgns exclusvely, and sull do so, for telegrams or m school- books for the young Otherwse (p. 438) they bave gone back to the old school trachuon In books prmted to-day they generally use Chmese characters for foot words, wth Kana slgns fo the affixes We do hot certamly know whether the people who first ruade up Japanese syllable wrmng were scholars Llke the Oriental traders who revoluuonlzed our number system by usmg a dot for the modern zero slgia to sly the empty column of the countmg-frame, they may well bave been pracucal men who earned a hvehhood in the c.ounung- house, or as ptlots on sbaps Scholars naturally favour the wew that they were men of learnmg dlrectly sked in the use of Chanese Un- doubtedly such men exasted in Japan, when xt adapted Chanese symbols to ts own use somewhere about 75o,but ff It was a scholar who first ht on the trick, tt s qtute possible that he leamed t from the mstakes of bas pupls From what we do know we may be certain of ttus Those who mtroduced Japanese kana were men who had no sacrosanct nauonal traduon of wntmg m tls way, and therefore brought to thcr task the unsoptusucated attitude of the Island Greeks who absorbed the practcal advantages of Egypuan or Sermuc learmng wthout assmlatmg ail the supersuuons of ther teachers. In the ancrent world and m medeval rames, mankmd had hot got used to rapd change Great mnovauons were possible only when crcumstances Conspared to »force people to face new problems wthout the hanchcap of old habits. The Japanese had to také ttus step bëcause their language was poly- syllabc and comparauvely rch m derivatve words. Thêy were able to take t because the afRxes of their derîvative words were few» and because the sound values of mdividual llables correspond to those of Cnese words. Wlaen the Chmese s up agamst a st-uçtîon comparable to that of the Iapatese at the urne when thëy first g't the= syllabc scrîpts, he treats tus own characters m the same way. For foreign names the Chinese ase théîr characters purely as sound syllables, as we rmght wrte 3 4 o to suggest the sound three for tea. Thïs emphaszes how favourabie combmauons of unusual cireumstances influence the poss- bxlity of rapxd advance or retardauon in the cultural evoluuon of chfferent commumttes. It s one of the many reasons why we should be suspidous when people atmbute one or the other to national and facial genîus or defect. The sanplicty of the Chmese language ruade ît easy for the C&inese to develop a more consistent md workable system of pieture-wrîtmg than any other nauon at an early stage
The Story oJ the Alphabet 69 m tts lustory Smce then t has been a culmral mtllstone round thetr necks If the Russlans, th¢ Germans» or any other Aryau-speakmg people had corne lnto contact wth Chmese script wtnlc r.hey were sull bar- banans» they could hot have used the Chmese symbols to make up a sausïactory battery of" affLxes for two reasons One reason for thls is that r.he total number of aff-Lxes m derlvatîve words of an Indo-European language is far greater than tbe numbcr of Japanese affxes A second ls that Chmese has no sounds correspondmg to the large class of" closed monosyllables wlnch occur as affixes, such as the-.ness m manhness. A thd ls that words of the Aryan languagcs are nch m consonant clusters $o a ]Europeau people would have reaped httle advantage by usmg Chmese characters as symbols o" sound mstead of as symbols of" menmg That transluon rom logograplnc script to sound-wrmng depends on the lock as well as on the key ls easy to test. Make a table oï ]ïnghsh monosyllabc words o" the open type and use it to bufld up Enghsh» French, or German polysyllables wlth the ld of a chcuonary. You vll then chscover thts The posslblhty of actncvmg a more simple mcthod of wrltmg for such lauguages as ]Enghsh» French» or German mvolved another umque combmauon of crcumstancës THE COMING OF THE ALPHABET In the ancrent Mediterranean world, syllable scrpts were m use among Sennuc peoples» Cypnots» and Persans They got the brcks, as the Japanese got thelr syllabanes from the Chmese» from ther nelgh- bours of Mesopotamm and Egypt, where forms of picture-wrmng first appeared 1XIone of these syllabanes has su'wved. All have made way for the alphabet. The chssecuon of a word mto syllables--especially the words of an agglutmatmg language--ls hot a very dcult aclnevement. Thc spht- ung of the syllble lnto consonauts and vowels was a much more dgficult step to takc. The fact that all true alphabets have an unms- takable fmnfly 1oEeness f we trace them back far enough forces us to beheve that mankLud has once only taken tins step (Fg 5) We know roughly when this happenêd, who were esponslble, and m what cr- cumstances it took place. Through mscnpuons m the mmes of the Sma penmsula (Fg ) about 5oo B.C, and m other places between thls date and about ooo B c» archaeologsts can trace thc transforma- uon of a battery of about twenry Egypuau pictograms mto th e symbois
7 o 7"he Loom of Language of the early Sereine alphabet Ttus early Sereine alphabet was hot an ABC It was a BCD It was ruade up of consonants only. Oile pecuhanty of the Semmc languages glves us a clue to the umque ctrcumstances which ruade possible tins immense simplification Semltlc root-words nearly always have the form which such proper names as Moses, Rachel, Dawd, Moloch, Balak or Laban recall. They v A,« A :,B B Y o o 0 0 ×? + T T 5 FG. 5--SOM SIGNS I'OM EARLY ALIHAItIrS (Adapted from Fth's Th« Tongues of 2tien ) axe ruade up of three consonants separated by two îaterveaing vowëls, and the thxee consonams m a pardcular ordër are charactenstc of a pamcular foot Thas meam that ff cor&të (ko:dait) were a Hebrew word, ail possible combinatîons whch we can make by putting dif- ferent vowels betweea k and d or d and t would bave somethîng to do with the expIosvc deaïoted by the usual spellmg. Thîs unique regu-
The Story o.f the Alphabet 71 larity of word-patcern led th old Rabbimca! scholars to speak of the consonants as the body and the vowel as the soul of the word In so far as we can recognize boches wlthollt theologcal assistance the metaphor fs approprlate. Consonams are ïn fact the most tangible Fart of the wrttten word. A companson of the next two lines m whtch the saine sentence xs written, first wathout consonants, and then vnthout vowêls, is instructave from tlus point of vew ee a e u o e eay o ea. Then nm the page pstde dowo and read ffus: If you carry out experiments of ths kmd you wdl dscove to thmgs. One xs that xt s easy to read a passage without vowels m Enghsh f therc ts somethmg to show wherc the vowels should be, as m the above The other s that t s much lcss easy to do so f therc s notbang to show wher« the owds ought to corne Thus tt would be dfffioalt to mterpret: ths r mch mr s t rd Owmg to the bmld-up of Semitîc root-words, wë bave no need of dors to gtve us this informatton Once we know the consonants» we holà the key to ther meanmg Any syllabary based on twenty-odd open monosyllables wtth a derent consonant would therefore meet all the needs of a script capable of representmg the typcal root-words of a Sematac language The Sematic tradmg peoples of the Mechterranean took twenty-two syllable sgns from Egyptma pnestly wrtmg» as Japanese took over the Chmese monosyllabtc logograms They used them to represent the sotmds for whch they stood» mstead of to repre- sent what the sounds stood for m the parent languagè Because thêy chd hot need to bother about the vowels, they used twenty-one of thë Egypttan symbols to represent the consonant sounds of the foot» wthout paymg attentaon to the vowel ongïnally attached Thus the alphabet began as an alphabet of consonants (Fig. 5) Such an alphabet, or B-C-D, was only workable m the hands of the Setmttc peoples If we had no Enghsh vowel symbols, thê successton of consonants represented by mlch could stand for mlch (m mzlch cow)» or for the Bble naine Moloch Srmlarly vt could stand for vest or and pts could stand for pztes or Patsy. Thas was the ddemma of the Aryan-speakmg colonizers and traders of Island Gteece who came mto contact wlth the syllablc wntmg of Cyprus (Fgs 3 and 4) and
7 The Loom oj Language the consonant wrmng of the Phoenicmns They used a language wtuch was extremely nch m consonant combmauons The Greek word for man ls aOpcozros, from which we get phzlanthropy and anthropoloqy If you wrlte the consonants only ïn phonetlc script (p 83), thls s n0rps There ls nothmg in the word-pattern of the Greek language to exclude ail the posmble arrangements whch, we can make by filhng " lr (C F G L /,A ,,IL AL ? 9f P F« I6---EA,zY A LATER FORlVl OF SOMME GRIEK AND LATIN LITTRS Thc reader should compare thcse wîth the wrltng n Figs. 5-B8 up each of the blanks mdicated below wîth each of a dozen mmpie or compound vowêl sounds. .n.O.r p s The number of pronounceable arrangements of twelve dfferent vowei sounds in combinatxon wlth ths range of consonants is about 3,ooo, ooo. It woulâ be surpnsing xf sorne of them were hot truc vocables. So it s easy to see that the saine succession of consonants mïght stand for several dîffêrent Greek words, it is equally easy to see why the syllable script of Cyprus (Figs. 3 and 4) was an unsatisfactory way of dealîng with the saine dculty. To adapt the Phoemcmn alphabet to theîr own use, the Greeks had to introduce vowels, which were probably monosyllables, like out own words a or i, taken from syllabanes of other peopiës, such as the Cypn-
The Story oJ the Alphabet 73 ores, wth whom they came in contact Thls step was momentous The prmlitave Semitic alphabets Wtllch had no vowels were good enough for simple inscriptions or for Holy Wnt tobe read agam and agam They could hot corwey the grammatical recettes whach result from mtemal vowel change of the sort fllustrated by smg-sang-sung Smce Sermtac languages abound m tncks of ths sort, the ancxent Semxtïc scnpts wee hot well adapted to produce the nch secular hterature whach germanated in the Greek wold The Greek alphabet (Fxgs. I and I2) had seven vowel symbols, namely OE « z/ v w o The itahan peoples who got thelr alphabet from the Greeks also spoke chalects poor m vowels, and they chscarded two of the Greek sagns» x e. and oe Dvergeace of the form of the symbols whlch make up the classlcal Greek and Latin alphabets came about owmg to a varety of crcumstances The first people to use alphabetic writmg dad hot wrxte at lengtla asld were hot fussy about whether they wxote ïrom nght to left or from top to bottom Qmte ephemeral reasons would influence the choce, as fo example the advantage of msoEbmg a short eptaph vertacally on a pole or hon- zontaïly on a fiat stone Thus the onentataon of letters tmderwent local change through the whams of scribes or stone-masons, so tJaat the saine symbols were twxsted about vertacally or latemlly, as fllustrated in Fxg 16, wch shows the davergence of the Greêk raid Latin symbols for D, L, G, P, R Wïe the art of wrïtmg and readmg was st the pnvllege of the few, the need for speedy recogmtaon was hot compellmg, and the urge for standardlzataon was weak. In one or ooEer of the eaflest specmaem (Fgs. 7 and 38) of Islaxd Greek wntmg of the slxth or sêventh cenmnes B c, we caa fmd any one of the old Phoemcmn consonant symbols tmchanged The absence of prmtmg t-.e to standardaze the use of 1errer symbols, the effect of the wntmg matenals on the ease wlth wtltch they could be wntten, fixe hlmtataon of prllmtave wrtmg to short messages, records» or mscnp- taons, the small sxze o£ the readmg pubhc, and the fact tJaat prolmnca- taon changes m thê course of several genemtîons and vanes among people stall able to converse wtth dafficulty m ther own daalects, were other crcumstances whxch contrxbuted to the dxvergence of the alpha- bets. So there xs now no recogmzable resemblauce between the classcal Hebrew and Greek alphabets (Fxgs x and z) which came from the saine Sermuc source. Though Arabc xs a Senmtic language wth a script wntten hke Hebrew from rxght to left, the symbols of the Arabxc consonants bave no obvmus resemblance to those of Hebrew. in the
74 TI« Loom o.[ rive dercnt Arable scnpts, only thc s,¢mbols for L, M. and S arc now recognlzable denvauves of thctr Phoemcmn ancestor,.. Throughout the East, an enormous valety of alphabettc scpts do service for peop]es wth langmages wtnch, hl.c Pc'an or many of those spoken in Incha, belong to the great Indo-European famfly, and ltke Burmesé or Txbetan belong to the saine £amfly as Chmese. They are also in use among peoplcs wth othc lunguag, s» e g Machu» Koean» Turkash, or Javanese These bclong to nonc oç thc thce great languagc famthes wluch hav been the chct custodzans of knowledge and hterature Most scholars now behcve tht al1 thcse alphabetxc scnpts were offshoots of those uscd by Scn uc ped!ars who set forth across the great rrade l outes bn6gmg flc guil b«.nvecn oeastern and Western culture m ancrant urnes. To a \'(cstcrn cye, famhar wth the simple knes and curvcs of flc primcd Izge în contradtuntmn to ordmary wrmng» OEey tve a supertcJal J escmbhtcc duc to the complcx curva- tu.re of the symbols tt s no hkely that any of bec ,:uszve scnpts wll overcomc thc dzcct appeal of ti.e smplcr sgm, whch pmtmg and typewrmng havc now standaïdîcd m ail hghly mdustï:ahz¢:d counmes Towmds the end of" the Mddle Agcs, whcn thc (:hnc..c mvcnlmn of pnntmg came nto Em opc, scvc al ft;m of thc I.am alphabet wcrc m use n chîtcrcnt countïms "ltc more rccdmc,u talan symbols, bcng bettër adaptcd to movable type, êventua]ly »upcr,eded the more cursive vanants such as the German Bh, d« Lc.its (l'g ) of the monkash mtssals. Patfly perhaps because thu Lutheran Bïble was prmted m ths script, ,t pexsïsted m Gemanv, whe, e t has been fostered by nataonahsm. Belote the Na«,s took ove, oae newspaper had begun to follow thc pracuce of scênutc e:'t bt., cuama, and modcrn novels m ,tcp wxfl Western cwh«atiou 'lhe bown shnts bzought back flc black lëtters Ctrcumstances whch havc mflacnccd the chotcc and daracter of scnpts m use may be mate, îal on the orîe hand, and soaai on the other. Among the matënal c£rcumstances arc thê nature of the surface (stone, bone, clay, voy, wax, parchment, paper), and the nature of the instru- ment (chsel, style, brush, pen, wood block, or lead type), used for the process of transcrîpuon. Among sooal ctrcumtanccs of ftrst-ratc importance we have to reckon w,th the range of sounds wtnch a speech community'tmbtmally uses at lhe urne when it gets its script, and the range of sounds repÆesentëd by thë parent alphabet. Intelligent p1n- nmg based on the ease with which ,t is possible to adapt an alien soEpt to the speech of an ilhterate people played httle, ff uy, paxt in sdcction
Tïoe Story oj the Alphabet 75 before Kemal Ataturk mtroduced the Roman alphabet m Turkey (Fg 4 o) Mssm,ary enterpnse bas been the smglê most sgmficant socml agency whch bas mfluenced chance Thas cxrcumstmce has left a permanent xmpress on the smdy o speech habits Conquests, pohucal, rehgaous, or both, bave maposed scnpts on languages ill-adapted for thym. Ths s true of ]3urmese and Smmesê whch bave Sanskrit and Pah scrïpts It s even more oeue of/kmbïc script, whch Islam has forced upon cormnumtes wth languages of a phoneuc structure qulte d'erent rom that of the Sermuc famïly, e g Berber» Persmn, Bahch, Smdh» Malay, Turlrïsh, Swah, etc The ._ 71i l/l il/#Y -i ,, , , , , , , IG. 17--I TO RIC OG ScP Compare woE c d Og mscmptons of The Rumc symbols he above the Roman eqmvents» the Ogam bclow them sear pems which trag gave to OEe spread of ]dng ong e MeoEteean aons of dasscal anaqm extcnded to NoroEem Europe oEout havmg a permanem uence upon it. Belote adopted Roman Chnsuamty, and wïoE t thc Roman alphabet, some Teutomc peoples were akcady hterate in vanous pas of Noern Eoeope, and espey in Scdmaan coes, ere are pmons m symbols hke ose wch prc-oEnsuan mvaders from the Couchent also brought to Bntam. Ths Runzc spt (Fïgs 7 md 9) bas no strmghffoard sari fo any ooEer Supposedly t s a degenerate fo of Greek or Rom wng oerned across Europe by gato rmanic (Goths) d probably
76 The Loom o.[ Language from trade contacts It probably reached Scandmavla durmg the tturd century D The letters fllustrate the influence of the matenals used They are the sort of marks whlch are easy to chap on wood We can recognlze them as such m some of the Rumc clog almanacs staI1 in exastence The first survlvmg speclmen (Fg 3 o) of Rumc cornes from Gallehus in Schleswg It s an mscnptmn on a horn, and s worth quotmg to tllustrate the modest begmmngs of wntmg for sectdar use ek hlewagastzr holtmgar horna tawzdo ---- I LLIIGASr THE HOLTING MADE (ts) o. There are inscriptions of another type (Flgs 17, I8, and 39)on stone monuments m Scotland, Wales and Ireland The script ls pre-Chnstian FIG I8--BILING[IAL INSCRII'rION iN LATIN (ROMAN LErrms) AND CELTIC (OGAM SIGNS) I'IOM A CI][URClA AT "fRALLON@ IN IRELAND The Celttc rads from rxght to left but probably hOt older than fixe begmmng of the Roman occupation of Bmam. ThIs Ogam wntmg, as It ls called, has an alphabet of twenty letters Each letter ls a fixed number of from one to rive strokes, wath a defimte orentataon to a base line w1"ach was usuaLly the edge of thé stone. Flve letters (h, d, t, k, q) are represented by one to rive vertical strokes above the hne, rive (b, 1, v, s, n) by onê to rive vêrtacal strokes below the line, rive (a, o» u, e, i) by verucal strokes across the hne, and rive (m» g, ng» z, r) by one to rive strokes across the hne slopmg upward from left to nght One surrmse is that the number of strokes has some- thmg to do wth dae order of the 1effets in the Roman alphabet, as thë people who ruade ths script recelved them. What lëd Celuc peoples to devise ttus system we do hot know. It is clear that the Ogam sïgns are hot degenerate representattves of Greek or Roman symbols» as are the Rumc letters. Ogam script Is a sort of code subslatute for the Latin alphabet analogous to the Morse code used in telégraphy. Llke the latter, t was probably adopted because it was most suïtable for the instruments and for the materials available. The meanîng of such inscriptions long remamed a mystery like thât of others m dead languages stfll undecaphered Among the latter
The Story oj the Alphabet 77 Etruscan and Cretan (Fig i o) are a sealed book to tins day The story of the Rosêtta Stone chscloses the clues wluch have ruade t possïble for scholars to decapher (Figs. r, 5, and xS) lost languages. It s told m the following quotataon from Grtttith's helpful book, The Story of Letters and Numbers : "There were strange storles and ficuons about the learnmg of the Egypraans, so that for a long urne men had a strong deslre to get back a clear knowledge of the wntmgs. They had nottung to go on, there were no word-books or other helps Then taï x799, by the best of good chances» a man m the Frënch Army, workmg undêr Napoleon, saw an old stone m a wall at Rosetta on one of the branches of the river Nfle, wxth tlaxee sorts of wrmng on xt One was the old Egyptaan plcture- wrxtmg, whach was the saine as the wrmng on the walls of bmldmgs» the secorïd was another of wtuch merï had no knowledge, but the thard was m Greek» clear arïd smaple The readmg of tlîas was no trouble to merï of letters From the Greek xt was seen that the storïe gave an accourir of a kang named I'OEOLMaIOS, and of the good tbangs whach he had done as a mark of tus respect for the relxgmrï of Eg3rpt The last hrïe of the Greek says tbat 'a copy of the wrmng s tobe made orï hard storïe an the old wrxtmg of the men of rellgmn, and m the wntmg of the country, and m Greek ' Tlaê year tls was done was x96 B.c. Soit was certmrï that the two strange wrmngs were m Egyptaan, but an daffererït sorts of letters, and that the Greek gave the sense of the Egyptaan "Irï the Greek, the naine PTOLEMAIOS cornes elght or rune rames» somettmes by tself, and somerames wth the words r.OWD O» 'T,q m adchuorï Part of the top of the stone, where the pxcture-wrmng cornes, s broken off, but fourteen lines are there, and m these are rive groups of letters or plctures wxth a line round them, bavmg two long parallel sdes arïd curved erïds wxth a short upnght hne at orïe erïd Ttus seems to bave been the Egypttasa way of 'urïderhmxag' maportant words Three of the groups are shorter than the other two, but the longer ones are started wxth the saine» or almost the saine, letters or pxctures So t seems probable that the outlmed words are ,oEor.EMos and 9ror.MOS LOWD OF t,T.a.H. Ptal was one of the baghr bemgs of the rehgmn of Egïpt. "Orï other stones to the memory of the great dead, groups of letters are tobe seen wxth the line round them, whach makes us more certain that such outlmed words are the names of Kangs and Queens One suctx naine orï an old stone was Kso,ax, the rïame of a Queerï who was lxwïag m ]Egypt two hundred years belote tlae Cleopatra of Shake- speare's Antony and Cleopatra . "Thas much arïd a llttle more was the dscovery of Dr Thomas Young an Enghsh marï oI science» who made, xn addmon, some attempt at reachrïg the second form of the Egypraan wrmng on the storïe The reachng of the pxcturë-wrmng m full was thé work of J F Champohon
78 The Loom o/ Lng,.age a Frenchmar He was ble to do ths as he had a good "knowledgè of the Coprc language The Copts were» and stfll are» Egypun Chnst.tans» and m the old days t1cr lnguage was Egyptmn In urne small clmnges came about» as s narural "iher wrîrang was m Geek» wth seven specml letters for sounds whch me nt m Greek In Coptîc churches to tins dy the beok o£ rehgon nrë m Coptm» though only a small number» even of the reoders» bave knowIedge of lhe lmguge It wen out of conmor use rive hundred yeas back Wth the help of ths language» Champolhon was ame to nmke out the other sgns aîter the name oL'% and much moe» o the Copts had word-books gvmg Egyptlan words in tl-c Copc wrtmg" The precedmg account docs hOt expose all the relevant clrcumstances Senaphor0 Morse lghts. «rllten dot a dar es,needle movemt) BRAILLE i » (By klnd permet'mn of Mi. I j Pltman) whach led to thas dlscoverv The readet wt]1 find further detaxls in Saence for the Cttzzoï (p o8o) On lus cxpedmon to Egypt» Napoleon took wth haro a staff of savants, mcluding somë of the greatest men of scaënce of that time A chscovery whmh may seem remote from useful knowledge, af we overlook the deplorable social consequences of arroganfly dsmîssing the cultural debt of any favourêd race or nataon to the test of mankmd, was the direct outcome of encouragmg research wxth a pracucal end m vaew. We may hope for greater progress m out knowledge of the evoluuon of languages whën here are fewer scholars who chensh ther trade-mark of geflemanly uselessness, and more real humamsts wbo, hke Sweeh ]espersen, Ogden, or Saplr, modesfly accept theîr responsbtlity as cmzens, co-operating in the task of matung languagê an instrument for peaceful collaboration between nations. A cmhzatton which produces poison gas and flaermite has no need for humamsts who are merely grammaraas What we now reed ïs the grammarian who as truly a hummalSt. RATIONAL SPILLING The fct that ail slphabets ¢ome from one source has an important
The Story o/ the Alphabet 79 bearmg on the mpeffecnon of al1 existmg systems of spelhng. Although there are pêrhaps about a dozen sïmple consonants and hall a dozen vowels approxtmately eqmvalent in most vaneues of human speech, the range of speech soands ts aely the saine in closely related languages. Thus the Scots trflled r, the U m gud, and the throaty CH m 'ht's a braw bncht munehcht mcht the mcht" are absent m other Anglo- Amencan &alects. When a pre-hterate commumty wsth a language of sts own adopts the alphabeuc symbols of an ahen culture st wlll often happen that there wtll be no symbols for some of sts sounds, or no sounds for some of the symbols avaîlable. Enghsh spëllmg ùlus- trates what then happens. (s) Scribes may rayent new letters. Thus 01d Enghsh, hke modem Icelanchc (Fg 3), had the two symbols p (thorn) nnd (etha) for the two sounds respecvely represented by TH sri thm and then Out letter I ls hot in the Latin alphabet, whïch îs the bass of Western European scnpts it has acqmred OEerent values in OEerent languages in Teutomc languages (e g m Norwegmn and m German) st ss eqm- valent to our Y m Yule (Scmîdanavan .lui). In French st ts the pecuha consonant represented by S or SI m pleamre, treasure, measure, or ras, on, znason, dzwson In Enghh t stands for a compotmd con- sonant ruade by saymg d soffly before the French J. The mmal w (cf. wazt) m Teutomc words was represented by uu (oo-oo-azt) Eventu- ally the two us fused to form a smgle letter. In Welsh spellmg w stands for a vowel sound It s now a mgnpost pomtmg to the Old Enghsh ongm o a word. (n) Scribes may gnve arbtrary combznatzons of" old symbols a specal value. Thïs ls tme of the two TH sotmds, the SH or TI sound in short or natzon, and the NG m sînger (as contrasted wth hunger). Asde from these arbtrary combmauons for smple consonants, we use ch for a combmauon of t followed by sh. These combmatmns and ther vaganes are vaiuable ssgnposts for the home student Nether of the sotmds represented by th emsts m Latin or French, the sort one () exasts only m Teutomc languagës and the hard o,e (1) only m Teutomc languages and m Greek, among languages wknch ctnefly supply the root of out vocabulary The StI sond so spelt s Tèutomc. The SH sound spelt as TI (ë g natzon) s always of French- Laun orgin For thss rcason many words carry the hall-mark of thelr ongm There s another way m wluch the ïrregu.latmes of Enghsh speihng hêlp us to rêcognize the source o a word Pronuncaauon may change m
The Loom oJ Language the course of a hundred years, whale wlmng lags behmd for centunes Thts explams the behawour of out capnclous GH, whach s usually sflent and somettmes hke an It survlves from a pënod when the pronuncmuon of hght was more 1,ke the Scots hcht, m wluch there ls a raspmg sound epresented by X m phoneuc symbols In such words the earher Enghsh conventaonal GH stands for a sound wbach was once common m the Teutomc languages, and ls snll common m Ger- man When we rneet GH» we know that the word m whïch it occurs ls a word* of Teutomc orgm» and It s a sale ber that the eqmvalent German word wfll correspond closely to the Scots form. Thus the German for hght ls Lzcht, for brought brachte, for eght acht» for mght 2Vacht» for nght Recht and for rmght Macht. Englsh s hot the only language whmh bas changed m ths way Atone urne the German W, now pronouncêd hke an Enghsh V, stood for a softer sound, more hkê ours So phonetc spelhng would make it more chflïcult to rccogmze the rneamng of Wnd» IgZasser, und lY£ettër (wmd, water, and weaher) A thrd way m wbach spelluïg gets out of step wth speech s con- !ected wth how grammar evolves Lke other languages m the saine great Indo-Europear or Aryan famfly, Exghsh was once nch m endmgs hke the's in father's Separate words bave now taken over the funcnon of such endmgs, as whea we say of my father, msteaà of my father's Havmg cêased to have any use» the endmgs bave decayed, ad becaue wrltmg changes more slowly than speêch» they bave left behmd in the wntten language, rehcs whch bave no existence ïn the spoken. Thïs process of sirnphficaton, dealt with m Chapter iii, bas gone much ftuther m Enghsh than in ber aister languages On ths account wntten Enghsh s parncularly rîch in vowd endmgs wlmch are hot auchble Thas way m whch pronuncïaton changes in the course of rime ïs responsxble for spellmg anomahes m most European languages. Two Enghsh examples fllustrate it forcbly. On paper there ïs a vêry simple rule which tells us llow to form the plural (1 e. the derlvatve we use when we speak of more than one object or person) of the overwhelmmg majomy of modërn Englîsh nouns We adâ -s. There is also a simple papêr rule wtuch usually tells us how to form the past ïorm of most Enghsh verbs We add -ed» or -d (ff the dcnonary form ends m -e), as when we make the change from part to parted, or love to ioved, ltowa- days we rarely pronouncWthe final -ED unless t follows d or t. cornparatlvely recently ît was always auchble as a separate syllable $omenmes we snll pzonounce t as such m poenc drama. If we are * Notable excepnons are haughty (French haut) and ddgh. !
The Story of the Alphabet 8I church adchcts, we may also do so m rehglous nmal Ail of us do so when we speak of a beloved husband or a leamed wffe. In Chaucer's Enghsh the plural -s was preceded by a vowel, and the combmanon -es was auably chstmct as a separate syllable When fusion of the final -s of the plural, and -ed of the past wlth the precechng consonant of the noun or verb-stem took place, necessary changes occurred We pronounce cats as kats and cads as kadz. We pronounce sobbed as sobd, and helped as helpt. Thus the grammaucal mies of Enghsh would be a httle more comphcated, ff we spelt ail words as we pronounce t.hem. We should have a large new dass of plurals m -z, and many more past forms of the verb endmg, kke slept, m -t Thê reason why these changes had to occur s that certun combma- uons of consonants are dffficuk to make, when we speak wïthout effort When we do speak wlthout effort, we mvanably replace them by others accordmg to smaple rules Such rules can shed some hght on the stage of evolutïon a language had reached when toaster prmters, heads of pubhshmg bouses, or scholars settled xts spellmg convenuons One simple rule of thas kmd s that many consonants whxch combine easfly wth s or t do hot combine easdy wth z or d, and race versa We can arrange them as follows" Wth S } or T P f k th (p) ch (tf) sh () "vozceless" WXthorDZ) b v g th (6) j (d3) s (3) "'voced" Tins mie ls easy to test Compare, for instance, the way you pronounce wrzthed (5d) and thrwed (vd)» wth the way you pronounce (wzthout effort) pthed (0t) and laughed (ft) In the saine way, compare the pro- nuncaauon of the final consonants m crabs and traps crabbed and trapped, or notice the dafference between the final -s m hves and woEe's Vowels RIustrate sources of trregularlty m the spellmg conventions of European languages more forobly than do the consonants, because Itahc-Latm whtch bequeathed xts alphabet to the Wêst of Europe had a very narrow range of vowel sounds for wbach rive symboïs suffice. Thxs as onë reason why Itahan spellmg s so much more regular than that of other European languages» except the newest Norwegxan re- formed rettskrwmng. Another reason xs that itahan pronunciauon and grammar have changëd httle smce Dante's rime. In Enghsh dlalects we have generally about twelve sïmple and about ten compound vowels (chphthongs) for whach the rive Roman vowel sxgns are supplemented by
82 The Loom oJ Lazguage a Teutomc W and a Greek Y The slmauon ls much the saine wth most othe EJxopean langaages, except Spamsh whch stands close to Itahan Sever'al devlces me m nse Lo deal wld shortage of vowel symbols. (1) Introduction of new vowel symbols Thus modern Norwegnan (Fig. 32) has two, the o of Damsh and the of Swechsh. The Russlan alphabet, based on the Greek, bas rune mstoed of seven vowel symbols, of whlch four correspond preclsely to the Greek models (li) Introduction of accents, such as the dots placed above o or a m Swechsh and German, or those uscd to dlstingmsh the two Frënch sounds d, è @u) Use of combinatlons such as aa to dlstmgmsh the long a of father from the short a of fat in bazaar ls specmIly charactensfic of Dutch spellmg. On tins account Dutch words look rather long. The saine plan (see table of vowels on p. 84)would meet all the needs of a reformed Enghsh spellmg As things stand we have olfly three combmatlons wtuch we use conslstenfly--aw (m daw), ee (m meet), and o or oy (m soûl, loy) The last ls a signpost of Norman-French orlgm (iv) The more charactens,acally Enghsh trick of usmg a sflent e after a succeedmg consonant to dlstangmsh the precedmg vowel, as in mari- ruade, Sain-saine, pm-pzne, wm-w,ne A stlcnt h may also lengthen the precedlng vowel m Gexman, as m out words ah, eht, oh! (v) The use of a double consonant to indicate that the foregoing vowel s short. German and the newest Norwëgnan spelling (1938) rely on tls conslstemly. From rhymes m poems, we have good reason to beheve that Enghsh spellmg was regular at the rime of the Norman Conquest. The present chaos, especlally wïth reference to the vowels, ls partly due to the prac- ttce of Norman scïabes when a large number of French words mvaded English durmg thë thîrteemh and fourteenth centuriës. Tins comcaded more or less wxth a profound change in the pronunicafion of English vowels, and the decay of endmgs in other words, thë spelhng conven- tions we now use became currem comagê at a tme when the solmd values of Enghsh words were in a stâtë of flux The Norman scribes were responslble for several tmportant changes affectang the consonams as well as the vowêls They mtroduced J for a new sound whtch came wth the Conquest. The Old Enghsh C became K. Thé symbols ] and 6 for two sotmds which do not occur in French chsappeared in favour of TH and Y. Af'ter a rime the Y (as m the solectsm ye olde tea shoppe)
The Story of the Alphabet 83 acqmred a new use, and TH served for both sounds At a later date tle breach between spellmg and speech wdened flu ough the mterference of classxcal schola;s m the hght oI cunent and oftcn rmstaken wews about word ongm Thus debt though denved chrectly flore the French word dette, sucked in a sllent b to mchcate the commÇn ongm of both from thê Latin debztum For what regu!antles do extst we owe far more to the prmters than to thê scholars Prmung checked mchvldual prac- uces to wtnch scrïbes--hke stenographers---were prone, when the art of wntmg was mll Oike stenography) a learned profession ENGLISH CONSONANTS IN PHONET1C SCRIPT b as m blb 2 d ,, ,, dld 3 f » ,, fed 4 g ,, ,, get 5. h ,, ,, tut 6 k », ,, kit 7. 1 ,, ,, ht 8 m » , men 9 n ,, ,, mb i0 p » » plt I i r ,, ,, red 12 S » » Evcn when two languages wluch share the saine alphabet enloy the benefit of a comparauvely regular system of spellmg as do Norweglan, German, and Spamsh, many of fixe symbols bave dufferent values when wë pass from onê to another So spellmg s never a rehable guide to pronunclauon of a forelgn language. For thls reason lmgmsts bave dcvlsed a reformed alphabet for use as a key to hëlp us to pronounce words of any language wlth at lëast suflîclent accuracy to make lntel- hglble commumcauon possible wlthout recourse to personal instruc- tion in tbas mternauonal alphabet, slxtcen of the consonant symbols (see abovc) bave thelr characte zstzc Enghsh values common to Europcan usage in so far as a speclfic sound uqually corresponds to one alone Wlth thcse good Europcan symbo!s are others wbach do hot occur m the Laun alphabet One of them» 1» stands for the sound it rcpre- sents (out mmal Y) in Scanchnawan languages and ïn German. Three of the supplementary onc are taken from t.he Greek, Insh, and Ice- lanchc scnpts (Fag. x) The remamder are mveûdots.
84 The Loom o Language In out table of Enghsh vowels in phoneuc script, some of the mch- wdual symbols whach stand for sunple vowel sounds m other European languages occur oaly tu compounds (chphthongs) Other symbols such as those whach stand for the French nasal vowels do hot occur at ail. The maonty of flac consonant sounds of European languages are apprommately ahke. For that reason mauy of the consonant signs of different scnpts exhblted on p 6o correspond wth one another, and wtth th¢ eqmvalent symbols of the mtematïonal script dewsed for ENGLISH VOWELS IN PHONETIC SCRIPT SIMPLE DIPI-ITHOIqGS a = a as in bat at -= el as xn Emstem a aa » » bazaar au = ow » » how e ê » » bed e = m » . bait 1 = 1 » » bld e = air » » patr 1 = ee ,n ,, meet xz = let » » pler o = o » » hot ol = ox » » boll o = au » » aught ou = oa » » mo u = oo » » foot ju ew » » he U = OU » » boot z = er » ,» worker o. = ox » ,, worker fiom. So e symbols for the consorts are less t to h=oee, and a few hors' prace w soe for proficien m usmg em. W1OE OEe help of OEe tables you oe=slate OEe foowmg sentence d creaffer lte out ooEers- frm 6z texblz zv vauolz n nsonnts ju yd b elbl ta b:m a ro d3Ant abaut 6a tri f n.znz fa 0o me3z ff wx wont pl sal(])u in or au preznt speh snlnop âmIladS uosoxd xno o uonlos &dd u a m=oJ o alq aq PlnOqs noK suosuo» pug sImoA jo s»lq mo Because the saine symbols may have dafferent values ha chfferent languages--Z stands for 0 in S pamsh, and for ts tu German--the larger chctionaries use phoneuc alphabets Lu whtch a symbol represents one sound and one oniy. For each word hted the phonêfic spellmg is prmted
The Story of the Alphabet 85 scle by sde wxth the ordinary one Once you have mastered the key to ths phoneuc spellmg you know how to pronounce a foretgn word, however fantasuc lts spellmg may be If your chctionary uses the Internatzonal Phonettc Alphabet you may final at the begmnmg a hst mcorporatîng the two on pp. 83 and 84 respectîvely. Wlth the help of tins key you are able to pronounce the followmg French words even tf you do hot know any French. bte (b¢ t) commerce (kmers) bord (b r) fédéré (federe) chame (j'¢'n) plaine (pl n) clocher (kb le) prix (prl) toute (tut) EYE AND GESTUKE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD TO-DAY A Nrd's-eye wew of wual language» m conrrachsuncuon m rha of rhe ear, would be chsrored tf mok m nohmg bu the evolutïon of sgns used m ancen srone mscnpuons» manuscnps or modem books, and newspaçers. Vlsual commumcauon may be of rwo kmds» rransen or perssenr. The firs mcludes gesrure whch rcmîorces dafly speech» and rhe several tyçes of gestral hnguge respecùvely used for commumoEfion between doE d dumb people, or m mhtary d naval slgnalhng. Signlhng may be of two types Luke deaf and dumb gesture language, It may depend on human movements whtch recall symbols used m alphabeuc wntmg Slgmlhng by flag-chsplays based on codes lS hke logograptnc writmg The stgns used by bookaes or hotel porters are a logograptnc gesture-scnpt. Codes used tu telegraphy overlap the temtoncs of au&Ne communi- cauon, wsual commumcauon wtuch ts translent, and vïual commum- cauon for permanent record Lke the Ogam script, t depends on the alphabet, and, smce each alphabet symbol ts ruade up of long or short strokes hke prolonged or sharp taps, the same system serres equally well for reçogmuon by eye, ear» or tacule sensation. A two-strokë system of this kmd as a mechamcal necesstty chctated by the design of the ftrst telegraphs to take advantage of the fact that a magnetîc needle tums nght or left tu accordauce wlth the dzrecuon of an elecmc current. Thë inventors of the telegraphîc codes hved m a less leisurely age than the Ogam stone-masns, and took full advantage of the posslbhty of varying the order m whtch it s possible to arrange a limitëd number of strokes of two dfferent types (Flg 9). Lke Ogam script a telegraptnc code s smable for purely tacule recogmuon by the blmd who wêre
86 'he Loom oj Language cut off from access to the wntten record when parchment, papyrus, or paper took the place of stone, wox or clay tablets as wnung matenal in pracoEice, the Eradle scupt, based on chfferent arrange- ments of rmsed dots, s more sansfactory» because t takes up less space. Withm the narrower lmms of the permanent ecord dïfferem types of scnpts may serve &ffcrent en& Apart firom cryptographic scrîpts C 0 FIG 2o---I,'C'IIIE Nor ÏN Show has told us that much of hs wrrng has bccn doe la train% and that pracuoelly ail of t s wmten m shorthaad or subscquet tramcrpuon by a secrey pst. Thc 8peea of hs shorthand reproduced here rends: "Ths e way I wrue I codd of course subsutute (here follows an abbrevmuon) wth an apparent gain m bevty, bru as a matteroffact it tkes longer to oentract Wntmg shorthand wth the mmmn of contraction s hkc cuttmg relegmms. ess one m constant pracUce t t:es longer to devise the contractions than to wrte m hlI, and I nw aevcr logogroEs." dewsed for secret invenuom and recïpes, pohucal messages or rnmry dïspatches, we can broadly disïmguish two types In books, periodicals, and correspondence, thë convenience ofthe reader is the mare dîdera- mm, and ready vsual recogmtion ls ail-important. What îs most impor- tant about a script for hablmal and personal use is whether it ls adapted to rapatd transcription. For ths reason an increastag propomon of transcription m commerce, law-courts, and cortference is taken down :n scnpts which are not based on the alphabet, and havë been designed for speedy wntmg For such purposes ready recognition by anyone except the writer as of' secondary usefulness Roman writers of the age of Cicero were alîve to the îuconvenience
The Story o) the Alphabet, 87 of alphabetac wrtmg î'rom thas point of vaew, and used varous abbre- vxatons for partcles and other common elements of speech 3_ con- sstent system of shorthand s an Eghsh invention. The first attempt was ruade by Tmaothy Brght» wh dechoeted hs b(ok called Charac- terze» the art of short» swJt azd sccet wntzng to Ehzabeth m x588 Tunothy Bnght's system, wlnch was very dffficult to memorze» paved the way for others» notably 74h's Art of Stenography (z6oz). In x837, when Sr isaac Ptman perfected what s sll the most successful short- hand script "for the duson of knowledge among the maddle classes of socaety»" about vo huncked dererat sorts of short_hand had been put forward Shorthand as we kow t to-clay s the produc of many expermaents m whïch some of e most enhghtened Imgusts of the seventeeth and eaghteenth centunes took a hand If s the fivat of dose study of the ments or dements of dïfferent systems o wrtmg and typography m general use. Modern shorthand, hke Japanese scrîpt, s a synthess, lin so far as the basxc stramm s alphabetac» advantages of speed are due to the combmataon of three prmcaples, two of them suggeted by charac- tensncs of Semtac scnpts Oe xs that the letter symbols are smaple strokes, easfly oméd. We recogmze thêm by dzrectwn as opposëd to shape, tk second s that the vowels are detached 'rom the consonants» so that we can leave them out when domg so would lead to no doubt abaut the dentty of a word. The thrd s that arbatrary cambmataons of consonants or vowels gave place to a complete battery of szngle sgns m a consstenfly phonetac system. Ths phoneta¢ alphabet s only part o the set-up. There are syllable szgns for affaxes whach comtantly recur» and logograms for common words or phrases No tracts about the Real Preence, treauses en marginal utty and table-mï'nmg, af exposmons of thc Hegehn chalec and the Aryan wrtues are accessible m Morse Code or Shorthand echtons. St» srudents of Ianguage-planmng for the/kge of Plenty have some- thmg to leam 'zom the work of those who have contbuted ta such mventaons and from the efforts of those who bave worked to make the wntten record avaflable to the deaf and blmd Of the two fore- most poneers of larguage-planmng m the sevemeenth century» one» Georgë Dalgamo, was the inventor of a deaf-and-dumb alphabet, the other, Bshop Tflkans» put forward an early systêm of phonetc shorthand One result of early controverses over shorthand ystems was hvely mterest m the defects of spellmg, and hence m the sound- composmon of words /k evolutaonary atntude toanguage was hot
88 The Loom oj Language possible untd students of language began to study how the sound of a word changes m the course of a few generattons To orgamze prospenty on a world-wlde scale» we need to supplement the languages of local speech-commumues wïth an mternauonal medaum of chscourse Whether such a world-wde language wl eventuaïly chsplace ail others» we cannot say. What s certain s that such a change wfll hot happen ttll many centunes have elapsed In the meantmae» the most we can ama atts to make every cxtazen of the Age of Plenty bthngual, that xs to say, equally fluent m a home language, and m the common language of world cmzenshtp, or of some umt larger than the soverelgn states of the present day. Hardly less mportant ls another need. Few but experts reahze the Babel of scnpts m the modern world Many of them are tll-sulted for thelr purpose» labonous to leam and space-consummg. Non-explomve coLlaboraraon between ]East and West reqmres mtemauonal adopuon of the Roman alphabet, supplemented where necessary by adchuonal symbols. Lenm satd thts to coin.rade Agamaly-Ogly, presdent of the Central pan-Sovet Com- rmtteê of Nauonal Alphabets Romanïzaffon, there lies the great revolu- tzon of the East. Regulanzauon of script on a world-wlde scale s ahke prerequïste to hqmdauon of llhteracy m the Orient and worth-whJ.le spellmg reform m the West Spellmg reform xs long overdue; but t s nota purely nauonal affar, nor merely fle task of devasmg consxstent rules based on a priorz pnnctples. It must necessarily be a comprormse between confhctîng clmms--recogmton of language aflïnîues m the form of thë written word» presërvatton of structural uniformitiês, such as out plural -s, wch transgress phoneuc propnetiës, the chsadvantage of an unweldy battery of stgns and the undesxrabhty of settmg up an arbîtrary norm wthout due regard to dtalect dafferences * FURTHER READtNG GRIPPITII LLOI"D JENSN KARLRN TAYLOR THOM2SON The Stm y of Letters and Numberç Our Spoken Language Geschzchte der Schrzft Sound and Symbol m Chmese. Engltsh Phonencs The Alphabet. The AB C of our Alphabet * The International lnstztute of $ntellectual Co-opraton bas published a report (934), prefaed by Jespersen, on the promoraon of the use of the Roman alphabet among çeoples wth unsmtable scrpts or no script at ail
CHAPTER iii ACCIDENCE--THE TABLE MANNERS OF LANGUAGE M buflt hotels for celesual vis,tors before they devoted much m- genmty to ther own housing problems The temple observatones of the calendar pnests» and the palaces of ther supposedly sky-bom rulers» are among the earhest and are certamly the most endunng monuments of architecture In the dawn of cvzauon, when agri- culture had become an estabhshed pracuce» the mpulse to leave a record m bufldmg and m decorauon went hand m hand wth the need for a store-bouse of mghfly observations on the stars and a record of the flocks and crops. So wntmg of somê sort s the sgnal that cwhza- taon has begtm The begmmug of writmg s also the begmmng of out first-hand knowledge of language Ou fragmentary information about the speech-habts of rïlnkand extends over about 4,ooo of the 8,ooo or more years smce mè speech began We know nothmg about human speech between the urne when the upright ape first used sounds to co-operate m work or defence, and the umewhen people began to wnte. It xs therefore unwse to draw conclusmns about the bm.h of language from thë very short penod whïch furmshes us wth facts We can be certain of one thmg If we had necessary mformataon for tracmg the evoluuon of human speech m relation to human needs and man's changmg social enwronment, we should hot approach the task of classifyîng sounds as the orthodox grammanan does The recognitmn of words as umts of speech bas grown hand m hand wth the elaborauon of script In the prehterate mâllenma of the human story, socxal needs wluch prompted men to take statements to peces would anse ordy m couexton wth dculties of young chfldren, and thmugh contacts wth rmgrant or warrmg trïbes We can be qmte sure that primitive man used gestures hberally to convey tus meanmg So a classtficaton of the elements of lmguage appropnate to a primiuve level of human commumcatlon mïght plauskbly take shape m a fourfold dwson as follows * « Grammanans have oscillated bêtween two vews Accordîng to one» prtm- tve spêech was ruade up of chscrete monosyllables hke Ctunese. Under the influence of jespersen and has chscaples, the pendtllurn bas now swung to the
The Loom of Language (a) Subannves, or mchwdual words used for distinct oblects or events wluch can be mchcated by pomung at thmgs, 1 e such as out words dog or thunde»and at a later tage, for quahues of a group» such as red oi nozsy (b) Voanves, or short stgnals used to call forth some response, such as out word where?» top» run» corne» pull t, and namts or mdI- vtduals (c) Demonstrattves, or gcsture subsututes wlch chrect the attention of the lxstener to a parncular point in the stuatmn, e g that» here, behïnd, :n front. (d) Incorporatzveç, or rectauve combmalaons of sound used m rtual mcantauons wxthout any recogmuon of separate element correspondng to what we should call wordç. From a bologacal point of vew, t is reasonable to guess that the last antedate anyflamg we can properly call speech» that they take us back to the monkey-chorus of sundown when thë mosqutoes are about, that they perssted long afiêr the rccogmuon of separate words emerged out of acuve co-operaton m huntmg, fishmg, or buildmg, and that they were later refmed mto sequences of meamngful words by a process as adventmous as the mseruon of the vocables mto such a nursëry rhymë sequence as 'Hckory, dckoy» dock! The mouse tan up the dock .... " Perhaps we can recogmze the first separatë vocables in warnmg signais of the pack leader If so, the second class» or vocatmes, are the oldest sound elëments of co-opêration m mutuaily benëficml acuvmes. What seems almost certain xs thïs. Unul ï'nting forced people to examine moe closely the sgnfficance of the ounds they used, the recognitma of words was confined to sounds whîch thëy could assocïate with gesture opposlte extreme) and prumtwe spcech wathout dlscrete words. Thas sng-song vew hke nonsense wntten at one tme about so-called ,ncorporarve languages (e g. those of thë Mexacans or Greenlad Esqmmaux), and now chsproved by the work of Saper, s essentally a concocton of the smdy. it is the product of academe preoccupauon wth the works of poets or other forms of sacred composmon. Practeal bmlogsts or psychologsts bave fo gwe consideratïon: (a) fo how chdren, travellers» or zm.mgrants learn a language wlthout recourse to mterpreters and grammar- books» (b) to how hurnan speech dders from the chatter of mon.keys or the mmaeuc exploits of parrots. In contradastmcuon to such anmaal noses, human speech s above all an mstrtmaent of co-operauon in producuve toork or mutual defeace, and as such s partly made up of dtscretc sgnals for m&wdua/aczmns and mampulaton of separaze objccts. To thxs extent (sec p. 5z) the recogrutïon of mme sounds as words s presumably as oid as the first tiret instruments Conversely, other formal elcments wheh e also call words arc products of grammaucal eompanson. They do not emergê from the speech matrxx belote the wrltt¢n record compels closer analyses . (Evrroz)
A ccidence-- The Table Manners oj Language 9I Here wë are on speculauve ground It will hot be possable to get any further hght on the early evoluuon of speech ull anthropologsts bave ruade more progress an researches for w/mch Professor Malmowska bas ruade an eloquent plea * The point of vtew of the ptulologlst who deals only wlth remnant of dead languages must dtffer from that of the eflmographer who, de- prlved of the osmfied, xed data of nscrpuons, bas to rely on the hvmg reahty of spoken language zn fluxu The former bas to reconstruct the general stuauon, 1 e the culture of a past people, from the extant state- ments, fle latter c.an study chrectly the conchuons and sxtuanons charac- tersuc of a culture and lnterpret the statements through thêm Now I clmm that the ethaaographer's perspecuve ls the one relevant and real for the formauon of fundamental hngmsue conceptions and for the study of the hfe of languages . . For language m lts onglns bas been merely the free, spoken sure total of utterances such as we find now m a savage tongue Srudy o peech m backward commumtaes from thls point of wew as st111 mats mfancy. Many years must elapse beïore t Influences the tradition of language-teachmg m our schools and umversme$. Mean- whfle, the infant scïence of languagë cames a load of unnecessary antellecmal luggage from ats parental preoccupatlon wlth saered texts or ancient wîsdom. Grammar, as the classification of speech and wntmg habits, chd hOt begm because human bemgs were cxtrmus about their social eqtupment What ongmaHy prompted the study of Senmac (p. 42I), Hmdu (p. 4oS)--and to a large extent that of European-- grammar was the reqturements of ntual. Though the impact of bao- loglcal chscovery bas now forced European scholars to look at language from an evolutonary point of vaew» acadelmC trachtton bas never out- grown the hmltataons lmposed on It by the clrcumstances of" lts ongm ,Modern Eopean grammar began about the urne when the Pro- restant P, eformataon was m progress. Scholars were busy producing an open Bible for the common people, or translataons of texts by the pohttcal apologasts of the Greek clty state. Those who chd so were prîmarlly mterested m findmg tricks of expression correspondmg to Grëek and Latin models m modern European languages. Usually they had no lrmowledge of non-European languages, and, af they also knew languages now placed m the Sermdc group, gamed thear knowledge by applymg the classcal yardstack. It goes wathout saymg that they chd hot ¢lassffy ways of using words as they woald bave done if they had been interested m fmding out how Enghsh has changed smce the lame * Vïde The M.affng of Meamng, by C K. Ogdën and I A. Rchards
The Loom of Language of Alfred the Great. Smce thon a language, whlch once had many of the most characterlstlc features of Latin or Greek» bas changed past recogmuon. It now shares some of the most remarkable pecuharmes of Chanese. What schools used to teach as Engllsh grammar was really an mtro- ducnon to the lchosyncrasles of Laun It was hot concerned wlth the outstandmg charactensncs of the Enghsh language; and most educa- Uonlsts m Amenca or England now condemn tune wasted m the mental confusmn resultmg from trymg to fit the tncks of out own terse lchom mto ths foregn mould W1thout doubt iearmng grammar Is hot of much help to a person who wants to wrlte modern Enghsh. None the less, the so-called Erghsh grammar of tharty years ago had ts use. Other European languages whch belong to the saine great Iado- Eropean family as Bible Enghsh and Latin and Greëk, have hot travelled so far on the road whch Erghsh has traversed So knowledge of old-fashloned grammar dxd make t a httle easer to learn some pecuhannes of French, Gêrman» or other languages whach are sttll used Anyone who starts to larn one oft.hem wthout some knowledge of grammaucal terres meêts a large class of unnecessary ditficukies. The proper remêdy for ths is hot to go back to grammar of the old-fashîoned type, but to get a more general grasp of how Enghsh rësembles and dffers from othcr languages» what vcsugcs of spccch-habxts charactcr- suc of its nearest nëlghboms persïst in t» and what advantages or chsadvantages result from the way in whch it bas dve»gcd from them. To do thîs we shall need to equip ourselves wlth some techmcal terres. They are almost indispensable ff we want to leam foreign ianguages HOW WORDS GROW lqone of us needs to be told that we cannot wrte a foreign language, or even translate from one with accuraey, by usmg a dcuonary or learmng xts contents by heart. From a practical point of vxew, we can define grammar as the rules we need to know before we can use a dic- tïonary wth profit. So we shall take the dictîonary as out foundauon stone in thïs chapter and the next. We bave already seen that dic- tionanes of languages do hot contam ail vocables we commonly use. They incïudë certain classes of derîvatiwe « words and excludê others, « It i often mpossble to sày what xs roo and what s affïx» but many Enghsh words can be derived by addmg affEes hke -s, -ed or -mg to the dc- tonary form, In what foi]ows the Echtor suggcsts that wc hould speak of them as dcrxvatve of thc latter As cxplamcd m thc footnotc on p. 34, thls xs hot precïsely the way tu whch hngmsts use the word
Accidence--The Table Manners of Language 93 Thus an ordmary Enghsh dctionary which contains behave and beha- wour, does hot hst behaved, behaves, or behavmg The part of grammar called acczdence conslsts of rules for detectmg how to form such derlva- rives and how they affect the meamng of a dcuonary word whlch shares ttle same root Out first task must therefore be to recall (p. 53) how smgle words can grow , Fïrst ofall, they can do so by fusmg wIth one another or wlth meamng- ful affaxes (a) Because the meamng of file compound word (e g bnckyard) so formed s sufficiently suggested by the ordmary meamng of ts separate parts in a gtven context Tlus s a rock specially charac- tensttc of Teutorac languages, Greek and Cnese (b) Because two natave words constantly occur in the saine context and get glued together through shpshod pronunciataon, as m the shortened forms dont, wont, cam, shant for do hOt, wdl hot, can hot, hall hot, as also don (= do on) and doff (= do off) (c) Because an afftx (p 53) borrowed from another language Is attached to them» as the Laran ante- (belote) Is used m antenatal chmc, or the Greck antz- (agamst) in antz-fascst, ant-commrern, and amt-an ythtng-else-which-we-do-no t-hke It is useful to chsungmsh fusion due to speech-hablts, I e. (b) from fusion assocaated wlth meanmg, 1.e. (a) and (c). The word agglutznatzon refers to the former i.e. to fusmn ansmg from context and pronuncmtwn wzthout regard to meamng Once fusion bas begun another process begms to woik. The meanmg hke the form af a word part becomes blurred People get careless about the meamng of an afftx. Wë expect a word to end (or to begm) In the saine way, when we bave ruade a habit of usmg slmflar words wlth thê saine afflX m a smallar context. This leads to a habxt of tackang on the same afflX to new words without regard to ts original meanmg Havmg ruade a word mastodon, we add t_he -s of mastodons because we are used to treatmg ammals in thls way What grammanans call analogzcat extenswn mcludes tlus process of extendmg the use of an afflX by analogy wlth pre-eXlStmg words bmlt up in the saine way Cluldren and mmagrants (see p. 168), as well as nattve adults, take a hand in the way languages change for better or for worse. For instance, an Amencan or Bntlsh chald who s accustomed to saymg I caught» when he meallS that he has made lus catch, may also say the eggs haught for the eggs hatchêd; or, bemg more accustomed to addmg -ed» may say I catched for I caught. Tins process xs namensely mportant (see p 2o3) in buïldmg up new words or in challgmg old ones. We should therefore recogmze lts hrmtatlons at the outset.
94 The Loom oJ Language Analoglcal extenslon may explam what ls responslble for the ongm of the majonty of word-derlvatlves of a pamcular type. It carmot explain how the habit of bmlchng them up t,egEn People who make dlctlonarles do hot leave out all denvataves formed accord.mg to simple rules. The reason why some denvatives of the word bake» such as bake..house» baker or bateery are m Enghsh chctïon- ariês, whïle bakes, bakmg» or baked are hOt, has nothmg to do wth whether the raies for addmg -houle, -er» or -cry are more easy to apply than the mies for addmg -,-mg, or -(e)d We tan tack the enchng -e, now common to an enormous class of Damsh, German, and Enghsh vocables, on the dcuonary words wnte, fish, zng, or teach; but we can add thê suffax ed only to thê second (cf. wrote» fished, sang» or taught) Smce the way m whch the meamng of a word s aftcctcd by both afftxes s obwous, the fact dïat -er derivauves are m out dctlonanes, and that we do hot find flac -ed denvatves m them» shows t.hat pëople who compile dctmnanes do hot dêcde to 1cave out a vocable because the meanmg of the foot or chcuonary form and that of ts afftx are equally clear The real reason bas to do wth the orîgmal iob the gram- marians had to undertake. Broadly speakmg, t ls fls. Vocables are put m grammar books mstead of m dlcUOnanes because they correspond to the dass of denvauves most common m Laun or Greek. Grammanans cal1 such denvatves, or thexr aftîxês, flcxwm Flexion s of two hnds» mternal (foot inflexion) and ëxtenM (affxauon). The change from bmd to bound» or foot to feet flluslzates one type of iïxtemal flexion» e foot vowël change. Èxtemal flexlon, or true flexmn» whch s more common, s smply change of meaning by afftxes, hke the -ed m baked We do hot speak of flîxes as flexions when they are recog- mzable as borrowed elements or rehcs of separate native words, as m the enormous class of English denvatves wth the common afflx -ly m happdy or probably, correspondmg to -lich m German, -hk m Dutch, -ltk m Swechsh, -lzg m Damsh or Norwegaan. Whêthër denvaravês formed by addmg atfixes are callecl flexions depends largcly on whether they correspond to derivatives formed from a foot wlth the same memig m Latin or Greek Accoxdmg to the way m wbach denvauves modify ts meamng» or are dtctated by tlae context of, a mot, grammamns rëfer to dîfferent classes most charactenstm of the sacrëd indo-European Languagcs, i.e. Laun, Greek, and Smaskrit, as flextons of number, tense, po'son, companson, voice, case, mood, and g¢nder. We can classxfy foot words of Latin, Greek, and Sansknt accordmg to wtuch of two or more classes of
Accdence--The Table Manners oJ Language 95 these derlvatlves they form OEhus nouns and pronouns bave number and case flexion; e;erbs bave tense» persoi1, volce, and mood flextons. Words whch do hot bave such delavatives are called partzcles. The chstmctlon between these classes would be meanmgless, if we trled to apply It to Ctlmese For reasons whlch we shall now see, it is almost meanmgless when we try to clas$1fy Enghsh words m the skme way. The number of flexaonal denvatves m the older languages of the Indo-European famfly ls enormous. In Enghsh comparable denvatlves are relatlvely few, and are chlefly confined to flexons of number, tlme, person, and companson. Formataon of file dervattve bouses (external) or i, ce (interna.l) from house or louse fllustrates flexion of number. The derïvattves bound (mternal) and looed (extemal) from b2nd and loe lllustrate tense flexion Person flexlolx turns up only m the adchtton of -s to a verb e g the chaïlge as from bmd to bznds. Comparlson as the denvatlon of happer and happzest, or zvzser and wzsest, from happy and wse Enghsh bas a few rehcs oi case (e g he» hzm, hzs), and a r.race of mood (p. 119) flexion Flemon of gellder bas chsappeared altogether» and volce flexion never exlsted m out own Ianguage Knowmg the names for the flexaons does hot hêlp us to speak or to wnte correct Enghsh, because few survive, and we learn these few m chfldhood. What It does help us to do is to learn languages m wtltch the flextonal system of the old Indo-European languages bas dëcayed far less than in Enghsh or m ts Eastem counterpart, modern Persan. The study of how they bave arisen, and of circumstances whlch bave contn- buted to thelr decay, also helps us to see characteristms to mcorporate in a wofld mechum wb.xch ls easy to leam wlthout bemg hable to ims- understanding. FLEXION OF PERSON It ls best to start wth flexaons of pêrson and tense, because we bave more mformatïou about the way m whïch such flexaons bave ansen or can anse than we have about the ongln of number, case, gender, and comparson PêlSOn flexion s probably the older of thc two. Smce somethmg of the saine sort Is croppmg up agam (p. 99), t xs easy to guess how It began. Unhke tense, volce, number, and comparlson, flexion of person ls absolutcly usetess m many modern European lan- guages. AI1 that remams of it in out owr language ls the final s ofa verb whlch foLlows certain words such as he, she, zt» or the names of single thmgs» hvmg bemgs» g:oups or qualîtles, e g. m such more or less mtelhgable statemems as he bakês» she types, or love conquers all. The
96 The Loom oJ Language denvattve forms bakes» types or conquers» are chctated by context m accordance wth the convenuons of out language The final -s adds ilotbang necessary to the meamng of a statement. Thls flexaon ls out only survvmg rehc of a much more comphcated system In the Enghsh of Affred the Great» and Stlll extant m most European languages To understand its importance m connexton wth correct usage m many other languages» we have to chsungmsh a class of words caLled personal pronoum Smce the numbër of" them ls sma11» tins is hot chfficult. Excludmg the possesswe forms mme» ours» etc» the personal pronouns are:---/or me» we or s» you» he or hzm, she or he » #» and they or hem I or me and we or us are modestly called pronouns of the Jzrst person, you ls the Enghsh pronoun of" the second person» and he or hzm» she or ber» zt» they or them are pzonouns of the thzd person The pronouns of the fit person stand for, or mclude the person makmg a statement The pronoun of" the second person tands for the person or persons whom we addes% and the pronouns of the thrd pet, on stand for the persons or thmgs about whom or abou which we make a statemem or ask a question To make room for all the fleraons oï person m foregm languages» we hav to go a stage fuÆther m classfymg pronouns If the statemellt s about one person or thmg» the pronoun whtch stands for ït s smgular; if it ls about more than one peson or thmg the ponoun i sad tobe plural. Thus I and me are pronouns of thc first pcrson smgular; we and u pronouns of first përson plural. He and hzm, she and ber, togêther wlth t, are pronouns of the thïrd person smgular, and they or them are pronouns of the thlrd person plural. In modcrn Englîsh or, as we ought to say and as we shall say in future when we want to chstmgmsh ït from Bible Enghsh» in Anglo-Amencan, there is oniy onê pronoun of the second person smgular or plural In the Bble Enghsh ofMayfloïver days therc were two. Thou and thee were the pronouns of the second person singular» and ye was for converse wlth more than one person. Thou s de rigueur m churches as the pronoun of address for a threefold deIty Orthodox members of thc Sooety of Friends use thee when speakïng to onê another. When ordmary people stïll used thou» there was another flexaon of person. They satd thou speakest in contra- distîncuon to ygu spëak or he speaks. Classxficauon of the personal ronoïms in thïs way would be quïte pomtless if ëverybody used Anglo-Amencan We can appreclate its usoEulucss ff wc compare Anglo-Amcrîcan and French cqmvalcms on p. 35. Thc sn'nplc Enghsh rulc for the surwvxng -# flexion îs thîs.
Acddence--The Table Manners o/ Language 97 We use It only when a word such as speak, love, type, wnte, bake, or conter follows he, she, or it, or the naine of any oengle person, quahty, group» or thmg wlch can be replaced by zt The example on p 35 shows OEat there are rive cherent personal forms of the French verb, or class to whch such words as love belong. In more old-fashmned languages the verb foot bas ail sx OEerent denvatlves correspond_mg to the singular and plural forms of all the personal pronouns or to the names they can replace Thus r.he correspondmg forms of the eqmvalent Itahan verb are (lo) do I glve (no) chamo we glve (tu) dal thou gxvest (voï) date you gave (egh) dà he glves (esse) danno they glve The Damsh equivalent for ail fllese denvauve forms of the Itahan roo da- present m out words donatwn or datzve ls gzv«r Tbas s just the saine whether the Danash (or Norweglan) eqmvalent of I, we, thou, you, hè, she, zt, or they stands m front of, or as m a questaon, mmedaately after lt. Smce Danes, who produce good beer and good bacon, have no përsonal flexlons, and smce Bên;amm Frankhn could dlscuss electnclty with only one, t s hot obwous that tlae rive of Voltaxre's French are really necessary tools. If we do hot wlsh to encourage the accumulauon of uamecessary hnguisuc luggage, t s therefore mstrucuve to knw how people collected them. The first step s to go back to fle common ancestor of French and Itahan The table on p 98 furmshes a duc One thmg the table exhbts ls tbas It was hot customary to use the përsonal pronoun equvalent to I, he, we, etc, m the older languagês of the Indo-European farmly. The echng attachëd to the verb really had a use. If had to do thêob now done by puttmg the pronoun m front of if. So the endmg m modern descendams of such languages s merely the relic of what once chd the lob of the pronoun Thas lêads us to ask how the ending came to do so A clue to a saasfactory answer s aiso m the table, whach exposes a stnkmg famaJy resembhnce amog the endmgs of the older verbs of the Indo-European famfly Of the rive older representauves, four bave the suffx MI for the form o£ the verb whch corresponds to the flrst person sfi3gular.* Ths at once rermnds you of the Enghsh pronoun nze, whch replaces the first persou I when t cornes after the verb m a plain statement Out table (p 99) o * The êxcepuon ls .tm wth the terminal -O. The Latin I ts ego, shortened m Itaha to w, Spamsh
98 Tïe Loom o La..,guage
A ccidence-- The Table Manner« oj Language 99 con espondmg pronotms of sêveral langua.ges placed in the Indo- European group, encourages as to behêve that dae correspondence between the Enghsh ponoun ME and the endmg MI ls hot a mere accident The meanmg of thïs comcldence would bë more dffficult to under- FAMILY RESEMBLANCE OF ARYAN PRONOUNS ME ACC Dat GAELIC MI Acc TU Dat Acc SlNN Dat YA MENYA M_NE TI TEBYA TEBE MI NAS NAM ITALIAN « IO 1 ME TU } TE 1 NOI LA£IN EGO MHI ru TL TIP, I NOS NOBIS EARLY GIU:I:K ' EGO ML MOI TU TE TOI NO NON ICELANDIC LG or JEG MIG MJER rHIG THJLR VJER t OSS stand if it were not due to a process whlch we cou see at work tu Anglo= Amencan ai thê present day. When we speak qmcldy, we do not say I ara, you are, he s. Wë say l'm, you're, he's, and Bernard Shaw spells r.hem as the smgle words Im, youre, hes. Thê fact that the agglutmâtmg, or glmng on of the pronoun, takes place m ths order neëd hot bother us, bec.ame the habxt of mvanably puttang the pronotm belote the verb ls a new one. In Bible Enghsh we commonly meet wlth construcïaom such as thus spake he. Even m modem speech we say ezyou. In certmn ctrcumstances this inversion generally occurs in othër Teutomc lan- guages as in Bxble Enghsh. It was once a traffic rule ofthe Aryan famfly; * The Itahan forms are the stressed ones (p 363) The later Greek forms of tu, te rot were su, se, so, Thë Greek NO, NON are dual forms (p lO9) The correspondmg plural iorms m Donc Greek were bernes, heme, hermn The first xs comparable to the Russmn Mr and to the first person plarM ternunal of the Greeko Laun, or Sansknt verb
IOO The Loom oJ Language and It ls sull customary in one group of Aryan languages. This group, called the Celnc famfly, ïurmshes suggesuve ewdence for the behef that the personal flexlons whlch do the work of the absent pronoun m Laun or Greek were orlgmally separate pronouns placed after ride verb The Geluc languages, whmh m¢lude Welsh, Gaeh% Insh, and Breton bave several pecuharmes (p. 46) whch chstlngulsh t.hem from all other mêmbêrs of the Indo-European group In Geluc languages, words whïch are eqmvalent fo a Latin "verb" may or may hot have personal flemons In Old hsh, as, whch corresponds to out s (spelt m the same way m Erse, e modetn Irlsl 0 bas two form% onê used wth the pronoun phzced a.tter t, and a contracted form corrêsponchng to out i'm (= 'ts me who) m wluch wê can recogmzë the aggluùnated part as we sull recogmze the hot m dont, shant, wont, or cant The two forms are in the table bdow I IOE HUANIAN etl _.. BIBI L INGLIMt I az/ thon art h « We must not conclude that the Celuc vcrb ls more pnmmve than the Sanskrit Str George G1mrson has shown that modern Inchc dialects bave slo.ughed off person flemons and subsequently replaced thym by new pronoun suifixes Smce pronouns are the most conservauvë words ofthe Indo-Europêan fund of vocables, the rësuh may bê very much like the precedmg inflected form. The Enghsh ara and as do hOt corne &rectly from the speech of the early Bntons. Out Enghsh IS ls one form of a common Aryan foot, IS, ES, or AS, wluch also turns up m Greek and in Latin, as m Sansknt and Lithuanïan. in Welsh t ls hot mflectêd whën spek OES There must have been sevëral prirmuve Aryan 'root-words corresponchng to what grammarians call "parts of the vërb to be » (in Enghsh, am, û, are, was, were, be, bdng, been). The English or Erse am or tm s an agglutmauve contraction from the ES foot, hke the German smd (Latin sunt) The BE-BA-BO-BU foot of being and been tums up agam in Rusman, Welsh, or Gaelic, and m the Gennan and Dutch ich tnn or k hen (I am). The AR-ER foot which
Accidence--The Table Maz2ers o.f Language oI 0
o2 The Loom oJ Lazguage turns up m are, ls the smgle umnflected form er of the Damsh ol Norweglan "present tense" glven above We meet t agam m the Laun mperfect (p Io5) What ls most çharacterlsuc of tbe Teutomc group s flac WAS-WAR foot correspondmg to out Enghsh was and were The modem forms of the verb to bê m languages most closely alhed to Enghsh are m the table below Thosc of languages nearest to French are on p r83 If we go back to Old Enghsh, to Old Norse, and to thë earhest known Teutomc language, whch s the Gothlc of the Bible trauslated by Blshop Ulfils somewhere about .i). 35 o, the sharp contrast between the forms used m contemporary Teutonic and Romance languages s blurr¢d. The next table shows this' FOSSIL FORMS OF THE PRESENT TENSE OF TO BU, I ara thou af t he s we you are they arc' LATE,, est GOT;IIC sup ,lrd cm OLD FNGLISH ara or bom(beo) af)» bt Sllt or arort Aggluunauon of pronoum o other words s a vcry chaactctsac fcamre of the Celtïc langamges In al1 of them pronouns also form contractcd dcnvauves by fuston wth &rectzvës (propositions), .c. such words as wth, zn, to» from. Welsh bas two forms of the first personal pronoun» mi and fb recogmzable m corzespondïng pcrsonal flexîons of the preposiuons, ë.g. a (to or into) - m - ,m (to me) at (fo or towards) t- fi ataf (fo me) Thc tenscs of the old Aryan be vcrb in ts Wclsh form (BOD) have two correspondmg types o flexion în the first person sngular. Wc recogmze thcm wxthout diffieulty m the cndmgs of' bure --- Iwas byddaf ---- i sha]lbe Any doubt about the meanmg of tlus coîncadence disappears whcn we compare them with the corresponchng forms ofthe second person plural The Welsh foryou is chw and thë Welsh for ghey is hwyng. The aggluti- native character of the personal flexion is therefore unn:nstakabl m: danoch, under you danynr, under them buoch» you wcre buont, thcy wcre byddwch, you wïll be byddant, thêy wxll bë
Accidence--The Table Manners oJ Language IO3 Though the Welsh use thelr verb to be of the wrkten Ianguage with- out a separate pronoun, they usuall3 msert a pronoun afer It m speech. The necessmes of dallymtercoure compensate for the supposluuous ments of a flemonal system when lts agglutmauve ongïn ls no longer recogmzable to anybody except the grammanan. The need is greater wheu a language Is ïmposed on a conquered people, or adopted by lts conquerors. The absent pronoun of wntten Latin hs come back m daughter chalect, French TENS ON Tense flexaon, jllustrated by the denvatave forms loved or gave, may be external or mtemal. We call the Enghsh chctionary form (e.g. love or grve) the present in contrachstmctaon to the denvauve past form. The words past and present suggest that tense flexaon dates an occurrence. Thls would be a true description of what the French future tense (p. to5) enchngs do. It ls hot an accuraLe description of what the cholce of our Enghsh present tense form dees m she plays the pzano If we want to date the occurrence as present, we do not use the so-called present tense form We resort to the roundabout expression: he zs playing the tnano. In reahty the tense forms of a verb have no smgle clear-cut functîon To a greater or less extent in dlfferent European languages two distinct funcuons blend One ïs the tme chstmcnon between pas% present, and future. The other» more promment m Enghsh, especially m Russlan and in Celtac languages, ls what gram- manans cal1 aspect Aspect mcludes the distinction between what Is habltual or ls gomg on (mperfect) and what ls over and done wïth (perfect) Thas ls the esséntml chfference mvolved m the choice of tense forms in the followmg (a) rhe ea th move round the çun (unperfect) (b) he moved the paz'n to qzteen four (perfect) The last two examples nught suggest that the dïstmcuon betweên the meanmg of the smaple present and past tense forms of Enghsh is stmightforward. Thls ls not true We împly future actaon when we use the present tense form m. I sadfor Nanmcket af noon We lmply know- ledgë of the past when we use the present in he often goes to Paris. The parttde often and the expression ai noon date the actîon or tel1 us whether it is a habltual occurrence In fact we rely, and those who speak other European languages rely more and more, on roundabout expressmns to do what tense flexaon supposedly does.
o4 The Loom o Language Such roundabout expresstons are of two kmds. We may stmply, as m the last examples, msert some quahfymg expression or partlcle wbach denotes tïme (e g formerly, now, mon), or aspect (e g once, habtuall.y) Altematïvely we may use the construction known as a compound tense by combmmg a helper wth the dlctlonary form of the verb (e.g)[ shall ng) or wth one of two dervauves called the present and past partzciples The present parucaple of Enghsh verbs Is the -mg denvatlve, as in I ara szngzng. The paçt parraople ls the corrêspondmg form m I have sung. We can use both to quahfy a noun, e g a smgmg btrd or an oft-sung song Ail Enghsh verbs (except some helpers) bave an -zng derlvatave Verbs whlch take the -ed or -t sufhx have one form wbah we can use to quahfy a noun (e g a loved one), as the simple past tensê form (e g. she loved hm) or wth helpërs (e g she had loved htm or she is loved) in Anglo-mencan usage the Chmese trick of relying on parucles often overïndes the dtstmctton othervnse inherent m the use of the helper verb, as m. (a) I ara lêavzng to-rnorrow, (b) I ara constantly leaving my bat behznd There s therefore not.hmg surpnsmg about the fact that so few of us notice t when we have no tense fleraon to le.an on. A student of social statastacs ftnds hunsêlf (or herself) at no dsadvantagc because the verb m the followmg sentënces lacks presexat and past dstmctton' Oars cost x dollars a bushel to.day Oas cost y dollars a bushel last fmi Indeed, few people who peak the Anglo-Amencan language realîze how often they use such verbs every day of ther hves. Below s a list of common verbs whch have only three forms: the dtctionary verb, its -mg derivalave and thê -s denvatav of thê thxrd person sigular prêsent' ber cost hurt qut shed spht burst eut let rd shut pred cast ht put çct sht thrust The foregner who wlshes to leam thë languagê of Fran¢is Bacon and Benarmn Fraaklin bas nothing more to lêam about t.hem» and the tïme of young chïldren s hOt wasted wth efforts to memorize such anomahes as: gtvc gave gvën smg sang sung hvc hvcd livcd brmg brought brought Fortunately most English vcrbs arc weak. That îs to say thcy have ïngle past derivattve wtth thë sufftx -ed (or -t) addcd to thc dictîonary
Accidence--The Table Mamzers of Language form, as m placed or dreamt. Thas corresponds to the German tetrninal -te (schnarchte = snored) or -ete (re&te = spoke). In Gotlaac, the oldest known Teutomc language, we meet such forms as sokzda (I sought), and sokMedum (we sought) Some phflologsts beheve that ths ls an agglutmaraon of the saine foot as German tun» and Enghsh do wlth the verb foot It ls as if we saïd in Enghsh I seek&d (= 1 &d seek), or m German zch suchetat In some hayseed chstncts a smalar combmaraon (e g. he &d say =: he saM) s qulte customary Th example below shows the old Enghsh past of the verb andswenan (to answer) and how t ma3, bave corne about by contracuon wlth dyd¢ (châ) if ths vew Is correct f I andswcrïan ÷ dyde = andswerede Sng. II andswerma ÷ dydest = andsweredest III andswenan ÷ dyde = andswerede Plual (ail persons) andswenzn ÷ dydon = andsweredon The Enghsh verb of Harold »t the Barde of Hastmgs had personal flemons of the past as of the present forms Ail such personal flexaons correspondmg to a pamcular class of urne or aspect denvaaves make up what is called a smgle tense. In Slavomc, Celfic, and Teutomc languages» as m Enghsh, there are two smaple tenses, correspondmg more or less to out present and past. Some of the ancaent Indo-European languagës and the modêm descendants of Latin bave a much more elaborate system of derwatives sgamg dtfferences of tmae or aspect. Th followmg ble shows that Latin verbs have sx forrns of tense flemon, each wth ts own soE flexaons of person and number» makmg up s tenses» respectavely caïled (1) pesem, (n) past unperfect, (m) »ast perfect, (v) pluperfect, (v)futu e, and (w)future perfec¢ French, I &TIN () amo (u) amabm (iv) amaveram (V) amabo (v:O amavero )'aimais allTlal 'm amaé 'avais aimé 'amaerm 'aa amaé ANGLO-AMERICAN love ara lovmg used to love chd love was lovmg loved (bave) loved had loved shall love shall bave ioved
106 The Loom of Lnguage Spamsh, and itahan have wo pas tcnss and one fue, mMang çour m al] One of the Freach pasr enscs bas died ou m converssuon Tlxe cxsmplcs cted show that OEe French çue ls not much hke the tm çorm The lamr ceased m be used in the la,er days of c Roman Empe It lde way for l&om alogous to out way of explcssmg e acon when we say. "I bave to go o to to-morrow » Ts is ust what t Au,arme docs Wng about e comg of e g- dom of God, he declarcs, pctam aut non petant vemre het (wheNer they ask or do hot ask, t w corne) Thc combmao of the ve venzre (fo corne) w flae tonton yan bave verb (tze m ) means what c French or e Rahan futée conveys m a slgh@ more compact tbma. Fusmn took place m the modem descendants of You ste tNs ff you compare the flexmns of OEe prcsent tense of OEe Fench verb "to have" w tLe future torms The present tense of OEe verb bave m Frcnch s as foows PLR8ON $INGIJIa PLURAL z (I') a Ihave (nous) avons wc ] 2 (tu) as youhavc (vous) avez you havc 3. (ff) a he bas (ris) ont thcy We can gët four out of the six personal forma of tlae French future tense by mmply adding the appropnate forma of the presnt have to the "mfimtve" form amer (to love) as follows. auner t- a --- armerai miner + (av)ons aimerons amaer + as =-armeras amaer + (av)ez -- ramerez amaer -t- a =. attnera amer + ont ---- amaeront This example, representauve of the ongtn of the future tense and conclttaonal mood forma of the verb in other modern Romance chàlects (P, 339), shows that tensê flêxaon, hke fléxaon or person, tan ortgmate from a process of contracUon lflçe what we seë at work zn such words as you're and don'r it s hkely tlmt the Latin plupetïecoE and future perfect enchngs correspond to personal derzvauves of the are foot of out verb fo be. because all ther endmgs arc tdênucal wxth correspondmg personal forma of tênscs of xt Laun eqmvalcnt tacked on to the same stem» e amczv in the example clted To miyone who xs Enghsh-speaking thïs fs hot su.rprzsng, bccausc we use out verb fo be m cxpreqmons which sxgmfy past mad future ttmc, c g I was commg or I ara gomg Indeéd it ïa hOt tmprobabiê tlxtt flê lt root turns up m thc past ïmpërtect (e.g. amabam) and the simple future (e g. amabo) Tensë flexions wth the saine common meamng may have begun by agglutinauon of the foot to &fferent elements wl'ach decay fo a greater
Accidence--The 1"able Manners of Langzge o7 or less extent because of the dflîculnes of pronotmcmg them dsmctly m a ew context Thas would explam why languages rmh in such denvattves generally bave several -pes of tense formattor The irregu- larmes of the Enghsh strong verb, whch bas few smvmg flexaons, sufficienfly tllustrate the dïfficulaes to whmh such irregulanttes gve nse when a foregner tries to leam a language The forms ofthe Enghsh verb (mcludmg the -ing denvarave) are typïcaily four in number (e.g. say, says» saymg, sazd), or at most fie, m strong verbs whmh bave mternal flexton (e g gwe, gwe, gtwmg, gawe and gwen) The Latin verb foot has over a hundred flextonal denvattves In Enghsh there are many vërb famdtès such as love-sheve-proe, dnnk-smg-swtm, thmk-catch-teadz, of whch the first mcludes moe than nmety-five per cent Grammarmn put Latin verbs m one or other of fore drfferent famlhes called conjugawns, of whtch thê thïrd s a îmscellany of rregulanttes There are also many excepttonal ones that do hot follow the rules of any conugaton. So t s hot surprismg that the flexaonal system of Latin began to wflt when Roman solchers med to converse wlth nattves of Gaul, or that t wthered after Germamc tnbes invaded italy, France, and the ibenan Penmsula. Personal endmgs were blurred, and roundabout ways of expressmg the saine thmg replaced tense denvattves. Ou last table shows dïat we can express the meanmg of sx Latin tenses by combmmg out helpers be, bave, shaI1, wlth thë -ed (loved) or -en (gzven) form (past partzcTple), wth the combmatlon to and the dtctlonary verb, or wlth the -zng form Smce there can be no dlfference of opinion about whether an anatytzcal language, wtlich expresses rame, aspect, and personal relations m thas way xs more easy to leam than a synthêtc (1 e. flexaonal) language, it is important to ask whether Europe lost anytlung m the process of smaplcatlon. Clearly there is no tragedy m the removal of an overgrowth of mts- prommclatlon that led to flexton of person Slmxlar remarks apply wlth equal force to the loss of tense flexaon Thê fine dlstmctlons of rime or aspect which old-fashioned grammarlans detect m the tense flexïons of a language such as Latin or Greek hav very htrle relation to the way m whîch a sclentïfic worker reoerds tlae correspondence of evelltS when he s concemed with the order in which they occur; and few tense distrac- tions of meanmg are clear-cut. It Is sheer nonsense to pretend that pre- wsion of modem scxentlfic ldeas about process and reahty guideà the evolutton of the seven hundred or more disgulses of a smgle Sanskrit verb foot Tenses took shape in the !erterless begummgs of language
o8 The Loom of Language among clocldess people mto whosë nomachc expenence the sun-dals and clepsydras of the ancrent Medterranean pnesthoods had hot yet mtruded. Agam and again htstory bas pronounced ts ludgment upon the ments of such flexions m culture contacts through trade, conquest, or the nugrauons of peoplês Intemauonal mtercourse compels those who speak an inflected language to mtroduce the words whach make the fleraons useless If the flexaons perslst as mummes m the mausoleum of a natton's hterature a large part of ts mteLlectual energy s devoted to the pursmt of grammatical studes whach are merely obstrucuve» wbale thè gap between popular speech and that of ghly educated pèople prevents the spread of techmcal knowledge essenual to mtelhgent cmzenslup In nearly (see p. 419) all languages of the Indo-Eropean famïly personal flexaon xs confined to the class of words called verbs, and tense flemon s exclusvely charactenstlc of them We can sull recogmze as verbs some Enghsh words whach bave no tense flexaon by the personal êndmg» -s, as in cutç» or -zng» as n hurttng, but some helpers (maN» can» shall) bave nexther -s nor -mg foms Thë outhnes of the verb as a class of tnglish wozds bave now becorne famt in wrtten Swedtsh, the verb bas one enàmg common to r.he first, second, and tbard person smgular and anot.he endlng common to the first» second, and t.bard person plual This process of levelhng s sull gong on m Swedsh Only the smgular endmg ls customanly used m speech or corcspondence Thcre is no trace of personal flexion m Damsh and Norwegmn. NUMBER Owtng to accdental unfforrmucs whïch have accompanied thë levellmg down of the personal flexion, grammar books somettrnes rêfer to the nurnber itexton of the verb. Vîhat s more propêrly called number flexion ts charactenstic of thë class of words caHed nouns. In most modern European languages, number flexaon, îllustrated by the chs- tinctaon between ghost and ghosts» or man and men, simply tells us whether we are talkmg of one or more than one creature, thïng, qualîty, or group. The terres smgular and plural stand for the tv¢o forms. Thë smgular form s the dtctionary word: Some of the older Indo-Europeaa languagës, ë.g. Sansknt and early Greek» had dual forms, as xf wê were to write catwo for two cats, m contradisuncUon to one car or sevëral cats. in the Enghsh spoken at the ae of J£red thë Great, the personal pronoun sull had dual, as well as singuhr and plural forms. The dual form persxsts in Icelandic, whîch is a survivmg fossîl language, as the du-btll platypus of Tasmania s a survvïng fossïl animal. At orne tîme
Accidence--The Table Manners of Language fo9 ail the Indo-European languages had dual forms of the pronouns. The ensumg table shows the Icelandlc and Old Enghsh altematlves. At an early date the hard Germamc g of Enghsh softened to y, as in many Swechsh words. The pronunclauon ofgzt and ge became yzt andye. The latter was StlLl the plural pronoun of address m Mayflower Enghsh. Dual Plural Dual Plural Dual Plural Dual Plural Dual Plural Dual Plural ICELANDIC vcr oldur oss okkar 'gor pjer ykkur y6ur yldar ySal ANGLO-AMERICAN we (two) we (ail) us (both) us (ai1) oul's ORES you (two) you (all) you (both) you (ail) yours yours OLD ENGLIStt Wlt we UrlClt us ule gt ge lnclt eow lncer eower Dual forms of the pronoun are wadely chstnbuted among earher representauves of dlffcrem language fmfl_es and among hvmg dlalects of a few backward commumues So it ls hOt surpnsmg that distinctive dual personal flexîons of the verb occur also, e.g. in Sanskrit, early Greek, Gothlc Though we meet them both in the old Aryan languages, dual forms of the noun and of the adjecuve whtch goes wlth t are less wldely spread than those of the pronoun. Dual forms of one sort or the other now survxve only m techmcally backward or lsolated commum- ues. They chsappeared m Greëk in the fourth century B.C., and no dlstmcuve dual forms are round m the earhest Laun. They have per- mstcd m Lthuaman chalects of the western Aryan group, m thc Amhanc of Abyssmaa wthm the Semluc ïamdy, and in two remote chalects of the Fmo-Ugnan (.p. I97) clan. Separate dual and plural forms or the pronoun may go back to a urne when many human bemgs hved xn scattered and xsolated house- holds ruade up of two adults and of ther progeny. At ttus pnrmnve lêvel of culture the stock m trade of words ls small, and a relanvely consder- able proporuon would refer to ttungs wtuch go xn profs, e g horns, eyeç» ears, hands, feet, arms, legs, breasts. If so the chstmcuon may have m- fected other parts of speech by analogxcal extensmn The rate o the two pronoun classes throws hght on the fact that the famfly hkeness
II0 The Loom oJ Language o£ Aryan pronouns and verb flemons o£ the smgu]ar s far less apparent m corresponchng plural £orms. In the everyday speech o£ Iceland and of the Faeroes the dual now replaces the plutal ïorm o£ the personal pronoun» and one Bavarmn chalect has enk (equlvalent to our O]d Enghsh me) £or the usual German accustlve plural ez«ch corresponchng to the mumate nonunauve plutal hr (p zz6). OElus means tlat wha s now called the plural form oï a personal pronoun or personal flexmn of an Aryan verb may really be what was once a dual £orm (cf Lar_m plural nos (we)» Greek dual noz» and pluml hemezç ) The number flemon -s of houe s hOt usclcss, as s the pesonal -s of bakes» nor pretennous lrke t.ke luxuriant Laun tense dsunctons. Ttns does hot mean that t s an essenual o even tmîversal feature of language Some Enghsh name-words, such as sheep and grouse, and a much larger class of modem Swechsh words (mcïudmg all nouns of the baker-fiçher class and neuter monosyllbles) are hke thezr Chmese or Japanese eqmvalents Tbat s to say, they bave no scparate plural form. The absence of a chsunctive plural form s hot a senous mconveraence. If a fisherman has occasmn to emphasze the fact that he has caught one trout, the mseruon of rhe number nself, or of flac "mdefimte article" before the mme of the fish, solves the problem m sporting crcles, where the number flexion s habtually shot off gaine. Nmnber flexion does hot gxvê nse to great dtflcultïes Ibr anyone who does hot already know how to write Eughsh. Nearly al] Engltsh nouns form thezr plural by addmg-s or replacmg:y an, d o by -ïcç and -oes. As m other Gërmanic languages, there s a class with the plural flexion in -en (e g. oxen), and a class wth plutals formed by înternal vowel change (touse, mouse, goose, man) The grand total of these exceptions is less than a dozen. They do hot tax thë memory. So we should hot gara much by getting md of number flexion. COMPARISONm AND ADOERB D]RtVATION The saine s true of another vêry regnalar and useful, though by no meam mchspensable, fleraon called companson. Thïs is oenfined to, and m Enghsh is the only. dlstmguishmg mark of, some members of the class of words called adjectes. The Enghsh eqmvalent of a Laun or German adjecuve had already lost other flexions before thê Tudor rimes. We make the two derîvauves» respectîvely called the comparatiwe and superlative form of the adjecuvc as listed in thc dictionary by adding -er (comparative), and -eçt (superlatze), as la knder and kindest. There are but few irregtnties, e.g. good--better--best, bad--orse-- oorst» man or muh--more--most. With these three oummudîng
Acddence--The Table Manners o.f Language I X I exceptions, use of such dervauves has ceased to be obhgatory in Anglo-Amerlcan: it ls qmte possible that thêy wdl eventually make way for the roundabout expresslons fl]ustrated by mcn e firm, or the most firm. We do hot use a comparative or superlatïve form of long adjectlves wktch stand for qualmes such as wspztabtê. Smce gram- marlans also use the word adjectzve for numbexs, pomter-words (sach as thzs, that» eazh), and other vocables whtch do hOt fore1 flex:onal denvatives of tkts class, no clear-cut defalition of an adjecave s apph- cable to a rattona[ classfficataon of the Anglo-Amerlcan vocabulary. The monosyllables more and most m the roundabout expessïons that are squeezmg out flexion of comparlson m Anglo-Ameman are eqmvalent to words wbach bave almost cômpletely superseded it fil the modem descendant, of Latin. They are examples of a group of partlclês called adverbs» mcludmg also such words as new, oon, very, almost» quzte, rather, rzell, seldom, and already We use words of thls class to hmat, emphaslze, or otherwlse quahfy thë me2almg of a typlcal adjectlve such as happy. We can also use such words to quahfy the meanmg of a verb» as in to lzve well» fo speak dl, to eat enough, or almo, t to a,ozd. The dass of Ellghsh words whlch form fleraonal dëIlvatives in -er and -est generally form others by addmg Iy, as m happdy» firmly, steeply. We use such derïvattves m the saine way as adverblal parucles Thus we speak of an mchvidual on whom we tan depead as a really rehable person These aàverblal denvanves are troublesome to a foreigner for two reasons One ls that the sufflx -ly ls occaslonally (as orlgmally) attached to words whlch bave the characterisracs of nouns, e g. in manly, godly, or spnghtly (origmally pte-hke or fazry-hke). Unhke happdy or firmly, such denvatlves ca be used in front of a noun, as in Shaw's manly women and womanly men Another dffficulty for fle forelgner ls that the adverblal flexion ïs dïsappearmg Such expressmns as to szer long, or to run fast» ae good Bible Eglh, and Ehzabethan gram- marl&ils who gave thexr benech¢ tion to a goodly henmge dId hot pu[ a fence of baxbed wlre arounà thc adverblal sax. If we accept the expression to run fast we ought hot to rexst corne quzck» or to oblect to the undergraduate headhne» Magdalen man makes good ( c. the Duke of Windsor bas been promoted by thë death of hls father). No reason- able man wams to surfer l«ngthdy Enghsh has never bêen consistent abou thls nasom. ït xs ai best a convention of context» and thc com- plete decay of the adverbal denvatxve would be a change for thc better Amencans are more sensible about it tlan the Brttslx.
: The Loom of Language Atone tme the adiectave (mcludmg the "artlcles" a and the) was a hghly inflecteà word. It had flexons dctated by thë notre wlth whch t kept company The only trace of this agreement or concord m Enghsh s the distmctor between ths and these or that and those We say that ths "agrees" wlth goose because goose s smgular, and these "agrees" wth men because the latér word s a plural notre. I the timê of Alfred the Great» ail Enghsh words classed as adlectaves had numbêr flexaon chctated by the notre m ths way They also had flexons of case and gender Gedêr-concord s the diagnostic characterstc whïch labels the adlective and pronotm whe a clear-cut dstmcuo betwee adecuves d other words s recoble Grammanas glve the naine gender to three dfferet characteristcs of word behawo. In Enghsh» two of them are relauvely trivial» and offer no diîficulty to anyoe who waats to leam the language. The thîrd bas chsappeaxed completely. The first s comected wth the fact that maie and fëmale ammals or occupataom may have differeat names derived from the saine stem, as fllustrated by hon-honess tger-tgress aetor-actress» or poet-poetesç Although the Enghsh word dstress bas the saine endmg as adulteress, grammanans do hot call t a femrane noun. So far as Enghsh s con- cemêd» the dlstmcton mphed by calhng poeg or bon scv and honess or actres I nouns» s hOt spechcally grammatical it îs purely anatomcal. Correspoïdmg to t we bave a second dstmcton comeced with the use of the thrd person smgular pronotm. When we use thê latter to replace an Enghsh noun, we bave to take sex into account. We say he mstead of heur or nephew, and she mstead of hezress or nî«ce When we speak of anïmals we are not so parucular Even if we low the sex, as when we talk of bdls or cows» we are hot bound to choose bëtween the masctne he and the femizme she More often we use the neuter forrn t whîch always replaces a plant a part of the body, a dead oblect, a col/ectaon, or an abstracuon. To speak Anglo-Axnencan correcrïy» ail we need to lcaow about «gender" m this sense s: (a) That the mascuhne and femmme pronouns are used ïn accordancè wth sex doEerences wher referrmg fo human bexngs. (b) That the so-caiied neïïter form can replace any or.laersirxgular So defïne gender is sull a biological distinctxon, and as such offers no dculty to anyone who wants to learn out laaguage. What grain-
A ccidence-- The Table Manners oJ Language I I3 marrons mean by gellder extends far beyond the simple rules which suffice as a grade to correct Anglo-American usage We get a clue to lts vagaries In poetry and in local chalects, when she stands for the moon or for a shzp Thïs custom takes us back to a feattlre of Enghsh as spoken or wntten belote the Norman Conquest, when there was no umversal rule about the proper use of the pronoun Any general rules wtïtch could be glven to a forelgner who wIshed to leam the Enghsh of &lfred the Great would bave had more to do with the endmgs of names than wlth the sex or natural class to whlch an object belongs. If Enghsh had preserved thts comphcatlon, we rmght call dzst ess femmine because t bas the saine endmg as actress, and ractor masculine because ït bas the saine endmg as actor. We should then bave to say" "s chstress was so great that he could hOt speak of her»" or "the manage- ment bas mspected the tractor and bas declded to buy hzm" These fictmous illustrations do hot fully convey the fhmsy con- nexaon between blologlcal reahtles and the classification of words as masse, femmme, or ileuter when such terms are apphed to Latin and Greek or German and French nouns Most noires bave no endmg to recalI anyr.hing whch ïs recogmzably male, lke actor, or female» hke actress Names of common ammals of elther sex may belong to th so-called masculine and femmme categories m most European lan- guages Whether it bas ovarles or restes, the French frog (la grenomlle) ls femmine In French or m Spamsh, there are no neuter nouns, and the forelgner bas to choose betweën two forms of the pronotm respecttvely called mascuhne and femmme. Damsh and Swechsh bave two classes of noires, respectlvely caed common and muter. The Scallchnawan chtld hke the Scandlnawan or German sheep is neuter A quotatlon from Mark Twam (A Tramp Abroad) lllustrates how much unnecessary and useless Iuggage thls adds to the memory. "I translate ths," he says, "from a conversatlon m onê of the Gelman Sunday-school books ." Crrechen: Whêre s the turmp ? Wdhelm: She bas gone to thê kltchen. Grachen: Where ls the accomphshed and beautfful mmden?. Wdhelm" I bas gone to the Opera Greater feats of memory imposed on the begmner by the gender- collcord of the adjectz,e comphcate the effort of learnmg Aryan lan- guages other than Enghsh or modern Persian. Smce we have no sur- vmng vestige of thïs, we bave to fall back on a fictmous illustration or rely on examples, from another language. Frst» supposê that we had
The Loom o Language six forms colïespondmg to the two thzs and these three smgular» thor (to go wath words of the actor class), thes (to go wth words of the acO ess clss), thtt (to go wlth words hkê pst), and three correspondmg plurals thor, thesse and thtts Thts gtves you a plcture of two out of three sers of dlsgxases m the wmdrobe of the Old Enghsh adjecnve The lorelgner who tned to speak Old Enghsh correctly had to choose the nght gendcr as well as the nght number form of a noun, and many so-callêd mascuhne, femmane, or nemer nouns had no label hke tle -or of «ctor, the -esç of actres, or the -tt of/nt to guide the choice. Below v, an xllustrauon of the four forms of the French adectïve. COE I{EhPONDING C0PONDIIq{ PRONOUN PR01qOIFN le gapd hoe fl le grand mur I rhe gr«at man he the b,g watl t la graxde lcmmc elle la grande table elle the great womn he the bg able Becausë sex s all that ls left of gender in Enghsh we must hOt fall mto the u ap of assummg that the chaonc system of labellmg notms, pronouns, and adlecttves as mascuhne, femunne, common, or neuter iorms m othcr iangmages arose because of ammxsuc preoccupatton wth sex at a more prmmvc level of culture. Ths s hot hkely A more plausible vew wll cmerge when we have lcarned someflmg more about fle langtages of backward pcopls such as thc Austrahan abon- grues» Trobnaud Islandërs, or Banru. Memnwhfle, let us bc clear about onë thmg Althougt many nouns classfied by grammanans as mascuhnê aad fegunîne may shaie the same suffxes (or prefixes) as newe mes (e.g actor-actr«çs) for mmes and fëmales, thê older sex paxs of the Aryan languages, such as fattzsv'-mother, bull-cow, horse-mare, boar- ow, ram-ewe in Enghsh, carry no sex label. Even whên they stand for adult human bémgs, the so-called masculme and £emmine torms of the pronoun do hot mvarmbly replace nouns o£ the class whch thmr naine suggests Thus the Gërman word IFeb (woman) xs nêutët» i é. the pronoun whch takes ts place s the neuter es, hot the femmïne s,e (shë). Smcë names for obëcts carry no gender label such as the -ess m actres m most Aryan languages, gender flêmon i s hot necessarily a chamcterisrac of the noun as such. it is thë trade-mark of the adjecttve. When there is no gënder flexaon» as m Enghsh, ¢ompa,son is the only basis for a clëar-cut chstmcfion betwêên ad]ecrave and noun. Sînce we ¢m indicate which ad]ective refêrs to a particular nottu by ts position immedîately belote oenglish)or af'ter (French).the latt, it goeï
A cddence-- The Table Manners of Langage I I5 wthout sayiug that gender concord, hke number concord, adds to the labour of leaming a lauguage wîthout contnbutmg anyrtnng to the clanty of a statement. If every adecuve has three gender forms (mas- culme, femmme» and neuter)corresponoeng to each of t.kree numbers (smgular, plural» and dual)» we bave to choose between nme OEerent ways of spellmg or pronouncmg it wheneer we use t; and zf there are no certain mies to help us to decide to what gender-class nouns belong, correct judgment demands memonzmg many excepnons. The pathology of adecuves does hot end here. When nouns have case flexion, wluch we shall corne to next, adjecaves may have corre- spondmg case forms If there are elght cases» as m Sansknt, wtnch is foramately a dead language, case concord imphes that an adjecuve-root may have as many as seventy-two denvauves. The entre battery s called the declenswn of the ad!ecave In rhe old Teummc languages, mcludmg modem Icelanchc, one and the same adjecuve has two declensions, e. altemauve forms for the saine number, gender, and case; and it îs necessary to leam when to use one or the other (sec p 269) The word decleron stands for all the fleraons of the adlectve, noun, or pronoun, as the word conjgaon stands for all the fichons of a verb. The declensmn of an adecave, noun, or pronoun mdudes ttns thrd class of flexaons whîch must now be oescussed. Enghsh pronouns bave two or three case-forms hsted below srBcr o (oIarlW cAs) I, we, you, he, she, xt, they, who, wl-nch. PO$$BSIVB FORM («ENITIVE OR POSSESSIOE CASE) my, out» your, hxs, her, mme, ours» yours, hers, ts» thens, whose orcr »OR (Oq CS.). me» us, you, hïm, her, t, them, whom, whch. Of these three case-forms one, the gemuve, somezmes fulfils a use dènoted by îts alternative name, the possêssve. The Enghsh gemuves of the personal pronouns other than he and t have two forms, one used m front of the possessed (my, your, etc ), the other (mme, yogrs, etc.) by tself Grammanans usually cal1 the first thê possesszve adectwe in Enghsh as m modem Scandmaman languages the gemuve -s fleyaon is al1 that remams of four case-forms (ngul=r andIlural) for each noun, as for each pronoun and adIective ïn 01d Enghsh, Old Norse, or m
116 The Loom oj Language modern icelan&c» wluch does hot &fier from Old Norse more than Bible Enghsh dlffers flore Ghaucer's Tkns gêmuve flemon of the noun has almost completely dlsappearëd m spokcn Dutch and m many German chalects. When we st use t m Enghsh, we add It only to names of hvmg thmgs» to some calendrïcal terres (e g day's)» and to some astro- normcal (e g sun's) It ls never obhgatory, becausc we tan always replace it by puttmg of m front of the noun Thê French» Itahan, and Spamsh noun has completely iost case-flexmn» and the fact that French- men, itahans, and Spaniards can do wlthout t rases the saine kmd of quesraon wbach dsappealance of other flexmns prompts us to ask» is it an advantage to be able to say my father's m preference to the more roundabout of ïn.), f a#zer ) In the number flexmn -s of the noun thêre s a common elcmem of meamng, wz more than one Tins s claractestc of all plural derva- raves, whatever the foot represents Though the Enghsh gerutve often mdïcates posséssmn» as m faher' pants, it s strêtchmg the meaning of the word to say that the saine s obwously truc of uncle's death» man's duty» father's bmkruptcy» or the day's work In the older Teutonîc languages» the genïtï»e was also prescnbed for use after certain chrec- tves, of Whlch thce are fourteen m icelandc. A few Khomatac sur- wvals of tlus exist m modem Scandmavmn languages» e g m Nor- wegmn» nl fols (onfooO» nl sengs (to bed), ul tops (fo the top) German has many aclverbzal gemtavës» e g rechtç (to thc rlght)» hnkç (to the left)» nachts (at nîght) The use of the genïuvc flexaon then depcnds on thc context of the word to wlch t sùcks There was no common thread of clear-cut meanmg which govërned its use when xt was sull obhgatoy m Teutomc chalects. It s a trick of languagc dictated by custom» for reàsons burmd m a long-forgotten past. Thë samë verdict apphes wth cqual justice to the distmcraon betwéen file nominative and ob]e¢tzve (or obh(tue) casc-forms of' the pronoun. Wc are none the worse bêcause zt andyou each bave one form corr¢sponding to such pairs as he-hm, they-them. The grammar book rules for the use of thëse two pronoun cases in Enghsh, or Dutch or Scandinawan languages axe: (a) we hàvë to use the nominative (I, we» te etc.) when thë ponoun s t.hWsublëct of the verb, (b) we bave to use the obhque case when the pronoun xs hot thë sublëct of a verb. The subject îs thë word whîch answers thë quEstmn we makë whën we put who or rabat in front of the verb. Thus thzs sentence îs thWsubject of thu sentence u short, because t answers the question what u short? This and nothing more is the grammarian's subject. The subect of the grammanan in hot neces-
Accidence--The Table Manners o] Language I I7 sanly the agent, as it ls in the sentence, I wrote ths It becomes the grammarlan's object when we recast the saine sentence in the passzve form, ths was wrztten by me It ls hot even true to say that the subject is necessanly the agent when the verb ls actzve (p. 12o) as m I wrote thzs The grarnmataan's subject ls hot fixe agent in the sentence I saw a flash. Plato would bave sald so, because Plato behêved that the eye emats the hght We, who use cameras, know better Seemg ls a restait of what the flash does to my reuna. It ls hot what I do to (or wlth) the flash. So far as they affect out choice of the case-forms I or me, the only features common to such statements are (a) if the answer to the question constructed by pumng who m front of fixe verb (e g. who zorotê» or who saw») lS a personal pronoun, xt must have the nommatzve form I, (thou), he, she, zt, we, you, or thêy, (b) tf the answer to the ques- taon formed by puttmg whom or what after the verb (I wrote or saw) (what ;) lS a personal pronoun, it must bave the obecuve form me,(thee), hzm, her, zt, us, you, or them It gets you no further to have a word subject for (a) and another word ob]ect for (b), as if subject and object really had a status lndependent of what the verb means To say that the subject ls the nommauve case-form means as much and as httle as the converse. Nelther Is really a defimtlon of what we mean by the subject, or what the cholce of the nommauve mvolves Only the customs of out language lead us to prefer I to me for A or B in such a statement as A saw hzm or he saw B We bave no doubt about lts meanmg when a chtld or a forelgner offends fixe convenuons by usmg I, as we already use st and you for A or for B Tfll the great Danish lmgutst Jespcrsen drew our attenuon to the customs of Anglo- Arnencan speech, old-ïastuoned pedagogues oblected to that's me or zt's hzm» because grammarlans satd that the pronoun after ara or fs also stands for the sublect ltself. They overlooked the fact that the author- zed version of the Bible contams the quesuon "whom say ye that I am" 1 e "I ara whom, say you In the urne of Alfred the Great, Enghsh pronouns had four case- forms, as Icelanchc and German pronouns sull bave. Correspondmg to out single oblect or obhque case-rotin of the pronoun were two, an accusatzve and a datzve Icelanchc nouns sull bave four case-forms, as have the adjccuvcs, and there is a &stznct dauve endmg of plural German nouns placed in the neuter and masaxhne gender classes. In Old Engllsh, m German, or m Icelanchc the choice of the accusauve or dadve case-rotin depends partly on whzch preposîtwn accompames the noun or pronoun When no preposition acoempanies a noun or pro-
. :t 8 T/oe Loom ai LagÆage, om2 other th the sblect ot" the verb» qestîos costrcted by puttig the subject (a) whom or hat, (b) o hom or to what The dzrec abject wch swers (a) must bave e accusauve oese-endmg The ,rect abject wch swes (b) must bave the uve oese-endmg A tenc¢ whch hs a dxcct and an mret abject s the b,shop gave the baboon a bun The bun answers OEe quesuon the bshop gave what? Sa tt s the dcct abject The baboo swers OEe queso the Mshop gave to whom? Iï s exetore the moEre abject The emample cted mes exacfly the saine xi we change the order of the two object d put o m iront ai the baboon It thea reads the b, shop gave a bun to the babo When o nouns ox pronouns follow OEe Enghsh verb, we can atwys 1cave out the ecuve to by reoeuzse to s trck, t e by placmg e word witch othese follows to front oç the rect oblect Wat we tan acheve by an economoel dewce o word-order apphoeble xn alt caroemstces, languages wth OEe danve flemon express by usmg OEe approprmte endmg ot the noun, pronoun, adjeve or article. Two sentences m Enghsh, Gel, d Icedm gv below trate tbs sot of prono paoEolo: (a) Fate gave hm to ber m ber hour of need 1)as Gcchck gab ,hn zhr t der Srunde hrcr Not Orlogm gu henn: hann stund hear thurltar (Icelanc). (b) Fare gave ber to hm în h hour of need Das Geschck gab e ,hm m deç Stunde semer Not (German). Orlogn giu honum hana h stund hs thuxt (IcetanoE¢). If all nos had OEe se dauve eng aached to e smar forms, OEis wod hot be an obvmus sadvge. The trouble wilh case-flexion m Aryan languages, as s s. Even when ey convey a common element of meamg (e.g. plurahty) OEey are hot uJfo in lanag wlch bave oese-fleon, thé es denog number and se fuse beyond reoefion» and final result depends on the noun xtseK. Belote we OEn use OEe ice&c five equvalent of to th boon or go the bishop, we bave to ow woE of four OEerent dafive smr d o erent five ploeal se-engs to choose Thus teacg or lcng e ge volv ssg e nouns m ert lom w bt e slar and plur oese-endmgs appropriate to Latin d Russmn bave a OEOE case oEpeoEvely d igtaI, woE y ca it OEe meag we OEprs by pug OEth, as e five may express çug no; but Rons used e abfive d Russs
Accidence---The Table Manners o. Lazguage 9 case forms m ail sorts of derent sltuauons There zs some reason to beheve that the dzrectve used to corne aftr, mstead of before, the noun, as the verb once came belote the pronoun m the begmnmgs of Indo- European speech--and stfll does tu the Celuc languages It ls therefore temptmg to toy v¢tth the possxbhty that case endmgs began by gkung chrecuves to a noun or pronoun Several lac , about modern European languages lend colour to ths posstbhry It ls a common-place to say that drecuve easzly attach themselves to pronouns as m Cëlttc chalects (p. zooE), or to the defimte arucle as lU German or lrench. In German we meet the contracuons m = m dem (to the)» zum = zu dem (to the), ara = dem (at the), în French du = de le» des -=- de les (of the) and au = à le» aux = à les (to the). Almost any Itahan preposmon (p. 36) forms analogous conrracted combmauons wlth the arucle, as any Welsh or Gaehc preposluon forms contracted combmauons wlth the personal pronouns The drecuve glues on to the begmmng of the word wath whch t combines m such pau-s» but It un'ris up at the end m the small sull-bom Enghsh decIensxon represented by skyward, earhward» Godward One member of the Aryan farmly actually shows somethmg hke a new case system by purtmg the chrectves at fle end of the wozd The old Inchc case- endmgs of the Hmdustan noun (p 42) have completely chsappeared. New mdependent parades kke the case suffes of the Fmno-Ugnan languages (p 97) now replace thêm. Here we are on specuIatve ound. What ls certain s that» once started m one way or another» the habit of tackmg on case-endmgs coxmnues by the process of an« ogcal extensmn. The Enghsh gemuve endmg ïn kangaroo's got thee after Captam Cook chscovered Austraha If the -s ever was part of a separate word, t had los any trace of its ïdentty as such more than a thousand yeas before whtte men had any word for the marsupial MOOD AND VOICE .We bave now dealt wth all the flexion» charactensuc o£ vords classufied as nouns» pronours» or adecttves, and wtth the two most chamctenstc flemons of the vezb. The sx tense-forms of Latin already shown, wth the thee correspondmg persons m the smgular and plura1 accouat for only zrty-soE of the I oi forms of the ordmary verb. ]3esdes tnne» person» and number, Latin verbs bave two other hnds of fleraon. They are called MOOI and voxoe. There are three moods m Latin. To thë ordmary» or n&catwe mood of a plaïn statemento as
OEo The Loom o Language akeady menuoned on p io5, we first bave to add fou tenses, addmg twenty-/our other forms whch make up a "subjunctzve" mood Thls ls reserved for speclal sltuatmns. The only vesuge of such puïely con- ventonal flexaors m Anglo-Amencan ls the use of were mstead of wa after ,f, m such expressmns as zf I were» oz the use of be, In bë st so, for convenuonal sltuators of r the obscure uuht7 Flexaons of person, ten' » and mood do rtot exhaust all the forms of a Latin verb listed m dc onanes under what s called the zEnztzve (wth the endmg -are, -me, or-ze). We shall corne to the use of the mfimttve latcr (p 263) Thcre s no dstznctve mhtuttvc form of the Enghsh verb hat gammanans cal1 thc mf'msuvc of modcm Euro- pean languages xs thc dctonary tortu wc use whca we translatë the Enghsh verb after to (a book to ead) or aftcr helper verbs othë than bave or be (I shatl read) Latan had serein1 verb dënvataves more or less cqtuvalem to out prcscnt and past partczples (sec p. 277 ) Another form of the Latin vezb s thc zrnperatve, m expressmns cqtuvalent to corne here, o gzve me that its Enghsh cqmvaleït s the saine as thê ¢hcuonary form. Voîce flexion duphcates the flëxaons already menttoned. It has ds- appeared m thé modcm descendants of Latin, and s abseat m German and Ënghsh. It exsts m the Scandmavan languagcs, as fllusttated by the followmg Damsh êxpressmns wth thcr roundabout Enghsh eqtuvalents: Act,ve vx kaller (we call) Passzve: vx ltlles (we are all«d) vï kallede (we called) v "kallede (we were cailed) The Scandmavian passive bas corne nto extstënce durmg thc last thousand years and we know xts hstory. Its ongm dcpends uporx the use of what are known as reflexzve pronotms to sgmfy that sub]ect and oblect are the samc m su :x cxprcssmns as you are kzlhng yourself. Ïn Anglo-Amencm we do xo, us the reflexave pmnoun when the meaaîng of thë vrb and tts contëx, mchcatc thàt thc actaoa îs self-mthcted. Wê can' say I bave jut washed wrhout addmg myetf Such expressions oftea bave a passive meaning, tllustrated by the fact that i shot mysëlf maphes that I am shot. The passive mflexaon of modem Scandinavian lmguages origiated ïn this way durmg Vflr.uag urnes, or eveïa belote» from the agglutmaûon of thê reflexave pronoun (sik or sg) wth thê active fomi of thê verb. 01d Norse finna k (German 'ïnden sich"; Enghsh "find themselves") became finnask, whach corresponds to the modem Swëchsh finna or Damshfindes (are round). The Scandinavians
Accidence--The Table Manners of Language thêrefore got theîr passive flexion mdependenfly by the method wlnch Bopp (p 188) beheved to be the olagm of the Greek and Latin passzve. The Scandmavmn model ls lnstructave for another reason It ls already falhng mto dïstlse Perhaps thas ls because t ls hot easy to recogmze when speaklng qulcldy Whatever reason we do glve for lt, the smaple truth is that passive flemon s a devlce of doubtful advantage m the wntten as well as m the spoken language The passîve flemon, wbach ls qmte regular m modern Scandmawan languages, ls hOt an essenual tool of luctd expressmn We can always translate the passive form of a Latin or of a Scandmavmn verb in two ways We can buïld up the sentence in the more chrect or actzve way» or we can use the type of roundabout expression gven above. Thus we car elther say I called hzm or he was called by me The first ls the way of the Frenchman or Spamard I t is what an Enghshman prefers if legal educatlon has hot encouraged the habit of such preposterous ahen cIrcumlocutlons as zt vall be seen from an exammaton of Table X Table X shows would be more snappy, and would not devltaltze the essentlally socml relation between author and reader by an affectation of tmpersonalty DECAY OF FLEXlONS Out account of thc decay of the flexions in Enghsh may lead a reader who bas not yet attempted to learn another European language to take a chsoeuragmg vmw of the prospect. Let us therefore be clear about rwo thmgs before we go further. One is that though Anglo-Amencan bas shed more of the charactenstlc flexlons of the older Indo-European languages rïlan thelr contemporary descendants, ail of the latter have travelled along the saine road. The other ls that many of the floEons wtnch sll survive an them bave no use m the wntten» and even less in the spoken, language. In two ways French bas gone further than Enghsh. It has more com- pletely thrown oveiboald noun-case and adecuve-comparzson m favour of roundabout or, as we shall henceforth say, analytzcal or uolatzng ex- pressions eqmvalent to out opuonal "of," and "more.. than" or "the most." Tlxough French bas an elaborate tense systcm on paper, some of lts verb flexlons never mx-ude lnto conversauon» and we tan short- crcmt or.hem by analyucal construcdons such as our "I ara gomg fo . . ." The Damsh, Norweglan, and the conwersationat Swedtsh verb bas lost personal flcxton altogether; and the umc flcxton of Gcrman, hke that of fle Scandinavian languages, is closely parallel to out own. Thc personal flcxïon of French s sxxty per cent a convcntmn of wntmg»
122 The Loom o[ Lagï«age wlth no exastence m the spoken language We rmght almost say the saine about the gender and case fleslons of the German adlectïve» because hcy do not .,uck oto m qmck conversauon The more fact that proof readers ovcilook wrong flexonal endlng,, far more ofen than incorrect spellmg ol the xoot ltsclf shows how httlc they contnbute to understandmg of ïhe wntten word. In Teutomc languages such as Dutch, Notwcgmn, or German, and m Romance langages such as Spamsh r French, nmny ttexl,»ns for whch Enghsh bas no equivalent contnbutë nothmg to the mcanîng of a statement, and flerefore ltfle to the ease wlth whlch we can learn to read qmckly o wnte wxthout bemg qmte mntelhglble. So we c.an make rapid progress m domg cïflxer of these, ff we concêntrate out attenuon first on the mies of grammar whch tell us somethmg about the meanmg of a statemênt. Ths s the part of grammar called syntax. We are gomg to lok at it m the ncxt chapter. Syntax ls rhe most tmportant part of gn:arrunar. The mles of syntax are the only gencral rulcs of a monosyIlabc language sch as Clncse Smce Chmcsë monosyllables have no ntcrnal llexon, e g change from man to men or morne to mce, ail Chmcse foot words are parucles. Because rules of syntax ae also tlê most esuentml :ulcs or" Englsh, it is helpful to rccogm/c how Enghsh, morc palmularly Anglo- Amencan, has corne to cscmble Chmese through dccay of thc flemonaI systcm. Three tcatures of ths change cmphau,c thclr smi- lanties The tiret s that Enghsh is very rich in monosytlablc.. Thë second is thê great ïmportauce of certain types of mono,;yllables. The thrd s that wë tan no longer draw a clear-cut hne betwecn the parts of speech. In othcr words, the vocabulary of Enghsh is also becomîng a vocabulary of partJcles. To say that English s ch m monosyllablës in tins context docs hot mean that an Enghshman necessanly uses a lugher proportion of mono- syllables than a Frcnchman or a German. h means that in speakmg or in wntmg Enghsh, we can rely on monosyllablcs more than wc can when we wnte or speak Frcnch or Gërman. The following passage illustrates how the translators of the authorized version of the Enghsh Bble drew on thelr native stock of monosyllables. It is thê first ten verses of thc fourth Gospel, and the only words made up of more than onë syllable are in italics" « Jagger (]Y.ngl, s] . « Future) boldly ue the two Chmese catcgofës in the torr.hïght taement: ¢'Enghsh wordï may be clasîfied mto what kïown as full or npty words »
A ccidence-- The Table Manners of Language I23 In the begmmng was the Word, and the Word was wxth God, and the Word was God. The saine was in the begmmng wxth God All rîmags were ruade by hm, and wïthou lum was hot any thmg ruade that was made In hm was hfe, and the hfe was the hght of men And the hght shmeth m darkness and the dakness coenprehended xt hot There was a man senï from God whose name was John The same came for a wztness to bear wtness of the Lght that al1 men through hml rmght beheve He was hot that Llght but was sent to ber ev2tness o that Llght That was the true Light wb2ch lzghteth every man that cometh mto the worId He was m the world, and the world was ruade by him, and the world knew him hot. A wold-count of the correspondmg passage m some other European languages (Bnush and Forelgn Bible Soclety echuons) glvës these figures. Lb2qGUAGE I2¢GLISH IOEINDIC LATIN NO OB WORDS I39 138 I35 NO OF MONOSYLLABLES 2[O0 78 26 PEECENTAGI 90 73 74 64 5 28 A companson between the figures for French and ts hlghly syn- thetlc parent Latin, or between Bible Enghsh and German or Icelanchc, wlnch are nearer to the Enghsh of the Venerable Bede, shows that ths feature of Enghsh ls not an accident of bn-th. It s a product of evolu- tion due to the chsappearance of æes. Decay of these affixes bas gone wth the mtroductaon of roundabout expressions mvolvmg the use of partlcles such as of, to, more than, most, or of a special class of verbs some of whach (e.g. wdl» shall» can, may) bave more or less completely lost any meanmg unless assoclated wxth another verb. These helper verbs have few if any of the trade-marks of thelr class. None of r.hem has the one surwving Enghsh flexaon -s of the thïrd person smgular, and theIr ahemauve forms (would, should» could» rmght) would be da- culr to recogmze as such unless we know thelr hlstory. Three of them (shall, can» may) noyer had the -zng derivauve charactensuc of other English verbs; and one helper, not lncluded among the examples ctted, bas no smgle dlstincrave feature of lts class. The helper must bas no flemon of person or tense, and we cannot say mustmg. Called a verb by courtesy m recognition of its versatile past, tt is now a parucle. In other Indo-European languages, mcludmg the modêrn Scanda-
124 The Loom of Language navlai1 chalects wtnch bave lost personal flexion» the unïnflected verb stem tums up as a separate word only m the tmperatwe Both the present terse and the mfilntave ai'ter helper verbs in rotmdabout expresslozs eqmvalent to Latin tenses bave ther characterlstlc afflxes One mvarmnt Englsh word does selwce for the present tense form (except in the tlurd person smgular), the lmperatave and the lnfimtlve of other Indo-European verbs. Many verb-roots are dentical with those of nouns; and Enghsh Iouns of flus type are ofteza demlcal with the verb form whtch sêrves for the presellt tênse, infnnttve and lmpera- ttve of other Ettropean languages. In very many situations in wluch Enghsh verbs occur, there ls therefore no dxsunctlon between the foire of what we call the verb and the form of what we call a xtoun. The followmg comparlson beteetl Enghsh and Norweglan fllustrates thls: a moro . .. en bl i motor .... eg biler I shall motor .... lêg skal btle A pedant may oblect to rhe choce of so new a word Bible Enghsh provdes many examples of the saine thïng, for instance fear, sin» 2oe, praise, dehght, tromse, hoçe, need, water, and thc day's work supphes many others whch have bêen in use as long as hammer, nad, screw, use» dust, tire. When an êlcctnclan says he zs gomg to ea)th a terminal, a bacterîologist says that hë wtll culure a mxcro-orgamsm, or a dnver says that he wtll park his taxi, each of them s exploitmg one of the most characteristtc ioeosyncrasies of Shakespearê's English. He s doing somettnng wtuch would be qtute natural to a Clnaman but vëry shockmg to thê Vënerable Bede. We can press the comparison between Englîsh and C..2unëse a stage further. By dropping gender-concord, Englîsh forfelted the dîstin= gtushmg characterisuc of the adject:e about the rime of Chaucer. The only trade-mark left is that certain words eqmvalcnt to Laûn, Greck, or German ad}ecuves sull bave (a) comt)arat:we and superIa¢)çe denva- tïves; (b) charactenstic ëndmgs such as -cai or -al m b:bhcal, com- mercial» logcat, or -le m aesthëtzc» èlectnc, magnetc. These adectival words are differeat from words (e g. Bzblë, commerce, logc, aesthëtlcs, dectn'czty, magnetsm) eqmvalem to correspondmg German or Greek noum. A distincaon of this sort was brealdng down belote the Pilgrim Fathers embarkëd on the Mayflower. Bible English contains examples of adjëctaves ïdentical both wtth the dcxionary forms of nomas such as
Accidence--The Table Manners o Language 125 gold, sdver, ,ron, copper, Ieather, and wath the dictionary form of verbs such as clean, dry, warm, ee, open, loose Smce Mayflower urnes the number of ad]ecrave-nouns, or, as Jesper- sert calls them m recogniuon of the fact that they are no longer chstm- gmshable, substantzves, bas mcreased yearly Some pedants who have forgotten thetr Bble lessons m Sunday school ob]ect to mght starvat,on, ,ce man, sex appeal, petrol pump, or road traffic s,gnal, wxthout reahzmg that they foltow such mapressave leadershp as the Kmght Templar, Gladstone bag, Pnnce Consort, and out Lady mother. These ob]ectaons usually corne from the gentry who call a man a Red ff he wants ,ncome tax rehef for work, ng-class parents. What s specally charactenstac of Atlglo-Amencaa s the large and growmg group of words whach can be verbs, nouns, or adjecuves m the sense that we use them to translate words bdongzng to each of these three classes ,n languages wh,ch have preserved the trade-marks of the parts of speech Even m this class, some have the sanctaon of long usage. For instance, we speak of water hhes or water power, and we use the mumcxpal tvater supply to water the garden, when there ls a shortage of water If we bave too httle water, out local representatave can put a queçtïon at question rame, and does hot questzon out grammar when we test has professions of goodwtll by makang the water shortage a teçt case Even headmtstresses who do hot thaz that sex ls a genteel word can put love to the test by lookmg for a love match m books they love Such words as water, questzon, test, and love m thas sequence bave a smgle flexton -s whtch can be tacked on the saine chcraonary form as a functïonless personal atTax, or as a signal of thë plural number They may also take the afflxes-zng and-ed Other words of tbas class» such as cut(a cutwxth the kmfe, a cut finger), or hurr, bave no -ed denvatave From Chmese, whtch bas no flexions at all, xt xs a small step to a language in wch the same root can take on the only three suï-vlvmg flexaons of the Anglo-Amencan verb, or the smgle survwmg flexaon of the Enghsh noun, and can do service as the flexloniess Enghsh adjectave LEARNING A MODERN LANGUAGE Lke the story of Franke and Johnme, out revïew of the decay of the flexaonal system has a moral I; s ae]ther the pla of the text-books which begm wtlx the dedemxon of the nourt on page I, nor the advice of phonetaciam who advocate learmng by ear. Though we mataot use a chcttonary wath profit urfless we know sometkmg about accldence, we can hghten the tedium of gettmg a reachng knowledge of a lmxguage, or ofwmmg t mtellîgably, afwe concentrate first on leammg: (a) flextonal denvatxves least easy to recogmzë, when we look up the standard form
The Loom q[ Laï,guage
Accîdence--The Table Manners oj Language 27 glven m a chcuona13,, (b) fleraonal denvatxves wlnch stA1 affect the meanmg of a statemem. To the fiîst class belong the personal pronouns It should be out filst task to memonze t.hem» because we have to use them constantly» and because they often bave case-fomu wtnch are hot recogmzably hke the dicuonary word. Fommately they are hot numerous. The accom- panymg tables gave thelr eqmvalents m the Teutomc languages Thezr Romance eqmvalems are on pp 33T, 332, 363, 369, 372 In subsequent chapters the Loom wfll set out the mmunum of grammar necessary for the reader who warJts to get a readmg or wntmg knowledge of t.hem. rEUTONIC POSSESSIVES* LNGLISII my (thy) oLlr your ,nzn (etc) Dru (etc) vdr (etc) [ vor (etc) (etc) De cs hans hennes hendes dês dens deras deres Those ltahclzed bave neuter s;ngular and plural fon-ns va a or oort-vore The form glven s the common gular Dzn and Br behave hke mzn and var respectlvely DUTCH onze U haar SLke other adlec- rives take -e m plural GERMAN mem (etc) dem (etc) unser (etc) Ihr (etc) sera (etc) hr (etc) sera (etc) thr (etc) These bave case as we11 as gender andnumberforms (P 295) and are dechned hke e g lllSe» unser The form gven s the masc nomm smg * Swedzsh and Damsh havc no specaal mme, ours, etc, forms German bas a trxple set of possesszve p,onouns Two of them ±ollow che declenszon of the weak adlectzve and are used ,'ffter the deflmte artzcle (e g der memzge or de memè), the thzrd behaves hke the strong adlectzve and appears when nor pre- ceded by der, d,e, das (e g memer, meme, meme) When you have memonzed the pronomas zn ther appropnate mtua- rïons, concentrate on the followmg. Fztst, leam the pIural forms of the noun, bccause the chfference between one dollar and several dollars zs ottën mportant. Then leazn to recogmse and to recall the helpez verbs, such as the equzvalents of shall, wzll, hae, and u, etc, how to use them, and wzth what forms of othêr verbs (parucaples or mfimave) they keep
128 The Loom oJ Language company, tlefore bothermg about the teme-t'orms gwen m other books you may read, you should me suxe that those wch other books gve you* are necessary in ordmary speech or correspondence. The only useful fleraons whlch ha,ce hot comê up îor discussion are those of companson. These have dlsappeared m thë Romance languages (French, Itahan, and Spamsh). In ail the Teutomc languagcs they are hke oui' own, and wtll thereforê offer httle dafliculty. &bore ai1, stick to the followmg rules (t) Get a brd's-eye vzew ol dac grammatical peculxanUes of a language belote trymg to memoIlze anythmg (l) Do not waste rame trymg to memorlze the case-endmgs or fixe nouns, or any ot t.he flexons ot tIe adlectve (othcr than coz. panson), tll you lave ruade, a start m rcadzg 'fhey contnbute lttle ff mxytNng to rixe meamng ot a statement m mo,;t European languages whch you are hkely o want to lcarn I t s doubffui whether tltey ever had a clear-cu uem the sp&en ianguagc, and any use thcy once ta,xd m flac wrtten ianguagc xs now tultxlled by othcr rules, wluclx we shall lcarn in the next chat[cz, FURTttt,R READING « Tlaey somctmes dtvttlge ti's m a toomote, tf hot tï d:e text
CHAPTER IV SYNTAX--THE TRAFFIC OF LANGUAGE RULES WI-IAT grammanans who have smched Latin, Greek, or Sansknt call the parts of speech (1.e verbs, notms, adlecttves, etc.) depends on the way in whach we form denvauves from dlcuonary words of such languages, if fs helpful to know about how grmmarans use tlaese terres, ffwe wam to leam anotlaer Indo-European language, because smdent of Russlan, German, Italaan, French, or even Swechsh has to deal with flextons whach have wholly or largely chsappeared In modem Enghsh. Ths does not mean that puttmg words m pigeon-holes as nouns, pronouns, adjectves, verbs, and partzcles has aay necessary con- nexïon mth what words mean» or wr.h the way m wNch we have to arrange em to make a meanmgful statement Ira fact, classffymg words in tlm way helps us httle in the smdy of languages wNch bave psued a chffêrent line of evolution. There s, of course, a rough-and-ready correspondence between some of these terres and certain catêgones of meanmg. It ïs true, for instance, that names of persom and physical oblects are noum, that physmal qualztzes used as epthets, x e. when assocaated wath names of oblects or persons, are generally adlecuvês, and that most verbs mchcate acuon or reacuon, e processes or statcs When we have sald ths, we are leff wttx several ctrcumstances wlch blur the outlmes of a functïonal defi- muon of the parts of speech m ail languages of the Indo-Europea group. One that Bacon calls man's mveterate habit of dwellmg upon abstrac- uons, has created a large class of names whach bave the saine flextons as ixotms» md stand for qualmes or processes cognate wtth the meamng of adlecuve or verb forms Headlme chom breaks through all thë fimc- uonal fences whïch schoolbooks put up round the parts of speech Thus YESTERDAY'S MARRIAGE OF HEIRS TO LOUNGE LIZARD means exactly the same as the more prosalc statement that an heress marrzed a lounge lzard yesterday,and SlmIEN DEATH OF VICE SQUAD CHIEF lS lUSt =other way of announcmg the sad news tat a vzce squad chier dzed suddenly Such examples show that there s no category of meanmg exclusvely commort to the Enghsh verb, to the Etxghsh notre, or to tlae Enghsh
The Loom oj Laguage adlecdve when fro mally dtsmagtushable. Tbas s also truë of ail lan- guages mcluded m the lndo-European group. Smaïlar remarks apply xth cqual force to the pronoun. When we recogmze as such a word whach lacks the charactersuc termmals of an ad]êcuçe» a noun» or a verb m a fleraonal language hke Lama, wc depend bu gèly on flac context For instance» the Enghsh pamcles a or the are stgnals thar the next word s not a verb or a pronoun, and the presence of a prouotm usually labels the next word of a plain statement as a verb A pronoun uua]ly stands for some name-word prevaously mcnraoned, but ha certain contexts person pronouns may stand for anythmg whch bas gone bêfore, and zt bas no spectfic reference to anythmg at all» when used m what grarn- marrons call mperonal constructions such as i seems. Netthêr the pronoun nor the verb, wluch we rëcognize as such by thë flexional -s m the same contcxt as the thd person t, herc fits lnto any udy dëf'mïuon based on the function of words n a sent ence» e what thëy mean Few ok us now postdate a force hot of ourselvcs which makes for rammëss, when we say t rares. To somê extent we select one of sevëral word-forzns wth the same general mcanmg m accordânce with the process of analogcal exïénsîon whch p]ays such a lrge part (p. o4) m the growth of speëch. In htcrate commumucs grammafiaus aho lakc a hand m shapmg flë conventmns .of language by prescnbing ceruun pattems of expressioa bascd on pics.talents estabhshed by authors of reput% or on paradtgms from the practice of dead langùages whïch have more ostentatmn-value tha vemacular uttêrance. The most tme-honoured model of th type s called the subj cct-predicate relation (see p. t 7). Tfll r, ëcëntly grammar books used to say that every sentence bas to have at least two component% a verb and ts subject, wkich must etther cortaia a noun or be a pronoun Accordmgly» xt as incorrect to wnte razny day» wtat Thë only mtelhgble defimuon wlch usually tetls us what grammaas would call the subject of a Latin or Greek sentence ts that t answers thWquestïom forrned by puttïng who or wha an front of the vetb, and thxs does hot gct us tar when wë replace the prëcëding expression by thë "sentence » . r¢t hot a ramy day? Who or what rares» m this context, is less a marrer of grammar than of theological opinion. Buddhasts and Chrisltans alhests and agnostïcs, would hot agree about the conêct answer, and a Scots schoolmistress of arty persuasmn would find t OEtcult to convmce a OEmaman that the meanmg of the easumg remmks would be more exphcït if we put it is m front of the first, and thwe/s m front of the second:
Syntax-- The Traffic Rulcs oj Language I3I Frst Enghsh gentleman (lookmg at the semng sun) Not so dusty, what? Second Enghsh gemIeman No need to rave about xt ltle a darrmed poet, old man Though It xs qmte tme that the absence of a percelved situation makes it necessary to be more exphcat m wntmg than m speech, there are rio sufficlent reasons for behevmg that adchuon of verbs would lmprov the proverbial, one man, one vote, more speed, less hate, or much cry, httle wool Most of us use telegrams only on occasloris when It Is specially nnportant to be rather thrffty vath words. When wê bave to pay for the use of words, we get down to essentlals Even those who can afford to drue habltually m costumes desxgned to mblt excessive cerebrauon do riot spend an extra cent foc a verb m dmner seve-thrty black tze If a semerice Is a word sequence with a "verb" and a "subject," any ssue of a dady paper shows that a complete state- merit, request, dlrecuori, or quesuon, sufficleritly exphcat for rapxd readmg, need hot be a seritence The followmg examples from the headlmes are m the hneage of the Charust plea more pzgs, less pasons CONTROL TI-tRAT TO EXPORT COTTON TRADE. BUSINESS AS USUAL IN SPIXE OF WAR CITY {OIR OF SIENS L IN O NOW. IE APPROV FOR U S CONG MOTION VIOLENT DE FOR VIOE PGE IN VE- DICTORY SELON ITES IN CONGO THO MO SENSE NO W OFR OM NI N#»OLEON MO PROSPETY LESS PETTING PL LOC POEPIT" SHOP WlNDO SK S PROST PERIAN WOOLS SFER TO IL POOL OM IO O- T OF FIRTH OF FOR çH ID IEN!ST ATTAOE ON PENITENTIY FOR PSY BOY PLAIN WOS TO I-PTIE PSON * we bave to late a lge, such as Ce, moE no formM &son beeen words we chss no, verbs, plonos, s book, The Study of Laage, Hs Oeel aws aènuon to absence of any pretence at a suble-pre&oete form m adversemen are also composed moE due regard for eoenocal use of wor, e g oR A GE HOUSE WI GEN L MOD ROVS STY PLUG SET S A scant coent on OEc dead hnd of sxel follows s cplc "ny mstoes of s d oen be fod OEey sccm to be absent m OEc hcra remams of OEc dassxoeI lagcs, or at least excessvely rare I do not rccM1 a sm#c instance cxpg hst of nes . . or super- scrlpUom or hea plg dates. .. Pcrps OEc tenon xs that OE¢ mnve ets (of wch the modern lanages bave largely nd themselves) were too strongly crged wxoE the 'on' meg of OEe subject relauon t erefore they oed hot well appear ouxde
The Loom oj Language adjectlves, and pamcles, we bave fo forger everythng we may have leamed about the models of European grammar In Enghsh we can keep close to the pattem of Chmese wlthout usmg any verbs at all. The following spectmens of Chmese poëtry (adaptêd from Waley's dëhght- fui translations) show that the eflèct s hot unpleasmg, and the mcanmg doês hot surfer, when we retam the tclegraphc or headhne lchom of tlIe original- (a) Wedchng party on both river banks Comlng of hour No boat Heart lust Hope loss. No vxew of demre (b) Marrmge by parent choce Afar m Earth corner. Long journey to strange land, To Kmg of Wu Sun. Tent for housë, walls of felt. Raw flesh for food, For drmk mflk o the mare A1ways home hunger, Envy of yellow stork In flght for old home Some of the dïfficultms of grammar are due to the survïval of a pretennous behef that accepted habits of expression among Euro- pean nattons are connected wïth umversal pnncples of reasonmg» and that xt s fixe business of grammatîcal definmons to dsclose them. A complete system of logée whach camêd on ts back the chsputes of thë medieval schoolrnen startëd off wlth a grammattcaI misconcepnon about thê simplêst form of statement. The schoolmen beheved that the mmplest form of assertaon s one which contains thê vêrb to be» and that the verb to be m thts context has some necessary connexîon with real êxtstênce. They therefore had to have a substance called falsïty m a suppomtitmus RëaLm of Ideas to accommodate the Cistence implied m the statement" such ews are falsg. So the type specimen of argument reduced to xts simplest terres» as given in the old text-books of logic, was: Ail mn are mortal. Socrats is a man. Therefore Soo'ates is mortal. In sîmalar sïtuatiom the tramlatorï of the Authorized Version of the Old Testament eomcîentiously put such words as is or are m xtahes. The Hebrew language has no equî-
Syntax-- The Traffic Rules o Language 3 3 valent for them when used m ths way. In Sernmc, as m many other languages, e g. Malay» the connexton of a naine wth ts attnbute s mchcated by posmon, as when we say" fine paragraph, thu. Headlme chom also shuns the verb be as col)ula hnkmg topc and attnbute or as mark of tdenuty, e g. FIVE CRUISERS IN ACTION, PRESmENT IN BALTI- MORE TO-NIGHT» NEW TENNIS CHAMPION LEFT-HANDED» OHIO PRO- FESSOR NOBEL PRIZEMAN. In a sunple statement whch calls attentton to some charactertstc of a thlng or person» the functon of the verb to be, when so used» has nothzng to do wtth real exastence» and It has nothmg to do wlth the usual role ofa verb m a sentence. We recogmze t by purely formal Crlterta masmuch as It takes chfferent forms m accordance wlth the pronoun that precedes lt» and wlth the tzme to whch the statement refers Its real functon» whïch ts merely to mchcate urne» could be equally well expressed, as m Chmese» by the use of a parucle such as once or formerly (past, nozo or stzll (present, heceforth or eventually (future) From what has been saxd tt s now clear that there ts no umversal syntax, x.e mies of grammar whtch deal wxth how to choose words and arrange them to make a statement wth a defimte meanmg, m al1 languages. In tins chapter we shall confine ourselves mamly to a more modest theme. Our atm wl be to get a brd's-eye wew of essenual rules wtnch help us to leam tbose languages spoken by out nearest European neghbours, .e languages belongmg to the Romance and Teutomc chwsmns of the Indo-European fmmly. To speak, to wnte, or to read a language, we need to know many denvauve words hot com- monly hsted m chcuonanes We have now seen what they are, and wtnch ones are most maportant m se far as they contnbute to the mean- mg of a statement or quesuon, an instruction or a request When we can recogmze them» and can use those whach are essenual, withut offence to a natïve, we st need to know m what ctrcumstances a word m one language ts eluwalent to a word m another, how the meanmg of a sequence of words s affected by the way m wtnch we arrange them, and what denvauves to use m a pamculax context Of these thxee» the hst ts the least tmportant, ff we merely wtsh to read fluently or to make ourselves mtelhgble The second xs the most tmportant both for read- mg or for self-expresston The thtrd ts specally xmportant only tf we ana at wnting correcrly Humamtanan senument compels the wnter to issue a wammg at ths stage WAT FOLLOWS IS NOT aFSm RFmINa The reader who
34 The Loom oJ Language ls gnvmg the Loom the once-over for the first tlme should NEXT OEWO SECîION$ Wlthout tmdue attentaon to the examples. There- after we shall resume out narrative pamlessly. £HE ANARCHY OF WOPJ)S Many of the dlffic, llaes of leammg a forclgn ianguage anse through fatlure to recogmze to what extent and m what cn:cumstances words of one language are smctly equzvalent to woxds m another If we start wlth a dear grasp of what word-correspondence mvolvcs, we can greafly rcduce the techous memory-work involvêd m fimng a minimum vocabulary for constant and rehable use Whether any word In one languagë corresponds more or lcss often to a pamcular word m anothcr depends largely on the class to which t bclongs. Numcrals are tlc most rellable, and namcs or physical qualmes also behave wcll. tf such words have homophoncs, we bave no dzItculty m recogmzmg the fàct» and a httlc common-scnsc prevcnts us from assummg thar we are entded to transplaa[ a memphonc, al usage m foregn sofl. Sa t s unnecsary m point out ha we canno correctly translate such expressons as ayellow çtreak, or a sugar daddy, by lookmg up the correspon¢hng namc words or epnhets m a small Ecuonary People who ae not languagë-¢onsclous arc hable to mshaps of this sort, though fcw of us are lkcly to cormmt the double crnne of thc Enghsh lady who sad to the Paris cabman: Cochon, le Irrïntemps est cassd.* ïh most eapricxons wods m a languagc è ou own are pamcles, êspecally those classfied dirrcOv«s (c.g. to oith, for) and hc knk- words or cooEunctwns (ê g. and, b,,eause, though). TJae dtIcultles wbach aise wlaen mmg paruclcs ac of thee kmds One s that in any lan- gqage paticles ae spëcally hable to chomauc use. A second is that thc meaning of a single pamclè m any one languagc may embace the moïe estrîcted meamng of two o moe particles in a second. The third s that wlae two parttcles wlth the saine meanmg are assgned to OEeeat sxtuatons, we need to know wlaethe a foegn eqmvalênt given in the dctaonary is appmpriate to the context, belote we translate thëm. Any partiale bas a daractenstt meaning m the sense that we can use it in a latge class of situations to sigR]r the saine kmd of relataomhtp. Thus the characteristtc meamng of the English word fo involves dtrëc- Ço;hon kDtg) fi}r cocher (coaclunan). 'I'le wod prmte, mpç means sprttï/g
@mtax-- The 7l'rajc Rules of Language 3 5 Uon of mordent. We may so use a pde m suoas where t does not ha iù« chamenmc mg. In such simanons we may not be able fo detect y oeon d of mg. e &oemve moe of o does nt help to see why we put If m OEe OEpresmon t rejette fo. It do hot ter us why we must mse It m allo me o do ths, or why we ot it m let do thrs Sm pcles of loeg dose to o o bave idîomafic uses of s soin, dimonanes usuy Nve e choioe of a large nr of forei eqmvNems for one md e se parade We OEn say OEat a pacle of one iandage corre- sponds to a stngle pcle m oer lange oNy when we are spg of ts charact«zstzc mg, or me m some pamar context. Eples Nven below moeate pxffs mto wNch we ça when usmg pamd The t fooe Nve e Genre, Sweeesh, d Enghsh expressmns eqmvalent to four French pas contang e se pamcle, à The Nst fooe Nve French, Genre, d Swe&sh eqmvalents for fo Enghsh exprimons of wNch be tn The French à of ese expressxons reqes four OEerent German, d ree OEerem Enghsh or Swe&sh pamcles. The Enghsh n of e oNer set reqes four exent French or Gean, and ee OEerent Sweoesh pamcles. FRENCH à pied à Berhn d la c6te à mes frals dans la rue en luver le soir de bonne heure GERMAN zu Fuss nach Berhn n der Kuste auf meme Kosten auf der Strasse m Wmter am Abend zu rechter Zelt SWEDISFI ull fors ull Berhn wd kusten pt mm raknmg p gatan om vmtern p kvallcn t god ud ENGLISH on foot to ]3erhn at the coast at my expense n the street zn wmter zn the evenmg n good tune Just as the largest party in Parhament need not be a party wth a clear rnalonty, the characterstc meaning of a pamcle need hot be the meanmg common to the malortty of situations m whtch we have to use t it may happen that we can recogmze a more than one large class of mtuauons m wluch a pamcle has a &stmcuve mgnificanoe For instance, the drecuve wth tums up commonly m two senses It has an instru- mental use for wluch we can subsutute the roundabout expression by
136 belote tlll PLAG above ( oer) among aound bend ( = ,trier) below (= uader) besde ( by) betwcem in m frat of (= b«tore) on (- supportcd by) oppote ou«de DIIEC ION Mong around Irom mto out of over ( pat ( = beyod) throngh to toward under ( below) ASSOCIA TIO}Ï. accordmg pst ( m oppolnon to) aoout (= concemmg) êxcept ço r (= on or (= in place or) ntead of ccoum of (= beuse o) wiout = m orner wth (- by The Loom oj Language TEUTONIC PREPOSITIONS effet fore 1 for under edan lden tlll tl bhmd over blandt lngs omk mE, tt,tn ut Over f6rbx genom til emot under ud lobx genncm mod ënhgt emo utom rots mod om undtagen for or trods x Stedet af pi grund av paa Grtmd af med utan uden tlll for art af or at om voor gedurende smds rot boven om achter onder bl tusschcn voor op te,cn()w:r bmten volgens tegen OVr vaia bchMve voot VOOt nmtregentaande m plaats var wegens zonder voor omt¢ met in la .Im nach wahrend seit bls tlber unter, zwschen urn hanter unter bez» neben zwschen vor sur gcgentiber itussêrhalb ttber llngs herurn; aus tbet an.. vorbei durch unter gemtss nach gegen be » von au,,genommen far trot anstatt wêgen otm¢ von; durch ftr
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oJ Language goc osmos 137 ENGLISH "IME after at belote durmg (= m) m (= hence) slnce Ull 'LACE above (= over) among around behmd (= after) below (= under) beslde (= by) between . x front of (= belote) ,n (= supported by) oppomte ousde )IRECTION across along around from lnto out of over (= abovë) past (= beyond) through to towards under (= below) SSOCIATION bout (= concermng) accordmg to xst (= m opposmon to) except or (= on behalf of) for (= m place of) m sptte of mstead of of count of (= because of) to (mdarect oblect) (== in the company of) w,thout S TR UMEN TA LI T Y by ,r (= as a means of) m order to+mfimuve) tth (= by means of) FRENCA-I apres a avaat pendant dans depms lusqu'a au-dessus de parrm autour de dernere sous » au- dessous de pres de» a côté de dans, en devant sur en face de hors de à travers le long de autour de dans, en hors de» de par dessus au dela de travers » par à vers SOUS de, sur selon» d'apres contre excepte pour pour malgré au lieu de à cause de par» de pour pour avec SPANISH PORTUGUtkSE despues de depms de a antes de durante deaquIa daqma desde hasta are encmaa de por ctma de entre alrededor de detras de debalo de cerca de, al lado de entre en delante de sobre, en, encama de en frente de ruera de cm redor de atras de debamo de perto de» ao lado de cm cm fiente de sôbre, cm cm frente de fora de a traves de a lo largo de ! no longo de alrededor de ] cm redor de de en ] cm ruera de, de fora de, de pot encmaa de I pot clma de mas alli de Imms adtante de a traves de, pot I a hacaa I para debalo de Ipor debaixo de I de»sobre / de»s6bre segun /de acôrdo coin contra excepto pot pot a pesar de en lugar de 1 cm lugar de de a causa de por causa de a con com sm sera pot para para con [ coin dopo [ prmaa dl fia da fino a sopra dx fra, tra attorao a daetro sotto presso ch, accanto a fra, tra m davanu a su» sopra d faccaa a fuon dl attraverso lungo attorno a da m fuon dt, da al dx sopra d al ch la d. attraverso, per verso sotto d» sopra secondo contro eccetto per . per a dlspetto dt mvece dt dl a causa d con Sellza da per per con
The Loom of Language means of wher we open a can of peas wth a tn-opcner It bas also an assodatzve use for whlch wc can substltutc zn the company of, when we go wzth a frlend to thc thcatrc Thc hn_k-wod as îs anothcr pat tacle which we use m two ways, both common and cach wlth a characterlstlc mcaning. We may use It whcn the word wh/e would be more SUltaNe, and we often use it when because would be moe cxphcm It is therefore hot a necessary word to put m out b,sic lst Its absence gawzs rase to no dafficulty ff we culttvate thc habit of cxammzng the meanïng of the words we use, and thc range of cholce wluch out own language permets. Few, but vcry few, Enghsl pamclcs ac abovc susp:caoa from tins point of vew. Even and s hot mnocuous. It ls hOt always a conjuncraon (hnk-word). In the pccttlarly Enghsh class of construcuons m whach t connects two vet bs, ït ts an nstrumental drectlve eqmvalent to m order fo or simply to. Thus tty and do so s equvalent fo try to do w. Smï. lady go and sec may oitcn sgnff7 go t,z «rrder to ste. "J'o be alert to the pëcuharmes of ou own language m thr» way s escntial if we mtend to learn arother one wth a rmmmum ot'eti» and tcdum We tan thcn recognîze when a parade h:,,,. ts (laaractcrstac mcamng If so, xt xs rarely dafficult to choose the ght forcgn êqmvalcnt from flac synotayms hsted m a good dacionary whtch gves êxamples of ther use. Those of us who cannot attord a good dcuonary may get a clue by lookang up the cqmvalcxas for anothcr synonymous, o ncaïly synonymous partcle. We may thon find that ordy one equivalênt s common to both sers. We sometmcs gct another due by thc wise precauuon of lookmg up thë Enghsh words for cad ot tlc ftrcgn cqmvalents h,;tcd. Deahng wth tlae dathculty n tlaas way s laborious, and t s never a reaI cconomy to buy a smali dctaonaty. If we are clear about the daaractèrsttc meaning of out pamcles, we can avod makmg mistakes in many sî uations, but we have sull to dëcide what to do when we find ourselvcs usmg a partîclë ldiomaûcally. The answêr we gvë to thas qucsnon, perhaps more than to any other which commonly anscs n conneyaon with the learning of a language, decides how mucla rame we waste belote we get to the stage of expressîng our- sêlves clearly wthout upsettmg anyone. Text-books attêmpt to solvë out dafficulty by prmting lists of idmmatic cxpressions such as by train, in whicla partioïlar particles occur. Cursory study of such Iîsts is useful becausé it helps us to recogmze unfanûhar êxpre=zions if we meet them again when readmg a book in a foreign languagë; but the effort of memo.ng thcm for use in speech or wrîting ïs colossal. Uniess wc
Syntax--The Traffic Rules of Language 39 are content to wmt unttl we bave got used to tlaem by meeting them often m books, we bave to seek for aother solution of out ditticulty. The most ëffortless solution emerges flore Mr. C. K. Ogdën's work on the smapllfiCatloa of Enghsh for international use. The basc rttle is: always try to be as exphct as possible; Ttus meam that when you are gomg to use a pamcle, you must ftrst declde whetlaer you are usmg it wtla lts charactenstzc meanmg If the amwer ls yes, your word-hst can supply lts correct eqmvalent. If the answer s no, tlae thmg to do is to recast the statement wzthout the use of the ichom m whîch it occttrs. You can best sec wttat tins means wltla tlae help of an lustrattoa. Let us suppose that we want to say in French or m German. i take no pleasure in skatmg. The word n has oae charactemtic meanmg, and only onë. I Enghsh, we say that A is zn 13, ff B surrounds, eacloses, or comaïns A. Smce skatmg does hot surrotmd, enclose, or contain pleasure, we bave got to ask ourselvës whetlaer we can say tlae saine thmg m other words We can get nd of the offettdmg dlrecuve by putting ttm m the form: skatmg does not please me Tins ls hot qmte sausfactory, because the Enghsh use of the -ing denvatave of thë verb ls pecuhar; and it s maportant to understand its peculantîes, ff we want to become pro- ficaet m a foregn language. We use the -ing denvative of the Enghsh vërb m three ways for wtuch other Europëan languages requtre at least two and usually ri=ce derent words. One wNch corresponds mth thê so-called present partzczple m other Europeaa languages is ts use as an epthet m such expressmn as an emng cluld A second s ts use as a naine for a process m the first of the thrëe followmg eqmvalent expres- S1OnS * Errïng s human: forgtvmg ïs chvme To err xs human, to forgve chvme Error s human forguveness dtvme. When so used, gr _rnmr books call it a verbal noun. Ifit takes an object t s called a ge und, as m the dzfficules of learmng Duteh, or the dangers of eatzng doughnuts « To ths use as a name-word wë bave to add the duratve construction wîth the verb "tobe," as in I ara zoallung, you The Old Enghsh presênt partlcxple ended m -ende, e g alndende The -mg (-ung or -tng) terminal ongmally belonged to nouns, as m schoohng Later xt tacked tself on to verbs» as m begmmng. So the saine verb mlght have ma abstract noun denvatxve and an adlectval one or true pamcaple, e g. abzdung and abzdende Evenmally the former absorbed the latter. That xs why the modera -zng form does the work of a partxpte and a verb notre (gerund).
The Loom of Language were sttmg, he wztI be stan&ng, etc In other European languages at is lmpossble to find a smgle word whlch corresponds to any-mg denva- rave an such chverse expresslons as a forgtvmg father, forgzvmg out trespasses I ara forgzvmg you So the -mg terminal Is a danger-signal We therefore recast out sentence in the form" I do hOt enjoy mysdf when i skate. To hanctle tins correctlywehavëto remember thatthe word do (.p. I58) in such a context s also an Enghsh tchom. We omit It in translauon These examples J.11ustrate one outstandmg class of dculues wtuch constanfly anse m learnmg a forclgn language Many of the obstacles we meet ex, st because we are hot suffiaently alert to ttze pecuhantzes of out own languageo and fal fo sezze the opportumty of explonng chfferent ways of sayzng the same thzng The àtrecuves hsted m the tables on pp I36-I37 ae the oncs wtuch are really essenual. We do not need eqtuvalents for roundabout chrecuvê constnïcuons such as the one m the phrase m case of dfficultes We do not nêed t, tf we bave the essenual hrdç-word OE Anyone who knows thê eqtuvalent of OE, can paraphrase it m scveral ways, e g tf we bave dfflïcultaes, if there are duculues. Out next dflfictdty when deahng wlth parucles ls that the common thread of meanmg charactenstc of a parucle m one language may émbrace that of two parucles each wth a more restncted use m another language For instance, we use the Enghsh word before to mchcate pnorîty, whcther a sertes conssts of dates such as 54 .c., ^ D o66» and .i). 83z, or oblects such as the members of a class of boys stand- mg in single file We can thus &ssect what we mean by belote mto subsidiary categones of meanmg such as before lace), i.e in front of and beforé (tme)» e. earher than or antecedent to. Thas dist/ncuon xmphed by the context in Enghsh» s essential m French, becausé a Frenchman uses dfferent words to slgntfy beforê m such phrases as before the door and before the dawn. When we are drawîng up a basîc hst of parûcles wê bave thërefore to look beyond the characterïsuc meanmg of the Enghsh word. One of the ments of out own language ls that we leave much to the con- text. Whêther thê ]Enghsh conjunction when refers to an event wI"ach bas happèned once for ail» fo an ëvent which happens répeatëdly» or to sonae- thïng which is sri11 gomg on» is rnïnatërial ff the set-up makes r.he tmeuon clear We do no customaxly use whuroer unless we wsh to emphasme thë repëution of a process and we are no forced to use white unless we wxsh to emphaslze smultanexty. Thas 15 not truc of German or of l'qorwcglan. Ïl he îs talkmg about something that ls over sud donc wïr.h a German ues ais where we should use wh. A Norwegîan uscs da.
Syntax--The Traffic Rules o/ Language u¢omc cojtczos 141 ENGLISH after and as (mamaer) as . as because belote but elther , or how m order flaat nether . nor Or smce (temporal) so that (result) than that ahhough t when where whether whale (temporal) SWEDISH DANISH errer art errer at och og som lfla soin hgesaa som darf6r art antmgen eHer hur om for arc varken eller sedan s,l art ait fastan tflls nr dar medan ford fr men enten e11er hvordan hws for at hverken eller eller slden saa af skont mdtfl naar hvor o111 I medens DUTCH nadat als zoo als omdat voor maar of of hoe mchen opdat noch noch of sedert zoodat dan dat ofschoon, hoewel rot wanneer, als waar of terwlj1 GERMAN nachdem und so Wle weH bevor, ehe aber, sondera entweder.. oder wie wenn datait weder . noch oder seltdem so d«ss als dass obschon, obglelch bs wenn, als wo ob wahrend ROMANCE CONJUNCTIONS ENGLISH after and as (manner) as as because belote but ether or how tf m order that nelther nor smce (temporal) so that (result) than that although tlll when where whether FRENCH après que et coinme auss que parce que avant que mais SPANISH PORTUGUESB después que depms que y(e) e conlo tan . como I tanto como porque antes que pero, mas, porëm» mas slno OU OU 0 0 OU OU comment como pour que, } a fin de que a tire de que afin que m ni hem hem ou I o(u) ou depms que des de sorte que quoique bien que jusqu'a ce que quand où de modo que que que aunque ITALIAN dopo che e(ed) corne cosi corne perchè prmaa che ma hasta que cuando donde wlule (temporal) pendant que i maentras que o o corne se perchè, aflînehè nè ne o dacchè dl modo che dl, che che amda que benchè at6 que finchè quando onde I dove ao tempo que I meatre che 1 ......
The Loom of Language When a German refers to somcthmg whch occms rcpcatedy hc has fo use wenn The Norwegmn uses nr. Where t woutd be cqually correct for us to use the word when or the wo d whzle thc Gcrman eqmvalcnt s wahrend and the Norwegan s unner An example taken from the hsstory of thë Enghsh language s lnstruc- lave m tins connexaon In Anglo-Pmencan the pamcle h¢te means eithêr at thu place or tott, zs place» and the paruclë there means ether at that place, or to that place It s equally correct to say he çtood here, or he came hem, and t s equally correct to say he hved there, or he goeç therê In Mayflowêï Enghsh, the partKles h«re and thete mchcated position alon% i c. ho'e mcamat bu place» and he» e meant at that place When we use them to indîcate drecuon, Le. motmn owards a place, ouz gn:ëat-great-grandfathers would thêzêfore bave usea hzther and thith¢r. An equivalem dstmcon exists m Swedish or German Thë Swede says du ir bar (you ar here) or du var dar (you wer there) and kom ht (corne here, Le. corne hther), or gd dt (go lhêre» .e. go th,ther). Such dïstincraons are veçy xmportant m connexion wxth the use of correct foreign eqmvalems for Enghsh dïrecttvës. Fo that zeason tt is helpful to dassi£y the latter accordg as they do or can sigrafy relations of tïme, place, motion, association, and instrumentalîly (Figs. 2z-25).
Syntax--The Traffic Rulês oJ Language x43 We havè sull to dear up one ddticulty before out troubles wath the parucles are over It wtll be easler to tmderstand what It as, ff we first compare the sentences below. (a) He read after dmuer (c) he read after he dmed (b) He re, ad durmg danner (d) he rend whle he dmed In the lu--st pair, the word after has the saine meanmg whether used as a darecttve before a noun or as a hnk-word connecung the statement he rend vnth fixe statement he &ned. Though It would be just as truc to say that durmg bas the saine meamng as whzle m the second pair» ït would hot be tu keepmg wïth the customs of Enghsh to mterchange them Each has lts appropnate context m Enghsh, though the German can use the saine word tu bot.h sltuauons So m dass3g one as a &recttve and the other as a conjunctwn, the dastmcuon refers oaly to the sztuattons m whxch t lS approprîate to use them Enghsh as relatvdy thnfty an lts use of parucles, becatase t has relatzvely few whch are resmcted m thas way For instance» we c.an use ail the mterrogatzve pardcles (how, when, where, and why) as lmk-words. We can also use all the drecuves eather as preposztzons m front of a noun, or as adverbtal particles standïng alone. Some Enghsh adverbzal particles (such as soon, back, forward, here, very) never stand m front of a noun, but no Enghsh words are pure preposztwns» i.e. cannot stand alone wthout a noun. in some languages the chstmcuon between the two classes as much sharper In German we canaot use the saine partiale to translate gong below (adverb) and gomg below the surface (prepostwn). We have to be equally careful about foregn equlvalents of words whach can be chrecuves or con]unctions. In Swechsh, we have to use var for where when we ask WHERE do you hve, and dar for where when we say he &ed WHERE he was born When context demands one of two or more equivalents, a good dactaonary therefore prmts such abbrevaatons as. conj, prep, adv » nterr. In making a basc word-hst xt s a good plan to hst the saine Enghsh word m each of these classes to whicla at may belong, m case it may reqture OEerent foregn equivalents It s also useful to pay attexttïÇxx to the fact that some of out commoxx Enghsh adverbxal pamcles are BAD ones m the seine that some of out common conltmc- tions, e g as are bad ones. For instance, we use the Englasla word quite to sgtaify somewhat (e g luite pleasant), or completely (quzte fu!l), atd rather to sgmfy somewhat (rather en3oyable), or preferably (he would rather) An eçsentzal word-lst for self-expression would mcludê
][44 The Loom o] Language somewha, compleely, or peferably it would not gve eqmvalents for que or ragher The most troublësome wods for ou basc vocabulary of hnk-wods ae gha» whch» whal, who, whom, whose The English ha can occur m four sxtuatons One contêxt s common to ha, who, and whwh Onë s IG, 22. peculîar to ttzat, and one ls pecuhar to who or whtch. They are as follows: (a) Reiatzve use of that» who» whom, whoe, which, as Imk-words after a no,un or prepos,raon followmg a noun» e g." This xs the baboon that the bxshop gave a bun Thxs xs the baboon to whom (or whach) the bishop gave the bun. In such sentences, thar can replace éxther which or who» and its denvative whom» but ff thëy corné after preposiuons» the latter go to thë end of the clause. The use of thar wxth of rarely replaces whose. So we bave to enter la out basic hst of lmk-words "thar (tel.)" and "whose" as items.
Syntax--Ttze Traffic Rules oJ Language 145 (b) Conjunctzve use of rhat as a hnk-word for wch there xs no substt- tute In such sentences as I do flot beheve that the creatton took only six days We have therefore to enter as a separate item in out basxc hst of lmk- words, "that (conj )" (c) We cannot replace the Enghsh words who, whom, whch, and what by tha when they do hOt refer to a person or tinng m the mare clause, but mtroduce a clause expressmg a note of interrogation, e g I do not know whom you expect We must therefore enter who-whzch m our basc hst separately for Fm 23 znterrogatve sxtuauons when that or whose cannot take the place of whzch, who, or whom (d) We also use out words whzch and that as pomter-words or demon- stranves Whether we put m or leave out the word book xs mn'natertal to out choxce of the polnter-word thaz in the sentence I bave read that book In some other languages we bave to use one word when the naine ls present, and a dffferent one when it as left out Tins makes at necessary to draw a dxstmctaon between a demonstrauve adjecuve and a demon- srraUve pronoun comparable to out own chsunctïon between the posses- sxve adectlve (e g my) and the possessive pronoun (e g mme) So m makmg up a basxc hst of necessary pomter-words, we shall sometames need to mchcate winch pomter-word stands in front of a noun (adj)» and wtnch stands by tself (pron) Anyone who is famar wlth the Anglo-Amencan language alone mîght yaeld to the temptation of putung personal pronouns among the
46 The Loom o. Language class of words wtnch have a tngh correspondent, value Tbas ls hot so. Tanslauon f Enghsh pesol pmos is comphcaed by o cues One s thë fact at corrcoe doce of pçnç»uns of the rd person m most Euopean lanage depen&, on h¢ gender clas% as opposed to fle sex (p ,3), of the rimons ey veplace. The offset s thal many, mdug most Europcan, languagcs h»ve spccml forma of the seoend person for mt¢male or for pohte, e fmal addrcss There are theen Spamsh subsntutes Ior you In hnguages suçh as French, Enghsh, or Gennan, ere were ongm- FG 24 ally two îorms of the pronoun of the second person One, oerrcspondmg fo thou of Mayflower Enghsh, for use when addresslng one person; the other, corresponding to ye, was for use when addrcssmg more than one Thon, thee, ye, and you bave now fused in the smgle Anglo-Amencan word YOU in most Europcan languages, mdud/ng Fmnïsh which is hot an Aryan language, the thou-rm perslsts for use among mcmbcrs ofthe family and inumate acquaintances. What was origmally the plural form, clted in out tables as you, bas perssted in some European lan- guages» ë g. larench and Fmmsh, both as the plural fonn and as the sîngular form when the pêrson addressed is not an intîmate friend or member of the famfly circle "Ihls fomml use oF the plural you is comparable to the royal «we." In some European languagës the eqtuvalênt of you bas ruade way for a pronoun which recalls the oblique chom of waltërs (will the gentleman take soup?). For pohte address a pronoïm of the thtrd person, som¢times :plurai, as m Gërman, or both smgular and plural, as in Spanish bas taken over the ftmcton of thc pronotm of the second
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oj Language i47 person To use tables on pages I26» 127o 331, 332, 363, 369, 372 cor- rectly it ïs important to remember thlS. The equlvalents for thou and you respectavely correspond to (a) smgular and mttmate address, (b) forma or plural address accordmg to outrent usage We use one dass of Enghsh pronouns in two simataons for whach some languages requile different words The Enghsh pronouns himsdf,
48 The Loom oj Language Reflexlve pronouns of Romance languages and of Teutomc languages other than Enghsh are not the saine as the emphatlc ones Thus a Frenchman says le le dç mm-mëme -- i say t myself I¢ me lave - I wash (mysel) In Teutorac and m Romance languages» the 'eflexlve forms of the first and second person are the saine as the oblect (accusatxve m German) form; and the e lar or ptural whch betrays famlly hkcn«s The Romance s« or sz, Scandmawan szg, German Many people who reahze the vagaes of prepositxons and havë no need to bê told about the use of pronoun for pohte and mtïmate address do hot fully rcahze the anarchy of the verb The verb (er ;oak, dzg, post) s the most hghly condensed and the most hghly abstract element of chscourse Bëcauc xt can condense o much meamng» ït may be impossible to find a forelgn eqmvalent wlth cxactly the saine terntory Because xt s so hghly abstracr at s hablc fo sêmanuc ërosîon by metaphorcal extensmn To construct a hst of words for self-êxpres- sxon m another language t s maportant to realze how fcw of our Enghsh verbs m common use have a smglê clear-cut meanmg We have met two examplcs (p 39), but ask and ty are hot excep- ttonal Someumes a common thrëad of meamng s easy to recogmze, as when we speak of beating (doEeanng)the Germans and beatng (chas- ttsmg) a dog. It ls less obvmus why wê should use the saine word whën wë adroit visltors and adroit the possïbty of a pnnter's error m ts paragraph When we make full allowance for metaphoncal extension of meamng and for the pecuharly Anglo-Amencan tïack (sec belew) of usmg the saine verb mtransittvely and causauvely according to contëxt, we have hot chsposcd of out dflîculties Ii we Ieave a traïn we cease to remazn m t; but when we lëae a bag in a train the result of out negli- geïïce xs that the bag continz«es fo remam in tt. Few ordmary pzïmers accêssbie to the home studênt emphaslze how much effort we can waste by trymg to leam forexgn eqmvaients for the wrong verbs To get by wth the least effort, we must bave a iively famiIiariry wïth synonyms at out disposal That xs the ëxplanatton for the choice of verbs hsted m the basic vocabulanes at the end of The Loom p. 52 et seq ). Many common Ënghsh verbs are rtot there; but the reader wtll be able to discover the most exphat synonym for every one of them; and may wéll fmd that it is helpful to hunt them down.
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oJ Language 49 One Enghsh verb ls trïcky for a speaal reason. Where we use know we bave the cholce of two OEerent verbs m any other Teutomc, or m a Romance, language In French they are savotr and connaïtre, m German wzssen and kennen The chsuncuon bas scarcely any semanuc value Correct use depends on a syntacucal custom. Broadly speakmg the rule ls as follows We bave to use connattre or kennen (Span conocer, Swed. karma) when the obect s a thmg, person, or pronoun eqmvalent We bave to use savozr or wzssen (Span saber, Swed veta) when the object ts a phrase, dame, or pronoun eqtuvalent Thus the Frenchman says je le sas (I know tt), f le s a statement prevmusly marie or some general proposmon If he says je le connazs the object le ls a person, book, or other concrete obect A second dculty m conneraon wth chotce of appropnate eqtuva- lents for an Enghsh verb s due to the rock mentoned aboie Some Enghsh verbs such as deszgn nearly always precede, and a few such as sleep or corne never take, an object (p. I7). It s mamatenal whether the object s present, ff the Enghsh verb can take one The saine verb of other Aryan languages cannot be used m situations where it de- mands, and m smauons where xt cannot have, an ob]ect There are sull traces of thts dïstmcuon between the oblectless or intransitive (neuter) Enghsh verb (e g. he) and the transztwe (acttve) verb (e g lay) whtch must bave an oblect Dstmcnons such as between he and lay (= make to he) are genemlly êstabhshed by the context, whtch tells us whêther cabbages grow (wtthout out help) or whether we arrange for them to do so, as when we say that we groev cabbages Smularly we say that somethmg zncreases or that we mcreasê st (2 e make it mcrease) A Frenchman or a German cannot do so. The latter has to use drfferent words, where we use the saine verb translttvely and mtranstavely as below The management wll mcrease tus wages next month Dle Leltung wlrd nachsten Monat semen Lohn erhohen The length of the day wxll mcrease next month Dle Lange des Tages wlrd rmchsten Monat zunehmen In lookmg up a foregn eqmvalent for an Enghsh verb m a chcuonary, tt ts therefore essenual to pay careful attenuon to the abbrewauom (trans. or a ) and (intrans or ; n ) wluch may stand after one or other of the words gaven In Anglo-Amencau usage almost aây verb whch used to b¢ tntansmve has acqtured a more or less metaphoncal tramt-
5o Thë Loom of Language tige» often «ausatve, me,mmg, as m wdly run me m¢o foin» Ttus decay of e &buncuon beecn e two claascs of vebs gocs w, th two othcr peoehmu of glo-Amcïc sytax, both ,tt,lls t)î mnslauon In a passme conmucton thc objecr o t,. active cquwan bccomcs dc subject, ë g he tr«ck Jcr (acuvc foma) - hc zvas szmk t lnm Oy ansmve verbs of oer ryan languagcs um pamcpate n passive exprcssions of flac latter pe, and only the &r«ct ob]cct (p 8) of the acuve eqmvalem tan become the sublect when t s changcd to the passwe construcnon Ttms wc makc sud hangcb (a) he gave me tht tette hz &tter (b) she rold me tht rht wa In contemporaw glo-er usage t s msmgly commo to use Nteuve paswe oensmon, m wN«h e zndtect oblc p. 8) of e ac6ve verb beoemcs the subicct, c (a) i was g.vt thz Ierer by hzm (b) i wa, rold thé, by ber In tS fo we ot oesNte OEem mto oer Eopean laguages. The morN is: use amve expoessmns whercver possbIe. The roEd of The Loom wdl tmd rdauvcly tew pa:,svc exptc.sons m the pteccdiug cpters If t wcre pessble to parapluasc the mcmg or a verb, t wodd hot be &lficdt to sdestep the ptfdls ot choosmg tte nght oe. Unfof ttely xt s hot. Maay European pceples» mdccd most, depcad far more on OEe use of a large battery of verbs th we oselves do In fact eïe e oNy two sale res or verb economy for the begmner who a hst of verbs cssem for sclf-exptesston m a Teutomc Romce guage. We cd aot burdea o word st with verbs eq- vNent to a coatctaon mvolvmg adjecuve and ethcr matw (ans.) or get (m.). The cqmvalem adjectve wi the vcrb hsted in Part IV as eqvNeat to ther ma or beco sexes the puose Thus to tire mes eer to mdee wea W or to b«come @eO weay Smnlaly fo dimmish means to make smalter or fo ha'orne (get) smalh. he«t s to make hot or to bccome hotd so for. One ger-si atuched to a verb-root = OEe suffix -ing mentîoned ràer m s chaptoe. The most omatie cNss of verbs e e helpers» oeme wê coaoNy use them wh other verb (înfitîve or rtdple). The Engsh on are be, hall» tt, let, aan, , ç y (after wNch we never use to), have d re (aRer MOE we m use to), ad go, us6 oht (aft woE we Nwa
Syïztax-- The Traffic Rules of Language I5I use to in front of the verb) No general rule helps us to recogmze chomattc uses of a helper verb tu a foregn languag% ff we know oy xts chaactetzstzc meanmg, but we can avoxd some piffalls, if we are clear about the vagaues of helper verbs m out own language. It would be easy to w:te a volume about OEe pathology (and theology) of the vetb to be (Some of xts vaganes m current Enghsh corne up for oes- cussmn m Chapter IX, p 384 ) its use as a col)ula lmkmg a thmg or person to ts attnbute or class s ma A.ryan constructmn absent tu maïly ooEer languages, cf the italxcs for the absent copula m tlae original of the Lord zs my Shepheld In a large class of Enghsh expressmns we use the verb to be where the eqmvalent m maother closely related language would be the word correspondmg to bave The fact tlaat a verb wluch also means to have or possess may overlap the terntory of out verb to be s hot strange or unreasonable To say that somethmg zs red means tlaat it has or possesses the charactenstac or atmbute wtuch we descrîbe by tlt adjecave Thus the hteral eqmvalent of to be ngh m French, German, and in the Scandmawara languages ls to bave rght. Smaxlarly, the hteral eclmvalent of o be zvrong s o have wrong The lzteral eqmvalent of to be warm, hot, or cold, ether xn Ft ench or m Spamsh, s to hçve warm, hot, or coM Be well, or ll, xs anotlaer peculmrly Enghsh chom, eqmvalent to the German gesund seïn, or krank sera (be healhy or szck). The hteral French fs eclmvalent to carry o,esel¢ well or zll (se porter bzen, or se porter mal), m Swechsh, md val or zlIa (may well or zll), in Norwegaan ha dot godt or vae e syk (haro z well, o: be sck) Ttle Enghsh be sorry s eqmvalent to the Scaladmavaan do oneself bad (g$re s¢g ond m Damsh) Though they look alxke on paper, the most characteïsuc mcanmg of tlae helper verbs of two descendams of the same Teutomc foot s rarely tlae same Tlae meamng of most of tlaem bas changed durmg hstonc mnes The only safeguard agamst the ptfalls mto wklch tts leads us ls to recogmze wlmch are out most rehable laelpers, and to be qmtë clear about the vanous uses of the ooEer EnglIsh ones. The two rehable ones are tan and must. Each laas a well-defilled temtory, wluch overlaps that of otlaers OE le verb ma can mean two thmgs Thus he may do thls can mean extlaer (a) ho ,s allowed fo do thzs, or (b) zs 1)osszble hat ho vll do th,s. We use o Englxsla f haro, hke xts eqmvalents m other Indo-Eurolear languages» to sgmfy possesston, and as a heI1)er to mdicate past tme or completed actaors (I have done tlms)» but xt can also do ttle same lob as musr m Ï bave to do h,s, and replaces tlae compulsive fusamon of must m some expressmls wluch mvolve past tmae (I had to do ths) It s hot safe to translate bave (when it means mus) by ts dacraonaxy eqmvalexat m arothêr laguage The combmataoa bave had, has had, etc., can also slgmfy arranged or allozoed (le) wlaere tlxe Germax uses denvataves of lassen, as m ho bas had a house ômlt.
The Loom oJ Language When used m the first person ai'ter I or we» the verb shatl ls eqmvalent to a parucle mdtcatmg the lndefiate tuture Otherwse it retams lts old Teutomc mëamng akan to must or bave to (e g thou çhal hOt commzr aduhery) in the firsr person the related form should xs used after the statement of a condmon, as m I çhould be glad zf he came In exprëssmns mvolvmg the second or thlrd person, wzll and would are gënerally eqm- valent to shall or should mvolwng the first Othcrwtse they revert to thelr original Teutomc meamng fllustrated by the adlecuve wzlhng Thas chsranctmn s hot as clear-cut or umvcrsal, as arm-chmr grammanans TEUTONIC HELPER VËRBS t,ROM SAME ROOTS could hall should wll would must let may mght bWLDIgtI lag kan lag kunde lag skall lag skullê wlI ville lag 1,tcr I)ANItI )eg kan leg kunde leg vl eg wide leg lad¢r leg maa ]eg maattc DUrClI k kan k kon k zal k zoudc k moet k laat k mag k naoctt GI RMAN mb kann mh konnte xch soll mh sollte ch muss ch iase xch mag ch m6chte Sînce can and must are the most rehable helpers, xt s best to use ther equivalcnts whenever exther shares the temtory of another such as shall, bave, may. The use of can and muçt xs not foolptoof, unless the begamêr xs alert to one ptfall of translauon from Enghsh mto any Romance or any other Teutomc language. Lïke ougtzt, can and must form pecuiiar combmattons wth bave (could have, must have, ought to have) for whîch the hteral ëqtavalent m other languages xs bave could, have must, have ought. The easmst to deal wîth is can. it s correct to use the corresponding German (kon, nen) or Frcnch (pouvoi/) verb in the present or simple past where the English êquïvalent îs ëither can-could or îs able to---,oas able to, etc.» but I could have does not mean thë saine as i bave been able to. It s eqmvalent to Ï should havë been able fo. To would lead us to supposë Fcw Englsh-spcakmg t,eople rêcogmzé any difference bêtwcên (a) I should do ths, f he asked roc. (b) I would do thls, OE he asked m,
Syntax---The Traffic Rules oJ Language 53 use can vath safety, the best rule of thumb s to remember that the forelgn equïvalent for can-could always corresponds to our zs (or was) abl fo, but does hot correspond to out can-cozdd belote bave WORD-ORDER Root words, the order in wbach we anange r_hem, tone and gesture are the mchspensable tools of dally speech Next fo correct cholce of words, thetr order is therefore the most umportant part of grammar Companson of the statement that men eat fish vnth fih eat men suflï- clenfly RIustrates the importance of word-order as a vehMe of meanmg m out own language Axm-chatr grammanans sometmes v¢me as if a ngld pattem of word order s a comparatavely lae and soplnsticated dewce It is easy to support thJs vtew vnth spunous ewdence Much of the hterature wbJch fxmshes case matenal for out knowledge of the earher stages of the bJstory of a hnguage fs poetry or rhetonc, and such belongs to a penod when the gap between the wnttên and the spoken word was much der than It now s We all know the obscun- t_ms mto whmh poets pIunge us by transgressmg customary convenraons of' word order m conforrmty to the chctates of mette, alhteratîon, rhyme» or cadence Thete fs no reason to beheve that they were evër less prone fo wolate the speech pattem of everyday hfe, and u fs dcult fo see how human bemgs could co-operate un dady work, tf they took advan- rage of the hcence whach poets clmm In short, we may reasonably suppose that the mportance of word-order in modem languages s as old as speech ttself The suggesnon ruade on p 34 apphes espectally fo the next few pages devoted to thls toplc It wfll be wlse to skzm t hghtly on first readmg, and to retum to It la,er for relevant information as occasion arlses Rules of word-order are hke traflîc regulauons Thê only thmg rauonal about r.hem ls the rauonal necesmy for umform behavlour as a safeguard agamst congestion To chscuss word-order mtelhgubly we need some fixed points wath reference to wbach we can speak of consu- ment words or phrases as before or after. Verb and subject (p 117) ve us such fixëd points wbach are generally asy to recogmze in any state- ment other than newspaper headlmes Two others (p. 118) are respëc- uvely called the dzrect ob.tect and the m&rect object These terms do hot descnbe any defimte relauon of a thmg or person to the process tmphed m the meanmg of a verb We recogmze them by converung a statement into a quesuon, or vïce versa
154 The Loom of La,guag: The g'acanmzmns »ub3ect r the po.on o quenon formcd by puttng who or what m front oi the çcrb ,t an ordina statcmcnt In tn wa w¢' Zct the subic¢t o[ c.tçlï cI.,usc .. t fi)llowmg Peot)les ot ai! tr',des :d c,d}lnçS K)rfltwth cc<z« w¢>rk n'd tlc above documcst flac ,avv ot thç land Second Clau.e It"f:at t the i,w 7"t: cio, The dre, o«z , the anwer to th queson whh o ha m tkont t,f hc vcrb and rhe subject l,ehrd it We gct the ndzrect obtet by purrtng to whom, «r fo wtt, n the ame potxn To get the two oble¢r ot thç t:«tc:n,:nt i may ha.t« tohl yot hç roke once too ofen, we therdore a,,k «et«»n nay I ha'oe told ths le,Le». ou (In, tirc«t The gener rdc for an ordmary Anglo-Anxenoen statemeat s the suble prec«des OEe verb. The saine le also apphes to French, Spash, or Italmn in he Celnc lanages, verb, and n Teutomc lages t cornes before the verb of a smple statcment oy when no oïhcr word prccedes ether of them. Ia Ger- m, Damsh» Swcdish, ox Dut«h, OEe ubjcct of a senteace which begins wî an cpre:mn sn6 as tzo ycarç ago com Jediately aft a smple verb, or iedmrdy after the helper of a cmpound verb Thus e Teutonic word-order ïs llusated by the ibllowmg" Two laIherless. '--- Thm mversmn s very counon m lhble Enghsh, e.g, th ame he fo the shp. It suives m a few contempoa Englmh dioms such cornes the posman, th«e goes the trn, seldom do such inv«stot or in o language, e Weia ce the dawn aad !he meble pop goes the weasel. The glo-erican student of a Teutomc lguage wi d t helpf to reaa e pmus idmm of te lhlgrlm In Engsh and in Soen&naan lanages or iae, ces aft' (a) the mare vb; (b) e bject. The mies for plag Ne oble of a seatece in German or DutoE and Rosace lanages are differt. Separate les apply to e position of verb ad oblect n simple Dutch or Gean staements and complex sentences ruade up of o or more sratemems coeed
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oJ Language I55 wlth lmk-words We shall corne to complex sentences later on (p In simple statements, the Enghsh-Scanchnawan rule holds good when there ls only one verb. When the verb ls compound» the oblect cornes afte the helper, and the pammple or mfinmve form of the verb cornes affer the object at the end of the sentence. Thus German-Dutch word- order s lustrated by the Enghsh and German eqmvalents Thekeeperhaslthekangal:oocarldy. Der Warter hat dem Kanguruh Kaudaszucket gegcben Thas chfference between German-Dutch and Scandmavmn-Enghsh word-order fs very ,mportant to anyone who wants to learn Dutch or Gërman To read Dutch or to read German vnth eas% yeu have to culfivate the laablt of lookmg for the mare verb at the end of a long sentence To speak elther of these languages correctly you bave to cultt- vate the rock of recastmg any stmple sentence m the form lllustrated above, ff if contams a helper verb Tlae ddficuly may be comphcated by the prese=ce of two helper verbs The second helper verb (mfinmve) then oes to the end of the smtement m'tmeddately dfter the partwaple form of the mare verb Such sentences usually mvolve should bave, couM have, etc, and we cannor translate them hterally (see pp I52 and 298) The Scandmavian-Enghsh rule of word-order apphes to the relative position of the oblect or oNects, the helper verb and the pamoEple or mfimtve form of the main verb, m a French, Itahan, or Spamsh state- ment, when the object ts a noun If the mchrect oblect ls a notre, the eqmvalent of to precedes t The indirect noun oblect follows the dtrect oblect, as when preceded by te m Enghsh (p. I I8) if elther or both objects are pzonouns, they follow the verb m a posmve command or re- qaest, x e. after the mp¢ratwe form of the verb. In a statement they corne between the verb and its sublect. If the verb s compound they corne before the helper or rst verb. To wnte or to speak French, Itahan, or Spamsh, we bave to get used to the followmg changes' (a) The keeper it gave to the kangaroo. (b) The keeç¢t hml gave sugar-candy When there are two ob]ects, the Scandmavma-Eghsh rule s that the mdtrect oblect cornes belote thê direct ob]ect unless the latte preceded by to or its (optmnal) eqmvalent (tll in Swechsh aà tl m
I56 7"he Loom of Language Damsh) No such sttalghfforward rule apphes to al1 statements an German and Dutch. Usuaily the drect oblect cornes first Ths s the general rule m Dutch when both ob]ëcts are nouns, but ff both are pronouns, the shorter cornes first, as m fle Enghsh sentence- I told haro everythmg Gmman custom s less smple It can be sun-tmed up ha thrce mies. (a) If ont objccr s a pronoua and the othcr a noun, the pronoun object cornes fn st (b) Il both aze nouna, the indirect oblect pccedes thc dre«t (c) if both are pronouns, the direct oblect cornes flrst The reiauve posmon of two pronoun oblects xs hot the saine m ail tle Romance languages In Itahan and Spamsh, thc mdte¢t preedeç the dz, ect oblect. Ïhe French fuie s that flac flrst perron or the second pcrson preccdes thc th, rd pcrson. Il both ot,lccts are pronouns of the hrd person, tire dzrect ob]ect comcç fist l'he nece%ar change s ln&cated by the followlng models (a) She has sent me tf (b) She has sent you if (c) She bas bent lama t',lle me l'a envoyî She me t bas sen. Elle vous l'a envoy, She you xt has sent Elle le ha a envoyd She it hlm has sent In addmon to the verb, lts sublect and one or both objects, a simple statemént may also contan one or more qualffymg cxprcsuons. These are of two hnds, adjectival if they rcfer to a noun, and adverbaI if they limlt or extënd the meamng of some other word. Adlectaves and adec- rival expressions can be used ïn two ways Oné xs thë pre&cat,ve use after the vërb "to bê," as in the baboon was carefree. The other is thê attnbut, ve use, as in the perplexed and cehbate b,shop. In some ianguages, e.g. German or Russîan, adiectïves have dffferent predicattve and attn- buuve forms The posîuon of the predxcafive adlecraval expression calls for no special comment. We recogmzê whether an attributive adjecfivë or adlecuval expression refers to one or othër of scveral notïns by keepmg it next to thë notre wbïch t quahfiës. « The position of old and silk îs su/ficient to leave no doubt about whether an/kmencan or
Syntax-- The Traffic Rules oJ Language I57 a Scotsman is chscussmg the oM underzoear of the lk merchant or the sdk underwear of the oM merchant If everybody does thê saine, It does hot marrer whether drlvers keëp to the left as m Bntam, or to the rlght as m the Umted Stores. By the saine token, it does hot marrer whether the adjectlve usually cornes after the noun, as m Celtlc and Romance, or m front of lt, as in Teu- tomc and Slavomc» languages. The student of a Romance language wlll fmd it helpful to recall a few fixed expresslons in wtnch the normal Enghsh order ls reversed, e g. lords temporal, mahce aforethought, fee smple, lze dzrect, retort courteous, cook general, body pohtzc, kmght errant This rule does hOt apply to two classes of adjectlves Romance possesszes and Romance numerals precede the noun Thus a Spamard says nuestra casa (out house) or tres muchachos (three boys). As in Enghsh, pomter-words, e g words equlvalent to thzs and that includmg the "arracles" the and a (an), corne in front both of the attn- buttve adjectlve and of e noun m Romance as well as m Teutomc languages In tbas connexaon, we should be on the look out for two classes of Enghsh ldloms as pltfalls of tl anslatlon (a) such, almost» only, and even precede the artacle, e g such a woman, almost a father, only a colond's daugMer, (b) any adjectlve quahfied by the partlcle so precedes the artacle, e g so long a journey The Enghsh fuie for placmg a long adjectlval expresslon ls hOt the same as' that of other Teutomc languages Long Enghsh adjectaval expresslons offen follow the correspondmg noun We do hot observe the Swedash or German word-order m a questzon so sudden and unexpected We use several Enghsh words to quahfy a noun, an adlectlve, a verb, or a partlcle Four of the most common are almosr, even» only, and enough Thê form of these words does hot tell us whether they do or do hot refer to a noun, 1 e whether eqmvalent or hot eqmvalent to an adjectave of another language We can mchcate wtuch word they quahfy by posmon In Enghsh it is common to place such partlcles lrnmediately n from of the word wch they quahfy Unfortunately, flus useful device ls hot unlversally observed The Enghsh word enough, though placed in front of a noun whlch quahfies (e g enough boher), cornes after a verb, adjectave, or partlcle (e g sleepng enough, a hard enough zzme, workmg long enough) What maters about rules of word-order ls (a) whether we apply them conslstenfly when they do affect the meanmg of a statement, (b) whether we allow freedom when they do hot do so Some languages bave strmghfforward rtlles about the order of adverblal partlcles or quahfymg expressons accordmg as they sigmfy t,me, place, manner, or
5 8 The Lom of La,guagc extent, lor instance, when two adverbî parades occ m a 2 eutoc langage» thc onc wtuch mdlcae zme çomcs fist. A dcfcc of Enghsh stax s that alflaough fle acceplcd ozder for any parucular pair of adverbs conIolnt to zgd custom» therc s no smaplc ttlc whch apphes to any stuazon omctmc «,n adveb o£ tme pccdcs» and sornettes t fofiows aaothcr advcrb as m (a) he ottcn wcpt bxtterly, (b) ho wctr N«rth to-day inversion of sublecï nd verb xs one way of changmg a plain state- ment mto a question m a Teutomc d Romanoe Lguagcs. The saine s e of Bxble-Enghsh It s ue of glo-efioe oy when e vb s a help, as m can y fe reading the test of tins chapt? Ocsc Aglo-efi has ira o pe rodaut meod of mtcrrogauon. We no lozgcr say. sav«st thou? Thc modcm form of the question is- do you ay? We use l hls rodatout tozm wlh ail verbs cept helper verbs other an let. We tan Nso employ xt N bave in a few years no one wll object to did t ought; or drd tte me? When translag a quesuon from modern Enghsh nto Ger, Swedsh» or French, we bave therefote to reoest t m lhble Enghsh.* Inversion of verb and sublect in Tcutomc and Rommcc lages» and e rounbout Anglo-Amcrcan expression wl do or &d, turn a statemet mto the generat iorm whch phes accepce or re]ccuon of the sttxtnx as a whole We nnot concenate aenoa on OEe deafi of le aon moeted by fle verb xtseli wxflout either elabog the quesuoa or usig talcs In ttats geeral fom the answcr to e quesuo wxll be ycs» no» o some non-commttal ct»=ment Ia Enghsh it xs mtert wheer wo ask t in OEe posxuve form (dd th¢ . ?) or negauve (dzdn't he.. 2). In some lanages ths distmcon ls xmport. e Enghsh yes bas to be ,talated by dxfferent 'rench or Scmavmn word when e negave xs subsutted for the posture foa of OEe question The Englxsh Yes, after a posture questîon, is eqmveat to the Savmn Ja» and fle French Out. ter a negave queauo, e Enghsh Yes ïs equvalent to fle Sx Jo» d e Frctch S The German Ja aad Doch tally wîth he Scandxnavian Ja d Jo. 2e preoeng rerks apply o e OEerenoe bee e form of a queion md e fo of a statement so far as e des of e quuoa s to eficlt cotmation of flc statemcnt as a whole It may so be died to ehcît new infoatioa Iï may then begm an intogatzve partMe» în Enghsh, wh» why» where» h The inte- gadve pacle precedes oer words in e order appropnate to a * e o form of interrogation ocç consetlve in e Auored V» I r. vl, and 3.
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oj Language 59 questxon desgned to check the whole stuatren Apart from the use of mterrogauve pronouns or parucles, ant inversion of subject and verb, or a combmatton of both, there are varmus other ways of pumug a question if we want to ascertam the ldentxty of the sublect we have merely to submmte the Enghsh mterrogauve pronotms who, what, whzch, and equïvalent words m a Romance or Teutomc language wth- out any change of word order The quesuon then takes the form. who can face readmg the rest of thzs chapter? To ascertam the adennty of the object demands more than the subsmuton of an interrogative pronoun The laner cornes at the begmnmg of the question and the subject follows the veïb, as m what tan you face readmg In Enghsh we tan make a statement lnIo a questaon by puttmg m front of It the clause zs ,t true that? Thas ls rougbly eqmvalent to a common form of French mterrogatton mtroduced by est-ce que (zs ,t that) French pernts a pecuhar form of mterrogataon whîch lays emphasts on the subject wlthout callmg for specfic mterrogatmn The followmg hteral translauon fllustrates t Is my father here ? Mon père, es..,l zcz? My father, s he here ? In conversauon we often do wthout dewces on wtnch we com- monly reIy when we put a quemon m wrmng A fallmg and nsmg tone suflïce to convey interrogation wthout change of word-order appropnate to plain statement. Empl/ass on oe or another word m&- cates doubt about the denuty of sublect, object, or acuwty denoted by the verb We can do the saine m wmmg by use ofltahcs, but we have no type convenuon to sgmfy chage of tone m prmt In everyday speech, though less tu wrïtmg, we c'an convert a statement mto a quemon by udcmns or pohte afterrhought. The formula added s an chom pecuhar to each language. In Eughsh we adcl such expressmns as eh, don't you2, or ,s,'t ,t? The German eqtuvalenr s mcht wahr? (hot truê?). The Swechsh ïs ,nte sant (hot true?) or eller hur (or how), the French s n'est-ce pas (zs thzs hot?) and the Spamsh s verdad (true) The Englzsh atfirmaave answer I &d, etc, s a pffall for the unwary. In other Europe.an languages st s more usual to add a pronotm oblect, I e zt Thus tu Swechsh I &d s ]ag gyordê det (I &d ït I &d so) One very mportant class of rulês about word-order regulate nega- tïon. Rules of negatïon, hke rules of interrogation and the rule for the posiuon of the subject m ordmary statements» dmw attentmn to a fimdamental OEerence between the syntax of Bble English and the yntax of Anglo-Amencan Sublect to a quahficauon, menttoned later
6o The Loom of Language (p i62) the Iule for Bible Enghsh ls the saine as for Scandmavmn languages If e verb ts smgle and bas no prono obect, the negafive parades hot, n« (or e Scandmavîan eqmvalents) corne e- ate[y after t If e verb s compod» ey corne eately after e helper For compod verbs wth helpers oe flan let» e e s e same m modem Enghsh, and the saine mle apphe to e helpe be and bave when cy stmd alonc Oewsc we now use OEe pecu- harly Anglo-Amencan consucnon wfla do or dd Thus a modem anslauon of e Bble wod hot say I came hot to call the rzghteo» but stmz to rçlentace h would s.ty I dtd hot ome to call . When inversion of subject and verb ocrs, as m e negave fo of quesuon, e Ensh neganve partcle cornes eately after e sublect» hke at of Sdmavm &alects. The negauve pamcle of a Scandmawan statement always cornes after e obe when e la,er s a personal prono Ths agam s c wod-order of Mayflow« Enghsh Compare for instance the foHowmg (a) He came unto hts own and hts own receved hmz hot (= chd hot recexve hm) (b) "I ho w»rld was ruade by hlm and the woid knew ( : chd not know hm) Thas rule does hot apply to a noun obect, e g ye rëceve not our wttness in a negattve question, the Scandtnawan hkê the Enghsh negattve parttcle cornes after the sublect and before the noun oblect Its posttion wtth refèrence to thë sublect m Anglo-Amencaa ts hot obligatory. We sometimes say do you hot? and we someumes say don't you? The fuie of word-order m Bble Enghsh and m Scandmavian languages îs the saine. (a) for a negauve command or request» (b) for a negauve state- ment The Bxble Englsh or Scandinavmn form s: lead us hot mto tempaon Thè roundabout Anglo-Amencan êqïnvalent is" do no I¢ad us mo emptaîon We use ths roundabout form of thc negauve request or command only wth hot. if the negative pamcle is never we suck fo Mayflower chorn. Thc pofitîon of the ncgauve parade m a Dutch or a Gcrman cn- tence s not the saine as m Bble English or m Scandmavmn languages When xt quahfies t!ïe statement as a wholê, if cornes Cter the objeet wlaether the Latter a pronoun or a noun. In a quesuon t cornes at the end of a sentence unless the verb s compound. ïhen xt cornes mmêchately before the partacple or mfimuve, in the Romance languages the negative parade stands belote thë verb if thé latter is snnplë, nd
Syntax-- The Traffic Rules of Language 6 before the helper verb if ït ls compotmd When one or both oblects are pronouns, and therefore stand m front of the sxmple verb or m front of the helper, the negatave pamcle prêcedes them French (pp 339 and 34) makes use of two pamcles smaultaneously. The ne whach corre- sponds to the Itahan non and the Spamsh no, occuples the posmon stated The second (paç, point, l amazs, guère)cornes mmaechately after the smgle verb, or after the helper In some languages the questton form, lzke negatlon m Indo-European ones, ls expessed by means of a partacle Latin had an mterrogatave partacle, -ne eqmvalent to our eh The Anglo-Amerlcan do or dzd rmght almost be called nterrogatave parucles» when used n questaons From tins point of vlew the rules of language traffic m Fmland are specmlly mter- estmg» because the Fmmsh way of expressxng quesuon and demal ls the rrnrror unage of the common practace m the Indo-]European fan-nly Fmns express lnterrogataon by pumng the mterrogarave partacle ko, as we express negataon by puttang the negarave partacle hot, after the pronoun To express negatton, they attach e to the pronoun suffix wtuch they put m front of the verb, mstead of after it That xs to say, the negattve state- ment mvolves an mversmn analogous to fle inversion m the quemon form of French or German ole-mme-ko = are we» emme-ole ---- we are no oie-mme = we are emme-ko-ole = are we not? So fat we have consdered simple statements, commands, or ques- taons wtuch we carmot spht up wlthout mtroducmg a new vet b Lmk- words may connect one or more statements to form compound or complex sentences Such lmk-words are of two classes. One class» represented by only three essentzal elements of a baslc vocabulary for Enghsh use, are the so-called coordznate conlunctaons. In contrachs- tmctton to these three essenttal hnk-words (and, or, and but)there are others called subordmate conluncuons. The most essentaal Enghsh subordmate conluncttons are after how so (as) as when as (m such a xf so that where way that) m order that though whether because than ull why belote smce In adchuon to the pamcles gtven above, we also use the pronouns who, whom, what, and that as subordmate hnk-words, e.g. (a) ths ls the house that Jack butlt» (b) I know who he ls ,
'2'he Loom oWLanguage Ii e]atton to word ord«r, thc dlstmctlm bclwccl co,tdmate and aubor&ume clauses s hot mIattant o the studcnt (f a Romance language In Rom«nce languages, as m Enghsh the order of words in cach p,ut oi a complex smw'n«e , tllc saine. 'rwo mnor e,ceptlons are (a) m Romce, s a "l'cmoc Iangmage% thc »et,,ta'm cornes at the bcgtnwng of a clause even uhet r ., hot tire sublect, a,. n thc read« s for whom he wrotc thz mz'd . .; (b) Engllsh, like «ahcr Tcutomc languagcs, pcnnts subjccc-verb mversxon pstcad of the u',u.,l 'quctiçaaic f, whcn a con- dtmn ls hypottïcu«.l, as m: ,,,. he lo cm« [ h« A sumlar mversïon xs possible tn Scandnmwan languages, and is common in German. It îs renumscent of the Chmese diom of expressing condtio by a quesuon. In compiex semence» Smdtnavian xs hot precîsely thé saine as English word-rder. In any Scandmavian sub- ordurière clause lhe negauve pamçle ant any partiale mdtoetmg rime sands in front of the verb. Scandinavian word-ordcr m a coaplex sentence fs llubltated by: Thls 1 thc hotlbc tha Jack taot wfll t "'no)" ! bllttd Ttoe dïfferencc bctweea woxd-ordcr of' a suborthnatc clause and of a simple atcnce ts mach grcatcr danavaa languages.
Syntax-- The Traffic Rutes of Language I63 The rules for a smlple statemem apply to file principal clause of a complex semence, 1.e. (a) the presënt or past tense-form of a simple or helper verb cornes tmmediately affer the German or Dutch sublect, when the latter ls the first word m the semene; (b) when another word precedes the sublect the simple tense-form of the Dutch or German verb precedes ltS sublect; (c) the mfimnve or para- cxple whach goes wlth the helper verb always goes to the end of the semence, (d) if there are two helpers (e.g. I should bave ¢ome), the second helper (mfimuve form)follows the mfimrave (p z87) The rules for placmg the German or Dutch verb al a subordmate clause are" (a) when the verb ls strnple, if 1 the last word, (b) the he!per also cornes at the end lmïnechately after the paruclple or mfimtave wtuch goes wth ït The followmg models fllustrate both rules Enghsh word-order Affer I had heard xt yesterday, I forgot xt agam. When I bave seen xt, I shall remember it Gernan-Dutch word-order Affer I It yesterday heard had ïorgot I xt agam When I it seen have, shall I t remember It is just as well to bear m mmd the fact that conjunctlons, especaally subordmate conjuncuons, are late arnvals m the lustory of a language Many hvmg people get on wxthout t_hem Though they glve emphasls to the loglcal lay-out of a sequence of statemems, they cannot do much to clanfy what the content does hot ltself chsclose In short, we can save ourselves endless trouble wlth a forelgn language ff we culuvate the habït of usmg smaple sentences (see p 173 ) m out own We can short-clrcmt the embarrassmem of changmg r.he pattem of word order, ff that ls necessary» and we can steer clear of the troublesome choce of correct case-form for the hnk pronoun of a relauve clause Habtual use of the latter adds to the drculues of leammg a new language and leads to a congested style of wntmg m the one we customanly USe. It goes mthout saying that the use of a different pattern for dlfferent clames of a complex sentence adds to the dtffictîes of learnmg a language wlthout malrang the meanîng more dear. That xt is also a cttsadvantage for those who are brought up to speak German, is'clear ff we compare the followmg examples whlch show how an Enghsh-
164 The Loom oj Language man and a German may deal wlth the problem of separatmg the constïments of a lengfly statemem fa) Sïnce thls 1 an Enghsh sentence, It ls hot dffficult to sec what changes ,ire ncccssay if wc want to break it up Ths ls an Enghsh sentence Wc may want to break xt up Changes are then nèeesary. They are hot dffficult to (b) Da dies em enghscher Satz xst, sr es mcht schwer zu seherï, welche Anderungen notwendg smd, wenn wtr hn zerlegen wollen Des st cm ¢ngllschcz Satz Wxr wollcn xhn zcrlcgcn. Anderungen sïnd dann notwendg Welche xst mcht schwer zu sehen. CAeady we have to put much more effort mto rccastirïg an involved German sentence as a sequence of smple ores than we spend when we do the saine wlth an Erghsh one. Ths is mportant bëcause out tiret împulse m statig a closely kmt awament s always to keep the threds togëther with conlunctmns. In a first draft we are thërefore prone to eomtruct cumbêome sentences which are hot necessarily obiectionable i peech. Effecuve wrmng demands a chfferent tech-
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oJ Language 165 roque. Wxthout the vltahty they get from tone and gesture, long and mvolved sentences call for excessive attention, and are less smtable for rapid readmg than a successxon of short ones. So we rlghfly regard the use of the short sentence as a crlterlon of gooà style in French or Enghsh wmmg The rules of word-order make It easy for an Enghsh or French wnter to make the necessary changes m a first draft of an mtrïcate piece of reasonmg The rules of German word-order make t dcult to do so Hence It fs not surprlsmg that the style of German techmcal books and loumals s notonously ponderous and obscure, it s unhkely that Hegel would have taken m three generauons of Germans and one generatlon of Russmns if he had been tramed to wnte in the terse Enghsh of T H Huxley or Wflham James The followmg ctauon from a book of a German scholar, Carl Brockelmann (Grundnss der verglezchenden Grammatzk der Semtschen Sprachen) ls a type speclmen of Teutomc telescopy The key to the Enghsh translation Is that the verb are belote K. Voller goes wlth the last two words: Dxese von Th Iqoldeke, Geschzchte des Qôrans, Gortmgen 186o, erstmals dargelegten Crrundanschauungen uber che Sprache des Qôrans smd von K Vollers» Volkssprache und Schnftsprache zm atten Araben, Strassburg 19o6, durch che falsche Voraussetmmg, dass che Varlanten der spatern Q6ranleser, statt Elgentumhchkelten verschledener Dxalekte vmlmehr nur solche der ursprtmghchen Qôransprache wledergaben, ubertneben und entstellt These by Th Noldeke, Hzstory of the Koran, Gottangen, 186o, for rhe flrst rame put forward baslc vlews on the lallguage of the Kora are m K Voller's Spoken and Wntten Language zn Ancrera Arabza» Stras- bourg, I9o6, by the wrong assumptaon, that the variant readmgs of the later Koran scholars, mstead of (bemg) pecuharmes of chfferent chalects, rather only those of the original Koran language reflected» exaggerated» and chstorted. The vagarles of German word-order are not a sufficient reason for the vast gu between thë language whtch Germans fise in the home and the argon whlch Geman scholars wme. Accepted standards of such scholarly composmon are also the product of a socml trachtîon hostile to the democratlc way of hfe. Intellectual arrogance necessarfly fosters long-wmded exposmon when it takes the form to wh/ch W. roi1 Humboldt confesses m rJae statemen. "±br my own part, it rëpels me to unravel an Idea for the benefit of someboty else whën I have clcared it up" If one has to comult a German work of scholarshp or techno-
The Loom oj Language logy, itts reassurmg to bear tls in mmd When the Enghsh-speakmg reader meets a sentence hke the precedmg speclmen, it ls some comfort to know that Germav rcad,z,s «Iso bave to unravd us n'amng for thetr own benefit. The fact that people often use a nauve word-order when trymg to speak a foregn language somettmes gves nse to cornac effects m drama or ficuon It also suggests a uscful dewce for lhe home tudent When leamîng a language, we have to acqulre several types of skfll, mcludmg the use of th nght word and use of the nght arrangement. It s rarely good pohcy to leam two skflls at the saine rame So the student of a new language m«y find t helpful to pracuse the more important tficks of syntax m a forelgn languagc by separate exemses m syntacttcal translatmns For instance ff you are starung Swcdsh, the syntacucal translauon of &dn't you corne here yestcnday» s came you hot yeçterday hzther? if you are leammg Geman, . syntactcal translauon of ïl I don't corne won, don't watt, ts f I hot soon corne watt hot Models which make use of alhterauon or conve7 now'l mformaton are easer to remember than collecmns of words wh( h have no emouve content. For instance, one of the tïmks of Swe&sh synax tan be memonzed by the syntacucal translatmn et the prophels oj thê ()Id Testament dd not often wash 'as the pophct o[" thc Old T«stamot wahed themsd'oes hot of tan WORD FORM AND O')NEEXT In Chaptcr III wc lcancd th«t nany itcxonal cndmg, hkc thc -ç m he eatç, conmbute noflmg to thc mcaning of a statemcm. Coatcxt, and context alone, dactales wlnch we choose Thus we use eut m preference to eut if thê sublect he, she, #., o any noun. In languagcs which are rich m flexaonal dmvauvs, a large part of yntax, mcluding concord and the troublesome uses of thê sublunctivê mood of the verb m subordanatc clauses, s ruade up of rules of flus sort. At one urne rulës of concord (pp. - 5) occupied many pages of Enghsh grammar, because famlhanty wtth the flêxons of Latin and Greek was the grëater part of a geflmaxa's educatmn. Thë wrecage ofthë Enghsh pêrsoml pronoïms helps us to get a &fferent perspective The a¢oempanying table gives the Old English and modem Icelandae equivalents to emphasiz the progressive characte of &nglo-Amenca. It also howï out debt to Old Norsé» from wluch we derived thy» thon, theirs. îI'he obiective forms (mê, thee, him, etc.) often clled the acua. tve» are really survivh of datïvë. The table does not show where hë
Sytax---The Trafic Rules oj Language I67
r68 The Loorn oJ Lagzagc and zt came £rom The he probably came from the Old Engllsh demonstrauvë seo (hat) Its wa a Iater Innovarlon q'he 6II edation of the Enghsh Bible ues hz or thzng and males Thas pronoun ls a good example of analogcal extensmn The fist per'on to ue t was an Itahan m x598 Enghhmen adopcd dunng ïhe sevemeenth century Though personal pronouns have retamed more of the old flexlons than any olher class of Enghsh words» and therefore account for a large propornon of common ermrs of Englh speech catalogued m the grammar books used flary years ago» »ve now use only seventeen to do the work of thnty-five d.unct fonns m Old Enghsh In one way, the use uf the pronouns ï» sull changm Throughou the ]Englsh- spea -kmg world, peuple çomrnonly use they in peech to vod mvdaous sex dscnmmauon, or the roundabou expressmn he or she. Sxrmlarly, thern s common m speech ior hm or ber» and thezr for hs or ber. Prob- ably the wnrtën language wdl soon assmdate the pracucê, and gram- manans wffi then say that they» them» and thezr are common gender »ingutar, as well as plural forms of the thrd përson. EVe tan ah eady foreseë changes whxch must corne, even f raùonal nrguments ior language-plannmg produce no effect Headmasters and headmstresses no longer bother «o much about whethe: we should say the com»nttee meets and the commrtee dagree, whether we need be more crcumspect than Shakespeare about whcn we use who or whom, whether xt xs low-bred to «ay theçe sort and theçe ktnd» whether xt îs usefui to pre- serve a roche for the archaxc dual-plural dsuncuon by mssrang on the comparauvé better in preference to the superlauve beçt oî the two» or whether t xs xrnproper to use me n preferenee to the "possessive adjec- uve" when we say" do you oblecr fo my kirsng you» The convcmions of syntax changc continually by the process of analogcal extension We use word forms bccause we are accustomcd to use thcm m a sîmïlar simauon Thus out first mpulse :s to use weré or was in the sentcnce, a large group of chrtdren waç watmg af th chnîc. Whatevcr old-fashmncd grarnmarans may say about the corzcct use of was and were whcn the sublect is thc "collccuve" rtoun group, most of us yicld to the force of habxt and use eoere for the smple reason that ït s usual for were to foltow chfldren. Smce we get uscd to saying know rather thma tenows aller you, most of us say none of you know, unless we have urne for a grarmnaucal post-mortcm on the aggluu- native contractîon hot one - none. So we may be quite certain that everyonë wll soon look on none of:you knows as pêdantîc archaism. Habitï formed in ttus way givc us some msight into the meanïngless
Syntax--The Traffic Rules oj Language 169 assoctaraon of zt wlth razns, and sumlar expresslons, e g zt zs usual Pêople who speak a languagê wtuch bas eqmvalents of ç, ae, zoas, were for the copula connectmg attrzbute and topzc (t e thmg or person) get used to the transmon from thê exphcat statêmênt he zoater zs hot to the mol e economïcal form, tt zs hot when the comext makes it clear that zt stands for a real thmg The saine remarks apply to thê convennonal quesnon-pattems, zs the water hot» and zs zt hot» It ls a short step to apply the saine formula metaphorlcally when the precxse toplc ls less clearly specafied. In spire of the fact that a umt of tmae fs not a heatable object, we also say thê day s hot. When we make the more economlcal subslatuuon zt zs hot» in accordance Wlth our habit of dcahng wth a statement wlth an exphctt and relevant topc, the field of reference of the pronoun embraoes the whole set-up What now compensates for loss of tts original funcuon as a snappy substltute for a tangtble thmg ts out habtt of mterrogauon The customary mverston demands a subject after the verb m the formula s t hot» Thus habtt and metaphor conspzre to encourage intrusion of the pro- noun t mto stmatlons where It merely does the job of an mterrogauve pamcle such as eh? Somerhmg mmlogous goes on wtth words whlch bave the formal pecuharmes of nouns and verbs, and we can watch It happemng in out own languagê Hammer xs the name-word for a stauc object By assmlt- laung -mg it becomes tdentrfied wlrh the process of usmg tt, and attracts all the affixes of a weak verb The converse occurs A process such as to smg ls assocmted wtr_h a person or thmg by assmulatmg the affax -er of çmger Imerplay of habtt and metaphor works havoc wtth ay attempt to estabhsh a clear-cut relauon between word-form and word-fimcuon, and we cau see both at work tn tàe most pnrmtlve levels of speech Malmowskï sums up the results of hts own stucltes on speech m backaxd communlues as follows "The fundamental outlmes of grammar are due to the most prmamve uses of language. . Through later processes of lmgmstac use and of thmkmg, there took place an mchscrmamate and wholesale shff, ang of roots and meanmgs from one grammaracal category to another For accordmg to out vlew of prxrmuve semantlcs» each slgmfic.znt foot orlgmally must have had lts place, and one place only, tu xts proper verbal category Thus, the roots meamng man, ammal, tree, stone, water, are essentaally nominal roots The meanmgs sleep, eat» go, corne, .tall, axe verbal But as language and thought develop» the constant actton o£ metaphor, of generahzatton, analogy and abstracraon, and of sxmalar kngmsrac uses bmld up lmks between the categorles and obhterate the
7o The Loom oj Languagc buundary hnc, hu allowng words whole icld oi Language In analyc lguagcs, hke Chmcse and tmghsh, ths utnquttous nature of roo s s most consptoeous, but t c,tn be fod evcn m very prmauve lguages "lhe mtgraton of roots mto îm- ptopcr places has gven to OEe magma reahty of hyposuzed meamng a spectal soh&ty of tts ow For, smce eIy expencnce warrts the substanval exr, tcace of anmg fod wthm the tegory of Crude Substmce, and subsequent hngutsuc shffts mtroduce there such oots as goutg, rcst, motzon, etc, or Mcas hve m a real world ot thetr own Such harmless adlectves as good or buJ, expessmg e savage's half-mmnal sa,.fictton or ds.,ats- tactmn m a stuauon, subsequcntly mtrude mto the etclosme reserved for the clumsy, ough-hewt blocks ot ptuatuvc substance, e subhmated mto Goodness d Badnes, and create whole rheologtcal world% and sytems of Thought d Rehgton at Mahnowsk catls "çhtflmg of rooç and m«amngç from one gran»tical catNory to anoth«" has multphed words appropnate to smatmns wNch bave nomg m common and s respooEstble for mnety per cent of e dtcues of iearnmg a langage. One usuauon ths xs the multtphcï of word forms conneed wfla fle sublectblect stmoeton The lamp ilunates (shmes on) OEe table m the same sense as the lamp fllummams (or shmes on) me If ,;o, I sec the lamp We do hot say tha the table sceç the lamp, aM there ts . good enough reason for ths dsunctmn "l'he lamp çhes not suhte he table s t sumNates my rea, but fins dIteence does hot lusufy the use of o pronoms I and me. In both statements the prmo s e goal, d the lp s e agent as I ïs e agent m i moved the lwnp Posbly there was once a real stmction of ths kmd, f what we should now call vcrbs were only words for acnon To-day t sigmtcs »thmg apart from OEe context. To know wNch xs goal of acuon we need to ow hear the subect ts the goal of the proces d e oble is what mitmtes t If he verb s st»,ke, the reverse s true The gtammaucal oblect hot necessanly the logcal or biologcal oblect It may be he actor or the vîcum of a performance, OEe sUmNus or a result of a process.
Syntax--The Traffic Rules o.[ Language 171 expressions, wlth burin of dead metaphors, and wlth rules of word- order to prevem ambigmty or loss of mterest. Syntax, as wrlters on "semanttcs" so often forget, ls concemed wlth far more than the problem of meanmg The use of language lS a social acravlty whlch mvolves a hearer or readei as well as a speaker or wrlter So the art of wrltmg lmphes the power to grlp the attentaon, and sustam the mterest, of the readër Prohxïty, pomposlty, and evaslon of direct statement are charactersttcs of Wrlting most lmrmcal to sustamed mterest, and any one who ls wlllmg to take the trouble can learn to avold bad witmg m tls sense Brllhant wrltmg may be a glft, but the power to wnte smlple, lucld, and compellmg Enghsh hes wlthm the power of any mtelhgent person who bas grown up to speak it One important thaxlg to know about the art of wnting xs that effecuve and lucld wrïung lS hm d work A fast draft ls never perfect, and a good wnter ls essenually a good self-e&tor. Inchscrmamate exerclses m précis are far less helpful than the dehberate apphcauon of rules based on the recognitlon of standard forms of prohmty to wtnch even the best authors are prone If we apply a few fixed rules we can generally reduce a prose paragraph taken at random from any Enghsh classlc by flurty or forty per cent wlthout deparung a hmr's breadth from the meanmg. The important ones are' (a) condensauon of pamcaplal expressions; (b) ehmmatlon of împersonal formuiae; (c) translation of the roundabout passive mto chrect or acuve form, (d) cuttmg out clrcumlocudons for whlch a smgle parucle sufIices; (e) relecuon of the» unless absolutely necessary. OJae useful recape for concise wntmg ls to glve every partzczple the once- over i.u a first clraft The sun havzng ansen, then mvïtes the shorter sub- suture, af ter sunrse If we are on the look-out for the passxve form of statement as maother mctement to boredom, we shall strke out the expression zt wdI be seen from the foregomg figures, and substatute the snappter» more arrestmg acttve eqmvalent, the foregomg figures show you The last example suggests another general recipe mdacated m the hst paragraph. The remoteness of the college clolster bas cumber¢d the Enghsh language wlth a htter of mpersonal constructaons whzch defeat the essentaally social character of commumcatton m wntmg by creatang the mapressxon that a statement ls for the benefit of the author and the Delty alone Thus the mtruslve tt of the sublect-prechcate fetïsh ls another danger-sgnal m a first draft If wouId thus seem tha, or t would rhus appear that, for seemmgly or apparently, wch do the saine job when really necessary,' are representatave exhtbtts for the prosecutton. They should go to thê saine hmbo as zt zs sazd rhat (some people say), t s true that (admttedly), the completely redundant z s thç rhat, and the armlo-
1:72 3'he Loom oJ Language gous crcumlocutaon of whch a type specmen fs thë untruc statcmcnt, 'tîs love that makeç the world go round Therê are other comrnon llterary habits of long-wmdedness One ls the use of conluncttonal and preposlllmal phrase, whcn a smgle hnk- word or &recttve would sutïllce The 7'vneç Lt«ay Supplement ard Bmsh Cvl SetvKe Reports specml,zc n the question aç to whether, when wherher by tself sufIïces n the saine context Durzng the tïme har generally means the sanie as whle At at earher date s an unneces- sarxly roundabout way oi saylng pr«vzouçly Wrh referënce to xs over- worked m stuatlons where about or oncernzng» would do as well, and both the latter» though no shorter han as to» are more exphct The reader who bas rtow graspcd the amportance ot usmg particlcs exphcxtly wI1 be oJa thc l»ok-out for these Another trck whch makes wrxtmg congestcd ndscrmnate use of the detmte arttclc rhe m sttuattons whcre t hot reaily nccesary For instance, wc tan ,trlkc out four messentml arucles of the sentence if the war goes on, the scal sêrvlcës wxll be eut, the mcome tax wll nse, and the prce, » commodmes wll soar Anyone who wshcs to culnvate an agrecablc and compctcnt style can pracuse how to recogmze sgnposts of prohxty by rewrmng passages from standard authors or e&torial amclês m nëwspapers without recoursê to redundant pamcles, passxvê expressmns, prepo- smonal and conluncuval phrases, or to unnecessary aucles. Another type of exercse whch helps to devclop the habit ot wlf-e&to çhzp as to rewnte m smplë sêntences passagcs from books by authors able to mampulate long and complëx ones wth more or less effect. Sentênces wth more than one subordinate clause are nearly always dfficult to follow, and complex semencès m gênerai are best kept to round oit" a fusïlladê of sïmple statemënts, when the habit of wntmg m smplë sentences bas been we11 formed If wë bave to use complex sentences, the subordmate clause should generally corne first One of thè tasks of sêlf-ëditmg s to sec that xt does so The worst type of mvolved sen- tence xs the one wxth a clause starUng wtth that, zotw, or whz,h, telescoped mto anothër begnmng m the same way. That, who» and which {lkè pamciplès, passwe vêrbs, thë and zt) are thêrefore danger- signals in a £rst draft. One smple rock whïch hêlps m cutting up long and complex sêntënces s the use of certain advërbml particles or exprëssmns to mamtam contîmuity of meamng. Meanwhile, first, ¢hen, after hat, or afterardç, in spte of this, in thzs way, thus, for that reason, consequently» so, therëfore, are thërefore usefizl tems of a word-hst We cm roEforce the habit of sêlf-ëdîtorstup by pracusmg the use of such words m dissection of sentënces made up to i!lustrate each of thc
Symax--The Traffic Rules oj Language 173 subordmate conltmctlons of page I61 The followmg example lllus- trates ths type of exerclse: (a:) COMPLEX SENTENOES Although you cannot learn a languagc wlthout hard work, you may well exaggcrate how much effort xs necessary Avoldable dïscouragemcnt arlses because many peoplc mcmorlze words and rules whlch we do not really need when we speak or wrlte There ls another thng whzch adds to the burdên of learnmg Many peoplc do not get as much bcncfit from reachng as they would f they first got a blrd's-eyc vlew of grammar in order to recogmze rules whzch are hot cssental for self-cxpresmon» when they meet them in a fresh settmg if we set about out task as the reader of The Loom of Language wlll do, we shall find tha thc effort rcqmred xs smaller than we thmk One of out readers, who wanted to learn Swechsh, b_ad fmled to make much progress, before she read The Loom of Language in proof Smce she followed lts plan of smdy, she bas gone ahead qmckly She started reachng Swechsh newspapers and wrltmg to a boy frlend m Sweden after she had got a blrd's-eye vlew of the grammar and was thoroughly farmhar wlth about a hundred essentmt partacles, pronouns» and pomter-words Her vocabulary grew wlthout effort, and ber grasp of grammar became firmer, whztg she went on with ber dafly readlng and contmued her correspondence. She now mtends to persevere zll she fs pro- ficlent (b) sz swrcs" You cannot learn a language wlthout hard work Sull, you can exaggerate the necessary effort Many people memorze words and rules wlthout askmg thls question Do we really need them for speech and wntmg? Another thmg adds to the burden of learnmg Many people read wlthout first gettmg a blrd's-eye vew of grammar They meet rules not essentaal for self-expression They bave xxot met them before So they do hot recogmze them as such Readers of Th, Loom of Language wfll set about the task in a dfferent way They wfll then fmd the effort less than out first estmïate of it One of its readers wanted to learn Sechsh She had prevously fafled to make much progress Then she read The Loom of Language in typescnpt She followed lts plan of study After ha she went ahead qmcldy She firs got a blrd's-eye wew of the grammar She also got thorougb.ly f-,maxhar wth about a hua6red essentaal parttcles, pronours, and pomter-words Nem» she started reachng Swechsh newspapers and wntmg to a boy frlend m Sweden She wênt on reachrg dmly and contmued to correspond MeanwhzIe her vocabulary grew wlthout effort. She also got a firmer grasp of grammar Though hot ya proficlent, she mtends to persevele
74 The Loom o Languagê SPEECH AND WRI IING A dithculty whch bcscts many pcople whcn thcy try to express thcmselves eflccuvcly m wrmng would be less fordable, f carly educauon dd more to encourage thc habit of carcful and thoughff speech Wt the domcsnc crcle we can rely on thc chmxty or mtel- hgencc of OEe hstcner to mterpret a hall fimshed sentcnce or to shmpen e ouflme of a loose detimuon Smce we can usually do so w m- pumty, many of us ncver cuvatc precse Imbts of self-expression n cveryday hfc "I o wnte, especmlly for cadcts wth whom wc arc hot pcrsonally :cquamtcd, s anothcr mattcr We cannot exploit a common backgound of domcsuc assocmtons Xv?e coenot take advanmge of associations pomptcd by surrounng obcs or oenent events For al[ we can convcy by tone or gcsturc, convcnuons of punctuation and of typography (c g tah«s) are the only mcans at our dsposal If con- versauoa s habtually tnvml and confincd to a narrow soml rcle, learmng to wnte xs ]camng a nc language. Maybe, librarcs of sound films or phonogaph ecords wil cvcn- tuaily supcrscde the bookshclf as the collecuve memory of mamd Meanum% he art spccch, evcn pubhc spccch, cannot be qmtc the sanac as thc rot oi wrtmg q'hctc must bc a rcgton wbc'rc flc wntlen and tlac spokcn wod do not ovcrl.tp, tut wc Cn makc , and hould makc t» as small as Jlccd l)C çhcthc t s xclatvcly lare, as m Gcr- many, or sma]l, a n Noay, cilect thc extcnt to wch mtellectuats e a OEste apaa from OEe aspirations and needs of ear feHow uzens. Homely wnung closely C to OEoughtful specch is a sxgnpost of the democrafic way of hfe. For wrung cannot çl to be et]ccuve, if wbrant wth sympay for thc Iïculucs of e reader. Where the democrauc way of he prevafls» pubhc demand for popular science and social statsucs dscourages litëra afleatons. Drama and ficïon deal more and more wth the livês of ora people and reflect the speech habits. Smcc rhctoal prose based on classical models is hot adapted to e aeeds of a public habtat fo rapid reang m buses and us, the vasfly ncreased output of pfinted marrer snce the inoeoduaon of the lnope mach9e has also helped to bfing the wrx=en doser to fixe spokcn word. In out own gcneraton broadcasung has rmorced the end. Pubhcaon of radio talks popular,zes a style to dy spceoE, and» as one of o loe&ng phonefians h saïd: There are signs that the ty anny oï prmt under whch we bave lîved since the days of the Renaissance may glve way to a more
CHAPTER V THE CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES BEFOltE there were comparauve hngmsts, practtcal men akeady knew that some European languages resemble one another nouceably. Tiae Eghsh smlor whose stup brought htm for the first urne to Amsterdam, to Hamburg, and to Copenlïagen was bound to nouce that raany Dutch, Germaz, and Damsh words are the same, or almot the same, as ttxer cqmvalcnts m tus own ton/Ne. Whcrc ho would havê smd thzrst, ome, good, the Dutchman used the words dorst, komen, goed, the Gêrman Durst, kommen, gu¢; and the Dane, Trsl, kom, god The Frenchanan callmg on Lsbon, on Bacelona, and on Genoa dscovered to hs delight that atmer (to love)» nuit (mght), dx (ton) dffer very httle from the correspoachng Portuguese words amar, nozt6 h'z; Spamsh amar, hoche, dez; or Itahan amare, hotte, dwcz In fact» the dgference s so small that use of the French words alone wouId ofiên produce OEe deured resuh. Bëcause of such reemblancês, people spoke of related languages. By the stxteenth century, three unlts wluch we now call thê Teutomq the Romance or Latin, and the Slavonzc groupe were wdely rëcogmzed. If you know one language m any of these thrëe groups, you wall bave httle datticuky tu learmng a second one. So t s ënunendy a pracUcal division. Whcn thë modem hnguist sull calls Enghsh, Dutch, German, Dauish, Noegan, Swêchsh relaed languages, he means more than ths. Wc now use thc terre in an cvoluuonary scnse i.anguagës are related, if the many features of vocabulary, structure, and phoneucs wluch thcy share are due to gradual dtffcrcndation of what was once a smgle tongue Sometimes we bave to mfcr what he coramon paren was hke, but we have flrst-hand knowlédge ofthe ongin ofonë language- group. The deêper we delve into the past, the more French» Spamsh, Itlian, etc converge Fmally they become one m Laun» or to be more accuratè» in Vulgar Latin as spoken by the common people m thê various parts of the Western Roman Epre. Lîke the doctrine of organic evolution, thîs atutude to the study of languages is a comparatively recent innovation. It was wholly alien to Europe.an thought before thê Freaïch Révoiuuon For more than two
The Classification oj Languages 177 thousand years beïore that rime, grammatical scholarsklp had exasted as a learned profession Durmg the whole of ths perlod scholars had acceptcd the fact that lanuages exlst wlthout probmg mto the orlgms of thclr &versaty In Greece the growth of a more advelltUrous sprat was checked by the prevalhng socml ouflook of a slave Clvlhzatlon When Chrlstlanlty became the predommant creed of thê Western world, Hebrêw cosmogony srxfled evolutlonary speculatlon in every field of mqmry Investigations of Greek phflosophers and grammalaans suffered at ail rames from one fundamelltal weakness They were strlctly confined to the home-made ldmm Thls was the lnevïtable consequence of a cul- rural concelt wbach dlvlded the wofld into Greeks and Barbarlans The saine social forces whlch held back the progress of mechamcs and of medcme in the slave Clvlhzatlons of the Mechterranean world held up the study of grammar To bother about the taal of mfermr people was hot the proper concern of an Atheman or of a Roman genfleman Even Herodotus, who had toured Egypt and had wntten on its quamt customs, nowhere mdacates that he had acqulred much knowledge of the language. The Alexandnan conquest brought about httle change of mmd when Greek traders and trave]2ers were roammg far beyond the Mech- terranean basm» estabhsbmg mumate contact wth Bactnans, Iramans, and even wth Incha Both Greek and Roman cmhzataon had unnvalled opportumtaes for gettmg acquaanted wth changmg phases m the choms of peoples who spoke and wrote wdely chverse tongues They had unnvalled, and long smce lost, oppormmtaes to get some hght on the mystenes of ancrent scupts such as tueroglyphcs and cunefform They nëver exploted thetr oppormmraes. The Egyptaan haeroglyphc wntmg was a sealed book tlll the second decade of the nmeteenth centag7. The dëcochng of cuncfform mscnptaons s a work of the last hundred yeas Chnstamty performêd one genume servace to the study of language, as t performed a genume semce to mechcme by promotmg hosptals. It threw the opprobrïous term Barbarzan overboard, and thus paved the way for thé study of all tongues on ther own ments Before t had corne to terres wth the rulmg class, Chnstaamty was truly the fatth of the weary and heavy laden, of the proletanan and the slave wthout property wtthout father]and. In Chrïst there was "nether Scythaan, barbanan» bond nor free» but a new creatmn" Accordmgly the early church ignored social raxk and cultural frormers. All xchoms of the
178 The Loom coe La';:gzt«g, globe enjoycd equl nghts, and the gt of tongt, cs wa,, m htgh esteem among c maclcs of thc apotoltc age Christ svatxon wa an ,t of lmth ] o undcr,tand ll,c new rehgmn the hcahcn must needs hear the gosel an e own vcrna- am So proelyfizmg went hand m hand wi mslatmg Ai an rly dat Chnsmn scholars trslated e Gopels nto Synac, Copnc, and Aent. The Bble s e bemg of Slavomc hteraturc, and the translauon of the New Testament by thc West Gotc Blhop, Ulfila, ts e oldest Gec doccnt extt. Even to-day e Chmsuan mpulse to translatc remmns unabaed Out ble Socmues bave omcd out ponecr work m e study of roen and Polynes daleas. The hstorical balance-shcet of Chnsuan tcg and Ianage study also carnes a weghty tem on OEe dcbt sde. Th«' sto of the Tower of Babel was sacrosmncoE, and wrh lt, as a coroa, tlc behef at Hebrew was c original nage of mamd So OEe emcrgence d sprad of Chrsu was not llowed by any de.er under. standing of e namrA hsto of lguage, Throughout rhe ddle Ages e pa trod by hc Cltnuan scholar was one alrcady beaten by hs pngan foreunner. Thcre was no sgihcant procss m the com- paratwe study of lanuag, bu mercantile veturc and mssmna tcne durmg the age oi the çht Nawgatmns madc a wealth of iresh maten accessible through the new medmm of OEe prînted page» and encouraged Europe scholam to break away from exclusive preocoepauon w dd lang, For e first urne, they bêgan to reco,ze t some iges are more ke than othem Joseph Jus Scahger (546o9), variously recozed as the pix of k'urope, tl, e hghl o) the world, the bottomleas pt of vledge, saw as muoE» and a lmle more, when he wrote hs oeoese on e lmages of Europe. lIe aranged ûem a m eleven m classes, whtch N agam mto Jour major and seven mmor ones The four major classc he based on tlcr words for god, mto &s-, theos-, gott-, d bog- Nngmges, or, as we should say, mto Latin (Romanoe) lanagcs, Groek, Germaine, and Slavonic. The remmg sevcn classes are mde up or Epotic or Nbanian, Ttar, tiungan, Fmmc, Irish (ttt part of it whtch to-v s spok m the mountarnouç regwm « Scotland, i.e. Gaehç), Old British, as spoke in Wales and BrutC5 and finaay Cmmbr or Basque. Durg e seventoen centu many miscëames of foreî lan- g» e e herbals and bestimoe of lhc tme, came off the prmting prms of European oetes The most bous of a was Ne
Thê Glassification o.f Languagës I79 outcome of a proect of Lelbmz, the mathematiclan, who was asslsted by Catherme Ii of Russla The matertal was handed over to the Ger- man traveller, Pallas, for classification. The results of hls labour peared m 1787 under file tlfle, Lmguarum Totzus Orbes Vocabulana Comparatzva (Comparative Vocabulanes of ail the Languages of the World). The number of words on the hst clrculated was 285, and the number of languages covered was 2o% of whach 149 were Aslattc and 51 European. In a later edlraon, ths number was conslderably mcreased by the addatton of Afncan and of Amer-Indian chalects from the New World. Pallas's compilation was of httle use. He had put together hastfly on the basts of superficlal study of bas matenals. Its ment was that it stmaulated others to undertake somethmg more amblraous and more rehable One of them was the Spamard, Hemas, another fle Gëlanan, Adelung Leïbmz's suggestîons mîtuenced both of them. Lorenzo Hervas (1735-18o9) had hved for many years among the Amërlcan Indaans, and pubhshed file enormous number of forty grammars, based upon lits comact wth thelr lallguages. Between 18oo and 18o 5 he also pubhshed a collected woik wlth the rade: Catdlogo de tas lenguas de las naaones conoddas y numeracwn, dzwswn y dases de estas segun la dwerszdad de sus d, omas y chalectos (Catalogue of the languages of ail the known nattons wlth the enumeraraon, chvlslon, and classes of these nattons accordmg to flelr languages and chalects) Tins lmgmstac musettm contamed three hundred exhlblts It would bave been more useful if file author's arrangement of the speclmens had hot been based on the delusmn that flere ls a necessary connection between race and langaage. A second encyclopaedIc attempt to brmg all lan- guages together, as duly labelled exbts, Was that of the German grammarian and popular pkflosopher, Adekmg It bears the ttfle, Mthndates, or General Saence of Languages, wzth the Lord's Prayer nearly 5oo Languages and Dzalects, pubhshed m four volumes between i8o6 and I817. When the fourth volume appeared, Adelung's coin- , pflatïon had become entrely obsolete. In the meammae, Bopp had pubhshed bas revolutionary treattse on the con]ugafional system of Samknt, Grêek, Latin, Persxan, and German Previously, there had been hrde cunosty about the way m whlch language grows in the mtroductton to "Mathxdates" Adeltmg makes a suggestion, put forward earlier by Home Tooke, wlthout any aoEempt to check or explore lts imphcatons This remarkablê Enghshman was one of the fit Europans fo concelve a plausxblê hypothes to account
The Loom oJ Lauguagc for the ongm o flexaon In a book called D,ve swm of Purley, pubhshed xn x786» Tooke amacpates the central theme of the task wbach Bopp carried out wath greater knowledge and success durmg the first half of the mneteenth century Thus he wntes. "All those common tcmmatmns, m any lm,guagc, t whch ai1 Nouns or Vcrbs m that languagc cqually partakc (undcr the noraon ot dcclcnsmn or conlugatmn) arc t hcmsclvcs scparatc words wnh d,stïnct mcanmgs . these tcrmmatmns arc cxphcablc, and ought to bc cxpl.uncd" The wotk of Bopp and othcr ptoncers ot comparauvc grammar recevcd a powcrful mpctus trom thc smdy of Sansknt Though Sassera, an italmn of the soEtecnth ccntury, had cfllcd Sansknt a pleaçant, ïJluszcal language, and had umtcd Do ((;od) wJth 1)ce,a, It had remamed a sealed book iol almost two hundred years Now and then some mïsslonary, hke Robert'us Nobihbu% or iiemrich Roth» a German who was anmous to be able to chspute wlth Brahmamc pnc,,ts, ruade bamsêlf acquaiated wlth t but ths dld hot touch the world at large After Sassera, the first European to point out the staggemg sxmalanues between Sanskrit and the Europeaa languages was lhe Gcrman mas- smnary, Benjamin Schuhze For years hê had prëached thê Gospel to the Indian heathen, and had helped n the trans!almn ol the Bble mto TamA On August 9, x715, he sent to Professor t:ranken an mteresung letter m wluch he ëmphaszed the sarmlanty between the numeraIs o Sansknt, Gèrman, and Latin When English mercantale mperiahsm was tîrmly grounded m India, cavl servants began fo estabhsh contact wnh the preserït and past of the country An Asxarac Socaety got startcd at Cakuua m ï784 Four yêars later» a rnuch-quoted ltter of Wilham Jones, Chef-Jusuce at Fort Wfiham m Bêngtt, was ruade pubhc In it the author demon- strated the genealogxcal connexaon betweén Sanskrit» Greek, and Latin» betweên Sansknt and German» and between Sanskrit, Cëitïc, and Pêrsan: "Thc Sanskï't ],mguagc, whatcvcr bë ts amquïty, x', of a wondc- fui ,structure, more pcrtcct flm the Grcck, more copiou than fle Latin, and more exquisitely reImcd thîm cther; yct bearmg t) both of thcm a stronger aiIty, both m the roots ot vcrbs and m thc forms of graar than coald bave bccn produccd b7 accdcnt; so strong mdced, tiret no ptulologcr cod possxbly cmme «11 the rince wiout behevmg em to havc sprung om some common ource whct, per- ps no Iongcr ets 'lhee s a samïlar rcason» fimugh hot qmte so forcble, for supposmg t}mt bo thc Gouc and Celtic, ough blcndcd w a derent idmm, d ë saine ongm wi he
The Glasscatian o.f Languages 18I Thls happened wlthm a few years of the pubhcatlon of Hutton's Theory of the Earth, a book whlch challenged the Mosalc account of the creatlon Cuscochans of fle Pentateuch were alarmed by the prospect that Sanskrlt would brmg down the Tower of Eabel. To antlclpate the dauger, they pïlloned Sanskrlt as a prlesfly fraud, a kmd of pldgm-dasslc concocted by Brahmms from Greek and Latin ele- ments Wlïham ones, hlmself a scholar of ummpeachable plety, had to make the secular confession "I can only declare my behef that the lallguage of Noah ls lrretrlevably lost After dlhgent search i cannot find a smgle word used m commolz by the Arablan, Indxan» and Tartar farmlïes, before the adm.txture of these dlalects occasloned by the Mahommedan conquests " Together wlth tea and coffee, Napoleon's blockade of England wlth- held from the Conunent Sansknt grammars and dlctlonanes wtnch Enghsh scholars were now busy turnmg out Fommately the Bzblw- thèque Nationale in Paris possessed Sansknt texts Parts had m custody Harmlton, an Enghshman who enhvened hls mvoluntary soloum m the French capital by gvmg pnvate lessons m Sansknt One of tas puplls was a brllhant young German, Frtednch Schlegel In 18o8, Schlegel pubhshed a httle book, Uber dze Sprache und Weshet der Inder (On the Language and Philosophy of the Inchans) Ths put Sanskrlt on the Conunental map Much that is m Schlegêl's book makes us smlle to-day, perhaps most of ail the author's chcun that Sansknt ls the mother of all languages None the less, it was a turmng- point m the scenufic study of language In a smgle sentence wtuch boldly prospects the field of future research, Schlegel exposes the new xmpems whlch came from contemporary progress of namrahsuc studles "Comparative grammar wlll glve us entarely new mformauon on the genealogy of language, m ëxactly the same way m whlch comparative anatomy las thrown hght upon the natural hstory" The study of Latin m the Maddle Ages had preserved a secure bass for thls evoluttonary approach to the smdy of other languages, because the Latin parentage of modem French, Spamsh, Portuguese, Itahan, and Rumanian xs an tustortcally venfiable fact Unfommately, hlstory bas hot been so obhgmg as to prêserve the parent of the Teutomc and the Slavomc groups. To be sure, thé present differences between Dutch, German, and the Scandmawan languages danmish as we go back in time Sri 1 l, OEerences remam when we have retraced 0ur steps
2'he Loom of Language to the oldest records avatlable At that point we have to repIace the hzsto cal by the compa atzvc mehod» and to tt y t(» obtaln by mference what hlstory has fmled to rescue We aie m much the saine po«mon as the btologst, who tan trace the record of vctebate cvoluuon from bony rcmams m the rocks nll he reaches the point whën vertebrates had hot acqmrcd a hard skeleton. Bèyond ths, anythmg wc tan know or plaumbly surin,se about heïr Olagm must be based upon a com- panson between the cha, acterstm feotures of he vcrtebrCe body and thc charactcnstm /caturcs of bo&ly orgamzauon among thc vanous classcs of mvcrtcbrate, TIIE BASIS Ol, EVOLUIIONARY CLASSIFIçATION Bmlogsts who dassfl'y anmmls trom an evolutmnal T point of ",new make the assmaxpt,on that chaxactensttcs common to all--or to nearly aLl--mcmbers of a group are also chazactenstc o£ theu «mmon ancestor Smflar rêasonmg ,s ïmphc, t in the comparauvc mëthod of smdymg ianguages; md those who study lhe evolutmn of langmages enjoy an advamage which thê evolutionary bmlog, st does ot t, hare. No iazge-scale changes m the diversxty of animal hfe on out planet havê occurred dunng the pënod of the wntten record, but dstmct languàges have tome mto bemg dunng comparauveIy receïxt urnes Wc can check the value of clucs whmh suggest common parentagc of reIated lan- guages by an almost çontmuous hstoncaI record oi what has happened to Latia. Word-s,mzlarity s one of the three most important ot these clues It stands to reason that two ¢losely related languages must have a large numbêr of recogmzably sxmilar words. Companson ot the membcrs of thë Romance group shows that thls ts so Such resembiance does hot sgmfy ,dennty, whxch may be dte to borrowmg Ï.'.wdence or kmshp ts strongest ïl words which are Cke are words whl«h re hot lïkely fo bave passed from one language to thê othër, or to have bcen assmlated by both from a thxrd Such conçematwe words include përsonal pro- nouns; ve bs exprcssmg baszc acttvites or states, such as corne and go, gve and take, eat and drînk» lire and &e; adlcctavcs denoting clcmcntary quahnes such as young and old, bg ad small, hgïh and dee#; or ïaames whtch stand for umvcrsaily distributed objccts, sudx as earth, dog, stone, ïvater,tire, for parts of rhc body 8uch as head, ear, eye, nose, mouth, or for blood relatiomhp such as father» mother sister, brother. If thc aumber of words which two languagcs sharc is smalI, and confincd to a spccî aspect of cultural hfë, tt is almost certain that ont
The Classzjïcatzon of Languages lS mdebted te the other. Tkts apphes te word-smallanues whmh the Celuc and Teutomc gtoups de net share w_th other Aryan langtmges The common wotds of tlms class are ail nouns, seine of whach are TENSES OF TH.E VERB BE IN ROM_A.NCE LAGUAGES (PRONOUN8 ONLY USED FOR EMPIIASI IN BRACKETS ENbLIH IIam , [ thou art J he is [ you are [thcy are I I was (used te o t be) thou wert . he was [ we were | you werê I.they were o [ I was thou wet , he was ' l we werc you wcre thcy wc e l shali bc thou wdt bc ho w111 bc /wc ha11 bc [you w11 bc dey wfll bc (fo) se. IRENC_a-I ttl C$ ,I est IlOU$ 50IIln-les vous C.teo xls sont .l ' etazs nous etzouç zls dzazent le fus d fut nous tûmes vous fûtc, I,» furent le 5f&. al I sera ilOllS Se.ori vous serez I[S ',CI 011 SPANISH (yo) soy (tu) eres (cl> es (nosotros) somos (vmotros) sos (elles) son era cras eîa crg/'llos erals crai1 fui fruste fuc mmos fmatczs fueron ser¢ oran SER LATIN (ego) sure (tu) es (le) est (nos) sumus (vo) esus Olh) sant eram erat eratls erant fmsn fmt fmmus fmsus fucrunt ero ESSE ITALIAN (io) sono (tu) sel (egh) e (nol) siamo (voO sete (essO sono ero era eravamo eravate erano tost lu fummo foste furono saral sara saremo sarete sarailno ESSERE names for mctals, tools and vebacles. Tbas does net mdlcatc that thcre s a particulazly close evoluuonary relauonshap betweên Cêluc and Teutomc m the sense definêd above Olher features show that a w, de gulf separatês them. Archaeologxcal ewdënce suggest» that the Teutons took over words wth the arts they assmïlated from Celuc commumlaes at a highoE cultural level.
184 1"he Loom of Laguage Through such culture-contacts words have wandczcd ïrom ont langtlage to anothcr of a totally dlfiercnt ollgm The modem word bzcycle pedals over lmgmsuc fronuers as thê machine uscd to pedal over nauonal bouadanes bcIore passports werc obhgatot¥ The word- matenal of al1, or ncarly ail, languages the more exclusive mcmbers of the Tcutomc gtoup thc number of mtruders ïs many urnes larger than thc nunïbcr ot woids whch thc hngmst thmks ho eau racc baçk to tkc hypohcuc.d common zdmm called pnmmve l'eut orne bcn dcahng wifl wtrds tbr numbeis, or wcghts and mcaurcs, wc bave always fo rcckon wth thc posslbdlty of cultural, and thcrcible wold, dtiu'.lm If wc.tbulaly ls thc only clue avmlablc» we bave to give duc constderatton tt geogtaphlcal stuatlon. Iftwo languages wtm.h shale a con:adorable poi uo oI conseIvauve root- words are hot geoaphcay conuguous, =e related Word-santy s a good duc. A ccond s agreement w respect to grammatical beha', ami Icnch, Spamsh and liah.m, whch wc may use as out convoi g oup» have a best of conmon grammaucal features such as () A future ten.,c (sec pp o6 and 339) wluch 1,, a ç(nfi»tnatmn oI the nItmtve ad hc auxhaty to ta«e (t' azmcl-a, amcr-a ital amer-o, amat-al ; SIlill. anza-c» umar-a ) (n) The dctmte artMe (FI. nlasC, le, tem ha, SlaIl ci i)I hi I t.tI. zl oz la), and pronouns ()t the urd perron (Ir zl or dl«, Span d or ella» Irai. Eh or ¢II«) all denved tt«mE the i.atm demmstratve dle» Ii (ui) A twotold gendci system m whch thç ma,.ulme un generally takes the place O[ the l.atnï ncuter (1;r te '«,m the wme, Span el wno; ital l vuïo, Latin Grammaucal pecuhanuc% hke wods» may be nme or less conserva- Uve. in the wdcst seine ot the tc, gramm mcludes the study of om d sentence construcuon, or synt, m contradstmctmn to de, whch d w e mooeoeuon of mvduN words by flemon or root-vowel ch«es. Thc symax of a lanNage s much Ies oemeaUve ts accdence. When we meet w rcscmblanccs of e tter type» t woNd be f-fetched to atmbute cm to cnce or to g. e ewdence avaflable tds to show flt, whle wor d &oms use frcely, pecuhanues of aczden«c do hot Now and a e may boow a pcOE or a sutf, togcer with a ford wor md subquey m one or e oer o to om words,
The Classification o.[ Languages 85 as German chd wath -et (Liebela, "flirtauon"), wtuch is the French -e (as m la vleme,"vtllamy"), but we know of no language whxch bas mcor- porated a whole set ofahen endmgs hke those of the Lama verb (p o7) Absence of grarnmaucal resemblance does hot mvanably mean that two or more languages are unrelated Once a parent language has spht mto several new specles, the dlfferent fragments may more more or less swzffiy along stmflar or dlfferent paths. For example» French bas chs- carded more of the luxuriant system of Lama verb flexaons than lts Itahan rester. Enghsh has expenenced catastrophc denudauon of ts T eutomc flemons Consequently Its grammar ls now more hke that of Chmese than ltke that of Sansknt Grammaucal companson may therefore nnslead us, and when the evadence of word-stmflarity does hot point to the saine conclusion as the evxdence from grammaucal pecuhan- ues, the latter is of htde value A t.htrd due wtuch reinforces the testtmony of recogmzable word- snmlanues anses from consstent dzfferences between words of corre- spondîng meanmg We can easfly spot such a conmstent dafference by comparmg the Enghsh words to, tonguê and tre wlth thelr German eqtuvalents zu, Zunge and Zmn The resemblance between members of the saine pmr ls hot smkmg u e we confine our attenuon to one pmr at a tune, but when we look at the very large number of such parts in wluch the mual Gerrnan Z (pronounced tç) takes the place of out Enghsh T, we chscover an mamense stock of new word-snnflarmes The fact that changes affecung most words wth a parucular sound havê taken place m one or both of two languages smce they began to chverge conceals many word smaflanues from lmmechate recogmuon Tins mference s hot mere speculauon it ls chrectly supported by what bas happened m the recorded tustory of the Romance group, as fllus- trated m the followmg examples showïng a vowel and a consonant stuft charactensUc of Freach, Spamsh and Itahan. LA EIN I'RNCH SPANISH ITALIAN ovum, (êgg) uf huevo uovo novum» (new) neïct nuevo nuovo mont, (he des) mëurt muere muore facmm, (fact) fat heho fatto lac(-t,s), (mflk) lazt leche latte octo, (eght) hu oco otto tf we observe correspondence of ths type when we invesugate two other ianguages, such as Fmtûsh and Magyar (Hungarian), wë have to
186 The Loom of Laguage concludc that each pmr of words has bccn dcrlved from a '»mEle and eariter one. If we nonce several types o sound-re.olacemem, each sup- ported by a large lmmbe oE exple, we cau egard relatonhp as ceam. Ths conclusion s oi eat pacucal value «« «myone who leag a Ianguage. Sod-oeansformaons bet»een related lan,ageq such as Enghsh and rm, or Frencl aud Splsh, aie hot mete stonoel ios, e e sod-changes in e oerher hstow of the indo-European group. ï Iow to x ecoze them shouId mke ris place m thc tecque of leang a foregn Ianguage, bêcause owledge of them s an ad to memory» and ofien hell»s . to spa he fimlllar eimv/ent ot an untmr word Use of uch nfles, set forth more speclficaHy m Chapter VI of Th Loin, shod be pait oZ e laboratow naming of e home student who is leag a new langmage. The reader who toe advanmge o e etblts m e langage musemn of Pa 1V tan exchange the monotony of lcarmng hsts o uelatcd items tor fun oI recogmzmg when h rMes appiy, of notcmg excepuon;, and of dscovermg why they are exceptmns One of the words în e precedmg hsts iUusat is ibrcby. At first sght there s no resemblance beeen the Spsh word hecho and the Laa-Enghsh word [cet or ts French eqmvCen¤ fart yone who has been mmated mto the sound-sfis of the Romance lanag tccogmzcs two ladc-m,tk of Spanst Oac s thc Cil whch coe- sponds to IT m word,, of Old French ongm, or CT m modern French and Enghsh words of 1.atln descem. The other s flc mitm sflent H whkh oftca replaces f» as fltusted by the Spamsh (hava) and (fava) words for bean. if fim or Bnfih smdt t" Gean ows that c mmal Gean D replaces out 7'tt, therc s o nccd to consult a cuonary ior thc mcanmg of Dmg and If wc appIy out ee testomm of baic vobula, Irty of graai stmce» d regty of sod-corr¢pondence to Enghsh, Dutch» Crn and OEe SnavJan lages, aH the fiadmgs suggest of ongm. Naturally» t s hot posxblç to OEe fiaH extent of word-comm wit e h of s book; but thc rcadcr wll find abmid:mt relevant materml m thc word hrs of P IV. Hcre wc must content oselvcs wxoE thc illustration alrcady gven' o p. 2, where a requcst oented m the Lord's Prayer priatcd rive Tcutoc and m rive Rommce fromages. The readcr may so refer to the tabics of personal pronouns prînted on pages The u ppms of th, Teutc lag îms to
The Classification oj Languages same conclusion» as the reader may see by comparmg the forms of the velbs tobe and to bave &splayêd m tabular form on pp ro and below Tee of the most charactensuc grammaucal feamres of the Teutomc group are the followmg (1) Throughout the Teutomc languages, there ls the sam type (see table on p r9o) of compaxlson (Enghsh hm, thmwr, thznneçt, German dunn, &nner, dunnst, Swedsh tunn, tunnare, runnast) (n) Ail members of the goup form the past tense and past partacple of the verb m two ways (a) by mochfymg the root-vowel (Enghsh szng, sang, çung » German smgen» ang» gêsungen » Damsh synge, sang, sunget), (b) by adchng d or t to the stem (Englsh punsh, pumshed, German strafen, strafte, getraft, I).msh st affe, straffede, straffet) (m) The typcal gemnve smgular case-mark xs -s, as r Enghsh day'ç, Swe&sh dags, Damsh Dags, German Tages If we follow out out thard due, we find a very strflug sertes of sound-shs charactenstac of each language We have had one example of consonant eqmvalence m the Teutomc group Below s a smgle example of vowel eqmvalence. ENGLISH SV¢EDISi I GERMA2q bone ben Bem goat get Gess oak ek Eche tone sten Stem whole hel hefl 70 HA VE IN TEUTONIC LANGUAGES GERMAN « ch habe du hast er hat wtr haben hr habt ste haben zch hatte du hattest er hatte tozr hatten hr hattet ste hatten ch habe gehabt zch werde haben * For pohte address German tbard person mgttlar (p
88 The Loom oj Language THE IIqDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY Slmflarmes are comparatlvely easy to trace m closêly lelated languages such as Swechsh and German or French and itahan We can stall detect some, when we compare mdlwdual members of these groups wth those of others Centtmes back some peoplê felt, though dmfly, that the Teutomc group was hot an lsolated unit In I597, Bonavenmra Vulcamus observed that twenty-two words are the saine m German and Perslan. Twenty yëars later, another scholar stressed the stmHan- tes between Lthuaman and Latin Both were nght, though both drew the wrong conclusions from thelr findmgs, the former that German had an admlxture of Persan, the latter that the Lithuamans were of Roman stock. Two hundred years late, m 817, Rasmus Knsuan Rask, a bn]ham yotmg Dane who had been mvësugatmg the ongm of Old Norse m Iceland, first drêw attennon to sound-correpondence between Greek and Latin on the one hand, and the Teutomc languages on the other Text-books usually refer to th.ts chscovery as Gnmm's Law--after the German scholar who took up Rask's ldea One item of thas most celc- brated of all sound-shffts s the change flore the I,atm p to thé Teutomc f: I ATIN i NGLIMI WI DIhII GERMAN plenus /ull full voll* plscl /'tsh /lsk b'asch ped-s fOOt for /;us'; pater father fadcr Vater * The German V stands for the f sound m far. A httle later the Gcrman scholar Franz Bopp (79-867) showed that Sansknt, Persmn, Greek, Laan, and Tcutomc m t emrher stages, bave mmflar verb-ttexaons ttîs studes ied haro to the conclusion that Aryan verb- and case-flexion have corne about by the glmng on of what were once mdependent vocables such as pronouns and preposmons It was a bnlhant idem. Bopp's only weakness was that he tned to estabhsh its vahchty vhen sutficent êvidence was hot available. tably, hke other pioneers, he ruade errors. I-Ils disciples grossly neglected the important part which analogy (pp 93 and :204) tas played m the accrenon of affixes to roots. Subsequenfly a stron reactaon set n. Even now, many hngmsts approach Bopp's agglufinatlon theory squeamashly, as ff t dealt with thê human pudenda Thls ammdë is nonA the iess foohsh when t affects scaentLfiC cauuon for ts )usttficauon, bccause
The Classification o Languages 89 much vahd tustorlc ewdence to suppolt Bopp's tea«hmg (see especally pp zoo, 12o, 339) ls avaflable from the relatlvely recent htstory of Indo-European languages The present tense of "to bear," "to carry»" in the followmg table, where the Teutomc group ls represented by Old I-hgh German, fllus- trate obvmus aflïmtles of conlugatlon in the Aryan famfly" GREEK OLD HIGH OLD ENGLISH SANSKRIT (DORIC) LATIN GERMAN SLAVONIC I bear bharaml phero fero bxru bera (thou bearest) bharasx pherels fers blrls beresl he bears bharatl pherel fert brut beretu we bear bharamas pheromes fermlus berames beremu you bear bharata pherete ferus beret berete they bear bharanu pherontl ferunt berant beratu The smgular of the present optatwe of the verb to be, corre- spondlng to the use of be m rf zt be, m thrce dead languagês of the group xs SANSKP.IT OLD LAR IN GO l'HIC syam slem mjau syas sxes sms syat set slal From a mass of phoneuc, morphologlcal and word-smnlarmes, we thus recogmze the unlty of the well-defined famfly called Aryan by Anglo-Amencan, indo-European by French, and Indo-Germamc by German wnters. The last of the three ls a mlsnomer Indeed the fanuly does hot kcep wlthm the hrmts lndlcated by the terre Indo- European It ts spread out over an enormous belt that stretches aknost wthout mterrupuon from Central Asm to the fnnges of westernmost Europe On fixe European side the terminus ls Celuc, and on the Asmuc, Tokhanan. a tongue once spoken by the lnhabltants of Eastern Turkestar, and recenfly (19o6) unearthed m documents wntten over a thousand years ago The undemable smlttanues between these languages suggest that thêy are all representauves of a smgle earher one whtch must bave been spoken by some commumty, at some place and at some urne in the pretustonc past. The ldaom of the far-flung Imperzum Romanum began * The lmual f sound in many Latin words corresponds to b m Teutomc languages, cf Latin fraïer» Enghsh brorh,,r
The Loom o.[ Language as a ru.sac &alect of the province of Latmm; but aobody can tell where the speakers of proto-Aryan hved, whether m Southcm Russa, or on the Iraman plateau, or somewhere clse If, as some phfiologasts beheve, Old In&c, and the Persan of the Araeçta bave the most archac features of Aryan languages known to us» xt s hot necessatly true that the habitat of the early &tyan-speakmg pcople was nearer to Ama thma to Europe The example of lcelan&c shows that a language may stray far away from home and sttll prccrve char ctënsncs long ago dascarded TIzU rON[C (:OMPARISON ANGI O-AMX'RIOEII 5WLI)IMI DANISII DU 1 CH GI RMAN (a) Regular typ RICII RICHLR than (b) Irregul.r forms. MORE MO5I LSY nk mkarc an kast tg ngcrc nd ragent god(t)* b'Jtt c I bedm bast bt.dst mycken(t) [ n,cgcn(t) ii'lc i',.1 lle! ¢ hten(t) I lflla (pl.) hlle mmdre rJjk ]kct dan ,cch r{*tcht, t al «, goed bctcr vecl wcmg mnxder gut bcs,,er best vxt.1 wcmg wemger (mmder) wcng.sr (miadet) « The-r cndng s that or thc ncutcr form by thosc that stayed bchid. Only one thmg sccms certain When thc recorded hïstory of Aryan begms w, th the Vcdm hymns the dispersal of the Aryaa-speakmg tnbes had alrëady takn place. Yrom thë wntmgs of somë German authors we mght gain the base- less mapression that we are almost as weil-mformed about the ianguage and cultmal lire of the proto-Aryans as we are about Egypnn cxvili- zanon. Onë Gërman iinguist has pushed audacty so far as to compile a dictionary of hypothetical prirmûve Aryan, and another has surpassêd hïm by tellhag us a story m ,t. Othêrs bave asserted that the proto- Aryans were akeady 61lîng thë sotl wth the ox and thë yoke. The p:oof
The Classcanon oj Languages IgI adduced ts that the word for the yoke s common to aH Alyan languagês (01d lndmn yugam» Greek zygon, Lama ugum» Gothacyuk) Hence the thmg, as well as the name» must have been part of pnmmve Aryan culture Arguments of tNs kmd are hot convmcmg The fact that the THE TEUTONIC VERB A SrRoNa T'¢ê -- ANGLO-AMECAN (a) to gvê gven (part) gve(s) (smg) (plut) gave (smg) (plut) (b) to corne corne (pat) corne(s) (smg) (plut) came (smg) (pur) DkNISH at gave gîvet gav ., ai komme kommet DUTCH te gevcn gegeven geef(t) geeven gaf gaven te komen gekomen kom(t) komen kwamen GERMAN Za gêben gegeben gebe (gbt) geben gab gaben zu kommen gekommen komme(t) konunen kam kamen B Wma T A.NGI O-AMERIC_dkN (a) to work worked (part) work(s) (smg) (piur) worked (smg) (plut) @) 0 he heard (part) hear(s) (smg) heard smg ) (plur) SWEDISH art arbcta arbetat arbetar arbeta ) arbetEde art h6ra hort hot Nota arde at arbede arbejdet ) arbelder arbeldede at horc hert ) lrer h te DUTCH e abeden gearbed arbede(t) arbeden arbedde arbedden te hoolen gehoord hoor(t) ' hooren hoorde hoorden GERMAN zu arbmten gearbettet arbezte(t) arbeten arbetete arbêteten zu horen gehort bore(t) hOren hotte horten word yoke occurs m all Aryan languages s exphcable wthout burdemng thê pnmtuve Aryan chctïonary. There s no reason whatsover why an Aryan-speakmg tnbe hould not bave borrowed the yoke from a non-Aryan-spg commumty, and then passed t on to others.
".l'he Loom oj Langucge Though wc know httle about carly culture-contact% common scnsc tells us that what has happened n hstollcal urnes must also have happcned before It has also been sald that the pnmmve Ai yan-speakmg robes could courir at least as far as one hundred Thls does not necessanly follow from the fact that names for 2 or for 3 o. for Io» etc » are ahke You cannot exchange goods wlout bemg able to courir It as therefore qmte possible* that Aryan-speakang trlbes borowed the art of counung from an outsde source» or that t dlttused from one brandi of" fixe £amfly to ts neghbours Indecd» numerals are he rnost lndefaugable wan- derers among words» as mdcfatgable as atphab«ts In the language of" the Gypsies» an Inckc trlbe» the names for 7» 8» and 9 are modern Greek» wherëas those for 5 algd o aie In&c. In the Fmno-Ugrian group» the word for zoo s borrowed from iraman, and Hebrew çd, esh (6) and scheba (7) are supposed to be denved from Aryan» wtule the Iîebrew naine for 8 s assttrned fo bê Egypuan But there s no need to go so tar back The Enghsh dozen and mdhon bave been taken ovei m compara- uvely recent urnes from the Romance languages German phdologsts have hot been content to draw êncouragïng ¢onclusmns from words wlalch are ahke and haro the saine meandg in ail the Aryan languages They bave also speeuiated about the sgnafi- cance of words wbach do hot exast Of tself, the £act har the Aryan famfly bas no common terre l'or the ugcr does hot indcate that the proto-Aryans nhabited a regon where there wcre no tagers. Once the hypothetacal Urvolh stazted fo move» tnbes whïch went mto colder rëgions would no longer need to preservê the word for t. If we are enufled to deduce that thc F, ast did hOt use sait becausc the Western Aryar word for the mmcral docs not occur an thc Indo-Iraman tongues, the absence of a common Aryan word fox malk must force us to con- clude that proto-Aryan babtes used to feed on somcthmg else. LANGUAGE FAMILLES OP THE WORLD In a modern classificauon of t_he anmaal kmgdom taxonomasts umte many small groups, such as fishes btrds and mammals, or crustacèa, msects and araclmada (spiders and scorpmn) m larger ones such as vertebmtes and ïhropods Bëyond that point we can only spectflate * Phdologsts somctrm¢s )usoEy emphasis on sîmzlarty or numbcr-word on the ground hat they also sha c gcncral phonczc fcaturcs charac¢crsric of a languagc as a wholc. Ths s also ruc of wozds whxch havc undoubtedly bccn borrowed and s easfly explamcd by the phonenc habïts of a peopl¢
The Classificatzon oJ Languages 193 wlth httle plauslbhty about thelr evolutlonary past. Besldes about ten great groups, such as vertebrates and arthropods, embracmg the majonty of ammal specles, there are many small olles made up of few specles, lsolated from one another and from the members of any of the larger chwslons So it lS wlth languages. Thus Japanese, Korean, Manchu, Mongohan, each stand outslde any recogmzed famlhes as lsolated umts We bave seen that most of the mhabltants of Europe speak languages wlth common features These common features jus the recogmtlon of a smgle great Indo-European famzly Besxdes rixe Romance or Latin and the Teutomc languages mentaoned in the precedmg pages, the Indo-European famfly mcludes several other well-defilled groups, such as thê Celttc (Scots Gaehc» Erse, Welsh, Breton) in the West, and the Slavomc (Russlan, Pohsh, Czech and Slovak, Bulgarmn and Serbo- Croatlan) m the ]East of Europe, together wlth the Indo-Iraman lan- guages spoken by the mhabltants of Persla and a large part of Incha Llthuaman (wxth lts Slster chalect, Latvlan), Greek, &Ibaman, and Armeman are lsolated members of the saine famfly The Indo-Europan or Aryan group does hot mclude ail extstmg European languages Fmnish, Magyar, Esthoman and Lapplsh bave common features wch bave led hngulsts to place them in a separate group called the Fmno-Ugnan famfly So far as we can judge at present» Turktsh, whch resembles several Central Aslatxc languages (Tartar.. Uzbeg, Kaxglz), belongs to nelther of the two famxhes mentoned, and Basque, stlll spoken on the French and Spamsh sldes of the Pyrenees, bas no clear affimtleS mth any other language in the world Long before modern language research estabhshed the umty of the Aryan falmly» [ewsh scholars recogmzed the slmflarlraes of Arabc I-Iebrew and Aramam whmh are representatlves of a SemltlC famfly The Selmtlc famy also mcludes the fossll languages of the Phoemclans and Assyro-Babylomans The languages of C.hma, Tlbet, Burma and Slam constltute a fourth great language famfly Llke the Semmc» the Indo- Chznese famlly bas an mdlgenous hterature In Central and Southern Afrlca other languages such as Luganda, Swahlh, Kaftr, Zulu, bave been assocmted in a Bantu unit whlch does not mclude those of the Bushmen and I-Iottentots In Northern Afnca Somah, Galh and Berber show smdarmes Whlch have forced lmgmsts to recogmze a Hanztzc famfly To lus group ancient Egyptla also belongs A Drazdmn farmly m- cludes Southeri1 Inchan languages, which bave no reiauon to the Aryan vernaculars of Incha. Yet another major famfly wxth clear-cut features G
Ttze Loom oj La,tguage ,s flac Malayo-Poly',zesan, wNch mcludes Malay and the tongues of most of the slands m ihe Indan and Pacafic Oceans. 8omethmg le a hunclred language-groups, mcludmg the Papuan, Austrahan and Amêrmdaan (e g Mexaç.an and Greenlanchc)vemacu- lars, Japanese, Basque, Manchu, Georgarî, and Korean, stïll remam to bc connected m larger mms TNs bas hot been possible so thr, mther because they have hot yet been properly stu&ed, or because theîr past phases are hot on record Below ,s a lst of famthes wi:uch are well- defined. I. INDr3-EUROPLAN (b) Cduc (t:',e, Gacltc, W}sh, Brct) (Fench, Spamsh, (;aIa[a» Pottugucae, ital,.m, Rmnaman) (àoal tan, and Slovc,e) (e) (Llhuoma» I ettbh) ] ) (;teck (1:) Atbaman (h) Armemat () I5 r,a (t) Mo& n lndc ii l INNO-U(;RIAN (d) Cherem,'sa» 2ttod,',ma «) Ma&va, (tlwg« «) (a) Arab,c (b) kthmpan (c) tÏebrëw (d) Matr«w (a) Gushte (So,nalï, Galla) (b) Baber langu,iges V INDO-'CIIINLgI : (a) Chmese (b) '1'zbcta,,
The C]assificatb oJ Languages 195 VIII DRAVIDIAN (a) Tamzl (b) Telugu (c) Canarese IX BTU Kafir» Swahz[z, Bechuana, Sesuto» Here o» Congo, Duala» etc GTIOE CCSTI OF GUAGE-FILS Beoeuse auoel smes beeen OEerent lages msh one of OEe ee most pot mcaons of evoluuon relaon- sp, t lS useful to recoe oe gener zmmauc feaes wch y be more less choeaensuc of a nge From s point of ew we class nage-es wch may comdde OE ge evoluuonary , ff e cgcnce of gr s suppoed by ooEer clues such as e o cady Esoessed If oer clues are hot avable, OEe fa OEat ages arc classffied m s way does not necessay point to coon orgm» because lges wch e related may have lost outstg aauoel s[larmes, d lages wch belong to erent faes may bave evolved sar auoel mts ong OEerent paoEs Fom s point f wew, we c de lages mto OEe foowmg tes zsolatzng, fléxonal, root-zncted d clscatory The first md OEe last are e most cl-t, and e seoend, whch embraces a geat oeversx of tones, depends on gmmaucal de.ces woE bave no coon on Even when we soeetch e ts of ee to e uost, we e le woE mmy lag m whoE solated flemonal md classfficatory feaes may be blended wout decsve predoce of any one of em, md e ge of a smgle com- m may traverse e boundanes of such oups m a comparauvely sho penod of ts hstory. Thus OEe Enghsh of red OEe Great was a cy flemonal lage, md glo-Amen s predoanfly solag Basque» whch s a hw to tse, e em &ales, d OEe speech of e Esq m Greemd, fit mto no dearly deed fy based on edenoe of coon mces, md we cot ss em m y of e ree grauc groups menuoned above, The word of an solatzng ge s lterable t Neiger floEo aceuons nor mtemal chmges revl what pa= e word phys m e semence, as do e chges from he to bouses, m to n's» gzve to gave» hve to hved OEe words wch we shodd ca verbs are ed e mt 23), and e words we oe nos e ed e grouse. Verna of OEe nese faly, usy OEted as eeme exples of OEe xsohg pe, have oer coon fes w are hot necessy oeed e fa t e word s an
196 The Loom of Language unchangcable umt, and the fact that they are dfficult to leam has nothang to do wtth tt We bave already touched on the real dfflïcultms, 1 c lts script, amblgumcs of thc many homophoncs (p 5 s) and phonctlc subtletles of the tone values, and shall study thcm at greater length in Chapter X Itere It ls Important to emphasl:,e that representauves of other language groups, especïally languages whlch have been sublect to hybnchzauon resultmg from culture contacts through trade, con- qucst or mlgrauon, have êvolved far towards the same goal To the extënt that they havc donc so, they are casier to learn than dosely related neghbours t, iG 26---OOIN Ol MA(«,AIilAN l'i/vilS WIIII t{ARiY llltlltlW (;IIARA(,III(S 1-r-w-<,h-l-l-m lt-q-d-w-h-h (IDiv .le t«aAm) Malay îs ont oI thc Polynesan i,tnguagc-group oftcn dcscnbcd as agglunatmg languagcs In lus plmer ot Malay Wmstcdt says "Nouns havc no mflexmn tor gcnde, numbcr or case . tlmre xs no arucle the compatauvc s tormcd by usmg lebeh (more) betore e adlccuvc The supcrhmve fs formcd by puumg thc word sa-kah (most) after fle adlecuvc . 'iherc s no nttexmn l(» mark mood, tcnsc or even voxce." To ths t may be addcd that thc ad]ccnvc s mvarmnt and thc pronoun bas no casc-krm Malay fs thcrchc an sç)latmg Ianguagc wlth none of thc pcculur dtsabtltilcs of (;hmcsc, e tone values and nmncI {)us homophoncs AGGLUTINAfION AND AMAI GAMAfION Thc flexwnal type includes languagcs whlch mmnly lndcate modlfi- catïon of meaning and grammatical relations by Cixes attached to the saine word-root. Accordmg fo the degree of fusmn bëtween cote and accretaon» we can dlsunguïsh two sorts oI ëxternal flexmn» agglutmation and amalgamation. The zoords of aggluunatmg languages such as Ftrmtsh, Magyar (ttungarian) and Turkash are not exclusîvely independent and mobile partîcles likê those of Chinesë Affixês loosely oîncd to the unchangmg foot m such a way that thê boundary between thë cote and its accrè-
The Class#catwn o Languages 197 ùoa ls tmmastakable modlfy the meanmg of the former In some agglutmaung languages, we can recogtaze many or most of these afftxes as contracted remams of longer words wtnch sull enjoy an mdepen- dent extstence Ia others» the oees do hot correspond to elements whmh extst apart What Is most charactenstlc of such languages lS that each affm, hke an mdependent word» has a &stmctzve meanmg So derlvauves (see footnote p 34) of an aggluunaung language when classlfied accordmg to case» mood, etc, have clear-cut uses, and r.he method of formmg them ls also clear-cut Ner.her tlae use nor the form ofdenvalaves descrlbed by the saine naine admats the perplexmg lrregu- lantles of a typlcally amalgamatzng language such as Lama, Greek» or Sanskm The terre ltself nnphes that agglutmatmg languages form ther denvauves by the process of fusion chscussed m Chapter III and else- where Thls ls hot certamly mie of ail so-called aggluunatmg languages, but ït s appropmte to those of the Fmuo-Ugrlan famfly A Hunganan example wfll make thts clear In the Indo-European languages, the case-endmgs are not recogmzable as vesuges of mdivldual words, but in Magyar we can stfll see how a dlrecuve ls glued to the noun. From hajo, shtp, and hajo-k, shlps, we get SINGULAR ha.lo-ban (= ha.o + benn), in the slup. hao-bol (= hajo + betol), out of the slup hao-ba (= hajo + bele), mto the shap ha.]o-hoz (= ha.]o + hozza), towards the stnp hajo-nak (= halo + nek), for the shlp PLLrRAL hajo-k-ban, m the slups hajo-k-bol, out of the shlps ha3o-k-ba, mto the shaps hao-k-hoz, towards r_he shaps ha.lo-k-nak, for the shaps The ongm of the es is hot equally clear m Fmmsh» but the example cated fllustrates a feature common to Fmmsh and Magyar Case-marks of the smgular do hOt der from those of the plural in languages of the Fm.uo-Ugnan falmly Sgns whtch express plurahty remam the saine throughout the dedemon In contrachstmcuon to that of Greek or Latin, where numbet- and case-marks are mdas- solubly fused, the bmld-up of the flexlonal forms of the Fmmsh or Magyar noun s transparent. The fact that Fmmsh has fffteen "cases" does hot make tt dcult to learn» because the case-endmgs m both numbers are the saine for al1 noum or pronouns and for adlecuves» « wtnch mlmm the endmgs of the nouus assocmted with t.hem Smce an * In other Fmao-Ugrma lmaguages the adecttve takes no case-affix
198 T]e Loom oJ Lag»ge Invariable case-mark corresponds to the use of a alrly well-defined partlcle m our own languge, the effort spent m lëarnmg the case- endmgs of a Finsh noun or pronoun ls hot geater than the effort mvolved m leammg thê same number of independent words Analogous remarks apply to the Fmaish verb, wluch bas two tense- forms, present and past, ltkc ours The saine personal atfixes occur throughout, and lhe change m the final root vowel lndlcatmg completed actïon ls the samc for all verbs Here ls a spectmen mene-mme--we go m«m-mme--we went mene-tte--you go rnem-tte--you went mene-vat--they go mem-vat--rhey went Where we shotfld use a separate possësslve pronoun m trort of a noun, pêople who speak a I, mno-Ugrmn language use an 'affoE attached to the end of a notre as the personal atfix xs atta«hed to the verb. Thls personal affm follows the case-mark Thus from talo (bouse) we get. tato-ça-mme---în my house taioï-a-n¢nc---ïn ny houses mlo-s,a-nne..-m your bouse taioz-ssa-nne--m your bouses tato-çça-ma--m ther bouse tatoz-ssa-nsa--m rhej: bouses The first of the three personal aftxes s the same for the 17mmsh noun and Fmmsh vêrb. In Samoycdc, a language related to Firmtsh and Magyar» thê saine pronoun suthxes appear thioughout the conlugatton of thë verb and the correspondmg possessive denvattves of the xïoun. So the fonnal dastmctton betwëcn noun and verb xs tcnuous, as een by comparmg: lamba-u--my stu mada-u I eut (my cutrang) lamba.r---thy ska mada-r thou cuttêst (tlxy cutung) lamba-da--hïs slu mada-da, he cuts (hïs cuttmg) Thè structure of denvative words ïn languages of thë Firmo-Ugnan farmly xs hot always as schëmauc as the examplcs glven mght suggest. In some languages of the famày the vowel of the suiKx harmomzes with that of the root-word. The result s that onë and dae saine suffEE may have two or ëvett thrëe dîfferent vowels, according to the company it keeps, ë.g. la Fmîsh elïima-ssiï meam n the 1oEe, but tale.ssa meam in the house The modîfyhag sutfixes, particularly in Fnmish, sometime adhere more mtlmately to the roof, as ïn the Indo-Europëan ianguages. Noae the less, two essentiai features are common to all the Fmno- Ugrian group. One s great regulaty of the pr«vailing pattern of dêrxva- rives. The other comparative [reeztam from arbitrary affres whlch
The Classification o. Languages 99 conmbute nothmg to the meanmg of a statement. Thus grammatxcal gender (p. II3) ls completely absent Where we draw the hne between a language wch ls pedommantly agglutmatmg or lsolaung depends on where we draw the line between a word and an affx. If wê do hot know the hstory of a language» t s hot easy to do so We do hot recogmze words such as except or but as separate entitles because they are names of thmgs at whtch we can point or because they stand for actions we can mmlc We dlstmgLllsh them from afflxes such as mu- or ant-» because we can mare them about n the sentence. Now tins test is strmghtforward beeause of the charac- tenstîcs of Enghsh word-order For example, we put preposmons oa the one hand» and pomter-words or adjecuves on the other» in front of a notre A pomter-word wth two or more adjecuves, adverbs and conjuncuons can separate a pleposmon flore a noun When the adjec- uve cornes after the noun, as t usually does m French, the chstmcuon s hOt so sharp» and t ls less sharp m some Indlc vemaculars The Hmdustam (p 412) adlectve precedes and the chrecuve follows the noun. If these postpostzons--we cannot nghfly cal1 them prepostzons --never strayed finer afield, there would be nothmg to chstmgmsh them from case-aifixes hke those of Fmmsh. Even the status of a pronoun as an mdepenclent element of hving speech s dncult to assess by any other cnterion The reader who knows some French wïll reahze that the pronotms je» me» tu» te» d, etc, never stand by themselves When a Frenchman answers a question wlth a smgle word, he replaces thea by mm, to, lin, etc We rec%mze them as words by ther mobhty m the sentence That je or l do hot always stand lmmechately m front of the verb fs due to three accidents of the French language, e. the fact that the pronotm oblect and the negauve partcle ne precede the verb» and the use of mversmn for quesuon format.ton By the saine token (p z98) we ought to cal1 the personal sufflxes of the Fmmsh veb» pronouns Thus the chstmcuon between an affix and a parucle ls clear-cut only when the conventions of word-order permit the mdependent moblhty of the latter. We are enufled to speak of a language as xsolatmg when, as ui Chmese vernaculars, great moblhry of tmchangeable elements s charactensuc of t. When we speak of a language as agglutmatmg, we usually mean that a clear-cut dxstmcuon between parucle and aflïx s mapossxble because any of the formal elemems descnbed by euher of thesê names occurs m a sma11 range of combmations wth recogmzably separate words, e g those we caLl nouns» adlecuves, or verbs Some grammanans apply the epthet agglutmatzve to any languagê wlth a
200 The Loom oJ Language baghly rcgular systcm of affixes, mcludïng thc Bantu chalccts chscussed below The vetcran phflologlst ]'acob Gnmm first emphaslzcd the ments of Magyar and commcndcd t a a model to people mtercstêd n language planmng The existence of such rcgulanty m natural lan- guagcs has lcft a strong lmprcss on projcct tol a contructcd world auxahary At an early stage m thc proceçs of agglutmataon many words wlll share lrmlar afltxcs» becau,c the huer bave hot yet sufferêd much mochfica- txon by fusion wlth dffcrcnt roots Hence more regulanty of affaxes bas somctames becn used as a cntenon of the agglutanaung type, but regulanty may ako rcsult from an entlrcly dlffercnt process Airer amalgamauon has gone far, hfclcss afftxes tack themselves on to new words by the pro¢.ess of analogcal extension, or old ones may be regularïzcd for thc saine rcason In ths way a languagc wth an amal- gamatmg paçt, e g Itahan, may approach thc rcgulanty of a languagc m whch fcw words bave yet reached thc stage of truc external flcmon So the fact that Turhsh or ]'apancsc havc rcgular aflïxes docs hot mean that they bave êvolvcd m the samë way as IIunganan or Fmmsh Only the last two, togcthcr wxth Estonzan, wth the Ianguagc ot thc Lapps, and wth dalects of a consdcrablê regon of northcrn Sbcna consttute a truly related group wnhm the hetcrogeneous assemblage once called the :/urantan famfiy In a languagc of thc amalgamatzng type, c.g Sansknt, Greek, or Latin, modflcauons of the scnsc of the word and thc pla« t takes xn thc sentence dêpend on affres mtmatcly fused with thc radical (foot) clement Smt.c fuqon bctwecn core and afltx s mumatc, thc bufid-up of words ïs by no means transparent Even thc grammarmn tan rarcly dsscct thcm. We tan always rccogmze whch accrctlons are charactcnsac of numbcr or case ua thc vanous forms of thc Magyàr noun (p 97), becausc all the plural case-forms, as ,f hajo (..,hlp), contam the suflix -k mmcdmtely after lhc roof, but comparison of smgular and plural casc-forms of an Indo-]zuropcan noun docs hot nêcessanly tel/ you whch part of thc suffix attachcd to the foot is châractcnstc of a partacu!ar caze or of a partïcular number Thcrc s no part of the suffx commoa to all plural in contrast to ail sngular case- forms. Ia a language such as Latin or Sansknt therc ïs no part of the suffix comrnon o the gerdtive, smgular or plural, m contradsuncuon to thc dïffcrcnt number-forms of all orhcr case-forms You cat sec rs wthour dïfhculty, ff you compare the following case-forms of a Latin word wth out Hunganan example.
The Classcation of Languages 2Ol nav2s, a shlp naves, shxps navs, of a shlp navum, of the shtps navz, to a stzlp nawbus, to the shlps Enghsh eqmvalents for chfferent case-forms of the Latin for a shz¢) or shps, as prmted above, are those gven in text-books, and the truth ls that text-books conceal ttle worst from the begmner Correct cholce of case-enchngs m a typlcal amalgamatmg language does hot always depend on whether the Enghsh eqmvalent would bave a pamcle such as of or to m front of it The Latin case-endmg ls much more versaNe than m the correspond.mg Magyar one The datve navz turns up in many sxtuatlons where we cannot translate xt by to a shp, and there lS no simple rule wttlch tells us what enchng to tack on a Latin noun m one of several datve stuatlons Compare, for Instance, the followmg Wlth the pre- cedmg examples porta, a gare portae» gares portae, of a gare portarum» of the gares portae, to a gare portzs, to the gates Compalason of the case-forms of these two nouns emphaszes the rregulamy of denvattves m an amalgamatmg language Though Enghsh ls no longer an amalgarnatmg language and s now remarkably regular m companson wlth lts nearest neghbours, there is no smgle way m whtch the plu.rai of al/Enghsh nouns ls formed, and there ls no smgle way m wbach the past of ail Enghsh verbs lS formed We can arrange Enghsh nouns m famlhes llke man-mouse or pan-house, accorchng to the way m whch we denve thetr plural forms, and verbs m farmhes such as smg-drmk, thmk-bnng, lzve-t)ake, accordmg to the way in whch we denve the past tense In a typlcal amalgamatmg language we bave to reckon wlth many noun famflaes (declenslons) and many verb fanuhes (conlugattons) Each declenson bas ts own type of case- as well as plural-formatton. Each conluganon bas ts own way of bmldmg person rime, mood, and ronce denvatves The two most charactensttc features wlmch dïstmgmsh languages of the amalgamatmg from languages of tlae agglutmatmg type may there- fore be summed up in thts way Amalgamatmg languages bave many denvattves arbtrarfly chosen by custom in situations connected by no common thread of meamng, and many &fferent ways of formmg the denvatlve approprlate to a smgle context m accordance wlth meanmg or convennonal usage The table manners of an agglutanatmg language are unassummg You use a spoon because a spoon ls the tool appro- G*
202 The Loom o.f Language pnate for soup, and therê ls no ddtïculty about t ecogmzmg what a spoon ls, because all the spoons are produced accedmg to a standard pattcrn Thè table mamcr of a analgamatmg loiguagc arc largcly mouldcd by a code of gcntlcmanly usclcssness You bave a 1agc assort- ment of tools belote you. Whcthcr you use a iotk wth or wthout a kmfc or a spoon dcpcnds on corvcntmns ot ecal class wahout regard to the texture ol thc tbod "1 o al1 the mumsc dthctducs of lemnmg a language such as I,atm, old-fashoned grammanans and schoolmasc have added the dis- tractmg pretence that such talic manne s havc a auonal bass Thas s false Thc grammar of an agglutmatmg langua,e such as l,mmsh (or Espcranto) s mamly conc.rncd wth mcanmg 'lhe gtarnma of an amalgamaung language sucl as I.am s mamly concerncd w social ntual 1t you hopc to toaster a 1,mguagc such as Latin, the question you have to ask s hot what any ont of half-a-dozc dttccnt lxcs whch grmmaris doecnbc as trade-marks ot fle d»latve case sgmfy Thcy have no umqu« ncanmg Each casc-hx of a i.,ttn noun is he rade- mark ot a shelf of dversely assortcd dïoms "1 he business of e learner who succccds m emegmg txom the tog of tal,c rauonahty m tcxt-books of chsscul grammar s to tmd out m wl»,t sltatïns I.aun or Grc authors use thee hxes '1 ho use of I am çasc-ioms ab a social habtt» e eatmg asparagus wth tbc lmgcs. "I ho onty rcastm for maag an exccpmn ot aspaagus s that lc t,cotlc th moncy do Like thc boundary twcen off and water m a test-tube, thc dttccnce b«wecn amalgamaon and agglutmatton s no dear-cu, h would be ict fo gve go easo to dcsclbmg the persoal suthxcs of the Celtic veb (or thc verb ot some In&an vexaç ulms) as malgmmtmg m conttadstcuon fo agglulmatmg lkxons of s kmd pass hrough the stage ot agglutîon o Igamauon "i hey thon propagate thcm- selves by alogy, as whcn wc ,,uck the -s on the ç. k m he ça las car hcre. ('oïvcn!,ns of sctpt n,y grcatly ¢xaggeraë <n hdc egul- ries or irrcgulmt,es of the spoken langage. The htera ngge of Gcany presecs a iuxur,mce of ttemons wh,ch a'e hot clzly audible m the daily mtcicomsc ot many (;cxmms "/'lac ,amc ls more truc oI Frcndx I;rench script ¢onçi a wealth of conlr.tcu(ms whïch would make a fathN1 lrCscoEption of Frcnd spccch rccatl th¢ charactczîsucs oi sc Amerm diak'cts (p 2x5), Wrattc English s no ohg th glo-Amenoen as we sFe it, beuse ït frowm on y tave conacao of e pono or ncgauve paruc (e.g. who'v, '0 vb
The Classification o] Languages 2o3 A large proportion of the languaes of the world got script from ahen mxssionares bent on spreadmg the use of sacred texts The rmssionary who eqtups a language wth ts alphabet uses lus own judgment to dec, de whlch elements of speech are» or are hot» tobe treated as separate words, and tus judgment s necessanly pre]uchced by the grammaucal framework of bas own educaron If he ls a classcal scholar, he wll approach the task wlth a keen eye for snmlarmes between Latin or Greek and the language wluc he ls learnmg ORIGIN OF FLEXION$ The value of the chstmctlon between an zsolatng type, whtch shuns afflxatlon, an agglut,natmg type wbach favours a vanety of hlghly regular afflxes, and an amalgamatmg type whlch conserves a welter of rregular ones, hes less m the fact that it draws attention to essentlal dlfferences between dlfferent languages, than that it emphastzes the coexistence of processes whmh play a part in the evolutlon of one and the saine language Though one of these processes may prevatl ata glven moment, thê others are never absent A language such as modem Enghsh or modern French extnblts characrenstacs wtnch are separated by thousands of years It as hke a bus m wktch the water-chvmer slts next to the tramed geologlst, and the falth-healer next to the physlcaan. The vowel-chtme of ssng, sang, sung, re-echoes from vaults of rime before the chantmg of the Vedlc hymns, whfle a conslderable class of Enghsh verbs such as cast, hurt, put, have shed nearly every trace of the charactenstacs whmh dstmgulsh the Aryan verb as such. In ths and m other ways the grammat of the Anglo-Amencan language ls far more hke that of CAnnese than that of Latin or Sanskm lXTobody hesltates to call C2nnesê solat, ng and Latin amalgamating, but nelther label attached to French would do justice to lt. In the course of the last thousand years or so, French bas moved away from its flexional ongm and has gradually shlfted towards isolataon wlthout fully sheddmg lts accrefions. French has hOt gone nearly so far as Enghsh along tins path, and Itahan has lagged behmd French, but Itahan ls much easter to leam, because what has happened to the few survvmg flextons of Enghsh bas happened to the far more elaborate flexîonal system of Itahan. There has been extensive levellmg of the enchngs by analoglcal extension whch contmually swells thê over- whelrmng ma]onty of Enghsh plurals endmg m -s or Enghsh past tensê forms endmg m -ed. To thls extent modem Itahan has assumed a a egulanty remlmscent of Fmmsh, whfle t has also collected a large
The Loom of Language battery of new agglutmaravc contractions for the dcfinie arucle (.p 36I) accompamcd by a prcposltlon Lkc other formauvc proccsscs, levclhng or regularlzatlon by analogy waxes in pcrlods of llhtcracy and culture contact, wamng undcr the &scphne of script The part t has playcd an thc evoluuon o out remammg flexlons wdl corne up tbr furthcr chscusslon m Chapter VI What apphcs fo flcons, or to dcrlvauve affLXCS such as thc -er m baker, apphes equaI1y to pronun«auon, to word ordcr and to syntax n gencraI Habit, local or pcrsonal hmtauons ot vot.abulary and human lazmess conunually consplrc to mposc thc pattcrn of the more famflxar word or phrase on hose we use lcss ohen "1'o the cxtcnt that grammanans bave set themsclves agaïnst thc popula drfft towards (pp I68 and 267) regulanty, hcr influence bas bcen rctrogradc Analogacal extension ls the process by whch nàurai languagcs are always stnwng to assume the ordcrhness of a constructcd auxflary To get rd of the disordcr mhcrcnt m natural languages was thc carchnal motif of lartgnaagc planmng r thc lattc hall oi thc nnetcenth century ïhe ssuc was hot cnurcly novcl Thc gramman,ms of anuqtuty had dscussed xt and wcre of two mmds (.)ne party, thc unomahts, took thc cortscrvatve vcw Thc ohcr, rhc «nulog«sts, swam wth the stream, and evcrt prattïscd rcvson of tcxts to prune away grammatical rregu- laxtes Thc conttovcr,sy wcnt on tbr scveral ccntuncs Among others» Juhus Cacsar took a hand m t. As a general ho faw)urcd regmacntation So he naturally tok the sde of thc analogists. The fact that isolatioa xs the predommattt teature of somc languagës (e g. Chînese chalects or Maly), regularity of aflixes the outstanchng charactensucs of others (e.g. Fmno-Ugnan dialects» [apanese, "ï'urkxsh) and chaottc irregularty of suifixes the prevaJlmg grammaucal pattem of a thid group (e g Sansknt, (}rëek, I.atn or Old Enghsh) has promptëd speculatons wbach take us mt o thc twahght of human speech, without muclï hope of rcachxng certainty. Somê hngtusts believe that prïmiuve spêech was a smg-sotg matrix from whch words êmerged with thê frayeà ëdges of a Sanskrït noun or verb. Aecordmg to thas viëw there bas bëen a steady progress from amalgamation» through agglutinative regularky to îsoiauon. Others favour the opposite view. They beheve that the speech of out prïmitive ancestors once consisted of separatë root.wods whîch wëre probably moaosyllabxc» ltkë thosë of Cktmese dialects. If so» words which carried less emphass than others ë attached as modîfiêrs to more mëaningf-ul oaes. Fixaally» these acerëtïons got mtiatély fused, and forfêked their former uadêpendeïace.
ï;'IG 2 7 --THREE VERSES FROM THL OLD TESTAMENT IN THF. OLDESOE Iî)ATEABLE .S OF TH]î; I-'IEBREW BIBLE» THE PROPHP.rEN-CODEX FROM CAIRO
The Classification of Languages Smce we can sec four processes, lsolataon, agglutinative contracmon, levellmg by analogy and fleraonal fusion, competmg sunultaneously m Enghsh or Itahan, these extremes do hot exhaust aH the concelvable posslblhues of evoluuon. If we hear less about a ttnrd, and more hkely one, the reason is that most lmgmsts stfll allow far too httle tzme for the evoluuon of speech It has taken us long to outgrow Arcfiblshop Ussher's chronology whach fixed the date of the creauon as October 4, 4oo4 B c, at nme o'clock m the mormng Akhough out knowledge of grammar does hot extend much further back than three thousand « years, human bemgs hke ourselves have erasted for at least twenty urnes as long. We now know that the age of man, as a talkmg ammal, may be as much as ioo,ooo years, perhaps more, and anythmg we can learn about Sansknt, old Chmese--or even the ancrent I-htttte language---can never be more than the last charred pages of a burnt-out book-shelf Long ago, one phtlologlst saw the tmphcattons of tins in l'ns book Sprachwzssenschaft Von der Gabelentz (I89I) bas suggested the poss- bhty that tsolauon, agglutmauom and flexaon may succeed one another m a cychcal or spiral sequence "Language moves along the diagonal of two forces The tendency towards economy of effort wtnch leads to a slurrmg of the sounds, and the tendency towards dearness wtnch prevents phoneuc attrmon from causmg the complete destrucraon of language The affixes become fused and fmally they chsappear wlthout leavmg any trace behmd, but ther funcraons remmn, and strxve once more after expression In the lsolatmg languages they fmd it m word-order or formal elements, wi"nch agaïn succumb m the course of rame to aggluunaraon» fusion and echpse Meanwl"nle, language ls already preparmg a new subsratute for what s decaymg m the form of penphrasuc expresslons wtnch may be of a syntactacal kand or consst of compound words But the process ls always the same The hne of evolutton bends back towards solaraon, hot qmte back to t_he prevlous path» but to a nearly parallel one It thus cornes to rêsemble a spzral . If we could retrace out steps for a moment to the presumprave foot-stage of language» should we be enrafled to say that t s rdae fi.rst, and hOt perhaps the fourth» or seventh» or twenraeth m ts l"nstory--tt the spiral, to use out sm'nle once more, chd hot already at tht rame bave so and so many turns betnnd ? What do we know about the age of mankand 7,' ROOI' INFLEXION Whfle the chstmcuon between aggluunauon and amalgamauon or cxternal flexmn ls flmd» mochficauon of meanmg by root-mflexon» such as m swm-swam-swwn s sharply defined Tlus example shows that t emsts m the Indo-European group, though xt is iess typxcal than adch-
OEo6 The Loom of Language tion of sufftxes. Its oldest Aryan mamfestauon, caIled Ablaut by Ger- maa grammanans is most charactensuc of the verb Wê have met wlth examples m the strong class wluch mcludes wmz, corne, find, szt Ablaut ls common m Sansknt (matum, to measurë--mita, measured), and m Greek (¢repo, I turn--lelropha, I havë mrned), but much lcss so m Latin To-day it is most strongly entrenched m the Teutonlc group Sëveral types of foot vowel change are pamculally charactensnc of Teutomc, especally German, verbs One s fle cmstence of paars of whïch one member xs mtransmve (carmot have an oblect), the othër transiuve m a cauattvc sense We stdl havë a tew such pairs m Enghsh, e.g fall-fdl, he-Iay, st-sèt Thus we fall down (mtrans ), but we fdl a tree (1 e came t to fll) We ha dwn, but we lay (cause to le) a book on the table We çzt down, but we wt (cause to st) a flag on a pole. Umlaut s e techmcal word tbr a type of foot mtlenmn pecuhar to e Teutomc group It as specmlly charactcnsuc of the noun, d s ustrated by Ne Enghsh plurals man-men, foot-feet Such pai ally had a plural sutfix contamng thc or I (P 84) sound, whch modtïcd the vowels a, o, u m the stem tself. Thus we get Oid Ihgh Geman gast-gestz (mod Gcm Gat-Gast«). "lhc process began flrst m hnghsh, and was ahcady conplcc m docuncnts (i thc egtth cen- tury AI[red's Fneh',h had for@t, »m-m. (pronomce the y hke the u of French or he u ot Gcrman) In the language ot Shakçspeare they appear as fi«-fit, and re, ms-mets Old Enghsh had other pairs whch have smce appeared. Thus fle plural of boc, out book (Gemm Bh) waa, bec (Gcr Buche d, and that of hnutu, o nut (Germ N) was hnyte (Ge Nusse). Ts trick nevcr bee îashmnable m Ensh. Dmg e doee Enghsh penod xt succumbed almost m- pletely to e custom of mag the plural by addmg -es Owg to s dnft towds e mvariant foot, the il-k of a processive langage, Ensh bas escaped OEe thte o[ German and Swcdsh. "ierc are a few Swsh, bat ao Ge nouns of e man-m ss; but my Swesh» d far more Germ, nouns whch retain a plural ending also bave a modfied stem vowd. The German d Swedsh equivNcn of the man-men class are shown below:
The Glassification oJ Languages 2.o7 The saine process bas affected other types of wod derivation in Teutomc languages, especaally German For instance we dlstmgmsh between the ad]ectaval and noun forms foul and filth, or between the verb and adjectaval forms fi/l and fuIl (German fullen and oll) Slmi- larly we have noun-verb paus such as" gold-gzld» food-feed (Futter- tuttern), tale-tdl (Zahl-zahlen), brood-breed (Brut-bruten) Other related pairs chstîngmshed by stem vowel change are fox-2xen and dder-older. In OErman the sg of the root-vowels went on in lstorlc tmes, several hundred yers after that of Enghsh. It chd aot reach com- plenon belote about A :D II5o Once the pattern became fashlonable xt affected words whlch never had the z sound in the succeedmg syllable. No dnft towards umficatlon had set in belote the prmtmg- press mummed the grammar of German Thus vowet-change now crops up ïn the comparative and supedauve of nearly allmonosyllabïc adecuves (e.g hoch-hoher), dlstmgulshes the ordmary past of many verbs from the subjuncttve (e g. ich nahm-zch nahme), the agent from iris aCUVlty (e g backen-Bâcker), the dunmUtlVe from the baslc word (Haus-Hauschen), the noun-abstract from lts adjective (gut-Gute), the ve, rb from the adjecuve (e g. glatt-glatten, smooth-to smooth). In many German chalects such rautaton appears where standard German does wthout Thus we meet Hzind, Arm, Tag, for Hunde, Arme, Tage, and Yldchsh opposes tog-teg to the Tag-Tageof common German Apart from the chsrupuon caused by an î or j sound ni the succeedmg syllable, and the Ablaut mherlted from prumtlve Indo-European, modem German preserves several other vowel mutauons Occaslonally the varïous types corne together in the conugatlonal forms of a smgle verb Thus we bave zch sterbe (I che)--er stzrbt (he ches)--strb (che er starb (he ched)--er îst gestorben Oa¢ bas dled)--zoenn er sturbe (if he ched) The backwardness of German root vowel behawour ls partlcu- larly lmpresslve tf we compare it wlth both Old Enghsh and Modem Enghsh. GERMAN OLD ENGLISH xch belle lc helpe du lulfst thu balpst er hilft he lulpth wlr helfen we fl.xr helft ge I helpath sxe helfen hïe ANGLO-AMERICAN help(s) in view of the prevallmg ldeology of the Tlurd Relch» there ls an
The Loom of Language element of comedy in thls pccuhanty whlch purs German apart from its rester languages Internal vowel change, wluch ls subsldmry to external flexion in the group as a whole, I,, thc trade-mark of the Semluc famlly The Semitc oot-word conssts oI thrëe, lest often of two or four, consonants Thu,,, the consonant al group sh-m-r mgmfies the gênerai notion of "guardlng," and g-n-b the general nolaon of "steahng" Into thls fixed framework fit vowels, whlch change accord- mg to the mëamng and grammancal functmns of the word From the root sh-m-r we gct »humer, he has guardcd, #omc, guardmg, çhamur, bcmg guarded From thc foot g-n-b wc havc ganab» ho has stolon, gonëb, steahng,ganub, bemg stolon 'i'houF, h Scmtc Ianguagcs form denv:ïnves by addmon of prefixes and suffixes, such addmons bave a much smaller range than thos of the older lndo-Europèan languages It ls therefore rmslëâdmg to lump Semiuc together wlth flac Indo-European languagês as flemonal types. Semluc ]anguages consutute a sharply markd type characten,ed by root-uzflëxwn, n contra&sltnctmn to amalgamatzon, whîch zs characterisnc of fine old Aryan languages such as Sansknt, Làun, or Russmn Thc student of Gcrman will find ,t useful to tabulatc somc esscnuaLly Semmc fêaturcs oi thc languagc I,,xcludmg mmor irrcgmlantms and such comparatives as hoch-h,,he (hgh-hghcr), we tan d,stlngmsh he followmg categones (r) in thë conlugataon o the second and tlurd person smgular of thc prescrit tcnsc and somctmcs m the mpcrativc ol many strong vcrbsï c.g.' sprechën (talk) ' it.h spra.he er çprïchr. £'pr, ch t geben (give) : tch gebe er gibr Gzb! nehmen (take) " ick nehme er mmmt Nmtm! lesen (read) ch iese er het Lïes t (2) In the ormatïor of the past subuncuve ot strong verbs, e g er gabe, er nahme, er liz¢e, whcn flac vowcl of the ordma;y past is long as m er gab, er nahm, er las (3) in many ¢.ouplets of mtransmve vebs and transmve ones (p. :t49) wxth a causative sgmficant, e, e.g mnken-tranken (drmk-gve fo dmk), wu.g«n-wageu (wegh), augen-augen (suck-suctde) (4) P1ural derïvatîvës of neuter and masculine nouns wth the stcm vowëls a, o, u, au, e.g Kalb-Kalber (calf-calvcs), Bu«h-Bucher (book-books), Stock-Stbckë (stick-stxcks), tlaus-Htzuser (house- houses). (5) Ade¢nval dervatives for materials» e.g. Holz-hb'lern (wood- wooden), Erde-irden (earth-earthetO.
The Classificatzon o Languages 209 (6) Adjecuval dervauves wxth the sufftxes -g,-cht, -tsch» or-hch e g Macht-machtg (power-powerful), Haus-haushch (house- domesuc), Stadt-sradtzsch (town-urban) (7) Dtmmutaves, e g AIann-Manncheno lrau-Fraulezn (8) Abstract femmme notms m -e, e g gut-de Gute (good-goodness), hoch-de Hohe (bagh-the helght) (9) Collecuve neuter rouns, Berg-Gebrge (mountam-mountmn range), Wurm-Gewurm (worm-vermm) (o) Fermmne nouns whtch take -m, e g Hund-Hundm (dog-bltch) CLASSIFIGAToRY LANGIAGES The Bantu languages of Afnca llustrate features common to the speech of backward and relauvely stauc cultures throughout the world One of these gves us a cluc to thc possible orgm of gcnder n thc Indo-European group The Bantu famlly mcludes nely all the nauvc tongucs spoken from the Equator to thc Cape Province In tins hugc triangle, the only excepuons are the chalects of the Bushmen, of the Hottemots, and of the Pygrmes of Central Afnca About a hundred and fffty Bantu chalects form a remalkably homogemeous umt Most of them are hot separated by greater dlfferences than those whïch chstmgtush Spamsh from Itahan One member bas been known to us smce the seventeenth century In 624, a catectasm appeared m Congolese A generattort later the Itahan, Brusclotto, pubhshed a Congolese grammar These two docu- ments show that the language bas changed httle durmg the last three hundred years, and therefore refute the behef that unwntten languages necessanly change more raptdly than codrfied ones One Bantu language already had a script before the amval of the Chnsuan mtssomry and the whtte trader It s called Swah, and was ongmally the chalect of Zanzibar To-day tt s the hngua franca of the East Coast of Afnca For several centmaes before the Great Nawgauons, Arabs had been tradmg wlth Zanzibar, and the nauve commumty adopted the unsmtable alphabet of the Moslem merchants o The Kafir-Sotho group of Banm languages (South-East Afnca) bave a pecuhanty hot shared by other members of the saine famfly.» In adchuon to consonants common to the speech of other peoples, there are charactensuc chcks proàuced by mspîrauon of atr They resemble the smackmg sotmd of a tuss It s probable that they are «borrowed" elements from the chck-languages of the Bushraen and Hottentots The extstence of the Banm famïly as sttch bas been recogmzed for a çentm 7. Ths s partly because every name-word belongs to one of a
The Loom of Langu«ge hlmtcd numbcr of prefix-labelled classes analogous to our small word- clusters labelled by such sul5xes as -er, -h,p, -h,,od, -&rot, and -ter or -ther m flth«, mothc, brother» it, daughtcr So al() in (;rc'k, many ml havc names endng m -a, e g alpeç (tox), zpah (mole), dorx (roe-dcer), tzystrzx (porcupme), pthex (apeh The analogous Ger- man teral-cts also holds ogeer a hmtcd group of ammals, e g. Dachs adgc), Fuhs (tox), Lachs (salmon), ()ch (ox) Sevcral German names tor ammaN have anothcr suthx, -, c g Adlcr (eagle), (hamster), Kat« (tom-cat), Spcb«r (hawk) Imdmgs such as ese are solated expls of what s a umvetsal charaoEenmc of the Banm lanages The nes of any hng, any pcrson, or any acxmn s labecd by a paar cf= whch assgm t to one of about twcnty clases of wods iabelled in the same The other outstandng pcculmny o the il.relu fimdy as tha e no-pref colours the enue stctrc of the sentence. Whatever moves woEm the orbt of ,t noun s stamped accordmgly q'hus a quahtymg adlemve or cven a numeral cartïcs the prctix of the pre- oedmg noun wch t qualiïes, c g mu-ntu mu-lotu (man handsmne :. haMsome man), but ba-ntu bu-lotit (men hand(me handçe men) The pronouu of the thrd poison h.ts a tortu whch more r less recalls e pretoE of the noun represented by t. In the semenoe u-lede - he (the man) iç asleep, u- retlects lhe mu- or mu-ntu (man), and m lu-tede = he (the baby) ç asleep, lu- echoes the classifier ht-oI lu-çabzla (ba). In Swahti and my other Bantu languages» the personal pronoun is poefixed to the verb evext when the sentence has a noun-subje«» e.g. ba-kaza ba-enda (the gwls they go) "I'la bmdmg togettler of e vanous pa of the sentence produces a I«t,d of athteranve smg- song, c.g ha laou ha t»ahtm, ba-nru the Irons th«v btt thë mot Thc type of concord wluch occurs m a hghly inflected Aryan lan- guage producës an amalogous but rhymîng siag-song, e.g. hx Gcrman. die hubschen amerik¢ïmschen Studentinncn machten Sensatwn (the pretty Amerîcan co-eds ruade a hit) Thë Bantu preftxe of most classes havc chmnct smgular and plural forms. A smgul pretoE mu- (Subiya), coçrcsponding to a plural prcfix ha-» sigNfies hu agents Thus mu-ssu mcans boy d ba-sisu means boys Anoer smlar prefoE kt- (SwI) correspondg to e plural pre M-, îs lgely used for manuthoEuréd ng% e g. k-îko, cer, d .fu, c,ers. The preflx ma- (Soo) is caerisc of a
The Classficatzon oJ Languages collecuvty, of a bg number, a hqmd, and also of ttngs wlch occur m profs, e g rna-naka (horns of an ammal) The prefix ka- (Ganda) correspondmg to a plural prefix tu-, denotes small stze, e g ka-ntu (small man), u-ntu (small men) Wth the preux ho- (Duala), abstract nouns are formed, derved from adlectîves, verbs and names for thmgs, e g bo-nyak (growth, from nyaka, grow) The prefLx ku- (Ganda) serves for the formauon of verb-nouns or mmnves, e g ku-lagra (to command, or commanchng) Smce there ls no precse parallel to tins type of concord m out own language, we must fall back on an amficlal model to fllustrate what t mvolves Let us ftrst suppose that every Enghsh noun had one of tnventy preflxes analogous to e suffm -er common to the occupauonal fisher-wnter-buzlder class We may also suppose that the words dog and sheep respecuvely carried the prefixes be- and m'- If Enghsh also had the saine concord system as a Bantu chalect, the sentence hungry dogs sometzmes attack young sheep would then be be-hungry be-dogs sometzmes be-they-attack m'-young m'-sheep. The ongm of the Bantu cIassïfiers s hot above chspute It s possible, though hot concluslvely proved, that they wele once mde- pendent words nth a concrete meanmg, standing for groups of alhed objects, such as human bemgs, trees, hqmds, thmgs long or short, Ng or small, weak or strong When assocated wth other words they ongmaJly marked them as members of one class Accordmg to th vïew, be-dog and m'-sheep of the parable used above would be what remams of beast-dog and meat-sheep Subsequenfly the outhnes of once-chstmct classes became blurred through cont_mmatmn and fusmn, and the classtfier sank to the level of a purely grammatical devce. If so, the original plan has surwved only m the first two classes. Wth few excep- uons these szgfy human bemgs Only in a relauvely stauc socety at a prnmuve level of culture wth httle chvslon of labour could classficatory parucles retam a clear-cut funcuon Magrauon and clvdauon bzmg human bemgs mto new sztuauons wtnch call for new vocables. These do hot necessardy fall mto any pre-exastmg roche of a c]assfficato3r system. In fact, languages of the classtficatory type are confined to commumues wluch used nether script nor the plough before contact wth wtnte men. OEhe surmïse that Bantu classffiers were once concrete words suggests analogy wlth the numeratwes whlch the Chmese and Japanese almost mvarably msert between figures and thmgs counted, as when we speak of three head of cattle. Thus the Chmese say two ptece man (= tevo men), three ta,l fish (= three fish), four handle kmfe (= four kmves), rive orna-
212 The Loom o.[ Language ment offwzals (= rive oJ)zals) Thc analogy should not bê pushed too far, because Bantu classlfiers no longer possess a clear-cut meanmg, nor do they surwve as mdepcndent words Pmucles or aff'Lxes used as clas1fiers aie not confincd to Lhe Banm languages Capell* wmes as follows about one of the Papuan chalects "In the languages oI Southern Bougamvllc nouns are dlvlded pto upwards of twënty classes, and the adlecttves and numeraIs vary agreement wlth the class to wbach the noun bëlongs One gets somethmg of the same effect as m the Bantu languages, except that m the Papuan languages t s the end of the wod, hot the begnmng, that changes." In Kanwtman, a language of the Trobnand Islands, demonstratïves as well as adlectaves and numerals are coupled wth charactensrac pamcles whïch are common to all members of a pamcular class of noun, and each noun belongs to such a class Proie%or Malmowskl, who has gven an xllummatmg accotmt of t, descnbes ts essentaal pcuhartues in the following passage "Let us transpose tïus pecuhaxïty of Ktnwmmn lnt tmghsh, followmg thë narave prototype very closely, and lmane OEat no adlecttve» no nmeral, no demonstrauve, may be used wtthout a parttcle denong OEe nature oi the objec referred to AI1 names of hum bmngs would take the prehx 'human ' [nstead ot saymg 'ont soldmr' we would bave to say 'hx-one soldmr waIks m the street.' Intead oi 'how many passengcrs were n OEe accdcnt?', qmw humar-ny passcngrs wctc m OEc accdent?' Answcr» 'human-scventecn.' Or agam, m ï cply m 'Are e Smths hn-mce pcoplc?' wc should say, 'No, thcy arc human-duI1 ' Agam, nouns dcnotmg persons bclongmg to e tcmale sex would be nbcrcd» pomtcd at, d quahficd wloE c md oi the pre 'femalé', woodcn objccts wth thc paruclc 'woodcn', or ngs wfl the pamclc 'Icafy»' followmg m all tlus OEc prcccdcnt of Kriw Thus, pomung at a table, wc would say» 'ek ai woodcn- tins', dcscrbmg a ldsoepc, 'leaty-brown lcavcs on thc woodcn-Iargc trecs', spcakng of a book, 'lcafy-hundrcd pages m tt'; 'oEc womcn of Spmn arc femalc-beautfful'; 'human-fls boy ls very naughty» but female-oEs girl s good' " Thus the habxt of labelhng all name-words wïth oné of a hrmted number of affixes s hot conlïncd to the Bantu famaly. It is widely dasmbutcd among unrelatcd languages spoken by strie and backward commumttes throughout the world. The numbcr of such classes may * Oceama, x937 f GIas,]catory Partldes =n Kmwïna (Bulletin of the School of Oriental Stuches, vol. t, x97-2o).
The Classzfication o] Languages 213 be as many as twenty, as In Bantu dlalects, or it may be as few as four, as in one of the chalects of the Austrahan abolagmes. The classlficatory mark ls not necessarlly a preflx. In the Papuan language Clted by Capell» it ls a suflïx llke the gender-termmal of an Aryan adjectlve Thus the dlstmctaon between the classlficatory and the flextonal type ls not so sharp as It first seems tobe The trade-mark of the Indo- European adjecuve as a separate enraty ls that it carrles the suflîx determmed by one of the three gender-classes to whlch a noun ls asslgned We kuow that what are called adjectlves in Aryan languages were once mdlstmgmshable from nouns, and the example of Fmmsh (p 197) shows us how easlly the endmg of the noun gets attached to an accompanymg eplrhet in each of the ttlree Aryan gender-classes we meet wlth a greater or less proporuon of noires wlth charactelaStlC affixes lmuted to one of them» and the notlon of sex whlch an Amerlcan or an Enghshman assoclates wlth gender bas a very fllmsy relaraon to the classification of Indo-European nouns in thelr respectave gender-classes. Though we bave no first-hand kïlowledge about the orlgm of gendêr» we know enough to ChSlmSS the kkehhood that it had any essentlal connexton wlth sex The most plausible vlew ls that the chstmctaon of gender m the Indo-European family s ail that ls left of a system of suites essentlally hke the Bantu prefixes If so, the former luxunance of such a system has been corroded in turn by nomachc habits and clvzed hvmg as prmuuve Aryan-speakmg tnbes successvely came mto contact wlth new oblects wktch dld hot fit mto the framework of a classlficatton smted to the hmlted expenence of settled hfe at a low level of techmcal eqmpment PHOIETIC PATTERN OF LANGUAGE FAMILIES Just as we recogmze grammaucal processes such as isolauon, aggluu- nauon» amalgamation» root-mflexaon, we can also recogmze sound- patterns winch predommate in one or other group Such phonerac patterns furmsh us wlth an addltlonal clue to lmgulsuc a/Kmraes, albeit a clue wluch too few plulologlsts bave followed up Our last sec- tlon ïllustrates one phonetlc type wbach lS dlstnbuted over a large part of the world In a multitude of unrelated languages, mcludmg Japanese, Malayo-PolynesIan, and Banru dlalects, agglutinative regulanty coextsts wath a sound-pattern qulte unJe that of out own language or of any languages related to It espersen (Grewth and Structure of the Enghsh Language) dlustratcs th¢¢ontrast by the followmg passage from file
The Loom of Languaoe language of Hawau, of which fixe tamflaar place-names (e g Honolulu) recall the same charactenstacs as the Japancse Yokoham«, t:tqtyama, etc I kona hzkz a;a aku zlala va hookl)a fa maz la ou, me ke aloha pumehana loa. The syllable m this sample conslsts of a vowel or of a vowel preceded by a szrnple consonant That ls to say (p. 63) the syllable xs hke a typlcal Chmese word Aryan languages .tre rch in onsonant clusters In languages as tar apart as Norwegun, Welsh, and Grcek, we may meet at the begmning of many wordb any of the consonants b, d, f, g, k, p, followed by l or r, t followed by r, s by l, t, or tf For tins rcason alone such words as sprznkle, çprgttly, cxpreszon, blal)hww, electrzcal, or thë German Zwctschge (prune), arc qmte foregn to thc ptrcrn of sounds to whïch many peoples of the world are attuncd They also tllustrate alaother charactensuc of the Aryart famfly Aryan words are comparauvely ïach m closed (p 63) syllablcs; and, ff moosyllabm, are commonly of the closed type llustrated by God and man, or car and dog. We have many t.mghsh monosyllablcs whtch flltlstrate both thesê trade-marks of Aryan word-structure, e g broc&, strapç, 1»ozvl«d» plump, prazm'd, wwlts, bhm, tznk, float, pn,,"t d, .,mg, ed FJ.txh « points out that certain combmatmns of mttal cmsonants» ïllustrated by word-coums m dxcuonanc% are ch,ractensuc ot partacu- 1af groups wathm lhe Aryan faimly Wc shall find that sonc du,,,ters, e.g. the Greek PS-, Latin -CI'-, and Teutomc SN- or SK- are sign- posts of word ongm Somc clusters or elemcnts of a dustet may convey a common thread of mëarting m groups of words whlch emst an closely rêlated languages in Enghsh there are about a hundred and twemy verbs m which a final l suggests repetmve action, as m wobbl«, wangle nddle, coddle, bungle, handle, ncstle, çnaffie, ttpple» prmkle Among modera Aryan languages itahan bas moved furthest from the Aryan partem, owmg to ehrmnatton o some Latin mechal con- sonCt combmaraons, e g.-CI'- to -1"1"- (p. 242)» and through thê decay oi the final comommt of the Latin terminals. 1Ielxce almost al1 Itahan words end m a vowel Coxaversëly Enghsh xs very rlctx în words which end with a consonant cluster owïng to the decay of the vowel of a terminal syllable, e.g the short e mil fmrly audable in the plural t!exïon of bouses or prmces, and m the past sufftx of a !earned woman. So xt may be no accident that a wealth of compound consonants and closed syllables go wlth a famaly whose othèr chagnoslïc characterîsuc (at least that of all its earhest rêpresëntatlvês Sansknt, Oid Persxan» Grêek, ' Speech (Bea' Labrary).
The Classification oJ Languag es 215 Latin) of whlch we bave knowledge, s amalgamation» 1 e great rregu- lanty of aîataon At one me compaxatlve hnsts chstmgmshed an mcorpoatng or holophrastzc t3rpe to accommodate the Amennchan languages, whach lllustrate another pecuhanty of somxd-pattem Ix ls extremely dcult to recogmze where one word begms and another ends in the/anguage of fixe Greenland Eskmao. The same xs true of a great vanety of mda- genous, totaily mxrelated, vernaculars of the Amerlcan comment How far people dastmgmsh one word from the next» especlally m rapld speech» vanes from one daalcct to another wlthm a small group In a large famfly such as the Aryan, we fmd examples of ktghly holophrastlc languages such as Fench or baghly staccato languages such as German The pecuhar solmd patteln of the Aryan group whlch ls now cus- tochan of the bulk of modem sclenufic knowledge has one result lelevant (p 5o8) t the design of a satsfactory international auxlhary People who do hot speak an &ryan laomlage commonly chstort words of Aryan ongm when they assmate thêm Extxaneous vowels break up consonant cluseîs, o supplement closed syllables» and famflïar more or less related sounds replace forexgn ones Thus the Roman tlanscription of football and calczum after passmg through "dae phonetlc sIeve of apanese Is fotobou and karushumu in whlch r deputlzes for the ahei1 l Sm«e Japanese does hot tolerate a terminal consonant other than n, asslmflated words tack on a vowel e g zn (mk), uz,hu (kmfe) In fact, Japanese eqmvalents for techmcal terres of Greek orlgm are remlmscent of Greek transcnptaon m the Cypnouc sylla- bary (Flg 4) Mencken has drawn attention to slmdar chstortaons by Itahan mxmgrams 111 the Umted States, e g atto (haï), orso (horse), sczoppa (shop), bosso (boss) FURTHER READING BLOOMFIELD Language FINCK Dze Haupttypen des Sprachbaus FIRTI Spcech The Tongues of Men G»F Language and Languagês ML]I LLT Le Langues dans l'Europe nouvelle M. 1 t. and COmN Le Langueç du Ionde qMIR Langueg IUCIOER ntroductzon to thc Natural Itstory oj Langztage IrNLY Ltfe and Growth of Langage
PART I I OUR HYBRID HERITAGE A COOK'S TOUR ROUND THE TEUTONIC AND ROMANCE GROUPS
CHAPTER Vl HOW TO LEARN THE BASIC WORD LIST SOM people complam of poor memory, and atmbute to It the d- culues of leammg a foregn language If also fond of homculture or of narural hastory, they do hot complam about the dculty of memor- zmg a copmus vocabulazy of techmcal terres So a poor memory is rarely â correct explanauon of what holds them back One of the essenual obstacles Is that the mterest of the begmner is focused exclu- sely on a remote goal. It is hot also darected, hke that of the naturahst, to thê matelal tself To leam wlth least effort we have to become language-comînous. If The Loom of Language bas succeeded m ts task so far the reader who has hot smched languages before, and the reader who has studled them wthout thmkmg much about ther famaly tratts, wfll now be more language-conscaous. The four chapters Whlch follow are for those who are They contam a more detafled treatment of some of the languages referred to m prexaous chaptèrs for the benefit of the home student who may want to start leammg to re, ad or to wme mtel- llgbly in one or other oft.hem. Any one who mtênds to gve the method of ths book a falr tnal must pay careful attenuon to cross references, mcludmg references to relevant tables in Part I Some practacal sug- gestions wbach tmmensely hghten the techum of traversmg the flrst fêw mllestones when learmng a new language have corne from the work of schohrs who have contnbuted to the mtemauonal language movement (see Chapter XI) They have hot yet ruade their way mm current text-books, and the reader who wlshes to use The Loom of Language as an aid to the smdy of a forelgn language should recall them at flas stage The most mportant ls to concentrate on lêarnmg a re]auvely small class of words before trying to leam any others Thîs class mcludes the partdes, pronouns, pointer zords» and helper verbs There aie sevexal reasons for domg tls One ls that a battery of about one htmdred and fifty o" such words for ready uçe, supplemented by a nodchng acquamtance mth about a hundred othêrs, mcludes a very bagh proportion of the words we constanfly use or constanfly meet on the prmted page A second s that what verbs, adecuves, and notms we commonly me.et, éspectally the nouns» depends on mdxvidual çarcum-
220 The Loom oj" Language stanccs and fastes A thrd s that t s cacher to gucss thc mcamng of nouns, adlccuves, and ver bs when we mcct thcm Ths s partly bccausc an mcrcasmg popouon of new words of thxs kmd are mtcrnauonal, and aiso because the parucles are the most unstable elements tu a language We do hot borrow preposmons or conluncuons, but wc constantly borrow nouns, verbs, or adlecuves, and such borrowed words play an mportant part m modcrn hfe The word for a telephone or for a museum s rccogmzabI2 thc samc n Enghsh, Swedsh, Serbo-Croat, or t-Iunganan, but the Dane who leatns the word rabbzt m hs first lèsson trom thc Enghsh primer ¢.ommonly used n Damsh schools may hve ten years m Nottmgham or correspond regularly wth a frmnd m New York wxthout gcumg mvolvcd m a chscusson about rodents of any kmd If you learn only ten new words of thc group whch mcludes par- nclcs, pronouns, and pomtcr-words ëvcry day tor a fortmght, you wzll have at your dsposal at Icast twcnty-fivc per cent o the total number of words you use whcn you wrte a let[er When you havc donc thxs, t lS xrnportant to bave a bmall vocabulary of essentml nouns, adlecuvés, and verbs ready for use BeIore you start trymg to wntc or to rcad m a focgn language, t xs best to get a bd'ç-ye wew of xts grammattcal pecuhanucs The brd's-eye wcw s easy to get m an hour's reachng, and xs not ddhcult to mcmon/c unlcss the ianguage, hkc Russmn, has a large number of ar¢.hmc and usclcss gtammaucal devces Even much of the ettort commonly put mto lcarmng thc rulcs of grammar can be captahzed for usc m othcr ways» tt you do hot start rcadmg or wïmrïg ull you bave a boad general outlook. It wll help you to remember the essenûals, ff you sec thcm m an evoiuuonary context Smcc it s relauvcl .ea.sy to recall mformalmn whcn promptcd by thc wmten word, a student who first gets a bzrd's-eye vmw of the grammar of a new language wtll be C1e to recogmzë essenual rules when hc meets them m newspapers, letters, or books. In this way, readmg wï11 help to fix lhem from the start. Contrarwsc, thc begmner who starts rëading wxthout thê bxd's-eye wew may become colour-blmd o convèn- twns whch a e ëssentzat for correct sclf-exprèssmn iacflty m gucsswork may then becomc a lundrance to learnmg how to write or speak correctly To say that the brd's-eyc vcw given m the next îcw chapters wll help thc begmer to start wrïung to a correspondent who wïll correct gross errors, or to bëgm readmg without becon:ung colour-blind to rules of grammar, doës hot mean that they provxde an insurance pohcy
How o Learn he Basic Word Lis 22I agamst all possible mastakes, ff the rules given are consclenuously apphed Only a sertes of volumes each nearly as long as tbas one and each devoted to each of the languages deak wth, could claire to do so Thexr mm ls to explam what the begmner needs to know m order to avod senous rmsunderstanchngs m straghfforward self-e:pressmn (seê Chapter IV) or the reachng of unpretentaous prose, and therefore to help the home student to start usmg a language wth as httle delay as s possxble or adwsable Beyond tlus point, progress m a forexgn, hke progress m the home, language depends on tnal and error It s mol e easy to form habits than to break t_hem, and t s more duîficult to lêarn by eye alone than by eye and ear together So it ls a bad tlung to start memonzmg forelgn words from the prlnted page wlthout first leaimng how to pronounce them recogmzably The spell- mg conventïons (see Chapter II) of chfferent languages are very OEer- rent» and it s unportant to learn sufficent about them to avold gross rmstakes Beyond tbas, further progress ls unposslble wthout personal mstructaon, travel, or gramophone records (such as the Lmguaphone or Columbm sertes) for those who can afford t_hem, and careful attentaon to forelgn broadcasts ff such opportumnes are hot accessible Pecuhar psychoIogical dffficulnes beset mchvduals of Enghsh- speakang countnes when they approach the study of a foregn language Some anse from socml trachtion. Others are due to geographcal stuaton Enghsh-speakmg people speak a language wtnch has become world-wide through conquest, colomzauon, and econormc penetratmn Partly for thls reason and partly because thear water fronuers cut them off from dady contact wth other speech commumues they lack the mcentwes wbach encourage a Dane or a Dutchman to acqmre lmgtustac proficiency Though these extrmsc unpedlmênts are undoubtedly powerful» there s another side to the pct-ttre Those who bave been brought up to speak the Anglo-Amencan language have one great lmgtusuc advantage Ther word-eqtupment mal<es it equally easy for them to také up the study of any Teutomc or any Romance language wth a background of famar assocauons, because modem Enghsh ls a hybnd language Indecd, more than one amfical auxdlary language, notably Stemer's Paszhngua put forward m I885, takes as lts bass the Enghsh stock m trade of words for thxs reason It lS the object of tbas chapter to help the reader to become more language-conscious by recogmzmg what xt xmphes Examples taken from the Lord's Prayer and prmted on p 2I show the close farmly hkeness of the common root-words in the Teummc
222 7'he Loom of Language group, mcludmg Enghsh For thas reason sentences and expresmons mede up of such words tan be used to lllusuatc giammalcal affimues and erences wch an Amerïcan or a Bnton wlth no prewous know- ledge of ofle members of OEe oup can iccogmzc iout hc. The resemblance bctween member of fixe group ls so close OEan my hnlsts spe of OEem as the Teutomc dmlects « Enghsh stands apt from oer membcrs ot the Teutomc group in two ways. lts ar bas undergone much greatcr lmphficauon, and t has assxated an enoous proporuon of words from other iguage groups, more espeay e Laun In fact, xf wc set out to &scover indo-Europe fly by mexely counnng the Teutomc and root-words (sec p 16) n a large dcttona, we could make a good for putg it In the Romance group. Ts conclusion would be wrong "I hough it s tuc at more than hall e words m a good dxcuonary aze of Latin ongm, xt xs Mso =ue at early all OEe root-wods wch we ue mot ohcn--e class re- ferred to on pp I27-IoE8are Teutonc However freely we prle o prose wth forexgn words, we oennot speak or wrtte Enghsh wx- out usmg mauve (x e Tcutomc)elements Nauve are (a) ail pronoms, (b) all demonstrauve and possessive adccuvcs, (c) the atucles, (a) auxthanes, (e) the trong verbe,, (f) ncarly all preposmons and conunc- noms, ,) most of the adverb of tme and place, (h) e numerals, except dozen, mlhon, blhon, and mffhud Native also are e tew fierons wch Enghsh bas retIed. Thus l he majonty of words on a primed page, even tf xt s about têchnwal mattcrs whch rely on a large vooebdà of Lann derïvalïves, are Tcutoac; and though it is posmble to wnte good Enghsh prose n which ail, or nearly a, OEe vocabulary xs based on Teutomc roots» t would be flcult to wnte ,t representa- Uve spemen of sustaned and mtelhgble Enghsh conlmmng a bare malomy of Lamn-French words. * The wod dalec m used rï two emses In everyday hic we associate woE loI vanaUoms of p oanc,toa and mmor local dile entes or vobary thxn a smglé pohtM un!t Sme the member of a soEgle poltxcal fiy able to understand oue another xn sp,te of su¢h local varmtions, deenoes also mffy eefferences wch do mot make ,t absolutely imposmble for pcoplc tt sd onë ooEcr In ts sente exs ove uo boundrxc The «Dori" or obcrt Burn dffrs irom Bble Enghsh or from Aglo-ricn booE woE rêspc6 to proncxaton and to spelhng conven- tions» a mu as orwegmn ers irom Swedh or Danxsh yone re oegan oen read Swedxsh or Damsh» and Norwcgs n derstand Swcdes or Dames whcm thëy spe OEer own language. We o.speak of them as dxfferent Ianes beoeuse they are &ale=s of oeflerent sov« stat aible to aw a rd-d-fast hne been lge d diale
How o Learn he Basze Tord Lis 223 The baslc stratmu, e. the most common words, of out Enghsh vocabulary s derlved from a mLxture of chalects more closely alhed to Dutch than to other exstmg members of the group, especally to the speech of the Fnsan Islands These chalects were the common speech of Germamc tnbes called Angles, Saxons, and Jures, who came to Bntam between 400 and 70o Æ.». The Norse mvaders» who left thetr footprmts on our syntax, contnbuted few speczfically Scandmavlan words to Southern Enghsh, though there are many Norse words m chalects spoken m Scofland Norse was the language of the Orkneys ull the end of the fourteenth, and perslsted m the outermost Shetlands (Foula) tfll the end of the eghteenoE century Many words m Scots vernaculars recall current Scandmavaan eqtuvalents» e g bra (fine, good), bazrn (chfld), and flzt (more household effects). Scandmaxnan suffixes occur m many place-names» such as -by (small town), cf OEmsby or IVhztby, and the latter surwves m the compound by-Iaw of everyday speëch m South Bntam When the Norman mvaders came m o66 the Ianguage of England and of the South of Scofland was aknost purely Teutomc. It had asstmated very few Latin words save those whlch wer by then common to Teutomc chalects on the Continent. Except m Wales, Cornwall, and the Scomsh lmghlands, the Celuc or pre-Roman Bntam survxved only m place-names. /kfter the Norman Conquest, more partcularly after the beg_numg of the fourteenth centmT, the lan- oxage of England and of the Scomsh lowlands underwent a drasuc change It absorbed a large number of words of Latin olgm, first through the influence o£ the Norman herarchy, and later through the influence of scholars and wnters. It shed a vast load of useless gram- maucal luggage, bIorman scribes revsed ltS spellmg and whfle tlns was happemng nnportant changes of pronunctauon were gomg on. Tïns iaunauon of Enghsh chd hot begm mmechately after the Conquest. ]For the greater part of two centunes» there were two lan- guages m England. The ovedords spoke Norman French, as the wtnte settlers of Kenya speak modem Enghsh. The Enghsh serfs stfll spoke the language m w/mch Beowulf and the Bable of Alfred the Great were wntten By the begmmng of the fourteenth century a social process was gathermg momenmm There were self-governmg towns wlth a burgher class of nauve Enghsh stock. There was a flounshmg wool t.rade wxth Fhnders. There were schools where the sons of prosperous burghers learnt oerench grammar. In the England of Dck Whttnngton, Enghsb agam became a wntten lanmage» but a wntten language wktch had to
224 The Loom oJ Language accommodate tself to a wodd of farmhar thngs for wbach the Saxon poets had no names Investment m tradmg emerpnse fotered a new sort of class collaboratmn depcted m Chaucer's Canterbuy Tales, and a new type of httgauon wth an Enghsh-speakmg chëntele In 362 Edward III ordered the use of Ènghsh m the courts, though the wrztten law of the 1and was French ull the eghteenth century In contadstmcton to Old iznghh, the purely Teutomc language of Alfred the Great, the Enghsh of ths penod, that of Chaucer and of Wydzff, called Mzddle I'nghh S¢.holars refer hterary remams to the Mddle perlod f wmten between about .a.D 5 ° and 5oo The process of assrmlattng words of Latin ongm receved a new stimulus from the nse of classcal scholarshp at the end of the maddle» and has been nmsed through the modem, permd by the growth of scenufic know- ledge One result xs that Enghsh m ts present form has an enormous range of couples, one member Teutomc hke forgzvc, the other Latin or French lc pardon. Usually flac Tcutomc ont s more numate, the Laun forma1, bëcause Teutomc words arc the languagc of the countrysdc, Laun or Frcnch words the prerogattvc of lawycrs» prest% and scholars Thus Wamba the lester m Ivanhoe points out that the ungulates (çheep, 2g, calf» ox) bave natxvc names whfle t s still thc business of the Enghsh peoplc to look aftcr them. When they rcach the table of thc Norman ovcrlord hcy have bccome mutton, pork» veal» beef, for wluch the corresponding i, rcnch words are mouton» porc» veau, boeuf Relauvely few peoplc lcarn hsts of new words wth ease» uxzlcss they can connect thëm wth famahar fàcts» and an adult who has already collected a varegated vocabulary xs m a strong posxtmn to take advan- tage of ths hybnd chaacter of modern lmghsh. To bccomë Ianguage- conscmus m thxs way we neëd to know somethmg about thê regulariucs of sound-changc whxch havë bcen mentmncd m he last chCter (p and we nced a few hmts wluch help us to detect when an Anglo- Amërican word xs Tcutomc or Iatm. Ths can be donc by followmg up dues suggestêd m Chaptes iI and V. The spelhng of a word xs offert a soEcent sgnpost of xts ongm» espêcaily if we know a htfle about flac sound-changcs whch havc occurred m thc tnstory of thë Teutomc and Latin ïanltcs. How thc sound-hzfts memxoned m Chapter V hêlp fo bmld up word assocaataons is fllustratcd by thê German word Tezl (part) or ïts dcrxva- rive vrb talen (,eparate dzvzde, dzstnbute, share). Old Teutomc words whtch begm wth the d somïd begm wlth the t sound in moderrt Ger-
How to Learn the Baszc Word List man (19. 232 ). If we apply thls rule Ted becomes dal» wluch means the same as the Swedash-Danïsh del, wIth the correspondmg denvatave verbs dela (Swechsh) or dele (I)amsh) In its new form xt recalls out words dell and deal. The Oxford Dïcuonary tells us that the latter cornes from Old Enghsh doel, whlch also meant a part» and to deal cards stfll means to &vzde the pack mto parts» to share or dzstrzbute them The word dell (or dale) bas no connexion wth tlaxs foot. It bas the saine meanmg as the Swechsh-Damsh dal, German Tal» and Dutch dal, for valley If you follow tins plan, you can mtroduce an element of adventure mto memonzmg a vocabulary, and mcadentally leam more about the correct use of Enghsh words It may be helpfal to look up some of the unusual words m the Canterbury Tales, 'or the Faene Queene For instance, the smaller Oxford Dlcuonary tells us that the Chaucerlan eke means also, and compares It wlth the contemporary Dutch (ook) and German (auch) eqtuvalents The Swechsh for also ls och or ocksd You can also compare the Maddle Enghsh eke wlth the Swechsh och alld Damsh og for out Imk-word and, wluch we can sometlmes replace by also An example whach Rlustrate how to make assocauons for memor- azmg words of Romance origan ls hospztable. The Oxford Dlcraonary tells us that thls cornes from thê Latin verb hospztare (to entertazn) The related word hospzte meant ethêr guest or host, and It bas survlved as the latter Another related Latin word ls hospztale, a place for guests, later for travellers Thls was the original meanmg of hostxtal» and surwves as such m Kmghts Hospztallers. In Old French it appears shortened to hostel, whlch extsts m Enghsh In modern French s before t or p has often chsappeared. That xt was once there, ts mchcated by a ctrcumflex accent (^) over the precedmg vowel, as m hôtel The French words hôte, hôtesse, hôtel, Mpztal, resolve themselves mto ther Enghsh eqtuvalents when wê apply thts rule Hostelry, hospzce, and hospztahty obvlously share the saine lmeage. A host of other Smlllarmes corne to itfe if we are famar wIth another sound-change When an accented é precêdes t, p, or c at the begmnmg of a modern French word it often takês the place of the Latin s m Englsh words of Romance ongm Thus état (state), tranger (stranger, forezgner), étoffe (stuff), éponge (sponge), épouse (spouse, wzfe), pzaer (grocer--man who sells spzces), and école (school) corne to lffe ff we know this Evett when there ls no preclse Eghsh eqtuvalent contammg the saine foot as a word in one of the Romance languages, we can usually
226 "lTze Loom ojf Langaage hghten the effort of memorlzmg the latter by flshmg up a relatcd word whtch docs contaïn it In the table on p 249 there are twenty-nvo Enghsh words of whtch sx, ol one-fomth of e total, recall the Romance equtvalent Enghsh words of related meamng at once suggest thë Romance foot m most of the others Thus oui Ïeutomc hunger pairs off wxth famîne and fa»uhed whch suggest the Frcnch word faim. The French wold fil ior out i eutomc thead turns up m filament $itmlarly we assocmte fumes wth smoke, fugmve wth flee, fohage with leaves, fatory productïon vlth makmg thngs, fihal pmty wifl son and daughter (more parucularly the latter), or f« tous metals wtth tron That 1caves us wth a fcw I tahan and Frenh words whch are self-explanatory to a naturahst, ¢.hemts, or anaomst Thus formzc acd ls an rntant ermtted by ant% attoEon s a lcgumtnous hay subsutute, and Vca faba s the botamcal naine tor the cornmon bean. $OUND-StIIFI'$ IN OEItE 'IUfONIC I AN6UA6L$ Bcforc studymg furtllcr xamplcs of thc way m wiuch thc hybfid chaactcr of Enghsh word-cqupmcm hclps nyonc who s bcgmnmg to lcarn a Tcutoc or Romance langugc» wc nccd o know more abou sound-changc such thoc mcnuoncd in llc prcccdmg pagmphs. Thc nclcc of an cnormous volume of relevant rcscrch m tcx-books for bcgcrs shows how hltlc educamn s cghtencd by Bacon's oesel: "we do fil to exalt e powers of the human mmd, when we shod seek out ils propcr hclps "* Let us surt wllh e Teutomc group We bave no &rcct owledge of the snglc ancestor of a Teutomc languagcs, but out earliest records 1end us to er flat t undmwent a drague change somc rime bcforc c beginnmg of the Chrsuan era. Tlus chge, whch nvolved several consonants may bave corne about bcouse robes speatng Indo- European language came ïnto contac h peoplc who spokc non- yan langges such as the peculiar speech stfll extant among OEe Basques. Fvc of ese consont changes appear below, d we oen rcoegzc thcm n thc fIrcncc bctwccn c ,nghsh form of Indo-Eopcan word and its La or Grcck cquivalcnt. Thus thc tîrst and second are rccogmzablc m companon of c Grcck or I,atïn pat * Eish Prmms ot Germaa--pcrhaps bcusc phflolo ha bccn cult- vatcd m Gezny--çctcr to such sound changes, bu do xtor dxsclosc cqually rclcva xxfformatioa of thc way m wch Enghsh poauaçmtmzt bas ch.mgcd siacc xt patcd eompy wh what s now Gczman Oflc=wsc is tz uc to tlat thc topxc s stfll taboo m elemenm tcachmg.
How to Learn the Basic Word List wth out word father; the first and last by comparmg the Greek foot pod- or Latin ped- wath out foot; the thïrd by comparmg the Latin genus and genu wth out kzn and knee, and the last two by comparmg the Greek foot kard- or Lama cord- wxth heart. (1) p bec.ame f (n) t bec.ame rh (1) (m) g bec'ame k Ov) k became the throaty Scots ch m loch, and subsequently the smaple asprate h (v) d became t The reader who knows no Latin and ls hot hkely to acqlme more knowledge of Latin than can be got from the next chapter but one» should hot find It Impossible to detect the same foot in some Enghsh words of Teutomc and of Latin or Greek ongm Thus we recogluze the same foot as foot m pedzczrre, and the same ioot as heatt m cardzac, the same foot al trznzty as in three, the same foot m tire as m pyrex glass, and the saine foot in fiat as m plateau or platitude (a fiat saymg) Thls plmutlve or fist sotmd-sh m the Nstory of the Teutomc- speakmg peoples eqmpped Enghsh wth sounds for w[uch the Latin alphabet had no precise equlvalents For l easons sufficaenfly explamed m our survey of the alphabet, tins fact has lts practtcal apphcatlon Wlth the exception of a few words denved from Greek, Enghsh words e ntammg th are Teutomc So also are words whlch begm wath go or y or contam gh These consonant, or combmatlons of consonant, symbols are therefore slgnals whch tel1 us whether we are hkely to find a recogmzably equlvalent or related word m a Teutonlc language The followmg s a hst of rive sIgnposts of Teutomc word ongm. Words contmmng sh, e g sheet, shzeld, shzp. Words contamlng th, e g thaw, then, thzn Words contauung gh, e g laughter, through, rough Words wxth lmttal w, e g ware, zasp, zvash Words wxth xmtaal sk, e g skm, skr, sky These rive sgnposts help us to tecog,zuze a very large number of words of Teutomc orlgm as such, and many more can be ldent.tfied by the presence of charactenstlcally Teutomc prefixes, of whlch the be- (in belong or behead) Is the most rehable, and sufftxes of wbach the adlec- tival -some (in lonesome), the dmunutlve -hng and the abstract endmgs -dom, -hood or -head, -shzp, -kmd, and -craft are most chagnosttc
228 The Loom oj Language When we arc able to dctect words of Tcutomc or,gin in thls way, we tan hghren the task of memon,,mg our word-hst wlth a httle mforma- tmn about the slmultaneous changes of pronuncmuon whch have occurred smce the common parent of the Teutomc famaly spht nto three mare groups--an eastcrn reprësented by Gotbac, a northern or Scanchnavlan represented by Old Norse, and a western represented by Oid Enghsh and Old Ihgh German. In what foïlows we must hOt confuse sounds wlth ther ymbols The latter may be arbtrary conven- rions pccuhar to parucular languages, or a hang-over from a penod when the pronunclatmn was chflcrent Thus the German tF" s merely another way of wrmng thc sound represented by our V; and thë sound wë usuaLty represcnt by F and somcumes by GH (e g laugh) xs ether F (as in Fzsctz) or V (as m Vater for fattter) Thë letter .1 usêd m Enghsh for the pecuharly Enghsh sound an yam or Gentzte stands m all othër Teutomc languages for a chffcrent sound rcpresentcd by out Y m yeaçt Out own d5 sound ïn ]ara bas no equlvalent an Gërman, Damsh, Dutch or Swedxsh h s confined to Enghsh m the Teutomc clan. These dflerent convëntmns of" closely alhcd languagcs may be due to the whxrns of scribes who origmal!y sponsorcd the systëm of spelliag m use to-day, or, hkë the Gcrman IY, to changes of pronuncaauon smce ther tune. If wê want to detcct word-equivalcnce on thc printed page» what xs more mportant to know xs how pronunuation of relatcd dalects had alréady chverged belote wntmg bcgan, or how ït xs reflected m subsequent spëllmg eforms. For instance, the correspondënce betwêen the Swëdsh words vind» vdder» and vatten on thc one hand and thê German words Wind, Wëtter, and Wasser or ther Ënglish equivalents ïoind, weather, and watt on the other, s parfly concealed by the fact that Scandinavmn spelhng mcorporates the V-shlft which English bas rëslsted. Enghsh has prescrved two old Tcutomc consonant sounds whxch have searcel7 left a trace in its sxstër Têutonîc daaiects other than Icelandic. One of thèse is the P sound of' thtn, the other is the 6 sound of then. Modern icëlandc îs more conservative than Englîsh in so far as p s never soïtened to ) (p. 8x) at thé begmnmg of a word. That îs illustrated by'
FIG 28--PAGE FROM THE "CoDEx ARGENTEUS" NOW IN UPPSALA Thls ls a slxth-century edltlon of the New Testament translated by Blshop Ulfilas lnto Gotlc about A D 350 The characters used are malnly drawn from the Greek alphabet supplemented by Roman and Rumc lettêrs Note for instance the Greek symbol /J whlch stands not for ps as in Greek wrltmg but for p The Codex Argenteus now m the Umversty hbrary at Uppsala has I87 of the original 33o leaves of the four gospels intact Wolfenbuttel and Milan hbranês possêss other fragments of the gospels, the Pauhne epstles, and the Old Testament books Ezra and Nehemlah, together wth a part of a Gothlc calendar These are the basls of out earhest knowledge about the Teutomc languages
How to Learn the Basic Word List In other Teutomc languages, ] has changed chrectly to t, or wa ô to d. This s lllustrated by many common words, such as out demte arucle the» wth ts plural equvalent de m Swechsh, Damsh and Dutch, and dze m German; the Enghsh that with ts neuter eqmvalent det m Swechsh and Damsh» or dat m Dutch, the Enghsh they and thars, wth modern Scandmawan eqmvalents, de and deras (Swedash), dercs (Damsh)» or the Enghsh thou wth its eqmvalent S wechsh, Damsh, and German du. German eqmvalents of Enghsh words wth the mmal consonants ] or 6, .e. ether sound represented by th m Enghsh spellmg, start wth d Dank, thanks Dmg, thmg das, that denken, thank dann, then drez, three da, thete Durst, tharst dck, thck Dzstel, thstle Deb, thlef Dorn, thon dunn, thm Dorf, thorp (-- village) In two ways Enghsh has changed as some of the Scandmavlan chalects have done One lS that a sound whch was SK m Old Enghsh (then spelt sc) bas now become SH, as m German, where the spellmg conventmn is SCH, e.g shade---Schatten, shame--Scham, (to) shed ---schezden A parttal change of tins kmd has occurred m S wechsh, In wbach the symbol SK, except when It precedes the back vowels a, d, or o, ls pronounced f, e skepp has the saine imual sound as ts eqtuvalent shp The followmg words fllusuate the Enghsh shïft from sk to sh. In the Swedlsh eqmvalents on the left, the symbols have thelr original (hard) value Those of the nght are paper survals, the mttal sound bemg the saine as In Enghsh: SWEDISH ENGLISH SV¢EDISH ENGLISH skaka shake skepp sbap skal shell skada sleath skall shall sa shunmer skam shame skma shme skarp sharp skluta shoot sko shoe skold sbaeld skrlm shrek skur shower In the evolutaon of modern Enghsh there has also been a weakenmg of the guttural g hke the weakenmg of the guttural k fllustrated by the words now spelt wlth the arbltrary combmataon sh Thas bas had an
rr ? inc Loom qt mpottant gtammat.càl con;Çquencc whlch wlll app«'ar at a later stage (p 64) Thc hmd S as m ç.oat s gcnerally the smnd wNch conesponds to the symbol m Gcman, I)utcb» and l)anlstt In Swedsh tt s usy softened to out y sound unless lollowed by a bad. vowel (a n father, aw m law, oo n booh) Swcdsh spdhng docs hot rettect tNs softemng, but m i)amsh and Norwcgmn the soitened g s tcplaced by Gj, J or I. and m new Noegan y s subsututed for the soit g armer (Sweoesh or Getman o rotghly cquvalet o or z m ktt,') "lhus m Gcrman eye s Azge, n Swcdh t s oq« anti m Nmwegan «ve So also way s We¢ m Geman, vq¢ m Swcd.h, z,7 m I)amsh, vez m No.wegan In many lmlsh words of I cut(mc ott!n lhc g [t,,s sottctçd Ip ths way, and Y or W arc now llS «ldVCSt¢}II{ q I11 llx wrttcu langage The Y may stamp a dphtmng as n «ve or e,.«v, or t maV b. uttmvalent to the soit Sçandmav,an } or (}[ as m v,'l}..ru ((iermam 2«tb, Swe&sh VI) A W m placu o! : tutns tp m tt¢ pa=,e,m,c word for brd (Swed fi;el, Getnan V«..fd) wt.( h we now spcI1 as .t.'d, a.. also m bozo (Sed. l, dq'c, Germ,m Bo:cn) In a large class of Imahsh woid,., th, tll itun .:;h i:. completdy sflent The coml»ïnatmn mvqn;illy stood ibr a breathg sound repre- sented by h m (;crman, ,.ut stlll pronon« cd .s sïv t m St ot,, 'I hus the Scots words ibr ïd,,h/ ,,tltl h@t are ç los" , the (k'tman Nacht and Lfi'ht 'l'hs smnd, wtuch tis &sap!.cared n !{iv:lstt clsewhere, is aosl absent n Scandmav;in. 'l'his thc Sc.udnavan wiwd {or nlght lS hall, and 0us tbr kght (Swedsh) or lys (t)amsh and NorwcDan) So iar as the consonants ae concerned» the changes tlom w to v and from p fo ¢, or from , lo d, are Ite sound-shfls whçh are most impor- tant fo anyone who aires at lelumng Nmweg.tn Swedish. They are fllustrated by-
How to Learn the Baszc Word List In an Enghsh-Swechsh chcuonary there are many other words begnn!g wïth th or sh wth Swechsh eqmvalents, recogmzable as such when these changes are made Of course, the famfly hkeness ls obwous m a host of words wthout sounds wluch have undergone a sbaft of ths type Even if the Enghsh eqmvalent gven m the chcuonary does hot conespond to a Swechsh word, it ls often easy to thmk of a related one wlch does so Thus the Swechsh word skara (cut) remmds us of shear» and veta (know) ls denved from the same Teutomc foot as wz (German wssen), stfll used as a verb m Bble Enghsh and m the ex- presmon to wzt Smulanues between Enghsh words of Teutomc ongm and the correspondmg one m another Teutomc language are most chflïcult to recogmze at sght when the latter s German, From the phoneuc pomt of mew, German bas wandered farthest afield from the old Teutomc homestead. So fixe sumlanues of German and Enghsh words are less easy to recognîze than the famfly hkeness of Enghsh and Swechsh ones In the evoluuon of German, a compact group of changes called the second sound-shoEt took place m mddle and south Germany, and these are reflected m German spellmg. The most charactensuc are the followmg- (a At the begmnmg o£ a word (or m the rmddle after a consonant) was followed by a lss» 1 e became ts (as m cats Thls ts sound ls represented by Z m German script (b) Inslde the word aïter a vowel the t slfted further and became a hss» now spelt SS ( The mmal i0 was followed by f» and the result :s represented by PF- (d After a vowèl the shïft went further» f replaced p--m script FF- Another sound-change wluch took place eady m the I-Igh German
232 The Loom oJ Language dlalects was the shfft trom k to ch (as m Scots loch) after vowels Ths change s illustrated by (e) bêlow Besidcs 1ho precedmg, other sound- changes, some ot thcm mucla later, now dlsunguish thgh from Low German dmlêcts (mcludmg Old Enghh) The most Important are (f) The early shdt ot the mmal d to t (g) The mtml s betozc l, m, n, p, t, usually becomes çh as n çhzp (spelt SCH except bc/orc P and "I) (h) Bctween two wwcls z, ottcn b¢cne,, b FNGLISII GI RMAN t NGI IStI (,t RMAN (a) tap Yaptcn (e) book Buch ten :,chn break brcchen tdc (urne) Zmt makc machen to zu x akë (tool) Rcchcn tongue Zunge rock nechen rwo zwm tokt.n Zeîchen weak wech wcçk Woche (b) better besscr car esscn (f) dance tanzen fo»t Fuss daughtcr Tochter kcttle Kcsscl day Tag let lassen dr,am 'i'raum water Wasser drmk nnken Npe hotterx (h) gve gcben pcppc I'!cile have haben pipe Pfcffc tire leben ape Affe hver I.cbcr gapë gaffen love hcbcn slecp schlatcn seve Sxeb Some of thc words chosen m thcsc examples illustratc more than one sound-shfft. For instance, we have to make two changes to gc our sweat from S&weiss Whcn wc apply (b), Schwetss changes to Schwdt, and tbAs changes to Swezt when we apply (g). It is thên recogmzably the same as its English equivalcnt. The geographical boundaries betwecn rcgmns where thc oldër or Low and the newer or High German forms predominate are hot the
How to Learn the Basic lord List z33 saine for al1 the shafts menuoned above The process of change reaches lts peak m South German, mcludmg German Swass (Hagh 3Aemamc chalects As we go north and north-west, the typlcal Hgh German sounds £ade out and chsappear an the plains. The Low German o£ north and north-east Germany, hke Dutch and F1emash whach are really Low German chalects wth ther own spellmg rules, remams true to the earher Germaine sound-pattern 3. kne across Germany chwdes a regaon where Low German forms pîedommate from one where the I-Igh German prevafl It nms from the Belgaan fronter south of Aachen to Dusseldorf, thence to Cassel, stnkmg the Elbe above Magde- bmg, passes north of Luther's Wttenberg, and touches the Pohsh fiontaer north-east of FroEort-on-the-Oder North of the hne we hear dat Water, South of t, das lVasser in what has gone before we bave seen that Enghsh consonauts are conservatave The consonants of Enghsh bave departed from the Old Teutomc patteln less than those of any Teutomc Ianguage except Icelanchc The reverse ls true of the vowels In the rmddle peraod durmg the century m whch Chaucer wrote, the Enghsh vowels sktfted whle the spellmg remamed xed Tlas expIams why we so often succeed m xdentmg an Enghsh word wth a German one when we see the two an prmt, but fax1 to do so when they stnke our ear. German vowels also shed between the Maddle I-Iagh German and the Modern Hgh German peraod, and the evolutaon of two Enghsh and German vowels runs parallel. In both languages a pnmuve long I (pronounced êe as m bee became the chphthong y m fly. The German spells t as EI (Maddle I-Iagh German mîn, Modem I-Iagh German mem), whïle Enghsh retams the older spellmg (Old Enghsh rmn, Modern Enghsh mmeS. The pnmatve long u (hke oo m food) went though a sxmtlar process, but thxs tmae the chphthong (ow as m how ls mchcated as such m both languages The German spells xt as kU (Madoee I-Igh German bus, Modern I-Iagh German Haus) In Enghsh t s OU or OW (Old Enghsh mus, brun, Modem Enghsh mouse, brown In ail, there were seven charactenstc vowel-changes m Madclle Enghsh, mcludmg the two menttoned Not all of them extended to Scotland, where bouse s stx11 ponounced hke ts Scandmavaan eqmvalent bus and a cow s a ku Owmg to the chaos of Enghsh vowel symbols, these sound-shafts axe hot o£ very great assistance to the begmner Lke Spamsh» modem German spelkng s very regular compared wth out own The followmg paragraph summarazes ts essêntaal conventions At a first readmg t wïll be wse to s lt, as also to skap the succeedmg ones (pp
234 The Loom o.[ Language whlch deal wth pronuncauon and spellmg of Dutch and Scandmawan oealects The few excepuons to thc rule that onc sound bas the same German symbol are (a) the f- sound s rcpresentcd both by F and V, e g fullcn (fill) and vol! (Iull); (b) flaê - sound offile s reptesented by EI, e g mem (my) or AI, e g MAI (May); (c) the oz- sound of boy xs reprcsented by EU or AU, e g teuer (dear), Hauser (bouses) » (d) the ee- sound m bee s represented by IE or IH, e g Liche (love), Ihr (your), (e) the use of a sflcnt H or a double vowel symbol to gvc A, E, O the long values of Ah, Eh, Ohé, e g Jahr (ycar)--Aal (eel), mehr (more)--Meer (sca), bohren (borc)--Boot (boat). A stmple fuie dectdes whether the vowels A, E, I, O are long or short whcn rhê long value s not mdacated as undcr (d) and (e) above. Before two or mozc consonants they bave thc ho t values oI our words pat-pet- pzt-po, e g kalt (cold), sechs (sx), st 0s), offen (open) Otherwse wth one excepuon A, E, O, bave the ah!, eh , oh! values of Ja (yes), dem (the), wo (where) The excëptaon s flat a tmal -E (or the -E m -EN) slurrëd hke thc -ER m workcr The Gcrman U has two values, the short one belote a double con- sonant xs hke u m pull, ê g. Luft (mr), the long one hkê oo n pool, e g. gut (good). Thxee Gcrman vowel symbols (A, O, ) wth long and çhort values n accordancc wth the saine rulc bave spccml marks » and thcy do not exactly correspond to any of our own sound The short , c g. m Lange (lcngïh) s hkë r.hê short e n pen. The long A e g. m sdgcn (saw) lS somewhat ncarer to the long e m fste Thc 0 and are pronouncëd wxth rounded Ipr, long 0, e g ïn schon (beauuIul) rathcr hke u xn fur, short 0, e g. konnte (could), ratiner hke or m work. The long , e g. ubcr (over) xs hke the u m Scots gmd. To get the short , e.g fuoE (rive), make the in pro wth ï oundcd hps The prommcmuon of Gcrman consonants is strmghtforward. Thc only sflent symbol s tt aftcz a vowël. The Enghsh contractcd syllable epe- sented by the imual KN of knozo (.- Scots ken), kmfe, kmt» etc.» does not mst in othër Teutom¢ dïaleets. Thé Getman KN-, e g. m Knabe (boy) s pronounced as m darkness The symbols F, H, K, M, N, P, T, X bave ther charactensuc 12nglish values. In radin or stage pronun¢iauo the voced consonants b» d, g, shflt towards thexr voceless equivalents p» t, k when at the end of a word, e g the G of des Tages (the day's) s as m goat, but of der Tag as m coaL The stage German lZ xs trilled lke the Scots'. Thc mmn daTcrenccs bctwecn German and Enghsh consonant convenuons arc. (i) OE after a back vowel (A, O, U, e.g in Nacht (mght) xs hard as
How to Learn the Basic Word List 235 m Scots loch» but ls nearer the sound of h in hew after the front vowels A, E, I» O, t3» e g. m mcht (hOt) (u) S alone at the begmmng of a word, e g See (lake) or syllable, e g lesen (read) as the z sound of s in buys Before P or T at the begxmamg of a word, S (= SCH elsewhere) is lflçe sh an çhzp A double SS or a smgle S at the end of a word fs t21e true s sound of bhss» e g Fuss (foot), das (the) (lu) Z always stands for the ts In cats» e g Zunge (tongue). Thas s a conventaon pecuhar to Gelman. 0v) As an Dutch, W = v an vtnce, e g Wasser (water) and eather F or V = f an find» e g Feder (feather) or Vater (father) (v) As an ail Teutomc dmlects (other tlzan Enghsh), 3 = Y as an year, e g m da (yes). (ri) NG as hke ng in bmg, e g. Fmger as ponounced by analogy to çznger, hot to ts Enghsh eqmvalent (vu) CHS =ks, eg an Ochs, ox, and QU=kv» eg m Quarz or Quelle (sprmg). In German, as m all Teutomc languages other than Enghsh, the personal pronoun of pohte address (Se) an ts several gmses (Ihnen, etc ) bêgms wïth a capital letter In German as Lu i)amsh and !orwegan correspondence, the saine apphes to Du, etc The custom of usmg a capxtal for the nommattve of the st pêrson sngular s pecuharly Anglo- Amencan In German as m Damsh orthogmphy nouns are labelled by an mmal capital letter, e g der Schnee (the snow) Ths habit, wluch slows down the speed of typmg, chd not become fasluonable tfll the rmddle of the SlXteenth century Luther's Bble follows no consxstent plan, e g the openmg verses of the Old Testament are Ira anfang schuff Gott Hunmel und Erden Und de Erde war wust und ieer, tmd es war fmster auf dër Teffe» Und der Gest Gottes schwebet auf dem Wasser Und Gott sprach, ]Es werdê hecht, Und es ward hecht Und Gott sahe» dass das hecht gut war, Da schelded Gott das Lxecht von Fmsterms, und nennet das hecht, Tag, und dae fimsterms, lacht Da ward aus abend und morgen der Erste rage Sunple German words and compound nouns are stressed on the fixst syllable, e g K¢chn (cook), drbeten (work), Berfass (beer rat) Forexgn words usually carry the stress on the last syllable» e g. Orgamsatwn» Resultdt (lesult), Fabrik (factory) Words beglmmagwxth the prefixes be-, ge-» er-» emp-, ent-» ver-» zer-» mzss- accent the baslc element» e g. bë- glézten (accornpany), erliuben (allow), vergéssen (forger). The second sound-sh does hot exist in thê everyday speech of ordmary folk m North Germany It goes without saymg that people who speak Dutch and North German or Platt chalects, can understand one allother. Anyone who can read German should be able to"rëad Dutch. To do so tt is only ncessary to ecall the sound-chaïges 'catëd
:z36 The Loom oj Language above and to know the pecuhar spelhng conventions of wntten Dutch These are as follows Wth the exception o£ Z» S» and G» Dutch consonant symbols have values 11ke the German oncs Z sounds as m zebra» e g zoon (son By ltelf S stands for a sharp sbllant» hke s m szn or hs I he combmauon S, e g m rnezsje (grl)» hke sh m shzp E,mep before R» the com- binaison SCFI s pronounced k ch of Scotch loch or German ach Othewse t s hke s Thus SCHR st» e g schrzjven (wnte) Duch G stands for a weaker vanety o± ch m l(ch. In words o1 Latin or lrench ongm T belote I]E s ponounced hke s e g nane (nation) in syllables endmg m a consonant, ê g alten (fallU, mes (kmte» sok (sock), thc sngle vowel symbols A, E, and O are hkc ther ]Enghsh ëqmvalents m whar, pen, po Il A, E, and O end a syllable, as m vader (ather), zeven (seven), boven (above), thcy bave thexr vowcl values m rather, fête, nor The terminal -EN îs plonounced hkc thc final a m banana Thus the final-n n the-en oi the verb plural and mfinmve (p 263) xs a paper surwval The snglc I, eg wmdcn (find) s pro- nounced as m out pr In syllables cndmg m a consonant, ê g kus (kss) U resembies the u o rus Otherwse U (or UU) ls iïke the I«rench u or the German u The double vowel symbo!s AA» e g m maan (moon)» OO, e g. m oom (uncle)» ËE, c g wee (two) are respectvely equal to ah t, oh t, eh The combmauons IE (eqmvalent to Y m words of foelgn otlglrl), e g in nze (not), EI, e g m eznde (end), AU, e g m nauw (narrow) have the saine values as m German There is a group of combmauons peçular to Dutch (0 Ii, ¢.g mln (my) nea= to m file; (0 ]EU, e g deur (door) hkc thë Frcnch eu or Enghsh u. o, e, z n fur, worm, per, tir, (ni) OE, e g goed (good) ncar to oo m fool; (w) OU, e.g. oud (old) near to thc o m old, (v) UI, e g huu (house) iathc hkc oz m fozl The triple and quadruplc groups are pronounccd as follow: AAI, e.g fraa (fine) hke y in fly, OOI, e g hoo (hay) hke oy m boy; OEI, e.g. moehjk (dttficult) roughly oo-y (as m boo and EEUW, e g. léeuw (bon) roughly ay-oo (as m rray and oo), IEUW, ê.g. ¢uw, roughly î0 m ts Enghsh eqmvalent Each of the Scandinavîan diaiects has words pecuhar to itseE as Scots Dorîc contams words whîch do hot occur in the daily speech of Kent or Kansas. The proportion of recogrfizably common or actually
How to Learn the Basc itTord List 237 ldentlcal words m Swechsh, Norweglan, and Damsh ls enormous Any- one who can speak or read one of them can be mtelhglble to some one who speaks etther of the other two, and can read ail three mth httle datficulty. The dculty can be greafly reduced by a few kints about the speïhng convemaons charactenstac of each, and the sound-shfft pectthar to Damsh Norweglan bas two vowel symbols hot in our alphabet it shares d with Swedash (aa m Damsh) and wth Damsh (o m Swechsh) The Swechsh a xs wntten as e m Norwegaan except belote r, when it xs ce» as always m Damsh The Swechsh ju ls always y in Damsh and Norwegaan words The matïM hv of Damsh and Norwegnan eqmvalents for Enghsh words wtnch begm wlth wh xs replaced by v alone m Swechsh The double Damsh or Norwegaan lek, wtuch shortens the precedmg vowel» ls wrltten as ck m Swechsh The Swechsh and Norwegaan nn and ll are replaced by nd and ld m Damsh In Damsh and m Norwegaan a soif Swechsh g, pro- nounced lke out y» ls represented by gJ The terminal vowel a of Swechsh words becomes e in Damsh and Norweglan The most strtkang derence of pronunclatton reflected in spelhng ls the shtft fiom a final volceless p, t» k in Swechsh or Norweglan to the volced eqmvalents b» d, g in Damsh, as tllustrated by ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH sbap skepp Skab foot fot Fod speech sprâk Sprog Fhe denraty of some words ls obscured by the spcllmg'of preposluons used as prefixes, e g Swechsh upp for Damsh op When due allow- ance ls ruade for all these dnTerences of spellmg or of pronunclaraon, xt ls sale to say that mnety-five per cent of the words of a servlceable vocabu- lary are elther ldentlcal in any of the three Scandmavlan dïalects men- raoned, or can be appropnately mochfied m accordance wlth the rules above Scandmavaan symbols usually have the same values as those of German m the precedmg table. The notable Swechsh exceptaons are as follows (a) before from vowels (E, I, Y, A, 0), G softens to y as m yew, e g get (goat), K becomes ch as in German zch, e g kara (dear), SK becomes sh as m shl) (skepp), (b) After L or R the final G ls hke y m bury, e g berg (mountam), (c) SJ, e g ç3u (seven), SKJ or STJ, e g. stjarna (star) (d) Belote R, e g. flzckor (gtrls) and n many monosyllables, e g stol (ch,ur), O ls Ixke oo in good. (e) A s generally lke oa in oar
:z38 The Loom of Language The Damsh AA replaces the Swedlsh ï, and 3 replace the German-Swechsh A and O Other chfferences are (a) General tendcncy of volcelcss (P, T, K) to assume the sound values of the correqponchng volced consonants (b, d, g) Ttus zkke la plonounced lfle zgger m mgger, (b) Tern'anal G» final V after L, and xmual H before V (where hv eplaces wh of the ]Enghsh eqmvalent» e g hvad - what) are sl[ent, (c) D la sllent after L, N, R, e g holde (hoId), finde (find) and hke 6 when it tollows a vowel $OUND-CHANGES IN TIII LATIN IAMILY /V[ost Enghsh words of Latin ongm are of two kinds Fzrst corne words denved from the French of Normandy and Plcady. These were brought m by the Norman conquerors When this Norman and P,car- dmn French had ceased to be a spoken language m England, the nflux of French words did hot stop A second and even iarger wave broke over England Ths was parfly due to the nfluence of Paris as a hterary centre m medëval tunes Thus bon owed Frcnch words of the period between Chaucer and Caxton do hot come from the same regmn as the earher Norman words and they ae more chstmcuvely French m the modern sense of the term Smce Caxton's urne the mtroducnon of Latin or Neo-Ladn (French) roots has never ceased. There are now about two thousand prnary Laun oots m Enghsh» êxcluchng several limes as many dënvatives and the enormous vanety of tëclmcal terres hot listëd in an ozdinary chcdonary. Owmg to the fact that words of Latin origin bave corne mto ]Englîsh dîrectly from classical sources and mdirectly through French, out ]Englîsh vocabuhry has a very large number of doublera, fllustrated by the list prînted o the next page. French itself bas suffered a sïmflar fate. Legioss of Classîcal Latin wods bave marched into the lrench languagë siuce thë sxteesth ceat-m. The Roman grammarïan Varo would bave been unable to denoEy Old French filz, larron;and consezl wth Latin fihu% latro, and conszhum respecuvely, but would have had no dffficulty m detecung the Latin orîgin of the more modëm words of the followmg lîst (p. z4 o) Thee as elsewhere below the printed form of a Latin noun or adjecuve is usually the ablative ingular * * The cas system had decayed in the datly speecb (p. 3$) of the laie Empxre and the abladve o datïve fs offert thc hterary case form nearest fo th colloquial
F a9 Tlus remarkablc Rune stonc now stands m the natonaI park n Stockholm It was placed over the gra e of a young man named Vamod by hs father Varm The rune begns To zhe memory of Varod stands zhs stone But Varm the faher engraved for hs dead so Then follow many verses of a long elegy
How to Learn the Basic Word List ENGLISH WORDS DE- ENGLISH WORDS RIVED THROUGH DIRECTLY DERIVED LATIN FRENCH FROM LATIN concelt concept conceptu constramt constncUon constmctaone couch collocate collocare count compute computare coy qmet qmeto damty chgmty dlgmtate defeat defect defecto dungeon dominion domlmo esteem estlmate aesumare fasl-non facuon tacuone feat fact facto fraïl fragile fragh loyal legal legah mayor major majore penance pemtence poemtenua poor pauper paupen pnvy pnvate pnvato royal regal regah rule regulate regulare Slr semor semore straït strict stncto sure secure securo trait tract tractu treason trachuon trachuone The spellmg of many French loan-words ls xdenucal wmh that of the correspondmg words m modem French» e g figure, front, fruzt, gara» grace» grain, table, torrent, torture» or does hot deviate su£ficently to make denttfication imposable» e g chan (chame), chanty (chanté)» colour (couleur). Furthermore» words which look ahke or sm-alar m Frénch and Enghsh bave usually an area of common meanmg On the other hand, there are many which betmy the begmer. The reason for this ls that the meanmg of words often changes m the course of cen- tunes through metaphoncal usage, through speoahzatmn or tluough generahzatlon Even smce the tune of James I» such words as crafty (ongmally skzlled) and cunmng (knozng» wse)» have done so» and many words such as homely (plain m Amenca, domestzcated m England) do hot mean the same thmg on both sldes of the Atlanuc So it s hot surpnsmg that French sptrituel means wztty or that figure rêfers to thê face alone. If wê were to ask for mutton (mouton) and mustard (moutarde), ornons (oïgnons) and vinegar (vmagre) m a French mn, we should hOt
240 The Loom o Language be understood unless we mchcated our wshes m wnung Sometunes out own pronuncmtmn of a French loan-word (e g damage) nearer to the original than that of Frenchman to-day Modcrn Frcnch bas dmcarded many words whch surwve m Enghsh, e g able» becon, chattel, mschef» race» nozs6 romance» pledge» plenty» random» remembcr» zvel. Enghsh m thus a museum m whch rehcs of Old and Maddle French are exhbted, but Enghsh words of Latin ongm denved from bor- rowed French words are far lcss numerous than Enghsh words comed dmectly from Lann roots, and these are the wmds whmh hghten out l ATIN oeusa calculo calce cal:la captavo facnone fabnca frag111 hosprmle parabola pletate praëdlcatore quesuone rigldo redempnone FRFNCtI task m learnmg a Romance language such as Spamsh. To takë full advamage of our Latin legacy we therefore need to know a hrtlë about how the pronunclatton of Laurt changëd when it spht up into thé daughter chalects wkich are now spoken, and how thê sound-changes are reflected m the spelhng of each There are síveral slgnposts by whmh Egiish words of Latin or Yrench ongm can be recograzed. We bave already corne across one of them (C for the k sound) in Chapter Ii. Another xmportant one as the combmatîon -TI- for the sound rcpresentêd by sh ha words of Teutomc parentage. The following is a hst of some of the most rehable dues' (I) Thê comblnatmns CT, TI (pronounced sh) and SG, e.g. actwn and saale, (b) N«wer cause (ause) calcul calque (traczng) carte (car, t) capnf . (¢aptzo«) factma (factwn) abmquc (facrory) tragfle ([ agïle) h6ptal (kopztal) parabole (parabte) ptdt6 (pety) pr6&catem (preacher ) quenon (question) rigide (rgd) rédemprmn (redemptzon)
How o Learn the Basic Word Lisg 4 () Words contmnmg the sound :5 (P 83) represented by the French J of jeu (gaine) or G of rouge (red), e g wszon or treasure (3) Words begmmng wath J and G pronounced as J an jam, e g gentle, gzant, j acket: (4) Nemly all words contmmng (5) AI1 words in wtuch OU stands for long u, e g group, soup» tour (6) Words begmnmg wlth CH followed by a (where ch = tsh), e g challe,zge» change, charm (7) Words wlth final GUE, mmal QU, and final QUE, e g fatzgue, quarter, brusque (8) Ail words m wbach final S and T are mute, e g debrzs, bouquet (9) Nearly all words enchng m -ANT, -ENT, e g agent, merchant, student (IO) Most polysyIlabxc words wxth end stress, e g buffoon, campatgn, dhtè At onê tmae the habxt of attachmg Latin at5xes to nauve words or words contammg a Greek or Teutomc foot was frowned on So other sxgnposts are several Latin parucles, or numerals used as affixes (contra-, pre-, a- or ad-, ante-, per-, multz-, um-, dz-, trz-) Some of these are easfly confused wth Greek ones (a-, antz-, perz-) whïch do hOt mean the saine The abstract noun-endmg -zon m constzpatzon s also Latin, as s the termmatmn -zt m deposzt. The followmg xs a hst of the more common atfixes of Lama or French ongm and the charactensuc meamng of the prefixes ab- (away) ectra- (beyond) re- (agam) ad- (m) m- (m) retro- (backward) ambz- (both) m-, ne-, non- (hot) serez- (hall) ame- (belote) zmer- (between) sine- (wthout) bene- (well) mtra- (wxthm) sub- (under) bz- (twxce) pen- (almost) subter- (under) czrcum- (around) per- (through) super- (above) contra- (agamst) post- (after) trans- (across) con- (wxth) pre- (belote) trz- (three) de- (from) preter- (beyond) ultra- (beyond) ex-, e- (out of) pro- (for, forth) vîce- (m place of) () stwxs -able -a nc e -es que - z t e -ment -aczou6 -ary -esç, -zty -mony -acy -ery or-ory -erre -zve -rude -age -cm, ant -son -zse Lke French, all Romance languages have a stock of old words of a more çarmhar type denved dtrëctly from Vulgar Latin, and a newer,
24 The Loom o/ Language larger stratum of Classcal Latin words mtroduced by scholars, clergy, lawyers or techmcaans Words ot the second class are easy to rêcogmze Thë roots bave the saine shape as those of out own loan-words wluch belong to the saine class. The others, that ls to say the older ones, are less easy to recogmï% and therefore more difficuh to memonze. The home student can get some fun out of the otherwxse dreary task of memonzmg a basc word-hst by notmg the sound-stts wtuch dis- guise or even dstort beyond rccogmuon the original Laun form. illustxauvc cxamplcs of hïs trick wfll be thc basas of flae ncxt fcw pages which deal wifla phonctac changes durïng thc pcnod whcn Latan was breakmg up mto what we now call Frcnch, Spamsh, Portugucsc, and imhan. Whcn Latin bcgan to bcak up mto thcsc daiccts OEc Il had bccomc sflcnt Iniually the symbol bas dïsappcarcd m ail but four halmn words. it s soïmdlcss m Frcnch and m Spamsh words, though t survvcs m the spellmg. Apparcntly thc pcoplc of thc Ronron t'mprc also becamë slack about thc use of compound consonams such as et, pt, çt Thc first of these bas dasappeated m ail thc daughtcr dmlccts, cxçept m Laun words remtro&«ccd by scholms Ïn Ilahan wods ober than thosc of the last-named type CT-- TT, în Spamsh C'1'-. CI1 (as m mutin), in Pomagucse and Old tàcnch CT IT In Modcrn Frcnch thc symbol remams -IT, but thc :/' xs usually sflcnt. Thê combmatmn pt bccomcs t (or tt) m old words of all the Romance dïalccts, though .qcholars have somcumes put back an unpronouncèd p or b n script, as n thc modcm Frcnch sept for the Old Frcnch set (seven) or as în out debt dcnved ftom the French dette. LATIN DICTO FACTO LACTB LECTO NOCTE OCTO TECTO ITALIAN detro fatto latte letto notre otto serte tetto SPAN[SH dcho hccho lcchc lccho nochc ôcho mme techo PORI'U- (,ULSE recto le,te Imto nolrc OltO setc t, RFNClI iatt Exoep in French thêre was decay of the miual combinaùons p/, d, ff. in Italian l fades out m the y- sound represented by L In Spanish
How to Learn the Basm Word Lzst 243 the llz sound of mzlhon, represented by LL, may replace any one of the three compounds clted. In Porruguese the three consonant combl- nattons make way fo the sh sound represented by CH. LATIN PLENO PLD-ERE CLAVE ITALIAN pleno plovere chlave fiarmna SPANSH 11eno 1loyer 1lave 1lama PORTU- GUESE chelo choyer chave chama FRENCH plein pleuvoir clef flamme ENGLISH full to rain key flame In two of lts daughter dmlects the medzàl and final l of a Laun word often takes the soft value of lb m mdhon The symbol for dus s GL m Itahan and LH in Portuguese In Spamsh t gave way to the ch m Scots loch Tl"us s represented by J In many French words, mcluchng ail those in the hst below, a Latin L has become the y sound myes Tbas pronuncmtmn» wluch s Pansmn n orgm» appears from the seven- teenth century on and does hot mtrude m the wntten language LATIN AURICLULA CONSILIO FILIA FOLIA OCULO PALEA TRIPALIO ITALIAN oreccblo consgho figha fogha occo pagha travagho SPANISH oreja consejo Iua hoa o]o paa trabao PORTUGUESE orelha conselho filha fôlha ôlho palha trabalho FRENCH orelle conseil fille femIle oeil pmlle travm! ENGLISH counsel daugater leaf eye straw work Between vowels b and p of Laun words were also tmstable Of the two the former softened to the v sound even belote Vulgar Laun broke up In French It mmntams ,tself as v or has ïaded out, m itahan and Portuguese words t vacfllates bêtween b and v» and m Spamsh ,t appears umformly as b, but the Spamsh Academy Grammar adrmts that "m the gneater part of Spam the pronuncmtaon of b and v s the same although t ought hot tobe" Latin p between vowels surwves ïn Itahan alone in French t has become v, and m Spamsh and Portuguese sort b Another change affected all Latin dmlects except Porguguese A short stressed e and o respecnvely made way for the compound vowels ae
244 The Loom of Language LATIN CAPILLO CAPRA LEPORE OPERARIO SAPERE SAPORE BIBERE CABALLO FEBRE HABERE PROBARE ITALIAN capello capra lepe opermo sapere sapore bevere cavallo febbre av¢re provac SPANI$tI cabello hebie obrero caballo hebrc haber probar PORTVGUESI cabêlo cabra ! lcbre obrelro saber sabot beber cavalo fcbre baver povar chèvre hvre ouvrlr ,'lvolr saveur boire cheval fioevrc 8.Vlt prouve ENGLISH hazr goa hare worker o know façte fo drmk horçe foyer to have to p ove and ue In Frcnch thc latter bccamc a sound hkc o in German. It ïs written -EU in the ensmng examples LATIN ITALIAN SPANISII PORIUGU/zSL FRrNCH LNGLI¢;It Pi=DE PETRA TENET DECEM MOllIT POI'LT NOV0 FOCO PROBA pledc petra dlccl muo i e pub nuovo fuoco pruova pledta tient dmz inucrc pucdc nucvo iuego pueba pcdta rem dcz morte podc novo logo prova pied pcrrc tient dx llleurt peut neuf feu preuve foot he holds f, cn he des ho tan /tre proof in general Laun had fewer compound vowels than xts descendants The most promment one, au» bas become a simple vowel in all out four Romance languages. Its descendant ïs spelt 0 m Itahan and Spanish, OU or oI in Pormguese, and 0 or AU m Frcnch. LATIN ITALIAN SPANIhI-I PORTUGUESE IRENCH ] ENGLI$11 AO oto ouro or gold OeUSA cosa cousa chose I thng aoem povero 1 pobre pauvre çoor Another common tendency at work durmg the penod of dLfferenua- tion of the Romance dtalëcts xs reflectëd m pelling. Spamsh, Portu-
How to Learn the Basic Word List 245 guese, and French eqmvalents of classlcal Latin words begmnmg wlth ST, SC, SP, SQ, SL, appropnate a vowel, e g Latin spzrztu, Spamsh espiztu, Portuguese espirzto» French esprit, or Latin scnbere (to wnte), Spanlsh escnbzr» Pormguese escrever» French ecnre. Tbas e- turns up m Latin inscriptions of the second cemury A », and was once part of the spoken language of r.he Empire It dropped out m Itahan, e g spzrzto or scnvere In Enghsh words denved ïl om French or Latin tbas lmtlal e Is absent There are a few exception% e g estate, esquzre, espouse, especzally The followmg hst dJustrates the contrast and also shows a French pecuharlty explamed m the next paraglaph ENGLISH scald scarlet school scrpture slave sluzce space spade spzce [%ZENCH échauffer écarlate école écrlture écume esclave écluse espace épée Espagne épice SPANISH escaldar escarlata escuela escrltura espuma esclavo esclusa espacm espada Espaûa especla ENGLISI-I sponge SpOZSe smmp standard staê stanch stomach strange stztdy s zff FRENç_2-I épine eponge époux étampe étandard etat étancher estomac étrange étudier étoffe SPANISH esplna esponja esposo estampa estandarte estado estancar estomage estrafio estudlar estofa We bave now looked at what was happenmg to Latin chalects smaul- taneouslym chfferent partsofthe chsmtegrated empire durmg the four or so centunes after the fall of Rome We shall now look at more local changes From thls wewpomt French stands most apart from ltS Slster languages We bave already met (p. 225) one pecuhanty of French. ITALIAN bestla chmstro ! costare resta sola ostnca SPANISH PORTUGUESE bastardo [ besta claustro costa costar custar fiesta festa sla flha ostra MIDDLE FRENCH bastard beste clolstre coste couster feste xsle olstre MODLRN FKENCH BTARD CLOfRE coffrER ItUiT ENGLISH basmrd beast clozçrer coa$ feast oyster
246 The Loom o.[ Language The compound consonant »t bas made way for t. The precedmg vowel then carrles a clrcumflex accent, as in the examples below The change began in the eleventh century» but a mute S belote T perssted an wntten French ull the reforms of 174 0 Another speclfically Old French sound-change has also cropped up in precechng tables The modern F1ench C ls a hard (k) $ound only belote a, o, and u Otherwlse It stands for Where C preceded a in Laun words it softened to thë sh sound m »hzp, spelt Cil m French orthography (cf. chamois, champagne) as m thc following. 6aballo camlblfl capra caplte caro causa IOEALIAN cavallo capra capo t.NGLISII horse shzrt goa head thzng In many Enghsh wods denved from French ths mitïai Cil conceals correspondence wlth the Spamsh or Itahan eqmvalent It does so, for instance, m those below LA i IN calefacere cambre campîone cancellario cantare captulo capUare tartrate carta casto calentar cambre campe6n canciller cantar capftulo cazal catad carta casto t, RFNCII chauficr change champmn daancelicr chanter chapitre chasser charité charte }'NGLIMI dafe change champion «hanel[o eha»r chapter chaçe harïty h«rr chaste Another charactensucally French sound-shïft recalls what happencd ïn Maddle English and s sull gomg on in Scandmavian dmlêcts. Be- tweên two vowels g softened to y or z or chsappêared, Iffence we get Enghsh old-new couplets such as royat-regaI, loyal-legl, frait-fragde. (The Englîsh pronunciation of royal and loyal is a survîval of the O1d French stage.) Examples are in the following table, * In a metaphoncal sense The anatonncal head ,s lcï tte,
How fo Learn the Baszc lVord Lzst 247 LATIN augasto casugme mtegro fug-me lege hgare negare mgro pacare pagano plaga ruga agosto casugare torero fuggre legge Iegare negare nero pagaie pmga (trada) entelo hmr ley pagano llaga (calle) casUgar mt¢mro fuzr hgar negar negro pagar pagao praga FILENCH AOSr ENTIER fUIR LOI LIER NIER NOIR PAYER PAIEN PLAIE RUE ENGLISH August to chastzse entzre o fl8e Iaw Vo deny black to pay heathen wound (plague) street Another Flench consonant-shfft scarcely conceals the Latin eqm- va]ent A v wtnch through phoneuc loss bas become final hardens to f» or ls mute, as shown m the next lnstalment for our vocabulary of Romance words One reason for mentlonmg tas lS that t brmgs to hfe a grammaucal rregulanty. The femmme form (p 357) of adjecnves whach bave the masculine smgular endmg -f takes -ve m place of t LATIN bove breve novo (-a) novem clave nervo OVO vïvo ITALIAN bove nuovo 1-1OVe chaave nervo UOVO SPANISH buey breve Iluevo nu CVe llave I1C'VIO huevo vvo (-a) PORTUGUESE bo nOVO l'lOVe chave nervo 6vo FRENCH BOEUI BReF (-eve) wz (-ve) NEUF CLEF NERF UF v» (-w) ENGLISH OX bnef nerwe egg ahve Two vowel-shns are pecuhar to French (a) m an open syLlable the Latin stressed a became an e sound, spelt to-day E, ], t]» AI, or -ER, (b) m the saine poslaon the Latin stressed e changed to the dïphthong Oi. The combmaaon now stands for a sotmd hke ma m Scots we twa French grammanans chsapproved of thas pronuncïauon ull the Revo- luuon put lts seal on z Examples of these changes are overleaf What s most charactemsuc of modern French words s loss of body through succesmve ehmmauon of terminal vowels» mechal consonant% and final coasonants The consequence s that French bas a very iarge pro- poruon of monosyllables Indeed, almost every bsyllabxc Laun word whach has left a d.trect descendant m moàem French s now represented by a smgle syllable» as fllustmted by the followmg couplets m whmh a
4 8 The Loom o.[ Laguage mechal consonant has chsappeazed lege-Lor (law), ride-Foi (fath), vdet-voI:r (sees), cre&t CRO:T (beheves), or patrê-Plm (father), matre- Migv. (mother), fratxe-m,dm (brother), sorore-SOEtrR (szster) In other French words, as m the last four, an unaccented final E exasts only on paper The last remark would be equally t.rue about the maonty of finaI consonants» e g. the sflent T m vozt or croz One result of thts ls a great gap (see p. 35) between the flexaonal system of the wntten and of the spoken language No othêr Romance lagage furmshes comparable examples of drasuc shortenmg, e g EAU (pronounced o) from aqua (water), m" (pronounced o) from alto (big:a), M from me&o (half), .OflT (pronounced a-oo or oo) from augusto (August), goN (pronounced LATIN claro ala prato sale par.re (b) sera velo tela ITALIAN cantare chlaro prato sale sera SPANISH IPORTUGUESL c!aro ala i prado sa1 padre I pal I eda " velo I véu tela FRENCH CHANTER CLAIR AILE P SEL SOIE MOI VOILE TOILE ENGLISH rang clear wmg (msle) meadow salt father me vefl cIoth fO) from rotundo (round), sffl (pronounced syr) from securo (sale), tt6TE ronounced oat) from hospte (host) Thus the Latan ancestry of most French words, other than those whach bave been mtroduced by scholars m comparatavely receat rames, ls far less apparent than that of thexr Itahan or Spamsh eqmvalents As a spoken language Spanish has moved furthe away from Latin than Itahan bas, but hot so far as French Partly for thts reason, but also became the spellmg of Spamsh words s hagbly regular, there s less to say about thê sound-changes m relataon to the appeaxancc of the prmted word For recogmzmg the smulanty of Enghsh words of Lama ongm to thetr Spamsh eqmvalents, the tmportant ones are few. Some bave turned up m the precedmg paragraphs The most mslead- mg one lS sttll to corne Thas s the chsappearance of the mttal f» re- placed m script by what s now stlent H, cf haczen&z, wtnch cornes from the Latin word facîenda Some hngmsts atmbute ths to the influence of the Moorïsh occupatton, and others to that ofthe pre-Aryan popula- taon now represented by the Basques, who have no f sound The first of these suggesaons xs tmltkely, because H at the begmnmg of a word crops up at a compamtxvely late stage tu old documents The S panïsh Jews who emagrated to Salomka about a x5 oe sull preserve the
How to Learn the Basic tVord List 249 Latin J, e g fierro for hzerro (ron) and favlar for hablar (to speak) So also do the Portuguese The change began m the nelghbourhood of Burgos on the Spamsh border of the Pyrenees, and m Gascony on the French mde That ls to say, it prevalled where Spamsh and French commumues were 111 closest contact wath the f-Igss Basques Below are a few charactensuc examples of the change from f to/-/, i.e. the dzs- appearance off LATIN faba fabulan facere falcone faine farma fendere foeno fervore ferro fico fillo fiha filo foha furca forma forrmca fuglre ftmao ficato ITALIAN fava (parlare) rare falcone faine farma fendere fieno fervore ferro fico figho figlm filo fogha forca forma formca fuggxre famo feto fegato SP MNTISH HAVA HABLAR I-LACER HALCON HAMBRE I-IARIA I-mNDILR HENO I-EERVOR HIERRO HIGO I-IIJO rlIIA I-IO HOJA HORCA HOKMA HORMIGA HUIR HUMO PORTUGUESE fava falar fazer falcâo fome fannha rentier feno fervor ferro figo lho filha fio fôlha fôrca forma formaga fuir fumo furo flgado FRENCH feve @arter) faire faucon fama farine rendre fore ferveur fer figue ls fille feuille fourche forme fourma fumee furet foe ENGLISH ban to speak w make falcon hunger flour to spht hay ron son daughter thread pztchfork form w flee smoke ferret hver The chsappearance of lmtml f chd hOt take place m ail old Spamsh words It remamed intact when followed by r or ue, as ls shown m the followmg LATIN fronte ITALIAN fronte SPANISH i PORTUGUESE frente fngldo freddo fncto flatto foco fuoco fortl forte forna forza fuego fuerte fuerza fnto fogo forte fôrça FRENCH front frold feu fort force ENGLISH forchcad» front cold fned f'e strong force
5 o The Loom of Language Many Spamsh words have corne to look OEerent from equlvalent ones m other Romance languages because of the mterpoiauon of an adàmona2 consonant LATIN f8me homme legumme sanguine semmare ITALIAN faine uomo legume sarigue sen'llnar SPANîISH hambre hombre leomambre ss.ngre sembrar PORTUGUESE fome homem legume sarigue semear FRENCH homme légume sang semer ENGLISH hunger man vegetable blood to The table belote the last but one shows that Portuguese does hOt share tNs f-less word4orm As prevmus ones have shown, Portuguese dtffers from Spamsh m two other ways It pamctpated m the b-v shfft wtnch Spamsh remsted, and t reslsted the replacement of e and o by the compounds te and ue Portuguese shares wath'French the tendency to slough off medlal consonants It shares wlth Spamsh ehmmauon of a mechal d, as lllustrated by the first rive, and, wath no other Romance language the disappearance of l, as dlustrated by the last four exanlples m the next table. The reader mB find ôther dlfferences between Portu- guese and Spamsh m Chapter VIII, p 345 LATIN cadêre credere fidel audare laudare caelo colore salure vo]are ITALIAN cadere credere fedele udre lodare colore selute volaze SPANISH caer creer oir loar clelo color salud volar PORTUGUESE CAIR CRER FIRL OUVIR LOIFFAR CôR FRENCH choir* croLre fidele omrT louer ael couleur salut voler ENGLISH to fall o beheve fathful to hear o praue sy colour healrh to fly TI-IE GREEK CONTRIBUTION Thê revok against papal authonty m the slxteenth century went hand m hand wath bxbhcal scholarshtp and a renewal of mterest m Greek phflosophy. Greek word% dasgmsed by Laun spellmg, came mto Enghsh usage. At the beglnn,ng of the nmeteenth century a steady * archac, the usual verb eqmvalent of to iall as tomber , archaac, the usual verb eqmvalent of to hear ls entendre The unperarave of ouîr sm'nves m out law courts as oyez, oyez (hear, oh heart).
How o Learn the Basic IVord List 251 tnclde became a torrent On the who!e, mechcal science had ïavoured Latin more than Greek ï oots from whlch to bm.ld new techmcaI erms The mtroductaon of modem chelmcal nomenclatxlre m the closmg years of the elghteenth century set a new fasoI1 Modern scholarshlp, whether hterary or namrallstlc, prefers Greek to Latin; and plopnetary products bave fallen mto ]me 2kt no other tlme m out hlstory bave there been so many words of Greek otagm on the hps of the Engltsh- speakmg peoples To-day Laml as a quarry for word-bmldmg materlal bas lost tts former Importance in the ermmology of modern scaence» especally m aeronautzcs, bw-chermstry, chemotherapy, genetzcs, lts place ls mcreasmgly taken by Greek. But the mvemor of a new process or instrument does hot scatl the pages of Plato or Arlstotle for a smtable naine He goes to the lextcon and creates somethmg wch was never heard before Soit happens that the language of Euzapldes fs sendmg out new shoots m the name of a dental cream, a mouth-wash or a patent medacme A large number of these arttficlally created sclentafic and techmcal terres are becommg common property When they are of an mawieldy leagth, everyday speech tends to subject r.hem to a process of chpping smallar to what resulted m altos, shortened m the course of centtmes from the saine Greek foot wh/ch ylelds eleemosynary What used to take several cenmtaes ls now reached m a few decades, ff hot m a few years Wtth the saine saappmess wlth wMch popular parlance bas shortened pepper (Greek peperz) to pep» It bas changed photograph to photo, automobde to auto, telephone to phone, and stenographer to stenog Most words of Greek ortgm are easy to recogxttze in script by certain pecuhar consonant combmmaolls mtroducect by Lama sctabes Of these ph pronounced hke f, m phonoaph, and ch pronounced hke k m a Ghrstzan chmus, are mfalhble So aIso xs the rh m rheumatzsm and dzarrhoea An lmtlal ps prollotmced ltke s aloIle, as m psychology or pseudonym, ls neakly always mchcatlve of Greek olagm, as ls the vowel combmatoi1 oe or a y pronounced as m lyre The combmatton th for p represented m Greek by 0 ls common to Greek and Teutomc root- words Scholars of the Reformation pelaod used Latin spellmg con- ventlons such as C for K m Greek roots Tb_lS practlce s dymg out Though we suLl wrlte cycle and cyst, the Greek K ls now used at the begmning of some techmcal words comed from Greek sources, as illustrated by kznetzG kerosene, or kleptomamac. German and French, hke Enghsh, adhere to the earher Laun transhteratton PI-I where Scandmavians, Spamards, and Itahans bave adopted the later F
5 The Loom o:[ Language Romance languages other than French tender TI-I by T» RH by R and Y by I, as m the Spamsh words fotografia, teatro, dzarrea» sîntoma Many words of Greek ongm can be recogmzed at slght by thexr preftxes» ofwch the followmg are speclally Important. Ofthe examples glven» the ftrst of each patr is hterary» the second a product of the new te¢hmcal humamsm. amph- boh or around as m amphztheatre, amphbwus a- or an- hot as m amnesty» amorphous ana- back» agazn, as m anachromsm» anabolum ant- agans as m anzthess» antseptc apo- away as in apostasy, apogamy auto- by tself as m autocrat, auto-erotc da- through as m dagonal, da-magnetzc dys- bad as m dysgem¢, dyspepsa e¢-, ex- from, out of as m exodus, ecdys. endo- emthzn as m endogenous, endometrtum ep- upon as m epgram, epdascope eu- good as m eulogy» eugêmc. herm- half as m hemzsphere, hermcycle hetero- dfferent as m heterodox» heerodyne homo- saine as m homophone, homosexual hyper- above as m hyperbole, hypertrophy hypo- below as m hypothess, hypophosphate so- equal as m zsosceles zsomer kata- down as m catastrophe, catalyses ruera- after as m metaphyscs, metabohsm. neo- new as m neologzsm, neon palaeo- old as m palaeography, palaeohthc pan- all as m panthesm» panchromatc para- beoede as m paradox» parameter per- around as m perphraszs, perscope poly- many as m polyhezsm, polydactyly pro- before as m prologue, prognoszs proto- first as m protocol, protoplasm pseudo- false as m pseudonym, pseudopodum syn-, sym- together as m synchronous» symbtoss. To these we should add the numeral prefixes mono- () as rnonogamy, d (z), tri- (3), tetra- (4) penta (5), hexa- (6), m trzpod» tetrahedron» pentagon» hexagon; hepta- (7) as m heptameter, octo- (8), as m octopus and octagon, deka- (fo)» as m decalogue» kffo- (tooo) m kffometer or /nlogram. One ofthe foregoîng prexes» ex- or ec- ls hke ts Latin equtva- lent and xs hot chagnoslac. So also s pro- The only outstandmg Greek sutfixes are -c or -zcs m &alectc and mathematzcs» wlth the denvalave -tcal and -um, e g m theum. The last exhlbxt m the language museum
How to Learn he Basc It7ord List (Part IV) of The Loorn s a hst of Greek words used to bmld mter- natonal techmcal terres. Both m xts ancïent and modern form, Greek stands apart from other languages of the/kryan famfly Two thousand rive hundred years ago» closely related chalects were spoken throughout the Balkan penmsula, the Aegean Islands, mcludmg Cyprus and Crete, m the western part of Asa Mmor» and m many settlements of the Black Sea That people who spoke these chalects could understand one another was the only ne between all the constantly warrmg and rarely umted commumtes called collecttvely Ancrent Greece By the fourth century c, a common standard for wntten commumcauon based on mamland Amc was accepted. Tins kmne, wbach was otficaally adopted by file Macedonlan kmgs, supplanted al1 ts local compettors (Iomc, Donc, Aeohc, Arca- daan, Cormttnan, etc) except Spartan, whach snll survlves locally m modem Greece as Tsacoman The kome spread over the Near and Mddle East After the dawsmn of the Macedoman Emptre, t chsmte- grated mto regaonal forms such as the Macedoman Greek of the mam- land and the Alexandnan Greek into whach the Jews of Egypt trans- lated thetr Old Testament (Septuagmta) Even tu the thd cenmry , the Western Church rehed mamly on Greek Durmg the fourth, t began to che out m Gaul, Spam, Italy, and North AMe.a, and Augustme could hot read Plato m the original When Constantmople fell to the Turks m the fifteenth century Greek survlveà as a hvmg language only m vernacttlars restncted to the southernmost portaon of the Balkan penmsula and xts wclmty There was ht-tle vemacular wntmg before Greece won ts mdepen- dence from the Turks m x827 Thereafter classcal models had a strong influence on the form adopted As a Wrltten language, modern Greek s therefore a product, and a haghly arttficaal product, of the last cenmry. The gap between the wrïtten and the spoken language s greater than m any other European language Whfle Itahan spellmg has become more phonetac wth the match of me, Greek spellmg has relmqmshed the clatms of convemence to chensh an bastonc memory of departed glory. A modem movement to bring the hterary language nearer to the spoken has met wth no success In x gx x, students of the Umversty of Athens demonstrated m pubhc against the proposa1 to translate the Bble nto folk-Greek. Excludmg the vocative, classcal Greek had four case-forms correspondmg to those of Old Norse, Old Enghsh, and Old German Modem Greek, as prescnbed m the text-books used m the schools, retams three case-forms of the adlecttve, notre, and article, and
OE54 The Loom oJ Language the three gender-classes stfll exîst It bas dropped two tense-forms (perfect and future) wtnch are replaced by analytacal constructtons Otherwse It has hot moved far from the elaborate flemonal system of ancestral Greek. PRONUNCIAOEION Ol = SPANISH ITALIAN AND FRENCH From vanous clues such as the smdy of puns and of mette m Latin hteramre, or of fearures common to rwo or more of its modern dcscen- dants, It seems qtnte de.af that the Latin of the Roman Empare had a very regular system of spellmg Wlth few excepnons a partteular symbol always stood for a pamcular sound, or a group of very closely related sounds Tins ïs almost true of Itahan or of Spamsh to-day. French spellmg xs scarcely more regular than that of Enghsh. The home-student who wîshes to leam a Romance language wïll need to be famar wth lts sound pattems and conventaons. Other readers should slnp the rest of the chapter There are notes on the pronuncaatlon of Portuguese m OEapter VIII (p 345) We bave seen that Itahan ts nch m double consonants such as tf, ll, nn, zz, etc, and t s necessary to hnger on them m pronouncmg a word m whach one of t.hem occurs One mconmstency, common to Itahan, Spamsh, and French spel/mg, mvolves the pronuncaatton of the symbols C and G In Latin they always had their hard values m car and goat. In lts modem descendants they Stlll bave t.hem when they precede the vowels a, o, and u Thus we meet the saine hard C m costa (Itahan and Spamsh), côte OErench) as m Its eqmvalent coast So also we meet the same hard G m governo (Itahan), gobzerno (Spamsh), gouvernement (French), for government Before e and the Itallan C is the CH sound m chzld, and the Itahan G s the soif G ofgem Before e and z the Spanash C bas the saine value as the Spamsh Z before a, o and u,* i e. the TI-I m thzn, and the Spanish G has the value wtnch Spamsh J has before ail vowels, 1 e the guttural sound of Ch m Scots loch Belote e and z the French C is the C m cmder and the French G ls the saine as the French J (l 9 9.4), whach is out S m treasure When the hard c and g sounds precede e and z m the Itahan word the symbols whîch stand for t.hem are CH as m chzant and GH as in ghîacao (1ce). The correspondmg Spamsh and French symbols are QU as m Ff bouquet and GU as in Ff guide The symbols CI and GI before « The 0 value for the Spamsh Z and C before e and z s Castallan In Spamsh-spealrang Amenca both C and Z bave the value of the French C m
How fo Learn the Basic ord List 255 a, o, u m an Itahan word have the saine values as C or G before e or z, correspondmg to out CH m dzocolate (aoccolaa), and out m journal (gzornale) Itahan SC belote E or I s pronounced hke SH m shzp, elsewhere kke SC m scope SCH has OEe same value as SCH m school Smxtlarly the French GE belote a, o, u as m nous mangeons (we eat) stands for the soif French J or G alone belote e and, A subscnpt mark called the ce&lla shows that a lrench or Pormguese C before a, o, u, as m leçon (lesson) has the value of C m cmder These mconsstenctes and convennons draw attentton to the chaef OEerences between the sotuad values of xdenucal symbols m the Romance group. Thus the Itahan CH of chzant, has the k value m character, the Spamsh CH in mucho ts value m the equlvalent much, and the French CH s the sh sound m chamozs or champagne The symbol J does nt occur m modem Itahan. The Spamsh ]" s the CH m Scots loch, and the French J s the SI sound m vszon The Itahan Z usually corresponds to ts, the Spamsh-Amencan to C m cztrus, and the French Z to out own ïn maze There s no z sou_ad m Spanlsh In Itahan and m French an S between two vowels as m easy stands for z, otherwse for the pu e s sound m szlly The Spamsh s always pure, e a lnss as m case, never a buzz as m rqse The French and Spamsh QU s the k sound m Iacquer The itahan QU s the kw sotmd m hquzd The LLI sound of bzlhards bas cropped up earher m fins chapter, m Itahan wth the symbol GL, m Pormguese wth LH, m Spamsh wth LL Ongmally, and to-day m some chalects, the LL of a French word had the saine value, whach bas otherwase faded to the y sound m yes In some French words the LL sttll stands for an ordmary l sound, e g vzlle (town) or vzllage. The N m some Lama words bas undergone a soffenmg an ogous to the LLI sound For thts N sound as m onzon, the Itahan and French symbol lS GN as m Mzgnon The Spamsh symbol s o as ïn caïzo'n (robe) The mark s called the tzlde ,nother feamre of the sound-pattem of Romance languages men- rïoned m passmg s the total absence of an h sound Though the symbol remamso there s no asprate m a French word wtnch begms wth H, e g herbe (grass)» nor m a Spamsh one, e g hombre (man) The H of French and Spamsh s a dead lerter and ï bas chsappeared altogethez m correspondmg Itahan words, e g erba or uomo The fottr Itahan words wlch chng to t are ho (I bave), ha (thou hast), ha (he has), hanno (they have) The unual H of thes words chstmguhes t.hem from thetr
e56 The Loom of Language homophones o (or), az (to the), a (to), anno (year). Conversely, the symbol R wtch s often a dead letter m Anglo-Amencan words always auchbie m words of Romance languages The Spamsh and Itahan R ls an R rolled on the tp of the tongue The more fastnonable Panslan variant of the French R ls less forcble and somewhat throaty Itahan and Spamsh bave stock to the very thrffty battery of Latin vowels The smaple vwel symbols A, E, I, O, U, are roughly eqmralent to ah, eh» or e m yes» ee oh» oo m too Romance vowels are pure vowels Unle long Enghsh vowels they have no tendency towards chph- thonaon. To get the correct value it ls necessary to keep hps and tongue fixed durmg amculaton If you do, you wl pronounce the Itahan O of dove (where) correctly hke the AW of wzll sonnd hke the O of alone and be wrong When m Itahan or Spamsh two vowels corne together, and one of t_hem s or u, the other vowel (a» e» o) takes the stress, and or u are qmckly passed over The vowel eqmpment of Portugues¢ (see p 345)and of French bas tm,elled far from the Latin homestead. No smgle French vowel exactly corresponds to any Enghsh one. we can attempt to do s to gve approxtmate eqmvalents whïch a French- man could recogmze as such. Belote a double consonant a ls usuaily as m man, e g patte (paw) Belote a smgle consonant It ls often long as m far The cxrcumflex () wrtten above a vowel lengthens xt» and ïs a stgn that at one rame the vowel was followed by S + consonant, e g château (casfle) Wlthout an accent E may be short and open ltke the E of let» e.g. sel (salt)» or s famtly aucltble hke the first E m veneer, e g leçon. A final E wthout an accent, e g barbe (beard), xs always sflent m datly speech, kke the e m otïr word made. É ts pronounced hke the E m net, butes longer, e.g pécer (to sm). Final-ER and -EZ m verb forms have the sound value ofÉ» e g. chasser (to chase),payez (pay ) E souncts ltke the az m affar, e.g mère (mother) E bas roughiy the saine open sound of ea m treacherous» but ls longer» e g pêcher (to fish) O s generally short as m long, e g lot (lot) O sounds ltke O m opal, e g ôter (remove) The sound represented by U bas no eqtuvalent n Enghsh If you speak Scots, pronounce t hke the U of gud, ff you know German, hke the lY of uber. Otherwlse, pour your hps as ff you wêre to pronounce the U of pool» but wthout uttermg any sound. Then, wïth the hps m the saine posmon as before, tric to pronounce the E offlea» and you may obtam the sound of French U m lune (moon)» or pumr (punîsh). AI may ether be pronounced ltke E, as m vra (true), or hke É» as m e chanterai (I shall smg) AU and EAU sound hke OU m ought» e g cause, beau (beauttful) EU resembles the pronuncmtton of EA
How to Learn tlze Baszc Word Lzst e57 m heard, e g :Europe OU ls hke the OO of Ioot, e g doux (sweet) O I sounds hke wa, e g soir Unless the followmg word begms wth a vowei, final consonants» ctuefly T, D, S, X» Z» and less often C, F, L» are usuglly sflent, e g sonnet, md (nest)» vers, yeux (eyes)» nez (nose)» trop (too much)» estomac (stomacb_), clef (key), fuszl (rxfle) Amerlcans and Enghsh axe fanuhar wlth many borrowed French words m whch the final consonants are hot pronounced, e g ballet» gourmand» chamozs, pince-nez These sxlent finals, whch preserve contmtuty wth the past of the language» become vocal under certmn conchuons When a word endmg m a mute consonant precedes one wth an unttal vowel» lrench safeg-uarcks smoothness of speech by brmgmg the dead Ietter back to hfe It becomes the begmnmg of the followmg word Thus on en a pour son argent (lt Is worth the money) s pro- nounced on en a pour son argent For tins so-called hazson there ls no hard-and-fast rule Common peopie use t more spamngly than those who affect culture It ls customary between arucle and noun e g les enfants (the chfidren), pointer word or possessive adjecttve and noun, e g nos amzs (out £nends), numerat and noun, e g rozs auos (three motor cars), pronoun and verb» e g ls arrzvent (they arrive) The lrench bave other means of avoldmg a clash of two vowels One s hqmdaron of the first vowel, e g l'ozseau for le ozseau (the bzrd), the other ls separatmn o£ the two vowels by a Latm-demved , e g a-t-zl (Latin habet-lle bas he) Unlke lrench, Spamsh ls hot averse to vowel colhsmn, cf la obscundad and l' obscurzé (darkness) French xs a tughly nasal language At an early stage of xts evoluuon the nasal consonants M and N became sflent» or almost so, unpartmg nasal twang to the precedmg vowel When Enghsh-speakmg people first try to pronounce a nasal vowel hke the one m the French wod son (sound) they usually say song To make sure that you actually nasahze the O mstead of producmg an ordmary O followed by a nasal consonant, take the advce of an Enghsh phoneucnan and make the followmg expenment: "Pmch the nose txghtly so that no ar can escape, and then say the sound If the nasalïzed vowel s bemg sad, then t can be prolonged mdefimtely» but f ng ls bemg pronounced, then the sound wfll corne to an abrupt enchng" Modern lrench has four dzfferent nasal vowels whch m script ae represented by a great vanety of vowel-consonant combmauons () Nasahzed A (a), wmtten AN, EN» AM, EM e g dans mensonge (he), ambzton» membre I
The Loom of Language (2) Nasahzed E (e), wrlren 1N» EN» AIN, EIN, IM, AIM, e g fin, romain» plezn (fid), szmple, faim (hunger)» chien (dog) (3) Nasahzed O (o), wnttcn ON» OM, e g bon (good)» corronpu (corrupt) (4) Nasahzcd U (ce), wrirmn UN, UM, e g brun (brown), humble IN- has a nasal sound when prefixed m a word begmmng wlth a consonant, as m rajuste 'nen prexed m a word bcgmmng wmh a vowel or a mute H, as m mutzle, inhumain, It xs pro- nounced lake the IN- m Enghsh nefficem Double N does hot cause nasahzanon of the precedmg vowel, e g banmr (bamsh) Thê Frênch H ïs an empty symbol It s always sounoeess, but ts presence a r_hbe begmnmg of some ords affects pronuncaanon of ts predecessor From r_tus point of mew wc can put French noires wth an mnal H m two classes In words of the »îue-H class t s a dummy, e ts succee 'dmg vowel brmgs to lffe an otherwse mute final consonant of the precedmg word, or suppresses the vowel of the deftmte article In a second class of words the tmnal H, though slent on ts own account, protecs the foHovmag vowel from a ne-up wlth the precedmg conso- nant, or the suppressen of the final vowel of the defimte arucle. The second dass conssts of Teummc words, largeIy those whlch the Franks ieft behmd r_hem, or of Greek words mr.roduced by scholars DUMMY H BUIFER H l'herbe (grass) la hache (the axe) l'heure (the hcmr) la hme (the hedge) l'hwonddle (me swallow) la ha,ne (hate) l'huzle (off) la harpe (the harp) huître (the oyster) la Hong,'ze (Hungary) l'habzmde (custom) le hbou (the owl) t'homme (the man) le hm eng (the herrmg) l'lémmge le hasard (chance) !'hzsroren le hé os (the hero) l'honneur le homard (the lobster) l'hver (wmter) le havre (the harbour) l'hôtel (the hotel) The buffet H of héros prevents confusxon between les héros and les zéros, when other ewdence is lackmg Srarss --The way m wh,ch the common people of the Roman Empre stressed thelr words has ieft a deep mark on the modern Romance languages Unhke the Gleeks, the Romans never srressed r.he last syllable of a polysyllaNc word Words of two syllables had the stress on the fitst, e g 1Mro (pure). Words of more than two had it on the last but one ff
How to Learn tke Basic Word List the vowel was long, e g col6res Or.herwse it was on the last but two» as m dsmo (ass) On the whole Spamards and Itahans stdl place emphasls where It used to be m Vulgar Laun urnes, as m the Spamsh eqmvalents, colores» asno Many Itahan and even more Spamsh words now have stress on r_he final syllab!e because what came afer t bas chsappeared» e g Spamsh cuddd, itahan cztta (Latin cvzuzte) In ±tahan, end stress ls mchcated by a grave () accent, the only one m Ifs script, as m temertà (tementy) T/ne grave accent also serres to chstmgmsh a few mono- syllables from words wtch look ahke and sound alake, e g è (is), e (and), or dd (he gaves), da (from, at) Spamsh bas more words wlth end stress, and a tnckaer system of stress merks Res of Spamsh stress are as follows (x) Words endmg m a vowe!, e g salubre, or m N, e g zmagen, or S, e g marres, and szressed on the las bu one syllable, do wlthout r_he accent (2) Words endmg m a consonant other than N or S. and stressed on flae last syllable, do wlthout me sccent, e g esçerar, propnedad (3) Words wluch do hot corne under OEese tvo ru!es requête the acute (). e g fuz, unagznacwn (4) The acute accent also sexes to chs r_mgmsh betweenwords of hke spellmg but dfffeïent meamng, e g ms (more)» mas (but). el (the)e! (he) Wth regard to stress French stands qmte apart from ber ststers When, as usual, the unstressed part of an original Lama word bas chsap- peared, we should expect to nd the stress on the final syllable, cf Latm amco, French amz In fact, a rule of ths sort gaves an exaggerated pression Predommance of the final syltable lS shght, and a trtflmg mcrease m mess goes wzth rse of tone For purpose of emplzams or contrast, stress may fall on a sy!lab!e other than the las Smce C and G are sources of trouble to the stuaent of any Romance language, the followmg table rrmy prove useful C Arro G Bzrom E Am I LATIN LETTER C centum --- I00 G genero-- brother- : c°ld I ITALIAN LETTER C cen!o G SOUNI genero[ gem .PANISH $OUND thm LETTER I SOUND cento o_nder t cent , G : genro imeamre[ gendre amder measurc
The Loom oJ Language FURTHER READING BAUGH History of rhe English Language. IESI'EgSEII Growth and Structure of the English Language. MXlqClCElq The American Language. lviYElS The Foundations of English. ADGE The WorM of Words. SKEAT 2 Concise Erymological Dictionary of the English Language. The Ling'uaphone and Columbia Records.
CHAPTER Vil OUR TEUTONIC RELATIVE S --A BIRD'S- EYE VIEW OF TEUTONIC GRAMMAR TI-m oblect of thts chapter s to gtve a blrd's-eye vaew of the grammar of four Teutomc languages, more especaally German, for the benefit of the home student who may wlsh to learn one of t_hem by usmg the methods outlmed m the precedmg chapter The rêader who does not mtend to do so wl find a more dêtafled treatment of prmcples already stated m Cpter V. The reader who does must pay attertton to each cmss-reference for relevant matenal pnnted m another context Some strmg pectthantles of Enghsh are () great reductlon of ts fleraonal system owmg to loss of useless grammatical dewces such as gêndêr-, number-, or case-concord of adectlves, (b) grêat regulanty of remammg flextom, e g the plural-s Both reductIon and levellmg have taken place m al1 Teutomc languages, but m no other bave these pro- cesses gone so far German s the most consematwe of those with whlch we shall deal It bas hot gone far beyond the level of Enghsh in the ame of Alfred the Great Consequently t fs the most dcult to learn. A bnef account of the evolutlon of Enghsh grammar wfll help to brmg the dead bones of German grammar to hfe, and hghten the task of leammg for the begmner If Alfred the Great had estabhshed schools to make the Old Enghsh Bible, hke the Reformaton Bible, accessible to the common people, Enghsh-speakmg boys and girls wottld bave had much more grammar to leam about than Amencan or Bnnsh boys and gtrls now need to know Llke Icelanchc and German, Old Enghsh was stlll a htghly mflected language. The reader ofthe Loom bas already met two examples of thïs erence between the Enghsh of Alfred's rime and the Enghsh of to-day Old Enghsh had more case-forms of the personal pronoun (p. i15) and more personal forms (p 97) of the verb In modern Enghsh the personal pronouns and the relattve pronotms (who) bave three casê-forms, at least in the smgular the nomnatwe (verb subject), the possessive or gemtve» and the olyectwe» whtch may be the "direct" or "mdarect" obect of a verb and ls always used after a dïrecuve Old Enghsh had four case-forms m the smgular and plural,
The Loom of Language together wtth correspondmg ones of dae dual number, wluch has chs- appeared an ail modêm Teutomc languages except Icelanchc The original four case-forms mcluded a nommarave and gemlave used as we stïH use them, an accusâttve or dtrect oblect form also used after certain preposmom, e g puyh (through--German durch), and a datzve or mdxrect object form used afzer the majonty of preposltmns. The rate of these two object or preposz.zon case-forms bas been OEerent m d'erent Teutomc languages. Companson of the tables plmted on pp I67 and Ia6 shows that the Old Enghsh dartre eventually chsplaced the accusa- rive. The 01d Norse accusattve supplanted the dartre, whlch bas dtsappeared m Swedash, Danïsh, and Norwegaan These languages bave thereforê three case-forms ltke Enghsh. The same ls true of Dutch (13. 26), though a trace of a separate dartre perssts xn the thd person plural German and Icehnchc bave stuck to the old four case-forms If you want to leam German t s necessary to memonze the rules gaven m small prmt below Germans sra11 use the accusatave case-form of the pronoun (or adjec- rave) as the &rect object and always after some preposmons durch (trough), ohne (wthout)» gegen (agamst)» um (around)» fur (for) When the verb expresses moraon, the accusatîve case-rotin also cornes afer the preposltaons n.. auf, (on), uber (ever), nter (under)» zzzschen (between)» an (at)» hner (behmd), :or (m front f)0 neben (besIde) The datave or ndzrect objec form follows (a) these prepostaons if the verb mchcates test, (b) aus (out of)» ausser (except)» be7 (at, near)» gegenuber (opposte), mt (wzth)» nach (af-ter» to» sezt (smce)» von (of» from)» zu (to) Prepostons followed by the gemtve are ansatt (mstead of)» &essezts (on tins sde of), rrotz (m spte of), wahre,d (durîng) wegen (because of) What happened to the verb after the Barde of Iffastmgs can be seen from the table on the facmg page Tkts table exhibais several fearures whach Old Enghsh shares wth German (or Dutch) but hot wlth modem Enghsh or wath modem Scandmawan chalects if we leave out of account the mual thou-form no longer used tu Anglo-Amencan conversatmn or prose, the only sur- vavmg personal fleraon of ltS verb s the thd person smgular -s of the present tense The personal flemon of the 01d Enghsh plural(-athm the present and -on m the past) had already chsappeared m Mayflozoer ttmes, but m two wa)s the Enghsh of the Pxlgnm Fathers was more like Alfred's Enghsh. The 01d Enghsh flemon of the th=d person smgular, as m the Bble forms doetk» satth, lovetk, hateth, findeth, hungereth and thwsteth, etc, was stîll current m South Brtam, and the Old Teutomc thou-form wath Its flexaoxa -st was snll used, as m German The -th
Bzrd's-&ve Vzew oj Teutonzc Gramzr 63 terminal of the third person smguIar present dasappeared early m North Bntaîn. The -s endmg had already replaced it m the fourteenth century. During the eighteenth cenmxy, the Northumbnan form came everywhere mto its own Another dafference between rhe Old and the modem Enghsh verb s that the former had a specnal mfinmve form The înfinîuve, which is the chcuonary form of the verb, does hot always correspond to t.be chc- nonary form of the modern Enghsh verb The latter (except that of the ANGLO- AMERICAN I } do you he does you do they I you h you they chd I have done I had done (to) do BIBLE ENGLISH I do thou does he doeth you do they I chd thou chdst we dad you they I have done I had donc (to) ao OLD ENGLISH c do thu dest he deth ge doth he c dyde thu dydesr he dyde we} ge dydon c haebbe gedon c haefde gedon ...... don GERMAN ch tue *du tust wlî tun *ikr tut ch rat du tat(e)st er rat wr taten ihr tarer sic taten mh habe getan mb harte getan (zu) mn verb to be) ls also the present tense-form of ail persons other than the thlrd smgular, and ls used as an maperauve. The Oxford or Webster dacfionary verb corresponds to the typical Teutomc infimuve (a) affer the preposmon to (e g try to do tins), (b) after certain helper verbs (/9 rso), (e g I shall do so myself, ff I cannot make htm do lt). In such situanons other Teutomc languages reqtttre a form wlth ts own charac- tenst, c terminal In Old Enghsh tins mfinmve endmg was-zan,-an (Or In), correspondmg to the Dutch or German -en or - * in German the du and hr forms are used only between inttmates and relatives The Sze form replaces both m other carcumstances (see p z46) The pronoun s,e and the possessive ,hr (w,th ther case-forms) are always wntten or pnnted w, th a calntat if they stand for the second person, and so are du, zhr, and dezn, euer when aed m le,ets
264 The Loom oJ Language To us, perhaps, the oddest thmg about the Old Enghsh verb xs ts past parncîple Lïke that of modern Dutch or German, t camed the preux ge- Ongmally xt had notkmg to do wth past tmaë It was attached to the begmmng of a large class of verb-roots m all ther denvataves, and survaves as such ïn some current German verbs Thus the Old Enghsh for to zn s gewmnan, eqmvalent to the German gu gewmnen If, as as probable, xt was once a prepomion, t had ceased to mean anythmg much more defimte than the be- m behold, bdong, beheve The past parncaple pattern of these ge- verbs mfected others, and became ts charactenstx¢ label, as be- has become an adlectaval aff m bedecked, beloved, bewged, beflagged. Before Chaucer's tmae the soften- mg process (p. 23o) wtnch changed the pronoun ge to ye had trans- formed gedon to y-done The vestagaal y-prefix lmgered on m a few archate expressxons used m poetry for several centunes after Chaucer For instance, we read m Mtlton, "By heaveny-dept ( e called) Euphro- In the Prologue of Chaucer's Camerbury Tales the y-mflected parracple occurs frequently, as an It as fui fau: to been ycleped "madame," And goon to vges al before, And bave a mante1 roal!che ybore In the openmg hnes, "the yonge sonne bath m the Rare ( e n the sgn of Arxes) hs halve course yronne "' The story tells "o sondry folk, by aventure yfalIe an felaweshpe" The Kmght "was late ycome from hs vmge" Of the Pnoress we learn that At mete wel ymught was she wth alle She leet no morsel from lin" hppes falle The Monk "hadde of gold ywroght a ful curous pyn " Of the Sbapman we are told that "fui1 many a draughte of wyn had he ydrawe " The Plowman had "ylad of dong ï'ul many a fother (cart-load) "The Steward's haïr "was by bas erys lu1 roundyshrn," and the Hostwas "boold of bas speeche, and wys» and wel ytaugh" Such forms are fatrly common m Spenser's Faene Q_.ueene, e g A gent_le kmght was pmckmg on the plaine Ycladd m nmghte armes and sflver slelde Grammaucal sm!rmes between German and 01d Enghsh are more striking when we allow for phonetc changes (p. 231) whlch bave occurred m the ktstory of" the former (1 e p to d or t d to t) When we
Bzrd's-Eye View of Teutonic Grammar 65 make these substltutmns» we see that there s only one essentaal dff- ference between the flexion of the German and the O1d Enghsh verb In German the plural endmg -en, correspondmg to the -on of the Old Enghsh past» ls also the correspondmg plural* endmg of the present FIG 30--AkP, LIEST TEUTONIC INSCRIPTION (See p 76 for translauon and Flg 17 for code of Rumc slgns ) tense. Otherwse the behawour of the German verb ls essenually hke that of the Enghsh verb m the urne of Alfred the Great If we go back a httle further to the earhest Teutomc document, 1 e the Gothlc Bble of Bshop Ulfilas OEg OES), we meet a more formidable array of verb-flexaons The example prmtcd below shows that the Gothc verb had separate endmgs for all three persons of the plural as for the smgular It also had dual forms of the first and second person The separate plonoun, not always used m the wntten language, ls m brackets ANGLO-»AVIRICAN I ake you take t takes wë (to) take you (two) take wo} you take they GOTHIC Ok) mma (thu) mmes Ota) nmuth (wt) mmos (lut) nïmats (wes) mmam Ous) nmuth Ola) mmand GER/vIAN 1ch nehme du nmamst es ntmrnt wtr nelmaen hr nehmt me nehmen DUTCH k neem z } neemt het julhe nemen Thus a levellmg process has gone on throughout the tnstory of the verb m ail the Teutomc languages In Dutch and m German it has stopped short at the stage whach Enghsh had reached at the Battle of Hasungs In Norwegaan, m Damsh, and m non-hteraw Swechsh, t has led to the chsappearance of all personal flemons The survïval of the third person smgular -s of the Enghsh present tense s offset by the fact that Enghsh--tmhke the Scandmavlan languages--has lost the flemon of ts mfimtïve As far as the verb ls concemed, the grammar of the Teutomc languages offers few datficulues for anyone who knows Enghsh You bave to remember sound-changes (see p 23I) whxch * Excludmg the famhar form of the second person.
The Loom oj Language chctate the past tense-form, ad OEe two foIlowmg rules about personai enchngs" (a) In Germa and Dutch, e Blle Enghsh -th of eometh ls hardened to -t, and the plural forms of both tenses bave the mfimnve endmg-en tacked on to OEe stem, (b) In modern Scachnawan laguages the endmg of the lnvaxlant present tense is -c or -ar, the past tense ls lrtvarlaxtt as m Enghsh, and OEe mfmmve ends in -e (Damsh and Norweglan), or -a (Swedash) For a Amencan or anyone born m the Bnush Isles, thë daflicultaes of a Teutomc lauguage begm moE the noun ad the adjeoeve, especmlly OLD ENGLISH AND GEMAN NOUNS DAY (masc) () 0LD ENGLISH [Nom çGen [Nom JAcc , ]Gen LDat w'EF'P" (heur) I TONOLr (fem) BLAR (masc) )daeg 1) waeterl I) tunge daege I waeteîe tungan daeges waeteres clag waetea tungena da gum waeterum mn gum bera ) beran } beran berena berum (Nom çJAcc l) Tag t pat I Tag(e) LGen I Tages JAcc Tage Dat Tagen Wassers :ç'assetn Bar Baren the latter The modem Enghsh noun has four forms m wrtmg Of these, only two are m common use, riz the ordmary smgtdar form (e g rnolher), the ordmary plural (e g mothers) nearly atways denved f"mm the smgular by addmg-s Nowadays we rarely use rhe optzonal gemtïves (e g. mother's and mothes') when the noun stanàs for an mammate oblect such as chamba or pot The Old Enghsh noun had
Bzrd's-Eye Vzew of Teutonic Grammar :z67 four case-forms m the smgular and fou m the p!uzal» mahng elght altogether, anq the rules for usmg them were the saine as the rules for the correspondmg pronouns (.p. 26_) The notms chosen as museum extnblts fllustrate sourd-changes descnbed m the precedmg chapter. The change from daeg to day xs an example of the softemug of the Old Enghsh g, and tunge-Zunge, waeter-Wasser fllusrate the shfft from T to Z (nnlaal) or S S (mechal) Out table of O1d Enghsh no,uns wïth thelr modern German equlva- lents chscloses two d_6fiCLflUes wth whch out Norman conquerors would have had to deal as best they could, zf they b ad condescended to learn the language of the people To use a noun correctly they would have had to choose che appropnate case-endmg, and there was no smaple rule to grade robe cholce There were several classes (declensmns) of notm-behavaour. If the leamer had foIlowed the tracuce of modern school-books, he (or she) would bave to know whach declenslon a noun belonged to before he could dectde what endmg, smgular or plural, the darect object, the mchrect obect, the possesswe, or the ferre appro- phare to the precedmg preposmon ough to take. Durmg the two centunes aller the Conqaest these dicultaës solved themselves. The chstmcuon between nominative, accusauve and dauve forms was hot essenual» because It etther depends on a quite arbltrary custom of usmg one or other case-form after a parucular preposmon, or does somethang whtch can be expressed just as well by word-order (pp r8 and r55 ) I had dasappeared before the begmmng ofthe four- teenth cenmry The chstmcaon between the smgu!ar and the plural, and the possessive use of the gemuve case-forms do bave a funcuon, and a pluml flexïon together wfla a gemuve bave pers!sted For reasons we do not kuow the Enghsh people marie the best of a bad job by the ctnvalrous devce of adoptmg the typcal masculine nominative and accusauve plural endmg -as (out -es or -s) to slgn plurahty Smaflarly the typcal masculine or neuter gemuve smgular -es (ottr's or ') spread to nouns wtnch ongmally dad not have thas gemuve endmg Perhaps, as Bradley suggests, the growmg populanty of the -s terminal was the surval of the fittest. It gamed grotmd because t was easxest to chstmgmsh The result was an mamense smaplïficauon The words waeter» tunge» and bera were once representauve of large classes of nouns, and there were others wtth plural endmgs m -a, and -e To-day there are scarcely a dozen Enghsh notms m dafly use outside the class of those whch tack on -s in the plural Such levellmg also occurred m Swedsh, Damsh and Dutch» but standardatton of
The Loom oJ Language the plural endmg chd hot go so far as m Enghsh. So the chlefdrffiæty wth Teutomc» other than German or Icelanchc» nouns ls the cholce of the nght plural endmg. No such leveilmg of case-forms has taken place m Icelanchc; and m German it bas hot gone so far as m the modem Scandmavan languages or m Dutch Al1 German nouns have a dartre plural endmg m -en or -n correspondmg to the common dauve plural endmg -Wh of OId Enghsh notms In hterary German the dalave smgular endmg -e» common to Old Enghsh notms» ls stïll m use» though It Is almost de.ad m speech German femmme nouns are mvanant throughout the smgular Some German nouns sttll behave much hke out OId Enghsh bera. These always tack on -n m the smgular except when used as the subject of the verb The student who wshes to learn German, or ls learmng lt, should nottce more carefully how the German noun as sttll used resembles the Enghsh noun of the Venerable Bede (a ust as all Old Enghsh nouns took the enchng -um m the datave plural» all German nouns bave the datave plural enchng -ElXT or -lxT (b [ust as some Old Enghsh masculine nouns such as bera (p 266) added -n for all cases m the smgular other r.ha the nommattve» one class of German masculine nouns add -EIxT or -1 when used m the smgular except as subject of the verb Tl'as class mcludes nouns wth the nommat,ve endmg -E and a few others» notably BAR (bear» OCHS (ox)» TOR (fool)» DIAMANT (dzamond), HERR (genleman)» PRINZ (prince), KAMERAD (comrade), SOLDAT (sol&er), MENSCH (man) (¢) Other German, hke other Old Enghsh, masculine, and German neuter, nouns, hke Old Enghsh neuters, take the charactensnc Teutomc gemuve smgular endmg -ES or-S. (d) ust as Old Enghsh femmme nouns take the normnanve and accusanve endmg -an m the plural, most Germma femmane nouns take the endmg -EN m all cases of the plural In out last table the gendeî of each noun ls prmted after lt. Out smaple rules for decldmg whether to use ?ze, she or zt would hOt bave helped out Norman conquerors to declde that a day s mascuhne For reasons already mchcated (p I i4)» the gender-class of an Old Enghsh noun means much more than how to use pronouns m a reason- able way» when we substttute he» she or t for a notre Unltke the modern Enghsh adjecave and pomter-word, both ofwtuch (wth two excepttons, th:s-these and that-those) are mvanant, the adjecuve or pomter-word of Enghsh belote the Conquest had smgttlar and plural case-enchngs, hot necessanly the same ones, for masculine, femmme or neuter nouns
Bird's-Eye Vzew o Teutonic Grammar 69 Nether the fact that an adjective had these endmgs, ail of them qmte unnecessary f we always put it next to the noun it quahfies, nor the fact that there ls no rhyme nor reason m dasslfymg a day as masculine» a chdd as neuter, and a crzme as fera,rune, were the only grounds for complamt. In the old or less progresswe Teutomc languages, the adjectxve masbehaves m a way whach even Greeks and Romans pro- bxted. After another quahfymg word such as a demonstrauve (the, thu» that) or a possessive (my, hzs, your, etc ) it does hot take the end.mg appropnate to the saine case, the saine gender» and the saine number when no such determmatzve accompames t The next museum exhbt ls put m to show you the sort of adlecnve the Normans round when they landed near Bnghton AII the denvauves m ths table bave been levelled down m modem Enghsh, and now correspond to the smgle word bhnd THE OLD TEUTONIC ADJECTIVE (i) STRONG POR/ SIIG SIIG SING PLURAL (u) w oma SIIG $IlqG SING PLURAL ..... bhnd ^ccus blmchae [ , D&T blmdum Gm bhndcs } blinde [ blmdum bhndre bhndum blmdra (b) G OMIN bhnd« ,, AccrJs bhnden DAT GEN blmdes bhadem bhndes bhnden i bhnde The table emphasmes how German lags behmd. Lake the Old Enghsh, the modem German adlecttve has two declenslons, a strong one for use wzthout an accompanymg determmanve word» and a weak one for use when a determmanve precedes it The strong adjecnve-forms bave case and number endmgs hke those of the more typxcal masculine, neuter, and femmme noun-classes The weak adecnve forms are less profuse German has only two In Dutch and in modern Scandmavmn
270 The Loom af Language languages (excludmg Icelanchc), the obstruction between masculme and fernmme» together wlth ali case OEerences, has been dropped The weak plural bas merged wth a smgle strong form for use wth smgular or plural nouns (see p. 279). To wrlte German correctty we bave to choose the rght case-rotin oZ the adjective The rule usually glven m grammar bo(ks ls that the adjecttve bas to have the saine case» number, and gender as the noun wxth wbach It goes Smce the strong adjecuve bas more chstmct case- forms than the Gerrnan noun, we canno always recogmze the case of the noun by lts form What we mean by the case of the noun ls the case of the pronoun whach can take its place The pronoun has retamed the four case-forrns of the adjectlve During the three centunes after the Norman Conquest grammatacal stmphficauon of Enghsh went on apace. By A 9 x4oo Enghsh had out- stnpped Dutch» and we mlght now call Anglo-Amencan an solatmg» as opposed fo aflex, o:al language rJhat itexaons now perslst are shared by some or ai1 of the survlvlng Teutomc chalects So It is true to say that Anglo-Amencan grammar ls essenually a Teutomc lanmaage We have already met three features common to all Teutomc dmlects» mcluchng Enghsh (p r87) Of these the behawour of the veïb s the most mapor- tant. The Teutomc verb bas only two tense forrns» of whlch the so- called present often expresses future urne (e g I go o London to-morrow) There are two ways of makmg the smple past Some verbs (strong class) undergo mternaI vowel change Others (wek class) add a suffix wth the d or t sound to the foot The exastence of a compact class of verbs wtnch tmdergo comparable stem vowel changes» and the weak suffix wlth the d or t sound, are two trade-marks of the Teutomc group In connexaon v0ath verb trretaes wtnch confuse a begmner three facts are helpful One s that all strong verbs are old, and ail newer ones belong to the weak class, whach bas now mcorporated many verbs whlch were once strong Tins has gone fin'thest m Enghsh So it s usually sale to ber that if an Enghsh verb ts strong, lts etymologacal eqmvalent m another Teutonîc language wfll also be strong It ls often sale to make another assumpuon If two verbs undergo the saine vowel change m Englh, eqmvalent verbs m another Teutomc language undergo a correspondmg change Thus the Ger-man verbs finden and &nden, eqmvalent to out words find and bmd, bave smnlar past tense forms fand and band wlth correspondmg past pamcaples gefunden and gêbunden So also the Damsh verbs finde and brode form thetr past tense forms (fandt and band) and past parnclples (.fundet and bundet) m the
Brd's-Eye Vzew o/ Tezmmc Grammar 27 saine way The OEeence beeen OEe weak an T pes (epre- sented by splled and ¢2elt m Enghsh) s more appent h r ïn the spoken langage (see p ), a D chges to T affez fle vozceless con- sonants F, K, P, S, and a T changes to D affer the vo,ced consonants V, G, B, Z, M In Enghsh -)D Is usuaHy, and m German -)TE ls always OEe teral added to e stem of a weak verb m lts past tense The past pample of oemve verbs goes w the present or SiX TEUTONIC STRONG çRBS (INF!NITI--PAST TENSE SINGDOE--PT PTICIPLE) ENGLISH CONI.E ca/ne corne FIND found found FLY fiew flown RIDE rode rldden SEE saw seen SING sang sung D»_NISH komme kom kommet fmae faad ftmdet flyve flo]et ride red redet se saa set synge sang sunget DUTCH komen gekomen vlnden rond gevonden vhegen vloog gevlogen njden reed gereden zlen zag gemen zmgen zong gezongen kommen karn gekommen finden fandt geflmden flaegen flog geflogen reIten rltl gerItten sehen sah gesehen smgen sang gesungen past of Teutomc forms of the verb have m combmattons eqivalent to bave gzven or had gzven The table on p 87 shows the conjuganon of have m the Teutomc chalects The use of other helper verbs (see p. I52) dasplays a strong famïly hkeness In fact, the same root-verbs are used m Damsh, Swechsh» and Dutch where the Enghsh verbs shall or wzll, should or would, are used alone or m front of bave or had or any other verb to express futttre tmae or conchtïon We have met wth one common charactensnc of the Teutomc lan- guages m Chapter V where there ls a table of the companson of th¢
The Loom of Language adjecnve All the Teutomc languages form three classes of denvauves other than those usually called flexwns Some of t.hem are mportant For instance, t s Iess useful for the foregner to know that a gander lS a male goose or that the plu.rai of louse s hce, than to learn the trick of manufactunng numberless new words such as fisher or wrzter by tackang ENGLISH-TEUTONIC AFFIXES ENGLISH (a) Noun -DOM -ER -rOOD -ING -NES$ -SHIP (b) Adlecuve -ISH -LES$ -LY -SOME -y UN- (c) Adverb (d) Verb FOR- I=ORE MIS- EXAMPLE kmgdom Wrlter fatherhood warnmg darhng kmdness fnendsbap washflfl heIhsh Lffeless lonely loathsome dusty unkmd homewards Iukewase behold forbd ïoresee mastake S*WEDISH -DOM -ARE -HET -ING -LIN, -FULL -ISK -LOS -LIG -SAM -IG O- -VIS DANISH -DOM -ER -HED -ING -LIIqG -FULD -ISK -LIG -SOM ,.,, -ViS BE- BE- -I:RA ERE FOR- FOR- FORE- FORE- MISS- MIS- DUTCH -DOM -ER -HEID -ING -LING -VOL -ISCH -LOOS -LIJK -ZA&M -IG ON- -REN VER- VOOR- MIS- GERMAN -TUM -ER -HEIT -UNG -LING -VOLL -ISCH -LOS -LICH -SAM -ICH» -IG UN- BE- -IEREN VER- VOR- MISS- -er on to a verb The older Teutomc verbs reachly combine with pre- posmons, e g undergo, or overcome (Swechsh overkomma), and with other prefixes whach bave no separate erastence Teutomc languages have many adjecuves or adverbs formed from nouns by addmg -ly (Enghsh),-hg (Swêchsh-Damsh), -lyk (I)utch), and -hch (German), correspondmg to Old Enghsh -hc. In modern Enghsh thts terminal s charactensuc of adverblal denvauves (see p III) but we sull chnff to a few adectives such as godly, manly, brotherly, kmdly,. At least one of
Bird's-Eye View o] Teutonic Grammar 273 the affines m the accompanymg table, though very much ahve, is hot nanve It bas no preclse Enghsh equavalent, recogmzable as such From about the twe cent-ury onwards German courtly poetry assulated many French verbs The m£mmve enchng-ser became Germamzed as -zeren, and ttus terminal subsequently attached ltself to nauve roots, as m halbze en (halve) The stress on the sul -ser- mstead of on the foot labels xt as an moeuder It mms up later as -er- m Scandmavma, and m Dutch t s -eer- It s very prolïc In fact, at can tack ltself on to almost any current mternauonal foot, as of sclentîc terres, ê g tdefonera (Swed), telefonere (Dan), telefoneeren (Dutch), tdefonzeren (oEzman) German, but hot Dutch, verbs of ths class have past parucaples wlth- out the ge- prex, e g mh habe telegrafiert (I have telegraphed) It as possable to avold some elrors of sef-expresslon lfour bard's-eye vlew takes in some of the outstandmg dfferences betweea Enghsh and other Teutomc languages One of these, the chsappearance of gram- matical gender, and wlth it of adjecuval concord, bas been mentloned more than once Several syntactxcal pecuhantles of modern Enghsh are also plffalls for the begmner One common to Mayflower Enghsh and to Enghsh m ts present stage, ls the denuty of word-order m dlfferent clauses of a complex sentence (pp I6X to x65) The moral of tins ls to suck to smple sentences when possible, and to recogmze the conluncuons hsted on p I6Z as danger-signais when at as hot con- vement to do so The way to deal wth some other outstandmg syn- tactlcal pecuhanues of Anglo-Amencan when wntmg or speakmg German, Dutch, Swechsh, or Damsh has been suggested m Chapter IV Express yourself m t/se zdzom of thê Pzlgrzm Fathers Three raportant rudes to recall are (a) mverswn of the verb and ts subject unless the latter s the first word m a simple statement (p 54), (b) use of the smple interrogative, e g what say you (p 58), (c) use of the dwect negauve, e g I know hot how (p x6o) In the same chapter we have met wth four other charactensucs of Anglo-Amencan usage, and the smdent of any other Teutomc language should recall them at tlus stage They are (a) the economy of Enghsh partacles, (b) the pecuhar uses of the Enghsh -mg denvatme as verb- noun or wth a helper (p 39) to sgmfy present ume and conunued action, (¢) the chsappearance of the chstmcuon (p x49) between trarm- tzve and mtrarmtzwe verbs, (d) the transference of the zndwect object to the subect m passive construcuons (p x5o) It s maportant to note the wde range of the two eplthets all and only We can use the former before a piural or before a smgular noun»
274 T.lw Loom oj Language e g all the water Swechsh, Damsh, Dutch and Getman prescnbe separate words (see table on p 283) for atl before a plural noun and all the, t e ttze whote The Enghsh word only can qual a verb, adjecuve, or noun As an adverb, i e qualifier of a verb or adlecuve, lts usual TEUTONIC POINTER-WORDS AND LINK PRONOUNS* ENGLIYI SVï'EDI,H (a) Demontranves (set, pp z44-5 TIT denna (c s ) det-ta (n s ) dessa (,pl) vflken valket ka den det de demae (c s ) dette (n s ) dmse (pi hvflken hvflket hvflke deze (c s ) da (n s ) doEe (pi) dat che welke welk welke &eser (m s daeses (n s ) dese (f s & m n f pl ) lenes welchez welche welche (b) Lank Pronouns (s¢ pp x44-$) DAT WHOM» TIAT» WfCH (as obje:t) WIOM» WIKIOEI (after ali other preposanons WHAT $OM T. V (r) "nLL V'J:LK.« (N) TIL HVILIT TIL IU.I E (r)v (c) (s)wa.r.zT (n) VAD /-[VAD Dm(C S &c n zfl »,r (n g ) (lersons) WAARAN(thzngs) V MI WIE (lerons) wvAN(thzngs) WAAR + prep (rhmgs) WAr D,SS ....... (m) (n) (fs & m n fpl ) m (m) Db.S (n) m (f S & m n fpl DtM (m n ) »s (f) DENnV (c pl ) r.Rmq(f s& m n fpl ) as for WHOM above after pre- pomttons on page .63, otherwe as for TO WHOM WAS meamng lS the saine as merely As an adjecuve ts usual meanmg ls solztary or smgle Swechsh, Damsh, Dutch, and German prescnbe separate words (see pp z83 and 34) for only as adverb meamng merely and as adecuve meaning smgle *c common» n neuter, m masculine, f femmme, gender s slngular, pl plural For convennons respectmg capzrals, see p 37 # Nommauve case-forms only gaven here (see p 93) $ In common speech bnessed der, de, das, replace &eser, etc,'e g der Iznn wth stress on ?viann me«ns rhe ma,», but wth stress on der t means rhz ç man
Bird's-Eye View oj Teutonic Grammar 27.5 Teutomc verbs mclude several confusmg clusters of near synonyms At one tmae ail Teutomc chalects had a verb fara or faran, meanmg fo go or to travel It survaves m set Enghsh expiesslons such as farewdl or "to go far andfare worse" The wordford cornes from OEe saine foot Othervnse go and lts Dutch eqmvalent gaan have taken over lts func- tions The Scandmawan eqmvalent of go ls more fastldlous We can use the Swechsh gd when a human bemg goes on foot or when a train or other vehlcle goes, but when we speak of gomg m a train or other vehlcle the nght verb ls fara Analogous remarks apply to Danlsh, and to the use of the German verbs gehen and fahren, but German usage now less exactmg ¬her cluster corresponds to place, set or lay, for all of whch we can usually substltute put The cholce of the nght word for put ls per- plerang m other Teutomc languages, especlally m German It theîe- fore calls for explanatlon We have three Englmh words for bodlly onentanon, all Teutomc stand, szt, l,e A bot*Je stands on the table if upnght or hes ff fallen, and we set, e make szt, a ftag on a pole German preserves these chstmctaons metlculousiy m the correspondmg causanve verb forms stdlen (Swed statla), setzen (Swed satta), legen (Swed lagga) correspondmg to stehen, tzen, hegez (Sed std, stta, Izgga) for stand, szt, le They are hot interchangeable though each eqmvalent to tut. The mtransmve forms m ail Teutomc languages are strong, the causatlve we German Is more exactmg than ts slster lanaages m anofler way We can combine put wth a vanet-y of darectves German demands separate denvauve verbs, e g aafsetzen (emen Hut) = to put on (a hat), anzzehen (emen Rock) = to put on (a coat), umbznden (eme Schurze) = to put on (an apron) it Is impoli to remember that the Enghsh verb make bas a wder range than lts chctmnary eqmvalent m other Teutomc languages Makang m the sense of compellzng s spectfically Enghsh For the correct word see cempel or fo ce To complete out brd's-eye vlew, we have now to ask how the eveml members of the Teutomc group OEer from and resemble one another. For ths purpose we may draw a hne across the map of Europe corre- spondmg roughly wlth the fift3-fifth paraBel of lalamde. North of lt, the Teutomc group ts represented by icelanchc, Norwegian, Swechsh and Damsh, south by Dutch (mcludmg Flemlsh), and Hagh German hne now sphts the Teutomc gIoup mto two natural dans wth hlghly charactensuc grammatical features
The Loom oj Language TEUTONIC INTERROGATIVES* ENGLISH I how how much » how many when whence » wtnther where hy who» whmh» what whom » to whom whose what kmd of » vad slags DANISH hvordan hvor meget hvor mange naar hvorfra hçorhen hvor hvorfor HVILKEN, HViLKET, HVILKE HVEM TIL ItVEM HVIS hvflken slags DUTCH hoe hoeveel wanneer vanwaaï waarhecn waaz WELKd WELK W.ELKE WAT WIEN VAN WIE wat voor een G Wl¢ wevael wmvaele wann woher wohm wo wrum WER ]}WELCHER (-Es, WESSEN was fur em SCANDINAVIAN CI2kN The Scandmawan clan conslsts of four officaal languages of wluch Icelan&c OEers httle from Old Norse of the sagas Icelanders read the latter as we read Shakespeare, ff we do so The others» Swechsh, Danïsh and Norwegnan, dxffer from one another scarcely more than do some dialects withm the Bnush Isles The first as spoken throughout Sweden by over sxx mon people, and by a substanual Swechsh mmorïty m Fmland Damsh s the offictal language of Denmark, wath a populauon of three and three-quarter mdhons The Norwegnan dlalects are the vemaculars of about two and three-quarter millions The officaal language of Norway lS less haghly standardazed than that of Denmark TRI I9O5, when Norway seceded from Sweden» it was stdI Damsh Tbas offictal Dano-Norwegian of the rulmg chque was then the mechum of mstrucuon m all hlgher eàucauon as well as of admlmstrauve procedure, and was far removed from the speech of the masses Smce secession, the govemment has mtroduced successave changes to make the spellmg more phoneuc and the accepted grammaucal standards * Saine convenuons as on p 37 x
Bird's-Eye View of Teutonic Grammar :77 nearer to those o£ common mtercourse. To accommodate local senu- ment of commumttes separated by great dastances m a vast and thmly- populated temtory, the newest oflàclal spellmg and grammar-books admlt many alternative forms, and as yet no Enghsh-Norwegaan chctaonanes mcorporate the changes whach came mto force m I938. The net restflt of all these changes xs that wntten Norwegaan ls now as dose to Swechsh as to Damsh The grammar of Swechsh, Damsh, and Norwegaan ls very much smapler than that of German The word-order (see Chapter IV) ls essentaally hke that of the authortzed Enghsh Bible except that the negattve pamcle or an adverb of tlme precede the verb m a subordmate clause Illustratmns of tins are the Swechsh and Damsh eqmvalents of the sentence he sazd that he could not corne Han sade art ban rote (or lcke) kunde komma (Swed) Han sagde at ban drake kunde komme (Dan) Personal flemon of the verb bas chsappeared The present tense endmg for ail persons smgular and (except m hterary Swe&sh) ail persons plural, ls the same, -r added to the mfimtve form. the only exception to thas rule s that the present tense of some Swechsh verbs ends m -er mstead of-af The mfimnve endmg ls -a (Swechsh) or -e (Damsh and Norwegmn) The past tense of weak verbs ends in -de or -te (cf loved and slept) in accordance wth the precedmg consonant (p 8 I) when the end vowel of the stem xs ormtted Compound tense forms are analogous to out own Thus we have (Swechsh)jag kallar (i call), jag kallade (I called), jag bar kallat (I have called), lag hade kallat (I had called),jag skall kalla (I shall call),.ag skulle kalla (I should call) In the Damsh eqmvalent e replaces a throughout (e g j eg kalder) Any good chcttonary gnves a hst of the past tenses and past parncples of strong verbs The aczve past parraclple used wlth hava or bave always ends m t as above The passzve adjectïval form s nearly always the saine m Nor- weglan, oïten m Damsh, but never m Swedsh The Swedlsh adlectlval form ends m -d (smg) or -de (plut) when the verb xs weak, or -en (smg), -ena (plut) when xt s strong, as m gzven or gzvna m conrxachstmctaon to gwt (gven) after hava The many Darush verbs wtuch form a contracted past analogous to dreamr (m contrachstmctmn to dreamed), e g betale- betalt (pay-pmd), bave no specmI adjectval form, and uncontracted verbs bave kept the d form m the plural only, e g straffet (ptmashed) xn the smgular, straffede n the plural
lok A 245 e FIG 31 ---CUTTING YROM ICELANDIC Nk-VSPAPER SHOWING TI-I TWO th SY/VIBOLS (As nv then .z¢u 6 (As :: ttem) One outstandmg od&ty of the Scandmanan clan ls the flexaonal passive akeady menuoned on p I20 .A_ny part of the verb can take a passave mnmg tf we add -s to the end o£1t or frit ends m -r, subsutute s for the latter» e g m Swechsh ara kalla to ca!l lag kalla I cal1 1ag kallade I ca!1ed ]ag har kalIat I bave cal!ed J ag slall kalla I sha!l cal! jag shulle kalla I should ca art kallas to be called .lag kallas i ara called .7ag kallades i was called lag har kallats i bave been called jag skall kallas I shall be called lag skulle kallas I should be called The talc :s the saine for all three dlalects, and xt is the easlest way of handlmg a pass:ve construcuon In the spoken language It :s more usual to subsurute a roundabout construcuon m whach bhva (Swed), bhve (Dan), bh (Norweg) takes the place of out be, and vara or vaere (be) replaces to have T/ms pasmve aumhary was ongmalîy eqmvalent to the German ble, bev (remam) Its present tense IS bhr or bhve, lts past tense blev (Norweg ble), past parucxple bhvzt, blevet, or bhtt The verb bhva takes the adecnve paruple (p 277), hot the form used wlth hava m an
Bzrd's-Eye Voev of Teutonic Grammar 2,79 acnve construc-aon, when (as always m Swechsh) the o are daffeîent, eg 7ag bhr straffad I am be!ng pumshed 7eg bi, ver s affet w bhr (bhva) straffade we are bemg pumshed v, bhver straffede Sïmlarly we have jag skall bhva straj¢ad j ag bar bhwt sraffad jag hade bhvzr st7 affad I shall be pumshed I bave been purashed I had been pumshed jeg skal bhve straffet jeg er blevet sraffer jeg var blevet staffet The only flemons of r_he noun are the gemuve -s (see below) and the plu.rai endmg, typlcal!y -e m Damsh, NorweNan, and many Swechsh nouns (-af and -or m some Swechsh) A few nouns form a plural analogous to t_hat of out ox-oxen. Two words of thts dass are common to ail thïee chalects ear-ears ora-oron (Swd), re-Oen (Dan, Norweg ), and eye-eyes, oga-ogon (Swed), Oje-jne (Dan), oye-o.yne (Norweg) A large class kke out sheep, mth no plural flemon, mcludes ail monosyllabc nouns of neuter gender A few words (p o6) hke out mouse-mzce, man-men (Swed man-man, Dan Mand-Maend, Norweg Mann-Menn) form the plu.rai by infernal vowe!-change alone As m German, many monosyilables mth the stem vowels o, a, have modfied plurNs, e g book-books ---- bok-bocker (Swed), Bog-Boger (Dan) The so-called mdefimte amcle (a or an) has two forms m offial Swechsh and Damsh Norwegan, hke some Swedlsh chalects, now has three. One, erg (Swechsh) or et (Dan and Norweg ) stands beforê nouns classed as neuter The other, en, stands belote nouns classed as non- neuter (common gender) m Swedxsh and Damsh, or masculine m Norwegmn, wtnch bas a femmme e as well Thus we have en god fader (a good father), and et(t) godt ba n (a good chïld) The adlecuve has three forms (a) foot + the suffix -a (Sw.) or -e (Dan and Nonveg ) when assocaed wxth any plural noun or any smgular noun preceded by a demonstrauve or possessxve, e g Sx, VEDISH DANISH good women goda kwnnor gode Kvmder my young chfld nutt unga barri mz unge Barn thzs good book denna goda bok derme gode Bog (b) foot alone, when assocated wth a szvgular non-neute nom whch s hot pîeceded by a demoîstrauve or possessxve, e g a good dog en god hund en god Hund
The Loom of Language (c) root + suffax % when assoclated wxth a smgular neuter noun not precedêd by a demonstrauve or possessive» e g a young cha.ld ett ungt bal n et ungt Barri The oddest festure of the Scandmavan clan s the behavlour of the defimtê arucle If a szngular notre ls hOt preceded by an adlecuvê, the defimte aracle bas the saine form as the mdefimte but as fused to the end of the noun tself, e g en bok -- abook = en Bog boken = tlae book -- Bogen et barri = a clafld = et Barn barnet -- the ctuld = Barnet If the noun s plural the sutSx -ha (Swed) or -ne (Dan. and Norweg ) fs tacked on to it when the last consonaxtt s r If the plural does hot end m -r, e defimte amcle sutS.x s -en (Swed) or -ene (Dan and Norweg ), eg gator = streets = Gader gatorna -- the streets -- Gaderne barn = cb.tldrei1 = Born barnen = dae chlldren = Bornene If an adlectlve precedes a iloun the defimte arucle ls expressed by the demomtrauve den (coin), det (nut), de (plut) wluch otherwlse means that I Swechsh t s Stlll accompamed by the terminal arttcle, eg de goda hundarna = the good dogs = de gode Hunder The fusionof the terminal defimte arucle wath the oun s so complete that xt cornes between the latter and the gemuve % e g a dog's en hunds en Hunds e dog's hundens Hundens the dogs' hundarnas Hundernes a cI'ald's ett barris et Barns tlae chld's barnets Barnets the chlldren's barnênç Bornenes Companso of the Scandmavaa(p. 19o) .s hke that of the Enghsh adlecttve. Comparanves and superlauves bave no separate nuter form A pffall for the begmner arlses from the fact that out much and many bave the saine comparauve and superlanve forms Thus we bave mycketmera-mest mânga-fiera-fles much-more--most many-more-most meget-mere-meste mange-flere-fleste Scandmavian adverbs are formed from adjectlves by addmg the neuter suffax-t (also by addmg -vzs or-en) The -t lS not added to Damsh and Norwegaan adecttve whach end m -hg
Bzrd's-Eye Vzew oj Te,ton2c Grammar 281 The surval of gender s less troublesome than t would otherwlse be because most nouns belong to the non-neuter (common class The neuter class mcludes substances, trees» fruits» young amma!s, mcludmg barn (chlld), counhzes, conmengs, and all abstract nouns wtnch end m e mudlertid blev ,es at rederne fant det , nyttes!¢st fortsette s. lenge àe nor- I] ske rpasknnster stod utenon% ...... ..... ï__ _ï _ ....... .: _, , tlllelk..mllltet - p; llR__illUken" meà td raplmzter og FIG 32---CUTTING FROM A NORWEGIAN" NEWSPAPER SHOWING THE SCAN- DINAVIAN VOVSL SYMBOL$ 0 AND S -ande or -ende Besldes these there ls a compact group of common words shown on page 282 The Scandmawan negauve pamcle ,s qmtc unhke thc Enghsh- Dutch-German no,-met-rachi In Damsh and Norwegian it ls zkk% of wtnch the hterary Swedlsh eqmvalent (used only m books) s zcke In conversanon or correspondcnce Swedes use znte, c g jag skall nte se honom ----- I shall hot sec hn ---]eg skal kke se ham There s a much greater gap between thc wntten and spoken language of Seden than of Denmark andxnodern Norway Many ftexaons whtch
T, Loom Language emst in hterature bave o emstence m spoken Swedash or m correspon- dence In hterary Swe&sh the plural of the present tense ls idenucal with the mfisve, and OEe past of strong ve;5s has plural forms hlch ena m o, some bemg very irrealar, e g for gd (go) we bave the two past forms gzckoEmgo and analogous ones for t'd (may) The plural flemon of the »erb is neçer used m speech X ho ri_ha1 -de of the past tense-form ls often sflent The mfmmve and thc cerrespon fimg present tense-form of ENGLISH ammal egg lffe people sheep blood bone eye hmr leg waler I SWEDISH DANISH [dlur Dyr agg Aeg LIV FOLK SVIN fâr Faar orfl oa bar hlarta vatten BLOD BEN Oze Haar Hlerte BEN Vand ENGLISH floor hotel bouse roof table wmdow country language letter hght weather word ye SWED!SH golv hoze!l tak fonster sprk lus nan2 vadcr r DANISH Gulv Hotel HUS I Tag BORD Vlndue LAND i Sprog BREV Lys 1Navn Velr 0RD many verbs s contracted as m Norwegmn, e g be (bedja), request, bh (bhva), become» dra (draga), carry ge (gzva)» Nve, ha (hava), bave, fa (mga) take Snmiarly skatI cont:acts o ska, Eder to Er (you or your), broder (brother) fo bror The terminal amcle and the flemonal passwe are both Inghly charac- tensuc of the Scandma clan. Another of ïts pecuhanues s a booby- trap for re begmner» because Enghsh, hke Dutch or German, has no eqmvalent for xt Scandmavmn chalects bave specal forms of the possesmve adlecnve of the thd person (analogous to the Latin suus) correspondmg m the reflexive pronoun sg They are sm (smg common), sztt or st (heur. smg ), sma or oene (plur) m accordance wth the gender and number of the thmg possessed We must always (and only) use them when they refer back to the sublect of flac verb, e g . Jag bar hans bok (I kave bas book) Han har sm bok (t-le has bas book) dag besokte hemzes bror (I vsted ber broer) Hn atokar çrt barn (She low' her chald) Jeg har hans Bog Han bar sm Bog. Jeg besgt:e hendes Broder Hun elsker st Barn
Bzrd's-Eye V2ew oj Teutonic Grammar TEUTONIC INDEFINiTE PO!NTER-WORDS 283 OTIEE SOMONE OMETPIIG gUCH TO0 MUCH SWEDISH I DANISH n (c ett (n) e: (n) alla alle sa mycken(-0 soin aa megen (-0 soin bda (baggê) begge (baade) var hver nog nok ALLT AIT f aa mânga mange mycken (-t) megen mgen (c) mte (n) INGEN enda fiera ngon nagot n.gra NAGON ene andcn ndrc flere nogen noge nogle "OGEN NGOT I NOaT sadan (-,-a) saadan (-4 -e) en (cs) det (ri ) de (pi) ç6r mycken (-0 I £or mcgen (-,-) al zoo»ce1 als bezde elk (), eder (-e genceg LEDEREZN wemge veele veel geen m(m &n) eme (f) aile so »el v. e THE SOUI'HERN CLAN The flemonal pasmve of the Scïndmavmn verb and the terminal defmite artlcle of the Scandmavian noun are features whch the Enghsh and thê southcm rcprcsentauves of the Tcutomc group havc ncvcr had at any stage m thctr common hstory Thc southcm clan» whach in- cludcs Dutch and Gcrman, also bas posmvc grammaucal charact«- sucs whch ts mcmbcrs do not sharc wth ltS northcm rchtlVCS Thrce of thcm rccaJl charactcnsucs of Old English" (0 The flcxaonal cndmg of thc thard pcrson smgular of the prcscm tcnsc of a Dutch or Gcrman vcrb s t In accordancc wth thc * Ail belote a smgular noun s equlvalent to rhe whole (Swed hela, Dan hele, Dutch geheel, German ganz) a r Not as adverb, sec p 34r Invanant tmIess rnascuhne, rtegter and fem,n,ze nommauve case-forma are m parenthems
284 The Loom of Language phoneuc evoluuon of tloEe modern Teutomc languages» tls corresponds to the final -th m Mayflower Enghsh (e g sath, toveth) (n) The mfimtave ends m -en, as the Old E'nghah mfinmve ends m -an (e g Dutch-German finden, Old Enghsh, findan) (m) The past parucxple of most verbs cartes the preux ge-, wtuch softened to y- an Maddle Enghsh, and had almost completely chsappeared by the b%m_nnmg of the seventeenth century When the Roman occupation of Bntam came to an end, thê domam of Low and t-hgh German, m contrachstmctaon to Norse, was roughly what It xs to-day, and a process of differentatton had begun ïn the Lowlands and throughout the area wbach s now North Germany there have been no drastac phonenc changes other than those whïch are also mcorporated m the modem Scandmavaan chalects (e g w to v, P to 6 or t and 6 to af) To the South, a second sound-shzft (p z3 x) oc- ¢urred belote the urne of bAfred the Great The German chalects had begun to spht apart m two chvasmns when west Germamc robes first mvaded Bntam Tins davïslon mto Low or north and Htgh or south and nuddle German cuts across the officaal separauon of the wntten languages Dutch (mcludmg Belgaan Dutch or Flemash) ls Low German wth xts own spellmg convenuons What fs ordmartly called the German language embodaes the Hagh German (second) sound-sh and an elaborate battery of useless flexaons wluch Dutch has chscarded. It ls the wntten language of Germany as a whole, of Ausma and of parts of Switzerland. Throughout the saine area t fs also the pattern of edu- cated and of pubhc speech The country chalects of northern Germany are Low German Tins PIattdeutsch, wtnch ls nearer to Dutch than to the datly speech of south or nnddle Germany, has lts own hterature, hke the Scots Donc The flemonal grammar of Dutch s very stmple The ctnef dlfficuky s that there are two forms of the defimte arucle, de and het The latter s used only belote ,mgula nouns classed as neuter, e g de stoel--de stoelen (the chatr---the c), het boek--de boeken (the book--the books) There s only one mdefimte amcle, een Adlecuves have two forms, e g deze man zs rzjk and deze rçke man for thzs man =s rzch and thu nch man respecuvely Reducuon of the troublesome apparatus of adlecuval concord has gone as far as m the Enghsh of Chaucer, and the mconvenîence of gender crops up only m the cholce of the defimte aracle As m Maddle Enghsh, the sutx -e xs added to the
Bzrd's-Eye Vzew of Teuonic Grammar 85 ordmary foot form of the adjecuve belote a plural noun or a smgular noun preceded by an arucle, demonstrauve or possessive. What ls true of many of the chalects of Germany and Swtzerland ls true of Dutch The gemuve case-form of the noun s absent m speech It bas made way for the roundabout usage wth van equavalent to the German von (of), e g. de vrouw van mzjn vrzend (m chalecucal and colloqual German &e Frau von meznem Freund--the wrfe of my frend or my fnend's wfe) Thus case-dasuncuon surwves m Dutch even less than m Enghsh The only noun-flexaon stl zmportant s the plural endmg Tins bas been much less regularlzecl than m Enghsh Alone among the Teutomc lanuages, Dutch shares wth Enghsh a class of nouns wth the plural terminal-s Tins mcludes those that end m -el, -en, and -er, e g tafel-tafels (table-tables), kammer-kammers (room-rooms) The majorty of Dutch nouns take -en hke ox«n, e g huzs-huzzen (bouse-bouses) Wlth due regard to the sound-sh, the Dutch verb s essenually the saine as the German There s one maportant OEerence. In Dutch, zal (out shall) s the auxahary verb used to express future urne In Cape Dutch or Afrkaans (one of the two oificaaI languages of the Umon of South Afrca) the smïple past (e g I heard), hablmally replaced m some German dïalects by the roundabout construcuon wth bave (e g I have heard), bas almost completely chsappeared m favour of the latter Ths alternauve construcuon s a useful trick m German con- versauon, because the past tense and past paruclple of Teutomc verbs (cf gave, gzven), are often unltke So the use of the mformal construc- uon chspenses wlth need for memonzmg the past tense forms The present tense of the Afrdaans verb s mvanant and ldenucal wth the mfimuve, wluch bas ro terminal Tle first person smgular of the present tense ls the roof (1 e the mfim- tzve after removal of the suffux -en) The .nd and 3rd person smgular s formed from the first by addmg -t, and all persons of the plural are the saine as the mfinarave The past tense of weak verbs s formed by addmg -re or -de m the smgu!ax, or-ten and -den m the plural, to the foot Whether we use the d (as m loved) or r form (as m slept) ls determaned (see p 8) m accordance wth pronunclataon of a dental after a voxced or voceless consonant Tlus wê bave zk leer (I learn) zk leerde (I learned) k lach (I laugh), zk lachte (I laughed) The past partaclple s forrned by putrang ge- m front of the foot and adchng -d or - The compound tenses are formed as m Enghsh» e g. zk heb geleerd (I have learned) k zal Ieeren (I shall learn)
286 The Loom of Languagé Passive expression follows the Germma pattern (p. 298) wlth fixe auxlary word-wordl:-worden (present), wærd-werden (past) Owing to the ease with which it ls possible to recoalze the eqm- valence of Dutch words and Enghsh words of Teutomc stock, as also to the relaave smaphcty of ts flemonal system whtch, wth Damsh, stands near to Enghsh, Dutch wotùd be a very easy language for anyone already at home wlth Anglo-.nerican ff t shared the features of word- order common to Englîsh, Scandmavlan chalects, and French As we shall now see, the chaef &tticulues anse m connexaon wath the con- strucuon of the sentence. GVlAlq WORI The most important dlfference between Enghsh d e o Ger- mc ag OEe d« of o It ts so great at h OEe work of oeslag a passage hom a Gem or Dutch book remams to be done when e mg of OEe m&eedud words s clr, espey ff tt conveys new ouon or deNs absa tssues Were t oese, e meg of y ptece of sple Dutch prose wod be oeanspent to m Engh-spg reader who had spent ho or so OEg e Table of Pcles, etc, elsewhere m The Loom of Lan- gage To me rapd pros m rg Dutch or Gemaan, t s erefore essenuN to absorb OEe word-pa=em of e pted page One suggeson wNch may help e reader to apply e es ven m e preceg paph appâts on p 66 How OEe meg of OEe splest ave may be obsed by OEe OEm of OEe rgement of words, ess OEe reader xs aed to t by OEe pess effort of preous exeicse m syntactzcal tralatzon» be seen om OEe foog vord-for-word slauon of a passage from one of Hoff's Tales "Have you now roesonable become, my de lord Cot," sneered OEe Npsy "I OEought to me mdeed t tseN OEe money d wod For I ve you mdeed Nways as a prudent d mtelhgent m o " "Indeed OEou sMt xt ve, but der one con&uon" «d t sods ?" "Tt OEou now nor never m OEe yog Cot e seoeet of s b beay Thou st t soeely not pcrps rdy doac "Aye» OEcrc mt I mdced a rcN dcc be," rcphed RoHct laugg "oEer d I om me mysc OEe tonc out-oet No» no, about tt you yoseR be For ff I t told d, so woMd hc s way to OEe dy mooEcr cey cvcn out me alrcady fod vc » To te Gc cocy tt ts neccssaw to ow armc systcm
Bzrd's-Eye View oj Teuonzc Grammar OE87 of concord between the notre, pronoun, and adlectîve (p 293), as well as to know how to arrange Geîman words m the nght way To read German fluently, the former s untmportant and the lavcer s all- maportant So the word-pattem of German s the common denomx- nator, and should be the first concern of the begmner wko does hot share the convcuon that al] learnmg must and should be pamfxtl At ths stage the reader should therefore read once more the remarks on pp I53-66 To emphasze the maportance of German (or Dutch) word-order, we shall now brmg the essenual rtrles together. (a) Prlnclpm clauses» co-ordmae clauses, and sanple seatences (1) ïnverslon of verb and sublect when another sentence element or a suborchnate clause precedes the latter (p I54) Off kommt mem Mann nzch: nach Hause Often my husband does n.ot corne home Wez es Sonntag zst» koche zch nzcht Because It ls Stmday, I ara hot cookang. (n) Past pamclple or mfmmve go to the end of the sentence or clause Dze Katze ha dze Mztch mht gêtnnken The car hasn't dru the mflk Der Hund wzll mzr folgen The dog wants to follow me. (m) The sunple negatve foIlows the obect (ckrect or mchrec0 when t negates the statement as a whole, but precedes a word or phrase whch t negates othe-nse Mezn Vater hat mzr gestem don Scheck nzcht gegeben My faoEer &d hot gzve me OEe cheque yesteroEy Mezn Vater hat mzr nzchr geste d Scheck gegeben My faoEer dd hot gxve me îe choque yesterday (b) Subordmate clauses (v) The fimte verb goes to the end, m-maechatety after the paru- clple or mfimrave when t s a helper Sze kam naclz Hause, zzezl sze kezn Geld mehr hate She came home because she had no more money Mezn Bruder sagte mzr, dass er nach Berhn gehen wolle (wil) My brother told me that he wanted to go to Berhn In al1 other Teutomc languages, except Dutch, and m al1 Romance
288 The Loom of La,guage languages, words connected by meanmg are placed m close pioxlrmty. German, and hot only wrltten German, chslocates r_hem Thus the arncle may be separated from lts noun by a strmg of quahfiers, and the length of the strmg ls determmed by the whlms of the wnter, e g der gestern Abend auf dem Alexanderplatz von eznem Lastauto uberfahrene Backermester Muller st heure morgen seznen Verletzungen ertegen = the yesterday evenmg on the Alexandraplatz by a lorry run over master- baker Muller bas ths mommg to lais mlunes succumbed The aumhary pushes the verb to the end of the statement, as m ch werde dzch heure Abend aufsuchen (I shall you ths evenmg vlslt). When you get to the end of a sentence you may always fish up an unsuspecteà negatlon, e g. er befnedzgte unsere Wumche nzcht = he satïsfied our wlshes not The depenàent clause xs rounded up by the verb, e g er behauptet, dass er zhn zn Chcago getroffen habe = he says that he hlm in Chlcago met had, and when the subordmate xs placed belote the mare clause It calls for mversxon of the verb in the latter (da er arbeztslo st, kann er dze Mete ncht bezahlen = smce he unemployed xs, can he the relat hot pay) Even the preposltlon may leave lts customary place before the noun and match behmd lt, e g der Dame gegenuber (opposlte the lady)-- as was possxble m Latin, e g pax vobîscum (peace be wlth you). Other prekmmary essentaals for a readmg knowledge of German are already contamed m the tables of pronouns, parucles, demonstrauves, and helper verbs, together wlth what bas been satd about the common features of all the Teutomc languages or of the Germanlc clan Anyone who wshês to wnte German correcfly must also toaster the concord of noun and adlecttve The behavxour of nouns, of adjecuves, and of pronouns m rêlauon to one another confronts those of us who are mtêrested in the soctal use of language and ts future wth an alzêstmg problem. It xs easy to tmderstand why Icelanders can snll read the Sagas. The Norse commumty in Iceland has been lsolateà from foreIgn invasion and inumate trade contacts wlth the outslde world, wlale the speech- habits of Bntam and some parts of Europe bave been eroded by con- quest and commerce The oenservatlve character of German xs hot such a simple story The Hanseatlc ports once held leadershlp in maritime traàe. Therê were famous culture centres such as Nuremberg, Augsburg and Mainz There was the flounshmg mmmg mdustry of South Germany and Saxony Thêre were the great international bankmg-houses of the Fugger and Welser Stdl, Germany was hot yet a natton kke fourteenth-century England or steenth-century France.
Brd's-Eye View qf Teutonic Grammar 289 It had no metropohs comparable to London, Paris, Rome, or Madnd. The Berlm of to-day does hot enloy a supremacy which these capitals had earned three htmdred years ago Tfll the present generatton German was hot the language of a smgle pohucal unit m the sense that Icelanch¢ bas been for a thousand years When Napoleon's campugns brought about the downfall of the Holy Roman Emplre, German was the common hterary mechum of a loose confederanon of sovereagn states with no common standard of speech. Modern Germany as a pohucal umty begms after thê battle of Sedan The umon of ail the Htgh Ger- man-speakmg peoples outslde Swtzerland chd hot corne about ttll Hlfler absorbed Austna m the Thtrd Reach In the fourteenth century, that ts to say about the urne when Enghsh became the offical language of the Enghsh ]uchcaary, the secretanat of the chancellenes of the Holy Roman Emptre gave up the use of Latin They started to wme m German The royal chancellery of Prague set the fashton, and the court of the Elector of Saxony fell mto step Ths admmtstranve German, a language with archmc features hke that of out own law courts, was the only common standard when the task of tmmlatmg the Bble brought Luther face to face wth a medley of local chalects. "I speak»" he tells us, "accordmg to the usage of the Saxon chancellery whch ls followed by all the princes and kmgs of Germany Ail the tmpenal crues, all the courts of princes, wnte accord- mg to the usage of the Saxon chancellery whch is that of my own prmoe." Luther's Bble ruade t/ms archmc German the pnnted and wntten language of the Protestant states, north and south At first, the Cathohc counmes ressted In tlme they also adopted the saine standard Its spread receved much help from the prmters who had a matenal mterest m usmg spellmg and grammancal forms free from all too obvaous provmcaahsms By the rmddle of the eghteenth century Germany akeady had a standardïzed hterary and wntten language Durmg the nmeteenth century what had begun as a paper language also came tobe a spoken language SUI1, hngtusuc umficauon has never gone so far m Germany as m France Most German ctnldren are numed on local chalects They do hot get ther miuauon to the spoken and wntten norm ull they reach school, and those who remam m the country habtually speak a local vemacular In the larger towns most people speak a language wtnch stands somewhere between &alect and what s taught m school, but the pronunciauon even of educated people, who dehberately pursue the prescnbed model» usually betrays the K
290 The Loom oJ Language part of the country from wtuch they corne There are also conslderable regonal dlfferences of vocabulary, as fllustrated by a conversation between a Berlmer and a Wlener "A Berlmer m X/xerma goes mto a shop and asks for a Rezsemuze (travellmg cap) The asslstanz corrects lum 'You want a Rezsekappe," and shows hma several The Berlmer remarks 'Dze bumên hebe zch mcht' (I don't hke OEose Wlth several colours) The assistant turns thls sentence mto lls own German 'Dze fabgen gefallen Ihnên mcht' The Vlennese, vou see» loves (hebt) only people, he does not love tklngs Lastly, the Berlmer says 'P¢Tze teuer zst dzese ;3/lurze; (How much ls thls cap ?), and agaln ls guflty, ail llmOCently, of a most crude Berhmsm Teuer, mdeed, apphes to prlces above the normal, fo undu]y hagh pnccs The Vxennese merely says 'lgZas koset das' The Berhner looks round for file Kasse (cash-desk) and fmds the slgn Kassa He leaves the shop saymg» smce it ls stfll eerly m the day 'Guten Morgen,' greatly to the surprise of the Vlennese, who uses t_hs form of wods on arrlval only, and hot on leawng The Vxelmese m turn rephes wlth the words Ich habe dze Ehret Guten Tag t' and thls rime OEe Berlmer xs surprtsed, smce he uses the expression Gwen Tagt only on a.val, and hot when leavmg" (E TOmlelat A Hzstory of the German Language) TIiE GERMAN NOUN The usual pracuce of text-books Is to exhlbt tables of eroe declenmo of G¢ nos such as OEose ven on p 197 T way of pg OEe oenmues of OEe Ge no s use ff we wt t6 comp=e xt moE eqmvMent m one of e older d more My eed reproetanv of OEe Teutomc fy, bE t m hot a good way of sg OEe perdues wch we ne to reb, beoee OEe no of to-y Is spler OE OEe Teutomc no m OEe e of red OEe Great. For tce, a sve gve pl eng h &sappemd MtogeoEer In OEe spoken lage OEe danve sm e-eng surves oy m set exprsIons such as Iz He ome) or He (at home). EssuM es we ne to remcmbe about what engs we bave to add to OEe noauve sm 0 e OEon) fo are OEe foog A In e S6OE (x) Fene nos do not chge (n) Mae nos whmh, hke der Içna3e (boy), ve -E m OEe nonve te -EN m 1 ooEer cases & few oers (e g NH» , SOAT» PNZ» OCH% RV) SO OEke a) The ooEer mascme nos d alI neuter nos add -ES er-S (xer -EL, -ER, -EN, -CN) m OEe gemttve
Bird' s-Eye View o/ Teutonic Grammar 29I (Iv) Proper names and technlcal terres denved from forelgn x'oots such as TELEFON Or RADIUM add -S in the gemtave and do hot otherwase change B The DATIVE PLtYRAL of ALL nollns ends in C In Au. OTHER CASES of the PLURAL (I) Add -]EN to all polysyllabic femmanes (except 7tffuer and Tochrer) and to ail the masculmes mennoned under A(n) (10 Masculmes and neuters in -ER, -EL, -EN, -CHEN (dlmmu- raves), do hOt change, but many of the mascuhnes and all femmmes and neut¢rs (d, mmuuves) have root-vowel change (Umlaut) as stated under D (m) Many monosyllabac masculmes, fernîmnes» and neuters take-E Some of the masculmes and ail the femmmes bave Um/aut, e g der Sohn (son)---dze Sohne (sons) (iv) The most common monosyllabm neuters (e g Blld» Blatt» Buch, EI, Feld, Glas, Haus, Kmd, K!eid, Land, LIcht, Loch etc ), and a few mascu/mes of one syllable have -ER (datlve -ERN) A!I nouns of thm group have Umlaut (v) A small number of masculmes and neuters show maxed declenmon» e-(E)S m the gemtlve smgulax and the plu.fa1 None of them bas Umlaut Examples are AUGE (eye), BAI/ER (farmer), BETT (bed), DOKTOR (PRO- ESSOR, DIREKTOR, IKTOR, etc ), NACl-mAR (neghbour), OHR (ear), STAAT (sEte), STRAHL (ray) D The foot vowels a, o, u, and the chphthong au may change to a, o, u» au in the plural The gemnve form of the German noun follows the thmg possessed as m der Hut memes Vaters (my father's bat) In thts example the masculine smgular noun cames xts gëmnve terminal Smce no plural and no feminme smgular nouns bave a speclal gemnve endmg, the begmner wfll ask how to express the same relation when file noun neïther masculine smgular nor neuter smgular The answer ls that It usually cornes after a pomter-word or adjective whtch does carry the case trade-mark Thus my szster's hat ls der Hut mener Schwester The roundabout method of expression lS common m speech, and lS eamer to hand.le, e g der Hut von menem Vater (the, bat of my father), or der Hut von mener Schwester To apply the rules glven m the precedmg and an succeedmg para- graphs we need to be able to recogmze the gender class to whzch a German noun belongs Each noun an the museum exbxts of Part IV s go labelled by the defimte arucle (nominative smg ) der (m), dze (f.), :/as (n) The followmg rules are helpfial"
292 The Loom o:f Language 0) MASCOEII are (a) Names of adult males (excludmg dlrmnumves), seasons» months, days and compass points lxotable exceptions De Nach (nlght), d2e Woche (week), das ffahr (year) (b) Nouns whch end in -EN (excludmg mfimttves so used) (n) FEMININE are (a) Names of adult femmes (excludmg dlrmnutaves) Notable exception das Wezb (wLfe or woman) (b) Nouns wl-ach end m -EI, -HEIT, -KEIT, -SCHAFT» -IN, and-UNG and forexgn words wluch end in -IE, -IK, -ION, -TAT (a) Dumnutaves wNch end m -LEIN or -CHEN (b) Metals (c) Ail other parts of speech used as nouns, together wxth the followmg common words BAI) (bath) BIER (beer) AOG (eye) BETT (bed) BROT (bread) BEIlq (leg) BILD (picture) FE'rr (fat) BLUT (blood) BIJC (book) FLEI$CFI (meat) HAAR (hmr) FENSXam (wmdow) GEMUSE (greens) I-IERZ (hear t) SSEN (cuson) OL (OLI) OHR (ear) scI-mOSS (lock, castle) ZlMMER (room) BILLET (ticket) BECKEIW (basm) BOOT (boat) GLAS DAç_X'I (roof) KLEID (dress) DECK PAPIER DoCK TCH (clo) scm (stop) Germa verb-roots used as nouns wxthout change are generally mas- culme, e g. fallen--der FalI, laufen---der Lauf (rua---course), sttzen--der Sttn (Slt--seat), schre, en---der Schre (cry) If the verb-root changes,
Bzrd's-Eye View o:[ Teutonic Grammar 293 e g by vowel mutataon, the noun ls usually fermmne, e g geben--&e Gabe (gtve---gn), helfên--d,e Hdfe (help), schreben--de Schrft (wnte---scnpt) CONCORD O1 THE GERMAN ADJECTIVE Thc most dtfficalt tng about German for thc bcgmner ls the elaborate fleraon of the adjecuve Its behavaour depends on (,) whether it ls prechcauve,,.e separated from,ts noun by thc verb be, (n) whether it stands before a noun wthout any pomter-word or possessive adjecuve tu front of It» (m) whether t stands between a noun and a pomter-word or possessive adjecuvc. These remarks apply to ordmary adecuves. Numemls (other than em*) do hot change. Demonstrauves (table on p. 274)» the arucles and possessves (table on p. r27) always behave m thc same way m accord- ance wlth the number of the noun» lts gender class and ts case The demonstrauves (deser» jeder» ]ener» solcher» mancher» welcher) behave hke the defimte amcle (der, de» das, etc ) In the smgular the possessves (mem, etc ) behave hke the mdefimtc arucle (em), as also does kem (no). In the plural they take the same endmgs as demonstrauves MASC' SING lonlln DER CC DEN Gen Dat NEUTER i $ING FEMIN DAS , DES DEM SING PLURAL DIE DER DEN MASC NEUTER EIN EINEN EINES EINEM FEMIN EINE EINER In the precedmg table the nommauve case-form s the one whach goes wth a noun, if sublect of the verb The gemuve s the one whach goes wth a noun used m a possessive sense The accusauve case-form goes wxth a noun whach s the chrect oblect, and the dauve wth a noun wtuch s the mchrect oblect If a preposmon cornes belote the determmauve (demonstratave, possessive or arucle) we have to choose between the accusattve and dauve case-forms m accordance wth the reclpe on p. 262 Thus the accusauve case-form goes wlth ohne (wthout), fur (for), and durch (through) The dauve goes wlth mzt (wth)» von (of or from), * Zwet and drez have gemttve forms, zwezer, dreero stfll n use
The Loom oJ Language and zn maless the verb denotes motton Wlth the neuter» femnune and masculine nouns das Haus (bouse)» dze Frau (woman)» der Hut (hat)» we there£ore wrtte ohm das Haus mz: dem Haus ohm mezn Haus mzt memem i--f aus PLURAL ohne dze Hauser mzt den Hausern ohne meme Hauser zn memen Hausern fftr dze Frau von der Frau far meme Frau von mener Frau durch den Hur m dem Hut durch mezmn Hut ,n memem l-lut far dze Frauen von den Frauen fur unsere Frav2n von umeren Frauen durch de I-lute zn den Huten durch meme Hîte von meznen Huten The rules for cholce of endîngs approprate to ordmary adjecuves ïall under four headmgs (1) If prechcatxve, an adjectlve bas the çàcronary form wzthout addztzon of any enchng It behaves as Enghsh adjectaves behave We do hOt bave to bother about r.he number, gender or case of the noun We use the same word dumm to say Das ,st: dumm -- thls xs stupld Er 2sr dumm = he xs smpld Sze st dumm --- she xs stupxd W:r sznd dumm = we are stupd (u) If the adjecr2ve cornes after a demonstratzve or the defimte artzcle it behaves hke nouns of the weak class represented by der Knabe (p 29o) We then bave to choose between the two endmgs -E and -EN m accor- dance watn the number, gender, and case of the noun The endmg-E s the ïorm wbach always goes wath a smgular subect It ls also the accusa- rive case-form for smgular nouns of the femmme and neuter classes Otherwlse we have to use the endmg -EN The followmg table shows the relation of the defimte article to an accompanymg (weak) adectlve. ])at deI" den blmoEN NEUTEP, SlNGULAR d$ bLmdEN dem FEMININE SIN'GOEAR PLURAL den blmdEN
Bird's-Eye View o/ Teutonic Grammar 95 Thus we have to use the weak forms of the ad:lecuve m von der guten Frau ----- from the good woman rmt &esem neuen Geld = wlth tins new money ohne &e alten Hure = wzthout the old hats (m) When no demonstrauve, article or possessive stands n front of the adjecuve, It takes the strong endmgs of the vanous case-forms of the demenstrauve Once we know the case-forms of der» das» &e, we know the strong endmgs of the adjecnve The table below shows the essenual smulanty between the strong endangs of the adlecuve and the endmgs of the absent (in brackets) demonstratave Norlll Accu$ Gen Dat MASCULINE SI2q'GULAR (dEN) rot.EN (dES) rotES (dEM) rooEM SINGULAR (daS) rotES rote (dER) rotER PLURAL (dEN) rooEN Accordmgly we use the strong forms analogous to the correspondmg absent demonstratlve m ohne rotes Blut mt rotera Bhtt wlthout red blood wlth red blood fur gute Frauen von guten Frauen for good women of good women (zv) The behaxaour ,of an ordmary adlecrave when t stands alone belote the noun and when zt follows a demonstrauve or the defimte artacle rmght be summed up by saymg that zt does hot carry the strSng endmg ff preceded by another word whach has t Tins statement mcludes what happens »vhen zt cornes affer flae other class of determmaraves, 1 e after em, kem, and the possesslves me2n, sera, etc The nom.mauve smgular masculine, as well as both the nommauve aad accusauve smgttlar neuter forms of these words lack the strong endmgs of the other case-forms, and the ad]ecuve whach folIows the mdefimte arucle oz possessive takes the strong endmgs of the mascuhne smgular nommanve and of both
The Loom of Language nommauve and accusauve smgular neuter Otherwse an adecuve whtch follows em, kem, mem, etc, bas the weak endmgs The followlng table lllustrates tlïe parmershp 1NOll3/n /CCLIS Gen Dat MASCOEINE SINGUZAR memen rotEN IYEUTER SINGULAR me!n rotES melnes rotEN FEM_ININE SINGULAR memê rote mêmer rotEN melnem rot_EN PLURAL meme rotEN memen rotEN Accordmgly we have to say ohne das grosse Haus ohne ezn grosses Haus ohne che gute Frau ohne eme gute Frau Analogous to the OEerence between the nommauve and accusauve case-forms of der, etc, and em ls the dtfference between the possessive pronouns memer, memes, meme, etc (re_me), and the possessive adlecUve mn (my) There are (see p I27) rive ways of saymg zt s mme nxGerman, ff the word t refers to a masculine noun such as Hu es s memer, es zst der memge, es ut der meme, er st mem, er gehort mzr Some nouns denved from adecuves and parucïples retaln the wvo forms approprmte to the defnnte and mdefimte arucles, e g der AngeselIte (employee) ezn Angestellter der Beamte (officual) em Beamter der Fremde (stranger) em Fremder der Gelehrre (scholar) ezn GeIehrter der Rezsende (traveller) em Rezsender Unhke the Enghsh adverb of manner wth xts suffax-ly and the French one wth the st6fix-ment, most German adverbs belong to our fast class (p III). They are ldenttcal wîth the unmttêcted adjecuve as used a!one aftêr the vêrb, e g se ha ezne enrzuckende Snrnme she has a charmlng volce se smgr entzuckend she smgs in a charmng way Thts pratseworthy feature of German gccxdence--or lack of accdence-- ts one, and perhaps the only one, whlch we nnght wsh to lncorporate xn a world auxthary Some German adverbs wtnch are not eqmvalent to the
BircFs-Eye Vzew o] Teuonzc Grammar 297 unmflected adjcctave are suïvlvals of the gemuve case form» e g rechts (to the nght), hnks (to the left), flugs (qmckly), stets (alçvays) The genmve case-form of the noun s also used to express ndefimte mme, e g. emes Tages (one day), morgens (m the mornmg) The latter must hot be confused wlth morgen (to-morrow) The accusauve form ls used m adverbml expresslons mvolvmg defimte tune, e g. er las den ganzen Tas zm Bett he lay the whole day m bed er geht jeden Tas zn den Park he goes to the park every day THE GERMAN VERB Wth one outstandmg exception, and wlth due allowances for the second sound-shfft, the I-Iagh German verb ls b_ke the Dutch. The past wlth haben can replace the Enghsh srmple past or the Enghsh past wth bave The past wlth hatte (er hatte gehort--he had heard) ls hke the Enghsh construcnon In parts of Germany, the smaple past has chsap- peared m dady speech A Bavanan housewtfe says zch habe Kartoffeln geschalt Context or the msemon of a pamcle of rime shows whether thas means (a) I was peehng potatoes» (b) I have lust peeled potatoes The followmg tabIe summanzes the formanon of the smaple present and smapIe past by suffuxes added to the stem of a weak verb (1 e what remams after l emovmg the affix -en from the mfrmnve) or by helper verbs A good chctaonary always gaves hsts of strong verbs and therr parts The reader wdl fmd some maportant xregulanues of personal flemon m the chscusston ofmtemal vowel change on p o8 m Chapter V. st Smg 3rd Smg Plural PRESENT -E -(E)T PAST TENSE l habe "-(E)TE Or bat + past t partacaple -(E)TEN haben j werde ! wrd -i- mfimtve werden The one excepnon menuoned m the precedmg paragraph fs the way m whtch future ttme and conchaon are expressed In Dutch, as m Scandmawan dlalects» the correspondmg eqmvalents zal and zoude replace shalI and should At one tmane the shall (SOLL) verb of I-Iagh German chalects was also a helper to mchcate future rime. Durmg the fourteenth century It chsappeared as a trme marker m the Court German of the chancellenes» and reverted to ts original compulmve meanmg m thou shalt hot commzt adultery in dafly speech fut-me ttme ïs usually
z98 The Loom of Laîzguage expressed by the smaple present wïth or wathout an exphct partlcle (e g soon)» or adverblai expressmn (e g. next week) as m all Teutome languages In hterary German the place of shaIl s takexa by WERDEN, the common Germamc helper an p«sslve expresslons, e g cz werde kommen = I shall corne er wrct hommen = he vall corne wzr» Ste» ste werden kommen ---- we shall corne» you» they wtlt corne Smaïlarly» when should or would are used after a conchtaou (e g tf hê came I should see hzm> m contradastmcon to s,tuataons m wch they sagnffy compulszon (Sou should know), they are translated by the past, ourde If followed by bave» the latter ,s translated by sera (be), e g er wurcle gehen ---- he wozdd go er wurde gegange sera = he would have gone Thas helper verb werden (worden. m Dutch) s eqmvalent to the Old Enghsh weorpan whach meaxts to become Its parttcaple has persxsted as an at în fo,a, ard, mward» etc It s used (hke lts Dutch eqravalent) m passive expresslons where we should use bê, and the German verb to be then replaces out verb fo bave» e g er wTxd geaort -- he zs heard er xnarde gehort -- he was head er 1st gehort worden = he bas been heard er war gehot worden = he hacl been heard Unfornmately It xs hot true to say that we czn always use the parts of werden to translate those of the verb be» when It precedes a past parta- caple m what looks hke a passave constructton Someumes the German constructîon s more hke out own, x e san (be) replaces werden To know whether a German would use one or the other, the best thmg to do xs to apply the followmg tests where xt ls possible to msert already m an Enghsh sentence of th type, the correct German eqtuvalent xs sera» e g Ungtuckhcherwezse war der I7zsch (berezts) gefangen Unluchly r.he fish was (already) caught In ail other ctrcumstances use werden. It can always be used ff the subect of the eqtuvalent actave statememt s exphcdy menuoned. ' The Gemama equavaients for some Enghsh verbs whach take a chrect obect do hot behave hke typlcal transztzve verbs whch can be followed by the accmsattve case-rotin of a noan or pronoum The eqtuvalent of the Enghsh dazect object bas the datave case-form whch usually stands for
Bird's-Eye View o Teutonic Grammar 299 out mdarect object It canno become fle subject of the verb werden m a passxve constructton Such verbs mc!ude seven common ones antworten (answer), begegnen (meet), danken (thank), dzenen (serve), folgen (follow)» gehorcken (obey), helfen (help) We bave to use these verbs n the active form, exther by makmg the chrect oblect of the ]Enghsh passtve construc- taon the German subect when the former s exphcfly merttaoned, or by mtroducmg the mapersona! subect man, as m man dankte m,r fur mane Demte (I was thanked for my service--one thanked me for my ser- wce) Reflextve substmtes are hot uncommon, e g plozzhch offnete szch de Tut (suddenly the door was opened) Theïe lS an alternatave clumsy mapersonal constx-uctxon mvolvmg the passive constructaon wth the mdefimte sub]ect es, e g es wurde mîr gedankz Because of all these dtffi- culttes, and because Germans themselves avod passive constructaons m everyday speech, the begmner should ctavate tne habit of actzve state- ment Though It Is true that the German verb haben s always equîvalent to our bave when t s used to sgmfy past urne, the converse ls hot true. Wlth many verbs a German uses the parts of san (p Ior). Verbs wlnch go wlth haben are all transiave, e g zch habe gegeben (I bave gven), reflemve, e g. sze bat szch geschamt (she felt ashanled), and the helpers sollen, konnen, wollen, lassen, e g er bat nzcht kommen wollen (he chd hot want to corne) The German uses san and Its parts when our bave Is followed by an Enghsh verb of motion, such as korrgnen (corne), gehen (go), rasen (travel), stagen (chmb), e g ,ch bru gegangen (I ha'ce gone) The verbs blaben, we den and san ltseK also go wth san, as fllustrated on p 298. The present tense-forms of rive Enghsh and German helpers are denved from the past of old strong verbs They have acqutred new weak past tense forms They have smgtflar and plural forms in both, but no speclfic personal fleraons ofthe t!rd person smgttlar present can may shall wfll must Smg kann mag soll wzll muss Plut konnen mogen sollen wotlen mûssen couId mlght should would Smg konnre mochre solle wollte roussie Plut konnten mochten sollten wotlten mussten Though denved from common Teutomc roots the correspondmg Enghsh and German words do not convey the same meaning. For reasons stated on p I5, ths ls hot surpnsmg. Below ls a table to show the correct use of these German helpers, mcludmg also darf-
300 The Loom oj Language dufen-durfte, a stxth form from a root wbach does hot correspond to that of any English auxary: MUSSEN necesszty (must, bave to) eh muss nun packen I bave to pack now er mussze Amerka verlassen he had to Ieave Amenca es muss mteressant gewesen sera It must bave been very m- terestmg lvlOGnN--(contd ) zch mochte Sze gern besuchen I should lake to look you up zch mochte heber hzer blezben I would rather stay here W0LLEN (1) mtentzon (vall) zch wzll und werde zhn zwmgen I wH1 and shall force han KONNEN (1) capabhty (can, be able) konnen Se tanzen» can you dance ? wr konnten mcht kommen we were unable to corne (u) posm'bhty (may) er kann schon am .Mztwoch he may arnve (already) on Wednesday (m) &omatc, e g er kann Spamsch he knows Spamsh ch kann mchs dafur I can't help t MOGEN (x) posszbzhty (may) Se mogen recht haben you may be iaght (n) preference (hke ch mag heute mch ausgehen I don't hke to go out to-day mogen Se do you hke hma (u) vohnon (wants to, wsh to) er wzll &ch sprechen he wants to talk to you (m) zdzornazc zch wollte eben gehen als i was lust leavmg when se wtl uns gesehen haben she pretends havmg seen us er wzlI nach Holland he wants to go o Itolland SOLLEN () obhgatwn (shaI1, be to, ought to) du sollst mcht stehlen thou shalt hot steal sag hm, er soli gehen tell htm to go Sze sollten zhm ken Geld lezhen you should not lend hma any money Sze hatten fruher kommen sollen you should bave corne earher (n) dwmatzc er soli zhr Gehebter sera he s smd to be her loyer
Bird's-Eye Fzew of Teutonic Grammar 3o SOLLm--(contd ) as soll ch tun» what shall I do ? DURFEN---(contd ) e bat mcht kommen durfen ,he was hot allowed to corne sollte er wellezcht krank seznP can he be fil DURFEN () permuson (may, be allowed to) darf (kann) :ch nun gehenZ may I go now darf zch Sze um em Strechholz bztten may I ask for a match ? (n) posszbzhty (may) das durfte nzcht schwer sera that shouldn't be dacult The begimaer who ls not forewarned may be confused about one use of lassen» whach Is eqmvalent to let m the sense bave a thmg done After thïs an mfmmve lS used where we should put a parucaple Thas construcuon ls common, e g Er lasst sch em Haus bauen = he zs havzng a house budt Er hat sch em Haus bauen lassen -- he bas had a bouse buzi: Er wlrd sxch en Haus bauen lassen = he zmll bave a house budt Er bat nuch warten lassen ----- he ha kept me wamng Broadly speakmg we can always translate the chcuonary form whach also does serwce for the present tense or the maperauve m Enghsh by the German mfimnve when It s accompamed by a helper or preceded by to. The latter ls eqmvalent to zu, wtnch does hot precede the verb ff tt s accompamed by a helper We omat the preposmon after two verbs (see, hear) other than helpers hsted on p 52, and someumes after a thud (help) Germans leave out zu after horen, sehen, and helfen, and also do so after a few others Of these lernen (leam) and lehren (teach) are most common. I saw hun do it I heard hma say that Help me (to) find It She taught me fo dance I ara learmng to wrlte Gelman zch sah zhn es tun ch ho te zhn sagen, dass Hflf mr doch es finden sze lehrte mch tanzen zch Ie ne deusch schrezben The helper verbs (konnen, mogen, durf en, wollen, sollen, mussen, lassen) together wth the last named (sehen, horen, helfen) bave a second common pecuhanty In thetr past compound tenses the mmuve form replaces the past parucaple wth the ge- prefix, whenever they are accompamed by the mfimuve of another verb, e.g " er bar nzch gewollt er hat mchr horen wollen he dacha't want to he chcha't want to hsten.
3o2 The Loom oJ Language The verb zoerden bas two past parucaples, (a) worden when ,t xs used as a helper an passive expresslons, (b)gewoden when used as an ordmary verb meanmg to become" (a) er zst: gesehen worden (b) de Mzlch st saue. geworden he has been seen OEe mllk has become sour When the Enghsh to sgnes m order to the German uses um e g er ,st auf dem Bahnhof» um seine F au abzuholen (he xs at flac stauon fo meet hts wzfe) The same combmauon um. zu must be used when an adlecuve belote the mfiruve ls quahfied by zu (too) or genug (enough), e g er war zu schwach um azoEzustehen er ha Gdd genug gin sch zurgckzuzzehen he was too weak to get up he bas money enough to reure. G $TA The rules gaven on p. 287 do hOt exhaust the eccentncmes of German word-order. The behavaour of verb prefixes remforces our Impression of chslocauon Both m Enghsh and m French the prefix of a verb, e.g. be- (m behold» etc ) or re- (m reconnattre = recogmze) s mseparably marned to the foot German bas some ten of such mseparable verb prefixes; but tt also bas others whlch detach themselves from the root and mm up m . another part of the sentence Of the former, httle needs to be smd. Some of them e recognably lïke Enghsh verb prefixes» others are hot None of r.hem except mzss- bas a clear-cut meanmg Tins class fs ruade up of b-» ent, emp-, er-, ge-, mzss-, ver, wzder-, zer- The only useful fact to know about them s that thexr past parucaples lack the ge- prefix, e g er hat stch betrunken Oae got drunk), er bat meme Karte noch mcht erhalten Oae has hot yet receaved my card), er bat mtch verraten Oae has betrayed me) The separable Gemaan verbs carry preposmon suffixes hke those of our words undergo, uphold, overcome, ugthstand In one group the preposmon as always detached, and cornes behmd the present or simple past te.me of the verb of a smaple sentence» or of a prmopal clame, but stocks to the verb foot m a subordmate clause Ttus lS fllustrated by companson of the smaple and complex sentences m the pairs: (a) Dze Dame geht heure aus The lady s gomg out to-day lhe Dame, &e gerade ausgeht» s krank The lady who ust went out s atl
Bzrd's-Eye Vzew o Teutome Grammar 303 (b Der dunge schreb den Bnef ab The boy Is copymg the letter Der dunge, der den Bref abgeschrzeben bat, zs sehr begabt The boy who has copaed the letter as very talented The ge- prefix of the pzst partîcple £ a separate veb lS mserted between the foot and the preposmon-prefix, e g angebrannt Çournt), bagepflchtet (agreed), zugdassen (admxtted) Affer the verb werden expressmg future ame the prefix sucks to the foot of the mfim- tve, e g. ch werde hm nzcht nachlaufen I shall hot rtm after hun. When the prepostion zu accompames the infimuve t cornes between the prefix and thê root, e g Der K'nabe bat dze Aboecht es abzuschreben The boy refends to copy x Sze bat mch zurï¢ckzukommen She asked me to corne back In the spoken language verbs which always conform to these rules are recognzzable by the stress on the prefix, t e. any one of the follow- mg. an-, auf-, aus-, be,-, an- (-- m), nach-, var-, --u-. Unfornmately, another set of verbal prefixes belong to verbs wîth separable or msepa- rable forms whch do hot mean the saine thmg, or are mseparable when attached to one foot and seprable when attached to another Thus durchesen, a sepamble verb (wlth stress on the ftrst sytlable) means to travel throztgh wzthout stoppmg, but durchreuen as an m- separable vrb (wth the stress on the second syllable)» means to travd all over. Ofsuch parts, another example is the separable unterstehen (seek shelter) and lts mseparable co-twm unterstehen (date) In umerschden (chstmgtush) the prefix ls mseparable. In untergehen (smk) It Is separable. These capnclous prefixes are durch-» hmter-, uber» um-» unter-, voll-, uneder-. The mseparable verbs are usually transmve and form compound tenses wxth haben» the separable ones mtransmve, formmg compound tenses wth sera (be). One great stumbhng-block of German syntax to the Enghsh-speakmg begmner ls the profusmn of parades arbltrarfly allocated to parucular stuatmns. The smgle Enghsh worc! before can bê a conunoeon ïn a temporal sense, a preposlnonal chrectve m a spatml or temporal sense»
304 The Loom of Language anoE can replace the adverb prevwusly Where one word suffices, German demands three: Preposmon belote the dawn (temporal) vor Tagesanbuch belote bas eyes (spattal) vor seznen Augen Conjunctaon belote he saw t ehe er es sah or bevor er es sah Adverb you smd so belote Sze haben es berets gesagt Smularly out word af ter can be ether a preposmon or a conuncnon, eg after has baxh nach semer Geburt after he was born nachdem er geboren war On the crecht sde of the German account, German bas one word, wahrend, for whch we bave a separate preposmon (dunng) and con- luncuon (ohle), e g. durmg dmner whale he was eanng wahrend des Essens wahrend er ass For each of the Enghsh chrecttves tnszde, outszde, up, and over, there s a separate German preposmon (m, aus, auf, uber) and two adverbs the use of whtch demands an explanataon The small number of essenttal pamcles m a baste vocabulary for Anglo-Amencan use s partly due to the fact that we bave largely dascarded chstmcaom already tmphctt m the accompanymg verb For instance we no longer make the chstmctton between test and motwn (or sttuaton and &rection) exphctt m archatc couplets as here-hzther or thera-thther. The German dlcttonm3r ts supercharged wth redundant parncles or redtmdant grmmattcal tncks wbach mchcate whether the verb maplies motaon, or tf so in what (tmher-thther) darecuon Corre- spondmg to each of the German preposinom mentloned last (m, aus, au.f, uber) there are here-there couplets herem-hmem, heraus-hmaus, herauf-hmauf, hmder-hznuber analogous to herab-hmab (down) for whch there fs no precasely eqmvalent German preposmon * If the verb is konen (wtuch already mchcates motaon towards a fixed point), we use the here-form, ber- If the verb s gehen (whtch mdacates monon away from a fixed point) we have to use the there-form hm-, e.g Kommen Se herab = Corne down Gehen Se hmab ----- Get dow * The adverbtal form placed after the accusauve notre does the work of the preposmon, as m er grog rien Hugel hmab he went dorn r.he hall er kommt dze Strasse herab he s commg down the streêt
Bzrd's-Eye Vzew of Teutonic Grammar 305 Wlth stegen or klettern Çooth of whach mean chmb) the use of the forms depends on whether the speakel ls at the top or at the bottom of the tree If at the bottom he (or she) says Klettern Ste hmauf, ff at the top, Klettern Ste herauf Both mean chmb up, and the chstincnon reveals nothmg whch s hot ruade expbclt by the context One way m whch the German language mchcates locauoa and mouton bas no para]lel m other modern Teummc languages nor m French and Spamsb It s a rehc from a very remote past. We bave seen (19. OE62) that a set of mue preposmons (an, up, to or at, auf, hmter, behmd, m, neben, near to, uber over or across, unter below or under, vor before, zwzschen between) someumes precede a datave and someumes an accusauve case-rotin If the verb maphes test the pre- scnbed case-rotin lS the dauve, ff t maphes motzon, the accusanve, e g er stand unter dem Fenster he stood below the wmdow er frai unrer das Fenster he stepped below e wmdow. The chstmcuon s hot always so easy to detect, as m seine Hosen hangen an der Wand lus trousers are hangmg on the wall er" hangt das Bztd an &e IV'and he ls hangmg the pcture on the waI1 S ull more subfle s the OEerence between. Ste mnzte vor zhm she danced m front of Ste tanze vor hn she danced nght up to htm Even when the German slgns tus naine, the case-rotin bas to obey the movement of the penholder, as m er schretbt seznen Narnen auf d.as Dokument (he xs wrmng hls naine on the document). Germans offen supplement a more or less vague preposmon wth a more exphcat adverb vhach foIlows the noun Such charactensucally German prohm ,s Klustrated by. er szeht zum Fens:er hmaus he s lookang through the wmdow. er gehr um den See herum he xs walkmg round the lake Thus a smaple chrecraon may be supersarurated wlth parucles wluch are at least fifty per cent redundant, e g vom Dorfe aus gehen Se auf rien Wald tu, und von dort aus uber dze Brucke h2nuber, nach dem klemen See hm (You go up towards the forest and thence across the bridge towards the hrtle lake ) The separab!e combmauon nach hm wthm the sen- tence and the correspondmg nach her, both meanmg towards, must be memorzed The preposmon nach s eqmvalent to after m a purely temporal sense, 11ustrated prewously, as s the nseparable adverb nachher (afterwards) When nach precedes a place-naine tt sxgmfies to
36 The Loom oj Language e g nach Behn ---- to Berkn Thus nach Haus geen means go horn m contradstanoeon to g Hause ezn (be at home. The problem of choosmg the nght word also anses n German--as in most European languages other than Anglo-Amencan--whenever we use a verb wtuch may bave a transuve or mtransiuve meanmg Since most Anglo-Amencan verbs can bave both, the choce s one from wuch an English-speakmg begmner cannot escape If the ordinary meanmg of the verb s transmve, we can use ts German eqmvalent reflexvely Tins rock s useful when there s no exphclt oblect, e g er kuhlr dze Luft ab &e Luft kuhlt sch ab he s cool.mg the mr the atr s coolmg (tself). Ths constmcaon s common to German and other Teutomc chalects, as also to French or Spamsh More usually we bave a cholce between two forms of the verb xtself They may be chstmgmshed by mtemal vowel-changes as on p 208, or by means of the afiïx be-. Tins prefix, whch has lost any specafic meanmg m Enghsh, converts an mtranslnve German verb mto lts transmve eqmvalent, 1 e the obhgatory form when there s a duect ob3ect, e g INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE antworzen (answer) beantworten drohen (theaten) bedrohen her schen (rule) beherrschen rrauern (moum) betrauern urtalen Oudge) beurte Ien The German vocabulary s burdened by an enormous number of couplets dastmgmshed by one or another mseparable prefix. Besdes the be- whach ves the mtransmve German verb an ob]ect m lffe, one prefix, mzss-, hke ts Enghsh eqmvalent (cf understand--masunderstand) has a clearly defmed meanmg fflustrated by achten--mzssachten (respect --despse), glucken--rmssglucken (succeed--fafl), tauen--mzsstrauen (trust--mastrust) Other common prefixes bave no smgle meanmg Both ent- and er- may sgnffy mcpent acuon hke the Latïn afftx-esc- m evanescent, Thus we bave flarnrnen--entflammen (blaze--burst mto flames) or erroren (mm red), erkalten (grow cold) In some verb couplets of tins sort er- sgnes getzng a result Thus we have arbezen (work) betreln Çoeg) kampfen (fight) haschen (match) erarbezren (obvam through work) erbetteln (obtam by beggmg) erkampfen (obtam by fightmg) erhaschen (obtam by snatchmg)
Bird's-Eye Vzew of Teutonic Grammar 307 The prefix ver- attached to many verbs whch can stand on thezr own legs may bave a perfectave meanmg» e g. brennen (bure) verbrennen (burn up) arbezten (work) verarbezten (work up) schzessen (shoot) verschzessen (shoot away) trnken ( drmk) vertrznken (drmk away) In another group of such pairs, the saine prefix mchcates that the acuon went awry» e g bzegen (bend) verbzegen legen (put) verlegen sprechen (speak) szch versprechen horen (hear) szch verhoren schreben (wrte) szch verschrezben (spofl by benchng) (masplace) (cornant a shp of r.he togue) (hear vhat bas hot been sad) (comrmt a shp of the pen) The older Teutomc languages had subjunctave verb forms, past and present. In Enghsh the only traces of tins are (a) the use of were m con&uonal clauzes when the condmon s rejected ( e hypothettcal or tmtrue), as m OE I were rzcher» I could buy t, (b) m dafl]dent statements such as lest zt be lost. As we maght expect, the German subjuncuve has been more reslstant. The verb sein bas present (ch or er ez, wr or se seen) and past (zch or er ware, wr or se waren) substructure forms So bas werden m the 3rd smg er werde of the present, and throughout the past, wurde-wurden If we exclude the mtzmate forms (v, ath du and hr) the only dastmct present subiunctve form of most other verbs s the 3rd person singular It ends m -e mstead of-t, e g mache for macht (make) or finde for findet. The weak verb bas no specaal past sublunc- tve form. That of strong verbs ls formêd from the ordmary past by vowel change and the adchtton of-e» e g gab--gabe (gare)» flog---floge (flew) The subjunctave of the present of strong verbs of the nehmen- geben class ls formed wthout the modficatmn of the stem vowel (p 9.o8) Its use m conchaonal clauses, as m Enghsh» Is Rlustrated by: tVenn ,ch etwas nehr Geld hatte, wurde zch zufi ,edener sera If I had a httle more money I should be happxer. lVenn ch ewas mehr Geld gehabt hatte, ware zch zufrzedener gewesen If I had had a httle bt more money I should bave beezt happer The German subjtmctxve xs also used m reported speech, e g. in semer Rezchstagsrede erktarte Hztler» er werde bzs zwn lezten Bluts- ropfen kampfen, dzeser Krzeg entschede uber das Sch,cksal Deuschlands auf tausend dahre hznaus, etc The subjtmcttve s also used m mchrect questions, e g «ch fragte zhn, ob
308 The Loom of Language er mtt der Arbet femg se ( I asked ban ff he had fimshed the job). h occurs m certain xchomauc expresslons, e g the set formula for a quahfied statement in whlch we imght use very nearly lch rare fast ums Leben gekommen Common lchoms are da waren wr at es kose» was es woIle es se denn» dass er gelogen habe I very nearly lost my hfe here we are! cost what t may unless he hed about The grammar of German s dcult, and the ama of the last few pages bas hOt bee to pretend that xt s othermse If we want to file the ttmumerable ru]es and excepuons to the rules m cupboards where we can fmd them, the best we can do s to label them as representatlve exktbIts of speech defonmes or evoluonary rehcs. Many of r.hem are hot essenttal to anyone who amas at a readmg lmowledge of the lan- guage, or to anyone who washes to talk German or to hsten to German broadcasts For the latter there ls some consolauon It s much easIer to leam to read, to wnte, or even to speak most languages correctly than to mterpret them by ear alone. Thas ls hot true of German Ger- mans pronotmce mchvadual words clearly, and the mvolved sentences of literary German rarely overflow mto dafly speech No European language is more easy to recogmze when spoken, ff the hstener bas a servtceable vocabulary of common words There s therefore a sharp contrast between the ments and defects of German and Chmese. German combines inflation of word-forms and grammatical conven- uons wxth great phonetlc clamy Chmese umtes a mammum of word- economy wth extreme phonenc subtlety and obscunty. FURTHER READIixlG BRADLEY The Makng of Enghsh nUFF a_ FREImD The Baszs and Essennals of German GRUNDY Bmsh up your German rOm¢ELAr A Hzstory of the German Language WlLSOl The Studem's Guzde o Modern Langages (A Compm:auve Study of Enghsh, French, Germano and Spamsh). The pnmers in smaphfied Swechsh, Damsh» Norwegan, German, and Dutch pubhshed by Hugo's Language Insutute, Teach Yourself German, Teach Yourself Duch, Teach Yo,¢rself Norweg, an, m the Teach Yourself Books (Enghsh Umversty Press)
CHAPTER VIII THE LATIN LEGACY Fotm Romance languages, French, Portuguese, Spamsh, and Itahan, are the theme of the next chapter Readers of The Loom of Language wfll now know that all of r.hem are descendants of a smgle tongue, Latin Two thousand rive hundred years ag% Latin was the vernacular of a modest caty-state on the Tber m Central Italy From there, mah- tary conquest tmposed lt, first on Lauum and then upon the rest of Italy. Other related Itahc dlalects, together wth Etruscan, wlth the Celttc of Lombardy, and wth the Greek current m the south of the Penmsula and m Scfly, were swamped by the language of Rome xtself The subsequent career of Latin was very OEerent from that of Greek Outsxde Greece ltself, the Greek language had always been Imnted to coastal belts, because the Greeks were pnmanly traders, whose home was the sea The Romans weIe conmtenfly tmpenahsts Ther con- quests carned Latin over the North of Afnca, mto the Ibenan Penm- sula, across Gaul from South to North, to the Rhme and East to the Danube In ail these parts of the Empire, mchgenous languages were chsplaced Only the vemamlars of Bntam and Germany escaped tins rate Bntam was an sland too remote, chmaucally too unattracnve, and matenally too poor to encourage setflement Germany successfully ressted further encroachment by defeatmg the Roman in the swamps of the Teutoburger Wald In Gaul, Romamzauon was so rapd and so thorough that ltS nauve Celuc chsappeared completely a few centunes after the Galhc War. The reason for tins s largely a mat-ter of speculauon, but one thmg xs certain, Roman overlords chd hot mlpose thetr language upon their sublects by force Sprachpohtzk, as once pracused by modem European states, was no part of thetr pmgamme Smce Latin was the language of admunstrauon, knowledge of Latin meant pmmouon and social ds- tmcuon So we may presume that the Gaul who wanted to get on would leam it Common people acqutred the racy slang of Roman solchers, petty oflïcaals, traders, setflers, and slaves, whfle sons of chefs were nm'mred m the more refmed ichom of êducauonal estabhshment wInch flounshed in Marseflles, Autun, Bordeaux, and Lyom. When parts of Gaul came under Franlrash dommatton m the fifth
3 o The Loom oj Language century »., the foregn mvaders soon exchanged thetr Teutomc &alect for the language of sublects numerically stronger and culturally more advanced Change of language accompamed a change of heart The Franks embraced the uan faîth, and the oftîcnal language of the Chnsuan fath was the language of Rome The tmpact of Franklsh upon Gago-Roman dad hot affect its struce, though It contnbuted many words to ts present vocabulary Several hundreds surve i modem French, e g auberge (German Herberge, mn), gerbe (German Garbe, sheaf), haze (German Hag, hedge), harr (German hassen, hate), ]ardm (German Ga ten, garden), rzche (German rezch, nch) In adchuon the Franks tmportect a few suffes, e g, -ard as m ezllard (old man) The ianguage wtch dxsed throughout the povmoes of the Empre was hot the classlcal Latin of Tom Brown's schooldays It was the Latin spoken by the common people Ever smce Latin had become a hterary language (m the thd century c ) there had been a sharp cleavage between popular Latin and the Latin of the eruchte In tracmg the evoluuonary tmtory of Romance languages from Latin, we must therefore be clear at the outset about what we mean by Latin tself When we chscuss French, Spamsh, or Itaha, we axe dealmg wth languages whch Frenchmen, Spanaards, or Itahans speak Latin s a terre used m two senses. It may sgmfy a hterary product to cater for the tastes of a social éhte It may also mean the hvmg laguage tmposed on a large part of the cved world by Roman arms belote the begmmg of the Chnsuan era. Ia the fLrst sense, Latin s the Latin of classcal authors selected for study in schools or colleges It was always, as t s now, a dead language because t was nver the language of dady mtercourse. It belons to an epoch whe script was hot eqmpped wth the helps whaeh ptmctuation supphes Books were nt wntten for rapd readmg by a large readmg public. For both these reason a mde gap sepaxated the wntte from the spoke laguage of any aace people Ira acent ttmes what remams a gap was a precptous chasm Whe we speak of Latin as the commonparent of modera Romauce taaguages, we mea the hvmg laguage wbach was the commo mechum of mtereose m Roman Gattl, Roman Spam, ad Italy durmg the Empzre Fo rive cexttunes two languages, each called Latin, emsted mde by sde m the Roman Empre. Whfle the language of the ear kept ou Ne more, the lauguage of the eye remaiued stau¢ over a penod as long as that whch separates the Anlo-Amenca of Faraday or Men- ckenfrom the Enghsh of Chaucer aad Langland Naturally, there
The Latin Legacy 3I are gradauons of arttficaahty wathm the sermo urbanus, or culmred manner, as weli as gradanons of flextbfllty mthm the sermo rustcus, the sermo vulgans, the sermo pedestrts, the sermo usuahs, as lts opposate was vanously called The Macaulays of classxcal prose were less exotic than the Gertrude Stems of classlcal verse, and the Blglow Papers of the Golden Age were more colloqmal than the comporauons of a Roman Burke or a Roman Carlyle Unhappaly our mazezmls for plecmg together a satsfactory ptcture of Laun as a living language are meagre A few techmcal treauses, such as the Mechamcs of Vztrmaus, mtroduce us to words and 1chorus ahento the wntmgs of poets and rhetoncaans, as do msetapoEons ruade by people wth no hterary pretenslons, the protests of grammanan% then as now guarchans of scarcaty values, expressions wbach crop up m the comeches of Plaums (264-194 B c )0 occaslonal lapses ruade by hlghbrow authors, and feamres common to two or more Romance languages ahve to-day From all the sources we can be certain that the Vulgar Latin wJmch asserts ltsetf m lterature when the acceptance of OEnsuamty promoted a new zeadmg pubhc az the begmmag of the fourth centuly ,.D, was the Latin whmh clttzens of the Empre had used m everyday lffe belote the begmmng of the Chmtlan era. By the largeness of lts appeal, Chnstmmty helped to heal the breach between the hvmg and the wntten language. By domg so, It gave Latin a new lease of lffe The Latin scnpmres, or VMgate, arranged by Jerome at the end of the fourth centazry A D » ruade xt possible for Latin to surwve the barbarm lnvasmns m an age when the Chnsuan pnesthood had become a htera cmft-umon As xt spread over North Afnca, Spam, and Gau1.. t.hs hvmg Lama mevatably acqmred local ,pecuhaxmes due to the speech hbt of
3 The Loom oJ Language people$ on whom t was maposed» and to other circumstances For instance» soldaers» traders» and farmers who serded m the vanous provinces came from an Italy where chalect dafferences abounded. Though the Lngua Romana thus developed a Galhc, a Spamsh, and a North African flavour, the language of Gaul and S pam was sull essen- tlally the saine when the Empire collapsed, and It must have had features wktch do hOt appear in the wntmg of authors who were throwmg off the trachuonal code Where contemporary texts fad us we have the evadence of ts own offsprmg If a phoneuc trick or a word ls common to al1 the Romance languages from Rumama to Portugal and from Scaly to Gaul, we are enttfled to assume that It already exasted m speech once current throughout the Empire Thus many words wtuch must bave exlsted bave left no trace m script, e g ausare (date), captare (chase), commtare (commence), coratcum (courage), mzs- culare (roux), mvzcare (SHOW) By mference we can also reconstruct the Vulgar Latin parent of the pan-Romance word for to touch (Itahan toccare, Spamsh tocar, French toucher) Whèn the curtam ls from the anarchy, devastatmns, and msenes of the Dark Ages, local OEerences sepaxated languages no longer mutu- ally mtelhgble m the neaghbourmg speech commumtes of Spam and Portugal» Provence and northern France, Italy, and Rumama As a language in tins sense, ddstmct from wntten Latin, French was mcu- batmg durmg the centunes followmg the chsmtegranon of the Western Roman Empire. The first connected French text s the famous Oaths of Strasbourg» pubhcly swom m 84 z by Lotus and Charles, two grandsons of Charlemagne To be understood by the vassals oftns brother, Louas took the oath m Romance, e. French, xbale hs brother pledged brin- self m German To the saine cenrury belongs a poem on the Martyrdom of St. Eulalia. The Imgmsuc umficauon of France took place durmg the fourteenth and fifteenth cennmes when the hterary clazms of local chalects such as Picard, Norman, Burgunchan, succumbed to those of the dlalect of the 1le-de-France, e Paris and ts surroundmgs The oldest avatlable spectmens of Itahan---a few lines mserted m a Latin charter--go back to the second hall of the tenth century Modern Italian» as the accepted norm for Italy as a whole, s based on the chalect of Florence» wtnch owes ts prestige to the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccao and their sponsors, the toaster prmters The oldest traces of Spamsh occur m charters and m the Glosses (explana- tory notes of scribe or reader) of Sdos, datmg from the eleventh cenmry The ftrst hterary monument s the Gd, composed about 4 o.
lIG 34--THE OLDEST ROMAN STONE INSCRIPTION--THE LAPIS IGER FROIM T FORU (about 600 c) Thc wring s from rght o lef[
The Lathz Legacy The Romance languages preserve maumerable common traits Ther grammaucal feamres are remarkably unfform, and they use recog- mzably sunflar words for current thmgs and processes So It ls rela- uvely easy for anyone who akeady knows one of t_hem to learn another, or for an adult to leam more than one ofthem at the saine ame French has travelled farthest away from Latin What essenttally &stmgamhes French from Itahan and Spamsh s the obhteraton of fleraons m speech From etther it as separated by rachcal phoneuc changes whach often make It mapossble to xdent a French word as a Latin one wlthout knowledge of tts hastory. As a wrttten hnguage, Spamsh has most fatthfully preserved the Latin flexons, but It lS wdely separated from French and Itahan by phonetc pecuhantes as well as by a large infusion of new words through contact wath Arabc-speakmg peoples durmg elght centunes of Meonsh occupaaon On the whole, Itahan has changeâ least It was relatvely close to Latin when Dante wrote the Dwma Comme&a, and subsequent changes of spellmg, pro- ntmcxatmn, structure and vocabulary are neghgable m companson wth what happened to Enghsh between the ttme of Geoffrey Chaucer and that of Smart Chase Latin &d hot che with the emergence of the neo-Latm or Romance languages It co-exasted wath them throughout the Mddle Ages as the mechum of leammg and of the Church Its hold on Europe as an mter- hngua weakened only when Protestant-mercantthsm fostered the lmgmsttc autonomy ofnauon-states Pedantc attempts ofthe humamsts of the fifteenth and s=teenth centunes to substmte the prohx pom- poslty of Cacero for the homely &om of the monastenes hastened demÆse By rev-tvmg Lama, the humamsts helped to kl It The last Enghsh outstandmg pNlosoptncal work pubhshed tu Latin was Bacon's Novum Oganum, the last Enghsh sctentlfiC work of maportance Newton's Pnnczpza As a vehcle of scholarstnp it sulved longest m the German Umversmes, then as ever pecuharly msulated from popular need and sentiment. In the German States between 68 and 69o, more books were prmted m Laun than m German, and Lama was sttll the mechum of teactung m the Gerrnan Umversmes In r68î, Chnstan Thomastus showed mcrechble bravado by lecturmg m German at Lepzag on the wse conduct of lffe Tins deed was branded by bas colleagues as an "unexampled ho=or»" and led to bas expulsion from Lepzag. Latin bas hOt wholly resgned ïts damas as a mechum of tuter- national commumcatton It ls stdl t..he language m whach the Pope mvokes chvme chsapproval of brth control or socaalîsm
34 The Loom oWLanguage CLASSICAL LATIN Two concluslons are now well estabhshed by what we are able fo glean about the hvmg Ianguage of the Roman Empre from mscnpuons and from wrïtmgs ofauthors wth no pretensxons to hterary er rhetoncal s111 One ts that t was hot so hghly mflected as the Lama of the classzcs The other îs that the word-order was more regular. To emphastze the contrast for the benefit of the reader who bas hOt stuched Latin at school» out brd's-eye wew of the Romance Group wfll begm with a short account of Classoed Latin. The next few pages are for cursory readïng, and the home-student who amas ai becommg more language- consctous may take the opportumty of recallmg Enghsh words denved from the Latin mots used m the ezamples cated Thus the second example m the emtmag paragraph (gladus pugnanO suggests glachator, gladwlus (why), mpugn, and pugnactty. Llke the Enghsh notre (i 9 115 et seq ) belote the Barde of Hastmgs, the notre of Classtcal Latin had several smgular and plural case- forms Old Enghsh (p 266) had four: normnaEve (subject), accusatve (direct obect), gemtwe (possessxve), and dartre (md_trect obect). In adchuon to four case-forms wlt.h correspondmg names» the smgular notre of dsstcal Latin someumes had an ablatzve case-form chstmct om the dauve» and occaslonally a vocazve chstmct from nommauve In reahty, what s called the ablauve plural ts always denucal wath the datlvê plural, and the smg-alar ablauve of many nouns s hot chs- unct from r_he smgular datlve So a grammanan does hOt necessarfly sgnîfy a spectfic form of the noun when he speaks of the ablauve case The ablauve case refers to the form of the noun used by classmal authors ïn a vanety of stuauons: e g. (a) wth the partlctple m expres- smns such as the sun hang ansen» they set out for home» (b) where we should put m front of an Enghsh noun the mstrumental chrecuve nth (glacks pugnant--they fight th swords), from as the ongm of more- ment (opptdo fugit---he fled from town), at stgmf3rmg tme (mecha nocte--at rmdmght), or than (doctlor Paulo est--he ïs cleverer than Paul) If Latin were the hvmg Ianguage of a coruntry m close culture- contact wth the Enghsh-speahng world, t mght be helpfuI to empha- sze ts regulanues and to gve serwceable rules for recogmzmg the proper case-atfix for a Latin noun. Smce xt s hot a hvmg language, the chier reason for dïs¢ussmg the vaganes of the Latin case-system s that t helps us to understand some ofthe chfferences between notm-endmgs
The Latin Legacy 3 r 5 of modem Romance languages. Another reason for domg so Is that it clartfies the task of language-planning for world peace For three hundred years smce the days of Lelbmz and Blshop Wflkms, the more- ment for promotmg an înter-language whtch ls easy to leam has been obstructed by the trachttonal delusmn that Latin ls pectflmrly lucad and "logcal " In so far as the adjecttve logtcal means anythmg when apphed to language as a whole» it suggests that there s a rehable lmk between the form and the functzon of words. If this were really true» It would mean that Latin is an easy language to leam, and there rmght be a case for remstatmg it as a mechum of intemataonal commumcataon Though no one could senously claire that Latin s as easy to learn as Itahan clas- scal scholars rarely chsclose the maplicatmns of the fact that t s hot The truth s that Itahan s stmpler to leam, and therefore better stuted to internataonal use» because it s the product of a process whach was gomg on m the hvmg language of italy and the Empre» whtle further progress towards greater flerabîhty and great regulanty was arrested in Roman hterature. In text-books of Latin for use m schools the Latin case-forms are set forth as if the genitave, dattve, and ablattve derlvattves have a defmate meamug, luke the Fmmsh case-forms» e g homme = wh or by a m« In reahty no Laun case-rotin has a clear-cut meanmg of ths sort The rive or--if we mclude a defunct locatwe (see below)--sx possible dstmct case-forms, for whch few notms have more than four dastmct afftxes m each number, could hot concetvably do al1 the work of out Enghsh drecuves. In fact, prepostions were constanfly used m Classlcal Latin Just as Enghshmen once had to choose parucular case-forms (19. 266) of adjecttve or pronoun after parucular preposluons, Latin authors had to choose an appropnate case-aîfix for a notre when a preposmon came before it. Thus the use of case was largely a matter of gra_mmattcal context, as in modern German or 01d Enghsh Even when no preposmon accompames a noun, t s tmposstble to gave dear-cut and econonucal mies for the choce of the case-forms w/nch Latm authors used We mîght be tempted to r.hmk that the gemttve case-afftx, wlfich corresponds roughly to the's or the apos- trophe of out derîvatîves father's or fathers', bas a stratghfforward
The Loom o Language meanmg Thus some grammar books called the Enghsh gemuve the possesszve, but we have seen (p 116) how httle connexion It need have to any property relauonshlp It ls even more dlfficult to define the Laun gemuve m ail ctrcumstances. Grammanans bec.ame aware of thts long ago, and spht it mto a possesszve genztzve (canes puellae, the dog of the gïrl)» a partitive gentve (pars corpons, a part of the body)» a quahtatzve gentzve (homo magnae ngenuztatzs» a man of great frankness)» an objective gemtve (laudator temporu aetz, a booster of bygone urnes)» etc. It xs doubtful whether such distractions help the WCtlm of classlcal tmtlon In Latin» as m the more l-nghly-mflected hvmg ndo-European languages such as German and Russlan, the gemuve ls so eluslve that Hermann Paul, a famous German kngulst, defmed It as the case "that expresses any relauon between two nouns." The funcuonal obscunties of the cases of Classlcal Latin, m contra- obstruction to the well-defined meanmg of the case-a/fixes m an agglu- tmaung language such as Fmmsh, would make It a dlfficult language, even ff" the case-affines were fixed as they are fixed m Fmmsh The truth ls that the connexion between form and context s as flnnsy as the conneraon between form and funcuon The lrregulanty of Classlcal Latin burdens the memory wlth an immense vanety of forms asslgned to the saine case ust as Enghsh nouns belong to OEerent famlhes based on ther plural denvatlves such as man-men, ox-oxen, house-houses, Laun nouns form case-denvatlveS m many ways So ff you know the gemuve affix of a partlcular Latin noun, you cannot atrach It to another wlhout courtmg chsaster Accordmg to ther enchngs» Laun nouns have been squeezed mto rive fames or dêclenons, each of w hach bas lts sub- chVlSlOnS The table opposlte guves a specunen of the nommauve and accusauve smgular and plural case-forms of each. Unkke the Fmmsh or Hungarlan noun, that of Laun bas no specnfic trade-mark to show ff" it ls smgular or plural In the first declenszon for Instance, a word-form such as rosae s gemuve and dauve smgular, as well as nommauve plural In the second declenslon domzno ls dauve and ablauv¢ smgular» and domzn s gernrave smgular and nominative plural The accusattve, smgular and plural, of neuter noun s always denracal wth the nommauve» whîle th¢ dartre plural of every Laun noun talhes Wlth the ablauve Case-endmgs do not always change from one class to another. The word domnus, wluch ls of the second declensxon, bas the same endmg m the nommauve and accusauve smgular as frucrus, wluch Is of the fourth, and a word endmg m -er may belong to the second (ager, acre) as welI as to the thlrd (pater, father), whlle one in -es may be of the thd (lames, hunger) and of the figth (dzes, dav) Even wltlun on e and the saine class the gemuve plural may show dafferent enchngs, e g
The Latin Legacy NOM ACC SIhIG rosct (rose) ro$zm PLITR $TNG dommus (master) dommum dorazrlo$ III $ING (leader) PLUR NOM ACC IV SING fructus } (frmt) fructvm PLUR fructus $1NG dzes dzem PLUR canum (of the dogs), dennum (of the teeth) Words of the same class wxth xdentac endmgs may surfer other mochficataons» as shown m the followmg hst NOMINATIVE SING lex (law) judex Oudge) conlux (husband) nox (mght) pes (foot) GENITIVE SING legs conjugzs nocifs pe&s NOMINATIVE SING mdes (solcher) pulvu (dust) empus (r.une) opus (work) sermo (speech) GENITrVE $1NG mhtzs pulverzs retapons There are stdl clasmcal scholars who speak of Latin as an "orderly" or "logcal" language Professor E P Motos xs much nearer to the truth when he wntes (Pnnaples and Methods zn Latin Syntax). "The mapresslon of system comes, no doubt» from the way m whlch we learn the facts of mflemon For the purposes of teachmg, the grain- mars very properly emphaslze as much as possible such measure of system as Latin Inflexion perImts, producmg aç the begmnmg of one's acquam 'tance with Latin the impression of a sertes of graded forms and meanmgs covermg most accurately and completely the whole range of expression But xt ls obvaous that thas ls a false tmpresmon, and so far as we retam It we are bmldmg up a wrong foundatlon Nelther the forms nor the meanmgs are systemauc A glance ai the facts of Lama morphology as tb.ey are preserved in any fual Latin grammar» or in
318 The Loo:n of Language Brumaan's Gundnss, or m Lmdsay's Lam Language, where large masses of acts wch de dassoeon are brought togeoEer, shes Eong edence t rre d absence o£ system e hOt merely ocoesmn» but are e fundamtl cactemscs of La form-buflng " en La bee a hter langage m OEe d cen c, ts oese-system was oedy eg away. The old msttal, ff ît ever had a use, had merged OE OEe ablane, when OEe la,er was coalescmg OEe dauve The locatzve, wch med to moecate where someg was, or where t mok place, had doeed m a mere shadow. It sed oy m place-nes, e g Romae mm (I m Rome), d a few fos- sed eressons sueh as do (at home), (m e co) The vooenve» whch was a d of no-perauve, e g et tu Brute (d you, O Bm), as when we use e eresson say» pop, OEered from OEe noauve oy m no of OEe second dedensmn (Bmt or Dos, Brute or Donne). It was oen ored by ss auors. One geat OEerence bee pop La d e La of OEe terau d rheton OEe OEent m wch preposînons were used. e e foer ruade ple use of em, dscal auoEors oed so &seuon 0 e e o oesenon). In nmmag passage of Essa on Semanz OEe French st, Bré, bas sho at e tenden m me preposmons where hter sle &ated OEat ey hod be le out, was hot coed m pleb or msc speech Suetous te us OEat OEe Emperor Ausms hmseV pmsed OEe pop stom m OEe mtert of gter , d defice of hter pedmm who considered t more "gacel" d w-bred to eespense preposmons at the k of bg obse (e preposmons quae detae affût d obstnts, et grat auget) OEe long r, e preposîno conson was bod to bg about e ebmmanon of e oee-m=ks, beoeme ere was no point m preg spe sls for ferrions dy moEoeted, d moeoEted muoE more ehfly, by e preposmon alone. hter La, deoey of OEe OEse- system was st for cenmes dg wch t wt on peded m e hg ge, d tely led to = enely new e of The use of the Lama noun, lïke the use of the Enghsh pronotm, mvolves a choce of endmgs classfied according to case and nuanber The use of the adjecttve mvolved the sa_me choce, comphcated» as m Old Enghsh or German, by gender. So every Lama noun» kke every German or Old Enghsh noun» can be asslgned to one of three genders,
The Latin Legacy mascuhne, fenunme» neuter» accordmg to the behawour of an adjecuve coupled wth lt, or of the pronoun whch replaces It Tins pecuhar gender-chsuncuen whch the Indo-Euzopean (pp z I3 and I4) shares wth the Senuuc famdy was hot based on sex-oEerenuauon. Except where gender chsungmshed acrual sex, whch was u-zelevant to the gender-class of most amm, Laun gender referred to nothmg m the leal wmld It was merely a motte1 of table manners Nobody, not even a poet, would have been able to say why the wa11 (mucus) should be masculine, the door (porta) femmme, and the roof (tectum) neuter The smgular nommaave or &cuonary form of many nouns cornes no trade- mark of the gender-dass to whch they belong Prus (pear-tree) was femmme, hortus (garden) was mascuhne, and corpus (body) was neuter What labels a Latin, hke an 01d Enghsh, noun as mascu]me, femmme, or neuter ls the form of the noun-substltute (pronotm) er of the adlêcuve @ncIudmg demonsnauves) whch went wth Exciuchng parucaples nearly aH adecnves of classlcal Laun con be assgned to two types One tTp has three ses of case-denvanves, e g the non.mauve forms bonus, bona, bonum (good) The femmmes had endmgs hke those of nouns such as porta (door) placed m the ftrst declensmn» the mascuhne and neuter rcspecuveiy hke don,mus (toaster) and bellum (war) m the second declenmon To say that a Laun noun ls masculmeo neuter or femrne therefore means that a Laun wnter wotùd use the mascuhne, neuter, or femmme forms of such adlecnves wth t The fleraonal modzficanons of the second ype are modelled on OEe nouns of the tlurd declensmn Most adlecnves of ths t3pe bave a common gender form used xwth erher masculine or femmme nouns, and a separate neuter, e g tnstu-ste (sad) Some of t.hem, mcludmg present paruclples, e g amans 0ovmg), have the saine form for all three genders, e g prudens (prudent), velox (qmck) Th¢ nommauve and accusauve, smgular and plural» of the two clnef adjecuval types are below NOM $11qG ACC SING NOM PLUR ACC PLIYR (a) bonus (good) bonus bonum bore bonos FEM NEUT bona ) bonum bonam bonae ) bona bonas (b) mss (sad) MASC. FEM NEUT tnsus ) tnstem triste restes trlStla
32o The Loom oJ Language It s ustmlly true to say that (a) most Latin notms of the porta (door) type are femmme, (b) a large malonty of Latin nouns whach end in -us are masculine, and (c) ail Latin nouns that end m -um are neuter So t s partly true to say that the noun Itself carrles the trade-mark of its gender One consequence of the fact that a large proportion of Latin notms are Iabelled m tins way, and that a large class of adjecttves bave corrêspondmg affixes appropnate to the saine gender, ls that the Latin adjeclave very often carnes the saine sufflX as the noun coupled wxth lt, e g alt murz Cmgh walls), portae noae (new doors), magnum zmloenum (great empre) Thus Latin sentences sometlmes recall the monotonous smg-song of the Bantu chalects (p. 21o). The corre- spondence of the Latin sufflxes ls less complete than that of thê Bantu prefixes, because all Latin adjectlves do hot bave the saine gendêr- forms, and a11 Latin nouns assgned fo the saine declenslon do hot belong to the same gender Ail these trade-marks of the adlectave have chsappeared m Enghsh, and companson (black, blacker, blackest) fs now ts most charactenstac feature. In Classlcal Latin the comparative and superlative delavatves of the adlecttves were also formed synthelacally, e. by addmg appro- pnate sutfixes to the ordmary or posztzve foot Orgmally there must have been a great vanety of these accretlons, but m wntten Latin comparative umformlty had been estabhshed m favour of-zm (m or f) or -z (heur) coespondmg to out -er, and -uszmus (-a, -um) corre- spondmg to out -est» e g : fortzs (strong)--fortzor (stronger)---fortzsszmus (strongest) A few of the most comlnon Lama adecuves escaped this regulanzauon They had comparative and superlauve forms denved from stems other than that of the posmve, e g bonus (good)--mehor (better)--optzmus (best) The most backward class of words In modern Enghsh xs ruade up of the personal pronouns In Classcal Latin (p 31o) the personal pronoun was a relauvely rare mtruder There was httle need for the nom_mauve forms I, he, zve, etc, because person was suflïcxently mchcated by the terminal of the rerb Thus vendo oeuld only mean "I seil," and ven&mus could only mean "we sell" In modem French, Enghsh, or German we can no longer omat the personal pronoun, except when we gve a command (hurryZ) or fmd it convement to be abrupt (couldn't say) In speech we usually olmt personal pronouns of Itahan and Spamsh, whose verb-endmgs stfll mchcate person and number clearly, e g. parlo a vo, .ngnore (I am speakmg to you, Sir) When Latin authors used ego (I), tu (thou), etc, they chd so for the sole purpose of emphass or con-
The Latin Legacy 321 trast as m Wolsey's dasastrousîy-ordered ego et meus ex (I and my Kmg) There was no specal Latin pronoun of the thd person Its place was taken m Classlcal Latin by OEe demonstratlve u, ea, d Ttus was later replaced by lle, lla, llud (that one) The fundamental OEerence between the Latin and the Enghsè Ç O Ë-t,,-OI I,, , F S I CI llpl O .... I l -- IDbE coço I,-CESO R ONC OO fil ui R V/vx E.( O S EAITIONT P, DVONOR O Oçq-VAA(>FVI,E VIR O" l,V£ IO/'A SC IP ONE-FlçlO5 S OP C EN.ç OR #.1D I[,IS- H I( FV ET-A \\]\,x,\C E P IT C oP-5C A AI, ER lA O.VE VRB E T[/xF TpT[5_ Ai I I IT O FxG 35 FIJNERAL INSCRIPTION OF OEHE CONSOE L COP, NI;LXLIS SCiplo m Alq EAI,-Z LAI Sciii, z (259 c ) verb-system has been pomted out m Chapter III (p o 7 et seq.). Llke the Old Enghsh verb, the Latin verb had four kmds or classes of flextons, of whtch thtee rmght be descnbed as functtonal and one, mood, depended en context The first c!ass, based on the personal sutfixes, chspensed wlth need for the pronotm-sublect, as m Gothc These flextons had already dlsappeared m the plural of the Old Enghsh verb, and m the smgular they were hot more useful than our -s of the thrd person smgular. Drfferences between correspondmg personal forms, classffied m dffferent tenses, slgned dtfferences of ttme or aspect In contrachstmctaon to any of the Teutomc languages, mcludmg Gottuc, classîcal Lama has sx tenses, pesent, zmperfect, perfect, ,lu- perfect, fzturg, and future perfect The conventtonal meanmg attached to these trne-forms or aspect-folms m text-books has been explamed m Chapter IIi (pp o3-zo8) wNch deals wth the pretenslons of verb- chronology m antqmty In reahty the termmology of the Latin verb ls rmsleadmg The tmperfect form, for instance, Is usually satd to express an act or process as gomg on m the past (monstrabat, he was showmg) It was also used to denote habmal actton (scrzbebat, he used to wnte). The perfect , form stood for two thmgs It mchcated completton of an occurrence as
322 The Loom of Lazge we11 as the huto:c past So Latin scrpsz may be rendered m two ways: I hae vntten, and I ïvroe. The pluperfect signed an acnon prtor to some past point speca%d or unphed m the statement, as m Enghsh he had already dvunle hzs bee zz, ken we arnved. The future perfect mchcated somethmg antenor to some future action» as m he mil bave drunk hzs beer when we arrtve. The followlng table gaves the first person forms of the tenses of the actzve volce m two moods I SZNG Present Futuze ImFelfect Perfect P1uperfect Funaxe Perfect IOETIV CO canmbo cantav1 cantaveram cazîtavero cantem cantaverun cantavlssem Some» but hOt aH of the Latin tenses, each made up of sx dastmct personal forms, were duphcated for passive use, hke the two tenses of the Scandmawan verb (p. z_o) There were onIy three tenses to express meanmg m a passive sense, i e. to replace the acttve subject by oblect As the Scandmavmn passive s recogmzed by the suJT -s, the Lama pasmve m recogmzed by the suffx -r, e g tzmeo (I fear)--tmeor (I ana feared) Classcal Latin bas no synthenc eqmvalent of the passive perfec% pluperfect, or future perfect As m Enghsh, the passive fonn of the perfect was a roundabout expressmn, e. turns deleta est (the tower has been destroyed). Thus the passive vome of the Latin verb at the stage when we first meet t was a crack m the maposmg flexaonal arma- ture of the Lama verb-sysmm. Of mood httle need be sad Grammanans àtstmgumh three Latin moods, the mchcanve mood or verb-form commonly used when makmg an ostensxbly plain sratement, the mapemtave mood or verb-form used m command or chrecnons, and the subjuncnve mood wbach ls vanously used m non-commatal statements and aï subordmate parts of a sentence It ts suflâctent to say that thete ts no clear-cut dafference between the meanmg of the mcbcanve and the subjtmcuve mood. In modem Romance languages the chstmctîon m of httle pracncal mapor- tance for con versanon or mformal wrkmg In Latin as m Enghsh there were many mansons tu the verbal home,
The Latin Legacy and we tan classffy Latin verbs m famlhes as we can chsslfy Enghsh verbs m weak, kke love or shove, and strong types such as the szng and drnk class» bznd and final, bnng or thmk classes, accordmg to the way they form past tense-forms or partïcaples (love-Iovêd, stng-sang-sung, dnnk-drank-drunk, tnnd-bound, find-found, thmk-thought, bnng-brought) School-books mange Laun verbs in four mare familles, the amare, nwnêre, legêre, and audre types, accordmg to the practce of Pris¢aan, a grammanan who hved m the smth century A D. A conslderable class of Latin verbs are excluded from the four so- called regular conugatïons of the school-books as rregular verbs. These mclude some WhlCh bave tenses formed from 6t_fferent roots, such as fero--I carry» I brmg---uh, I catrIed» I brought This suggests that the unfformaty of the regular verb-type xs greater than ît is The forma1 smalanty of so many Latin verbs placed m the saine conugauon s hot greater than that of the present tense-forms (catch and bnng) correspond- mg to caugh and brough Analogy s as bad a gtude to Laun conjugauon as to Laun declensmn» parucularly as regards the perfect Of deleo (I destroy) the perfect Is delev4 but of moneo (I warn) wtuch appears in the saine c!ass, xt ls monta » of au&o (I hear) It xs auchvz» but of aperzo (I open) xs aperuz The thzrd conjugauon mcludes as many dafferent beasts as Zoo» cf. the followmg hst of perfect-formmaons.-- PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT colhgo (I gather) collegï ago (I d% drlve) egz carpo (I plck) carpsz frango (I break) fregz porto (I put) posu rumpo (I break) upz mzrto (I send) mzs, curro (I run) cucurn ludo (I p!ay) lusz tango (I touch) An account of the essentaal pecuhanues of Latin would be mcom- plete if we left out one of the greatest of al1 chiIiculues whlch confront the translator. Orthodox lmgmsts sometimes tell a story whach runs as follows. Relauons berween Laun words were clearly mchcated by flexional marks, and there was therefore no need for fixed word-order Thus the statement the fariner leads the goût could be ruade m sx dlf- ferent ways, for instance, capram aoo zcola duct--agr2cola caprazn duat-- duat capram agncola, etc Whtch one you chose was largely a quesuon of emphasls it &d not vatally affect r_he meanmg Such freedom was possible because subject (agncola) and ob]ect (capram) were labelled as such by their affixes Once the unstressed endmgs were rtuned through phoneuc decay, Laun developed auxhaues and a fixed word-order. Thus fsa the domlme Nobody who bas wasted a paînful youth in bringing together what Lama authors had torn asunder» or m separaung
24 The Loom oj Langage what shoud nevcr have been togêther, deny that OEe word-order of ht«ary Laun was azmgly "£ree" In reah, s so-caHed free word-order was OEe greatest împeaent to qmck grasp of texts, never composed, as are modem books, fo rapd reang by wolg people The =admonal narrauve, as told above» ots to menuon e cstmce at OEe La oï seleed school texts emsted on w or papyrus It was hot e lage wch Roms used when ey ed m one moer. The ossword poEes of cero d hs contempores, e e Enghsh of Gede Stem or es Joyce, had he to do wl e choeaer of the lge ey spoke It was e exclmve speah of hter cotenes zed by oedence, mesmer- zed by me=e, md ensved by Greek models Chssoel La belongs m a penod more m a ousmd yes belote OEe pg-press demoaed roeg md proted systeuc convenons of pc- mauon, d oer dewces wch have healed e breach between the hoe eye d OEe h ear. We do hot ow e exact nature of e word-order whch cero used when bawg out to hs slave, but ere c be htfle doubt OEat t was as ed as at of cofloqmal Imhan The homely La of e Vulgate, ough hot accurate record of spoken La, probably stmds neer to t e mngs of any classc au.or. Here s a passage from e parable of e prodgal son" E abzzt, et adhaeszt unz d he went d lomed one vzum regzzzs zllus Et mzsr d!um of the ctens of OEat coy d ke sent zn vzlln «am ut pmcere po-cos Er cupebar to ms f to feed the plgs d he longed zmpl«e vtrem suum de szluzs quas to 1 s belly m the husks wch porm nducabam Et nemo zlh dabat OEe plgs are d nobody gave ytng In se aut revers, dxzr quantz er havmg cerne to mself he smd How many mercure zn d parns ruez abundant pambus, sets m e house of my faoEer have bread enough ego aur hzc faine pereo. we I am dg here om hunger LATIN AS A LIVING LANGUAGE By the urne the Western Roman Empire collapsed, case-distraction
The Latin Legacy of the noun had almost chsappeared Scholars used to chscuss whether fixed word-order and the use of preposmons led to the elimmauon of the case-marks, or whether s!urrmg and decay of case-mazks whach were hot stressed brought m preposmons and ed word-order Un- AA ri hfï IV! TI]..]H F::I(] IIA f::1.3 I f::;l ] VI T Bi f::t ,t] -1 ]Ft]fl TH] fl fil \II-]" (] V T 2: f:l.] )!'q I':H I I Pt I.]-] H] a 1 V,I',I fl ?.IV8 Iiq T:H Ail fl N R !4HflflV:VI41HflT] IH Fs. 36.--Oscar INSCRIPTION FROM POMPEII (Reachng from rIght to left ) doubtedly the first ls nearer the truth than the second. Thus A D. Sheffield explams m Grammar and Thmkmg. "Phonetac change. . was the proxamate cause of the 'decay' of m- flexaons; but no mere physlcal cause can be wewed as actmg upon speech regardless of men's expresslve mtenuon m speakng Before the analytîcal means of showïng sentence-relataons had dêveloped, any tendency to slur reIatmg endmgs would be constantly checkêd by the speaker's need of makang hn-nself understood The change, therefore, more hkely proceeded as foHows FoEed word-order began to appear wthm the mflected languages smaply as a result of growmg orderlmess of thought Relatmg parncles were at the saine rame added to mflected words wherever the mflexaonal meanmg was vague After word-order l'md acqutred functtonal value» and the more preclse relaung-words were current, relatmg endmgs lost theIr gnportznce» and would become assamdated, slurred, and dropped, from the natural tendency of speakers to trouble themselves over no more speech-matenal than as needed to convey thelr thought" The first case-casualty was the gemtive Caesar hunself had wntten pauct de nostns (a few of ours), wbach m modern Itah ls pochz de nostri Without doubt tins was thê way m whlch common people of Vergll's lame talked. Towards the end of the Empire the use of the ablatlve wlth de had unlversally &splaced the old gemtlve wlthout a preposmon, and wê corne across such modem forms as de pomu, eqmvalent to the modern French des pommes (some apples), or fihus de
The Loom o] Lavguage rege, eqmvalent to the French lefils du rm (kmg's son) By the begmmng of the thd ceatu.¢, the noun gêmuvê survvêd only m set expresslons such as lunae &es, wkuch is the French lun&, out Monday or lunar day The dartre, or case of gvmg, though more reslstant had a rival at an early date The accusauve had long bêen used wth the preposlton ad (to) Thus Haums wntes ad carnuficem dgbo (I shall gnve to thê execu- uoer), where Cacero ould bave wntten carmfic dabo f he had been dascussmg so famdaar a Roman figure, and a temple regalaton of 57 B c, e durmg the Golden Era of Lanmty, contams sz pecuma ad zd templum data ent (ff money should be gnven to this temple) Evenmally a separate datme (as opposed to ablattve) fleraonai form of the noun chsappeared wth the gemtve» except tu Dacm (Rumama), where traces oft surwve to-day So popular Latin may be smd to have taken the saine road as Teutonm !anguages such as Enghsh and Dutch, whch have of and to, or van and aan, for de and ad (French de and à) of Vulgar Latin In tac later days of the Roman Emptre, phoneuc decay of the ter- mmals led fo further changes A final -m bach was the accusauve trade-maïk of femmme and mascuhne nouns, had chsappeared at an earher date The unsressed vowels -u and - of the at5xes gave place to -o and -e So the chstmctmn between accusarave and ablatave case- forms faded out Thus canera (accus), cam (dat), and cane (ablat) of cams (nomm) merged m the smgle obhçue (p Iz6) case-form carie (dog) Smce the first century the ablauve had been confused vath the accusauve of p!ural nouns In an mscnpuon from Pompeu, cure dzscentes (wath the pupds) s used for the c!asslcal cure &scentbus Before the fall of the Emple the rive declenslons of our Latin gram- mar-books had &a-mdled to three The fifth noun-famfly had ]omed the first (Lama faczes, figuîe, Vulgar Latin facto, French face), and the fourth had omed the second (Lama fructus, frmt, Vulgar Laun fructu, Itahan frutw), as brother wbach had lomed the oxen class (pl brethren) m Mayflover urnes bas now lomed the saine class as mother (pl mothers) When the Latin chalects began o chvêrge after the lai1 of Romê, Laun declensmn was probably reduced to the forms as shown m the table on the opposte page In the spoken Laan of Itaiy a final ç, hxe a final t had ceased to be heard long belote Ccero's ume, and no efforts of the grammanan could rmg t back Hence OEe bracketed -s of lunas and caballos m out table Partly undêr the influence ofthe school, the West preserved t. In spoken French t became sflent beforê OEe end of the/[uddle Ages In Spamsh it surnves ull ths day and s now r.he charactenstlc mark of the plural.
The Latin Legacy 327 Further sunphficatîons followed The chstmction between nominative and obhque case has ¢hsappezed m al1 modem Romance !anguages On Itahan temtory the obhque form of the plural chsappearêd On/y the nommauve survaved (Lama mun (nom. pl )--Itahan murg. In France, m Spam, and m Potxugal the nommauve plural chsappeared, III NOM[ I OBL lz¢na (moon) caballu(s) I cabatlu (horse) cam(s) ] canè (dog) NOM cabalh OBL luna(s') (moons) ] caballo(s) (horses) I cane(s) (dogs) and the obhque (ongïnally accusatwe) form wth a final s took s place (Lann acc pl muros--rench murs) Case dastmcuon &ea last m Gatù In the oldest Yrench and Provençal texts some nouns sui1 preserve the chstmcuon between a sublect and an object case as the followmg table shows" Vulgar Latm Old French Modern French SINGULAR NOM. rur$ OBL mur NOM mur PLURAL OBL The case-marks of the adlecuve shared the saine rate as those of the noun Meanwhale separate nemer forms dïsappeared There were two reasons why the noun-form came nearer to uhat of te ad:lecuve. One ls the disappearance of two fsmahes of noun-behawour owmg to the absorpuon of the fourth and fifih declenslons (p 317) so that r.he charactensuc affixes corresponded to those of one or other remammg famdles of nouns The other was regulanzauon of the gênder-classes
38 The Loom of Lang,cge For instance» names of trees assigned to the second declenson of Classlcal Latin were femrune» though they had the nominative smgular affix -us oî masculine adjeoeves Snmlarly the fist declenslon, mamly ruade of fêmmme nouns such as regzza (quee) mcluded masculine woràs such as nauta (sazlor) and p»eta (poet) Tree-names wbach were femmme hke populus (poplar) of whach the French ls peqher have become mascuhne m modem Romance !anguages The chsappearance of a chstmct neuter form of the adjectve or, what cornes to the saine thmg, a neuter class of nouns, haà already begun m classlcal nmes Authors near to the people wotfld wnte darsus (back) for dorsum, or caelus for caelum. In so far as all Latin nouns wtnch bave the nommatîve smmflar aftux -um were neuter, thetr character was obhterated by the phonetc decay of the flal consonant» -m, hke the decay of" the dlstmctve mascudme or femmme accusanve case-mark In late Latin the dnft frein neuter to masculine became a headlong retreat. Itence most Latin neuter nouns wtnch survtve m modern Romance languages are now placed m the masculine gender-class; and anyone who has leamed a hvde Lama can usually apply tus knowledge of Latin genders wtth success, 1 e masculine and femmme nouns retam the saine gender, and neuters become masculine Thus nnurn (wme), mpenum (emptre) and regnum (a kmgdom) become (le) nn, (un) emp2re, and (le) règne m French. The ëxceptmns to tlns rule are few, and some of them are exphcable. In so far as the nominative or accusatave plural endmg of Latin neuter nouns was -a, It was the same as the nominative smgular of the more typlcai femmme noun-dass represented by porta If the meaning of a Latin neuter was such that the plural could be used m a collective sense, or for a pmr (cf news or scssors), t cottld be used in a smgular context Thus the Lann neuter plurâl, foha (fohage) beoemes the sîn-mlar femmme la feuz!le for a leaJ tu modem French. The reader has already had a hmt about how knowledge of the forms of the noun m Vulgar Latin throws hght on the OEerent types of plural formatmn m the modem Romance languages The greater ltmuance of the Latin adjecnve also helps us to understand the drfferent types of aàjecuve conoerd wtnch have survvêd Latin adjectves for the most part belong to the three-gender type bonus, -a, -um, or to the two- gender class tnstzs-tnste (sad), ut, hs-utzle (useful) or faczhs-faczle (easy) The chsappeamnce of the neuter means that surwvors of the three- gender elass now have only masculine and femmme forms--Spamsh bueno-buena (smg), buetws-buenas (pl), Itahan buono-buona, buom- buone; French bo-botme, bons-bonnes The survlvors of the two-gender
The Latin Legacy 329
330 The Loom oJ Language
The Latzn Legacy 331 class m French, Spamsh, and Itahan have only one form From thts class of adlecclve gender-concoïd has dsappeared, as for ail Enghsh adlecuves. UnloEe Greek Classical Latin chd hot possess wha grammarlans ca the "defimte amcle" Wherever we find thls defimte arncle in modem European languages, t can be traced back to a demonstrauve which lost its pomtmg power m the course of urne Tnus out Enghsh the s a weakened form of tlat, and the unaccemed der in German de Och, ROMANCE PERSONAL PRONOUNS (FIRT AND SECOND PERSON$--UNTRESSED* IORM) (THOU) (T) US YOU (nolTt) (ob]) I vous PORTUGUESE eu SPANISPI yo n6s v6s vos TE [ nosotros IIos vosotros os ITALIAN 10 ml nol VO1 Vl LATIN ego me (nec) rmh, (dat ) te (acc ) ub (dat ) nos (ac) nobis (dat ) vos vos (acc ) vobls (dat.) (the ox) began as thc der we have m dér Mann (that man) The defimte arucle of modem languages, mcludmg Enghsh, French, and Germano rarely hves up to lts naine On the contrary, It often has a genera_hmng, .e. mdefimte functton, e g the car u a domestzc ammal. So ff we say that Latin had hot yet evolved an article, we really mean that the Latin demomtrauve had hot yet corne down m the world, Laterary * Unstressed forms = sub]cet, direct oh]cet, and mdarect ob]eet forms Ex- cept whcn the saine as thc stressed (p 363), thêy are never used af er a preposx- tion The Spanlsh nosotros, vosoros are out of step wath OEetr eqmvalents in Latin, Itahan, or French. They date from the late 2vhddle Ages and are com- bmauons of nos, vos wxth otros (others) Both bave femmme forms--,-nosotras, vosotras The French also combine nous or vous wlth autres (or.hem) when they use elther m a sense excluchng mdtvaduals of a second group» e g nous autras Françatses (we French womên) Itahans bave the saine trick (nos altre, etc ) Spamsh the combmatton has replaced the pronoun ltself, x e vosorros --- you
33 The Loom oj Language Latin was embarrassmgly nch m demonstraaves There were s--ea-zd» for referrmg to somethmg prevlously menuoned; hc- haec- hoc, for thu near me, ste- zsta- utud» for that near you» or that of yours» and zlle- zlla- Hud» for that yonder The first survlves m out abbrewauon» 1 e. for el est (that s) Though the hterau may have stnven to make a real chstmcaon ROMANCE PRONOUNS O1 :? THE THIRD PERSON (Us'v,ssv Fovs) HIM (to) m SHE (to) m { (masc) rs-,i" (fera) (to) T Reflextve (htmself, herself, ltself, themselves) FRENCH fl PORTUGVESE O ela ]he êIes elas os (or les) as (or las) lhes 1LI elle la lu1 ris elles les leur SE SPANISH é1 le (or lo) le ella ello¢ ellas los las les la ITALIAN egh, esso lo gh ella, essa essl, loto esse, loto h le loro bi between the four demonstrauves, It is more than doubtful whether the fine shades of meanmg whtch grammanans assgn to them played any part in hvmg speech. At least this ts certain When Latin spread beyond Italy and was maposed upon conquered peoples, a chstmcaon ceased to exast. Two of them (zs and hw) completely &sappeared. Through use and abuse thê meanmg of the other pmr (tlle and zste) had changed consderably PeUple used t_hem wlth less discrimination m the closmg years of the Empzre They had iost thetr full power as pomter-words Except m Ibenan Latin ste chsappeared The saine penod also gave blrth to the indefimte anacle (a or an m Enghsh) of whtch the pnmary faner, on ,s to întroduce somethmg hot yet menuoned. [For t/ms pur-
The Latin Legacy 333 pose Classcal Latin had the word quzdarn and m popular speech or mforma wnung, the numeral unus, una, unum (e g unus servus, a slave, a certain slave) was used for t. Only the latter s used m the Vulgate, where t s burdenefl wth as much or as httle meanmg as the mdefimte article of modern French or Enghsh. The rate of the pomter-words ,s maxed up wth the tmtory of the personal pronoun. The terminal of a Latin verb sufiïcaently mcheated the pronoun subect, and the nommauve pronouns ego, tu, nos» os, were used to gve emphasls In Vulgar as m Classlcal Latin there was no specc emphauc nommauve fonn of the pronoun m the thaxd person analogous to ego, tu, etc When t was necessary to mchcate what the personal flexaon of the verb could hot mchcate, e which of several mchviduals was t.he subect, a demonstrat_tve, eventually Ile, lla, ztlud ( e. that one) took the place of he, she, or t The demonstra- uve was therefore a pronoun as we11 as a defimte arucle at the rime when chvergence of the Romance chalects occurred The resuit of thlS spht personahty s that Romance chalects now contam a group of words whlch are smn]ar m form, but have OEerent meanmgs Thus the word eqmvalent to the m one may be the word equlvalent to ber m another, or to them m a thlrd This cunous nexus of elements, whlch are identcal m form bït chffer m functîon ls Rlustrated m the accompanymg hïghly schemauc chagrams (pp. 329 and 33o). Lnke Scandmavaan languages, Laun had two possessive forms of the pronoun of the r_hard person. One ched chfldless Onlythe reflerave mus» sua, suum left descendants m the modern Romance daalects Llke the Swedmh sn, sztt, sna, any of ts denvauve forms could mean hzs, ber, or tts The gender was fixed by the noun t quahfied, and hot by the noun whach xt replaced, e. the femmme case-denvauve would be used wth mater or regma, a mascuhne wth pater or dommus, and a neuter wth bellum or :mperturn Another dafference between Classca! and Vulgar Ladn is nnportant tu conneraon wath the adlecttve of modem Romance languages In Classical Latin companson was flexaonal. There was only one excep- uon The comparauve of adecuves endmg m -uus (e g arduus, arduous) was hot formed m the regular way by addmg the suffm -wr To avod the ugly clash of three vowels (u-z-o-r) the hterau used the penphrasuc constructaon magu arduus (more arduous) wlth the correspondmg superlauve maxzme arduus (most arduous). Popular speech had em- ployed tins handy penphrass elsewhere Thus Plautus used magts aptus (more smtable), or plus mser (more nnserable). In the hvmg language
334 Te Loom of Languagé there was thus the same competmon between synthess and solauon as we now see m Enghsh (cf. pretty-pretter, handsome-more handsome) In later Latin the plus and magzs trick became the prevmlmg pattern
The Latin Legacy Rumanla, Spam, and Pormgal adopted magu (Rtttnaman ma,, Spamsh mds, Portuguese mau), wtnle Italy and Gaul embraced plus (ItaHan pù, French plus) Latin adlectives comparable to Enghsh good, better, best, wth comparative and superlative forms denved from other room, reslsted ths change, and are now lslands of trregulanty ïn an ocean of ord¢r, They appear in the table of lrregu]ar companson (p 37) In aH Romance languages the ordmary supezlatave ls formed by pumng the defimte arucle m front of the comparative form e g Spamsh mds nco (richer), el mds rco (the rlchest) Spamsh and Itahan have adjecuval forms of the same pattern as the Laun superlative wth the terminal -,sszmus, but they are hot eqmvalent to superlatves tu the grammancal sense of the terre The terminal -iszmo (-a) of Spamsh or-sszmo (-a) of Itahan slgmfies excee&ngly as in e exclamanon bravo brav,sszmor or m the mode of address used în letters carzsszma (dearest) These synthetc superlafives re-mtroduced by the leamed should be used sparmgly Spamsh muy or Italian mo!to both meanmg wery, replace t.hem adequately m most sltuauens» ê g Spamsh es muy nco (he Is very rlch) for es rzqusmo The Spamsh and Itahan arucle belote the superlatve drops out when the latter follows m_mechate!y after a noun French retmns the arracle, e g Enghsh the nchest man. Spamsh el hombre mfis nco Itahan l'uomo pù rcco French l'homme le plus riche The comparative pamcle correspondmg to Enghsh than is que m French and Spamsh e g French plus tzmzde qu'un lapin (stner than a rabbt) Itahan uses & (Latin de), e g è pzù povero d me (he s poorer than I) In Spamsh and French de also occurs, but confined to sxtuauons m wbch than s followed by a numeral, e g Spamsh mos de cuatro d¢as (iess than four days), Freach plus de trozs szècIes (more than three centurles) REGOEAR COMPARISON hot hot-ter hottest as hot as chaud plus chaud (que) le plus chaud (de) auss chaud que SPANISH cahdo mfis cahdo (que) el mas chdo tan cAhdo como cahdus cahchor (quam) cah&sstmus tare cahdus quam caldo pu caldo (&) fl pro caldo cos caldo corne
336 The Loom o/ Language In Teutomc languages the adverb may be the saine as the neuter singular (Scandmavmn) or the prechcauve form of the adlectlve (Ger- man) Enghsh alone îs encumbered with a specaal form (I 9. r r) Classl- cal Lama had several types of adverbs denved from adlecttves In modem Romance languages, nearly all the lrregtflar ones have chsap- peared Notable excepuons are bene and mde In French these have become ben-mal, m Itahan bene-male, and m Spamsh bzen-mal The prewous luxxmance of adverbs formed from adlecave-roots has gnven place to a standarchzed pattem hke the Enghsh -ly denvauve French adverbs are formed by addmg -ment to the adecuve, e g fatale-facile- ment The procedure ls the same throughout the Western Romance languages In Itahan the correspondmg forms are facde-faczlmente, and m Spanlsh fdctl-fdczlmente IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF RONCE ADJECTIVES* ENGLISH good better best bad worse worst big blgger bggest small smaller smallest FRENCH bon (-ne) meilleur (-e) le meneur mauvais (-e) plus mauvais (pwe) le plus mauvais (le pzre) grand (-e) plus grand le plus grand peut (-e) plus petit (moindre) le plus peut (le moindre) bueno (-a) melor (mas bue, w) el melor malo peor (mds maIo) el peor grande mas grande (mayor) el mas grande pequeâo (-a) mas pequeno (menor) el mas pequeao LATIN bonm (-a,-um) mehor optlmus malus pelor pesslmus magnus major maxllrll$ parvus m/hot mmlm2 ITALIAN buono (-) mlghore (pù buow) fl mghore camvo (-a) peggaore @zù catnvo) 1I peggmre grande plu grande (maggzore) tl pù grande mccolo (-a) pro ptccolo (mmore) 11 pu pccolo The germ of thts new strucne appears m Chssmal Latin When the Roman wanted to mchcate that somethmg was done m a certain way, he sometîmes used the ablattve (mente) of mens (mmd), and quahfied tt by means of an appropnate adecttve, e.g obstmata mente (wth an obstmate re_md), or bona mente (m good fmth) Smce mente always * In xtahcs alternanves whtch bave a more restncted use m ¢ommon speeeh, In French oly bon bas no regular comparattvÇ
The Latin Legacy 337 followed close upon the heels of the ad}ecuve, it Iost lts former inde- pendence and became a formauve element, eventualIy used wthout mvolvmg anybody's mental processes, e g sola mente OErench sadement) in place of szngularzter (alone) Fmally -mente fused wth the ad]ecuve 1 e wth lts femmme smgular form In Spamsh It keeps a trace of separate ldenuty The Spamard usually attaches -mente only to the IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ROMANCE ADVERBS ENGLISH well better best badly, 11 worse worst httle less least very, much more most ee ] SPANISH bien rmeux I melor le mmux Io melor mal plus mal le plus mal peu moins le motos beaucoup plus le plus peor Io peor poco lo mcnos mucho mas lo mas LATIN bene mehus (oprme) maie peus (pess:mm) paucurn mlnus muhum pius (l)lunmum ITALIAN bene megho fl meglc maie peggo fl peggo poco meno d meno moho pro fl pu final one when several adverbs follow one anooEer, e g habla clara, concsa y elegantemente Oae speaks clearly, concaselsb and elegantly) Ths was also the custom m Old French, e.g. umele et dofce mente for humble- ment et doucement (humbly and qmetly) One smkmg dtfference between the Romance languages and thelr Teutomc contemporanes ls the vanety of tcnse-fonns whlch they possess. Tins ts not because the flexlonal system of the Latin verb escaped the gencral process of flexlonal decay common to other classes of words m the hvmg language In later Latin verb-forms of the classlcal authors were largely superseded by new ones wtnch remam the basxs of conlugatlon m the Romance languages. The passive flexton chsap- peared, as xt ls now dlsappearmg m Scandmavmn chalects. Its place was taken partly by the actave, paxfly by a roundabout expressmn con- oestently ruade up of the past pamctple and the auxthary esse» to be Where clasmcal authors had used the present tense of the latter (traddus est, he bas been betrayed) fo express completed action, later authors used It for acuon in progress (cf the French, tl est tra]u = he bemg betrayed), and other tense"s were uscd to bufld up slmflar
338 The Loom oj Langue constructaons,e g tra&tusfiat (he was betrayed), or ira&tus ert (he wfll be betrayed) Two tense-forms of Classca! Lama (future and future perfect) chsappeared A th=d fpluperfect) survîved only m ibenan Latin, and a four lost some of lts former temtory To mchcate compleuon of a process or ts final restdt, Lama, hke other Indo-Emopean languages had a verb-form, the perfect, wtuch corresponds roughly to out coin- PRESFNT A.NrD IMPERUECT TENSE-FO1LMS OF ROMANCE VERBS I love I was lOvng» FRENCH nOUS !IEIOIIS VOUS tl.mcz ris ent DOUS glmlo125 vOUS allXlleZ ris armaient SPANISH amo amamos arcmba amabas amaba amabamos amabas T'N amas amat amarrlus amas amant amabam amabas amabat amabamus amabaus ,-rnabant I rALIAN amo arrll ama amaamo amal¢ amano amav amam amava amavamo amavate amavano potmd past, e g from scTzbere (to write), çcrzps¢ (i have wntten), but Caesar wmes of hmseif, Caesar urbem occupatam habet, whch ls roughly equlvalent fo Caesar bas occup,ea the czty, and Cacero lumself wntes, scnptum habeo (i have wntten), satzs habeo dehberatum (I bave dehberated ênough) In 1are Lann the old syntheuc perfect form (cantavz = I have sung) was gradually ousted by the penphrasuc construmon wxth haberë (to have) or esse (to be), a e cantavz by cantatum habeo, and ,,evertz (I bave returned) by reversus sum The syntheuc form remamed, but came fo be contîned to the functmn of a past defimte (canavz = I sang) As such t stïll persîsts m hterary Fench, as m spoken or wntten Spamsh and Itahan (he sang Latin cantavzt, French zl chanta, Spamsh can6, Itahan can[) Frenchmen never use H m conversanon or mformal wnung Another tense-form whch chsappeared m the later stages of hvmg Lama was the classcal future Whale the verb to bave kept ts mdepen- dence as a helper to mchcate pat tmae, the new analyucal future to
Ttze Latin Legacy 339 wch It also contnbuted formed the basxs of a fiesh fletonaI tense- form (pp o 5 and fo6) Tins new analylacalfuture makes xts appear- ance nu the first century A D Its predecessor had two enurely dafferent forms Of dzco (I say) the future was dzcam (I sha11 say), and of lavo (I wash) xt was lavabo (I shail wash) In the second century A D the classcal future had lost caste, and people resorted to affecuve car- cumloealtons such as volo lavare (I wKl wash), debets lavare (you TUE FUTURE TENSE OF A ROMANCE VEP EN'GLISH love (rotin) I bave I sball thou hast thou wdt he bas he we "t we shall !ove you .[çhaw you they they tu as tu armeras il a 11 aimera nous avons nous minerons vous avez vous armerez ds ont ris atmeîont yo he yo amare tu bas r amars el ha e l amara nosotros hemos nosotros amaremos vosotros habéts vosotros amarets ellos han ellos amarm shali wash)» vado (or eo) lava, e (I am gomg to wash), or lavare habeo (I have to wash) Of these helpers» habere prevaded m all of the wnrten Romance languages except in Rumama» where we hear to-day vozu cântà Elsewhere habere, whlch usually followed the mfutlve, got glued to st» as explamed on p. io6. In out out.line of Classcal Lama norinng has been sald about nega- tzon To gave a statement a negauve meanmg, ne was used m archac Lama, but t could also label a quesuon* as such. In Classlcal Latin, t Is replaced by the stronger non, a contractaon of ne and unum (ht hot one). In datly speech» Latm-speakmg peoples used to strengthen the parucle by addmg another word for somethmg small or valueless They sad I can't see a speck (Latin punctum), we haven't had a crumb (Lama mzcam)» I won't dnnk a drop (Latin guttam). In the modern Romance [anguages the negatîve partacle 18 sali the Latin non (Itah,xu non, Spamsh * Cf You have no undezstood t/ms?
34o The Loom oj Lauage no, Portuguese nào, Rumama nu), to wlch some such emphas_zmg elemet may be added, and m French a double-barrelled negatm (n-pes) s obhgatory It arose m e followmg way In Old French, : -1,. 1 ®l,"loq '>'-e % o k/ . . la'IG 38---SToNE SLAB FRO19I Lramos WTI-I IARY GRE.K LETTERING The language tself, possbly Etruscan, ,xs undeclphered The wntmg s from eft to nght, from nght to lefr, verraeally upwards or vertacally downwards. non had ust become nen, and later ne It was often strengthened by other words Some of them tallled wth ones used m Vulgar Latin as above One was new: je ne vos pmnt je ne mange me je ne bots goutte 3e ne marche pas I don't see a speck I don't eat a crumb I don't dnnk a drop I don't do a stepfrom Lama passus
The Latin Legacy The negauve value of ne m the combmauons m thls hst mfected ts bedfellows, wlch lost ther original meanmg and are now used only as negattve parncles. Two of them mze and goutte» eventually chsap- peared Two others, pas and poînt, have survived By the s-teenth century t was the raie to use one of them m any negattve statement. To-day the most common form lS ne-pas, and ne-point only for emphass. If ne s accompamed by another negauve such as personne (nobody)» rien (not.hmg)» or .amazs (never)» the latter replace pas or pmnt, e g l ne me vzste jamau Oae never looks me up) In popular French the process has gone further. Whle m Old French the pas was more often omtted than hot» you now hear French people drop the êmasculated ne and say j'azme pas ça (I don't hke t)» or zI dort pas Oae doesn't sleep) The French partacle ne also keeps company wth ue and guère m a sense whlch does hot maply negauon When ue replaces pas, t sgmfies only» e g. je n'az que deux sous (I have onIy a penny) When guère takes xts place» tt means scarcely, e g je ne la connau guère (I hardly know her) Correspond, mg to the French ne . ue for only we have the I tahan non.., che. Ifwe recaI1 the wade range ofonly m Enghsh (p 74) thas construcuon should hot puzzle us As an adverb only, or tts eqtuvalent merely, mvolves a quahfied negauve It maphes no more (and no less) than» no better than or hot. . wth th exceptzon Thus a Frenchman says zl n'a qu'un oeil (he bas no more than one eye, he has only one eye) or je ne bos qu'aux repas (I don't drmk except at meals, I only drmk at meals) Ths adverbxal use of only m Romance as m Teutomc (p. 74) languages qmte chstmct from that of the adjecuval oly meanmg sole, sohtary, smgle, alone» or umque For only as adjecuve we bave seul(e) or less common» umque m French» solo or umco ïn Itahan (Spamsh solo or nzco) School-book kuow!edge of Latin does hOt always help us to hnk up a Romance word wth ts Latin forerunner As a hvmg language, Laun had a large stock of words wbch classcal authors never used. Where they would wnte equus £or horse» zer fo loumey» os for moutho zgms for tire, eomedere for eat, a cauzen of the Empre wottld say caballus (French cheval, Spamsh caballo, Itahan cavallo), vratzaon OErench voyage, Spamsh vaje, Itahan vaggzo), buca (French bouche Spamsh boca, Itahan bocca); focus (French feu, Spamsh fuego, Itahan fuoco), manducare, ht to chew (French manger, Itahan mangare) In the school-books the Latin woxd for house s domus, whach was the naine for the house of the well-to-do. Besade xt Latin had casa, wbach
34 The Loom oJ Language slgned the sort of bouse mth wtnch most Romans had tobe content. Casa surves m Spamsh and Itahan, French has maison denved from ,zanso (manslon) May words cuzïent m Romance languages go back to dïmmuuve forms which abounded m Vulgar Latin, e g aurzcu!a (htfle ear) for the classlcal aus (French oreille» itahan crrêccho, Spamsh orga), gemcu[um (httle knee) for the classlcal genu (French genou» Itahan gmocchzo) Though ther common parentage has eqmpped the Romance chalects wth an mamense stock of recogmzably samlar words, some of the more common ones are totally OEerent For the act of speakmg, classlcal Laun had two words, lou and fabularz The first was hgh-flown, the second informa1 Loqu bas chsappeared, whtle the latxer surmves as hablar (see p z49) m Spamsh. Italy and France on the other hand borrowed a word from church language, parabulare (French parler, Itahan parlare) it cornes from the Latin word parabula (Greek para- bole) By metaphor the gospel parablês, 1 e Chnst's word, came to mean word m general Its semantc journey chd hOt stop there In Spamsh form (palabra) It degenerated from the speech of prophets to the speech of natves m the colomes, hence palaver. A samlar cleavage s fllustrated by the word for shou!der. In Spamsh at ls hombro, corre- spondmg wath the Latin word humerus The French s épaule, and» hke the Itahan spalia» goes back to the Latin eqmvalent (spatula) for the shoulder-blade Classcal Laun had two words for beautfuî Oae was pulcher» whch was ceremomal The other, formosus from forma, nght be rendered by shapely The former chsappeared everywhere The latter surwved m Spaïn (hermoso) and Rumama (frumos) The common people of Rome saxd bellus (pretty)» mstead of pglcher or formosus Ths word hves on m French (beau masc, belle fera ), m Itahan ancl Spanîsh (bello-bella) THE IBERIAN D IALECTS Roman rule extended over more than six hundred years in the Ibenan penmsula Centunes belote lts end the speech of the conqueror had superseded that of the vanqmsheck The last ïeference to it ïs m the Annals of Tactus Accordmg to haro a Tarragoman peasant under torture «cned out m the language of hs forefathers" By that ame Spam was completely Romamzed. Seneca» Qumuhan, and Marual were al2 Spamards. A splmter of an earlîer type of speech survlves as Basque, whch people sttll speak on French and Spamsh sofl at the western end of the
The Latin Legacy 343 Pyrenees Befre the planes of I-Iafler and Mussoh rzmed dea on them, Basque was the toe of about hall a mflhon people. Spamsh Laun has survîved ail mvasaous of hastonc tmes Àt the beg-m_mng of the fifth century Germaruc hordes, mcludmg flae Vandats who gave ther naine to (v)Andalusa, overran the Penmsula Then the West Goths ruled for ovê two centunes, vath To!edo as thetr capital After t.hem came the Arabs and Moors from Afnca. The Musku who subdued the whole country vth the excepuon of the Astunan moun- tares, chd hot mterfere wth the rehgion or langage f the people, and mtermanage was common under a bemgn regmae. The Spamsh nauonal hero, Rodrgo Dlez de Bvar, otherwse called the Czd, fought both for mfidcls and Chnstans Cneity and tutolerance came wth the recor, Iuzsta stared by Cathohc prmces m the unsubdued No'h The Cathohc conquest of lost ertory slowly spread fan-wse towads the South, endmg m 49oE, when Ferdanand and Isabella appropnated Granada for the sacrament of mqtuszonal tire Durmg the Moonsh occupauon the speech of the Penmsula was sull a mlxue of cltalects descended frona Vuigax Laun in the East, and more closely aktu to the Provençal of Sour_h France, there was Catalan, m the North, Leonese, Aragonese, and Asturzan, tu the centre Castzhan, n the West, mcludmg Portugal, Galcan From Portugal, akeady a sema-mdèpen- dent province m the eleventh century and foremost as a mm-mme power under Henry the Nawgator, what was ongînally a Gahctan chalect was caraed to Madeaxa and the Azores, later o Braml In the neghbour- hood of 50 ma]hon people now speak Portuese This fimre mdudes about 4 o màhon mhabtants of Brazfl, wtnch became a soverelgn state,n 1822 In Spam xtself the emergence of a common staudard was eariy At the suggesuon of Alfonso X, the Cotes of 53 ruade the usage of Toledo the pattem of correct Spamsh Ie Madnd and Burgos, Toledo was m Casttle Castîhan, at iirst the vemacular of a handful of folk m the Cantabnan mountams on r.he Basque border, thus became what s now the official language of about muety malhon people, mcludmg 9. 3 milhon Spamards, 6 mflhon Memcans, r B mil.bon Argen- umans, 30 malhon cafizens of other Sour.h or Central Amercan staes, 3 mllhons in the Anulles, and one nulhon zu the Plpme Islands Amencan Spamsh has some Andalusan feaoEes, partly because engrants to the New World came mamly from the South, and partly because Cadïz was the commercaal centre of the colomes The vocabuhry of a terntory so repeatedly mvaded mewtably has a
344 The Loom o] Language large admture of non-Lama words. Germamc robes left fewer traces than m French, and these few connected v0ath war and feudal msutu- uons Many hundreds of Arabc words bear testtmony to what Spam owes to a caataon vastly supenor to îts Cathohc successor. The sample prmted below shows how Arabc mfected all levels of the Spamsh vocabulary The ubNmtous ai- of algebra s the Arabc artzcle glued on to ts noun ARABIC SPANISH poor» paltry rmsm mezqmno water-ma11 as-sâmyat acêfia mayor al-qâch alcalde constable al-wazîr alguacil suburb ar-rabad mrabal drain al-ballâ'at albafM cstem al-ubb al:ube cofrin at-tâbût atafld young corn al-qasîl alcacel essamme yâsamîn lazmm alcohol al-quhl alcohol lute al-'ûd ladd None the less, the Spamsh vocabulary ls essenually a bamc stratum of Vulgar wïth a superstrucn=e of OESSlCal Latin. The same ïs t.rue of Portuguese, wtnch has fewer Basque and more French loan-words. Otherwase the verbal stock-m-trade of the two iberian dlalects ls mmflar. Needless to say, a few very common thmgs have dafferent Spanlsh and Pormguese, as some common thlngs have OEerent Scots, Amerîcan» and Enghsh names» e g.. SPANISH PORTUGUESE chxld rmïo cruança, memno (a) dog perro co kneê rodalla oelho wmdow ventana lanela street calle rua bat sombrero chapéu kne cuchttlo faca It s hot a hard task for anyone who has mastered one of the two officïal Ibenan languages, and has learned the tncks of ïdentffymg cognate though apparenfly dasstmalar words, to read a newspaper prmted m the other one A sttmlar statement would hot hold good for
The Latin Legacy 345 conversation The phoneuc chfferences between Spamsh and Portu- guese are sharp The outstandmg ones are summarlzed below (1) Llke French, Portuguese has nasahzed vowels, and even (unhke French) nasahzed chphthongs Nasahzatmn bas corne about when a vowel preceded m or n These tvo consonants may be sflertt, or may have dasappeaxed m wrltmg The tzl (') over the nasal vowel is then the tomb- stone of one or other as the French « weeps over a departed s, e g Spamsh fana (wool), Porruguese là, Spamsh son (are), Pormguese sâo; Spamsh cnszzano (chnstmn), Portuguese crstào» Spamsh pan (bread), Portuguese pâo, Sparush buen (good), Portuguese bore, Spamsh fin (end), Pormguese tire (n) Between vowels Pormguese suppresses the Latin l, e g Latin caelum (sky), Spamsh celo, Portuguese eeu, Latin salute (health), Spamsh salud, Pormguese sarde, Latin volare (fly), Spamsh volar, Porm- guese voar The loss of ! extends to the defirate arncle and the corre- spondmg unstresseà pronouns of the rJxtrd person, 1 e o and a, os, and as, for wtmt were once lo and la, los and las Thus o porto = the port Through agglutmaton of the artacle wth the preposmon de or ad» we get do and da, dos and das, or ao and d, aws and ds» wbach recall the French forms du, des» or au, aux (m) The tmtaal Vu!gar Latin d, 37, pl, wtch often becomes Il m Spamsh, change o the ch (as m champagne) of Pormguese» e g Spamsh llave (key), Ileno (fixll), lIama (flame), Portuguese chave, chew, chama (Frech clef» plein, flamme) On tlats accotmt the eqmvalece of one small group of words s npossble to detect woEout a knowledge of sound-sN£ts (iv) The maraal Vulgar Latin f wkuch often degenerates to a sflent h in Sparash remams m Portuguese, e g Pormguese filho (son), Sparash hzo (v) Whfle Pormguese stressed vowels o and e are conserv'atave, they are replaced m Spamsh by the chplathongs ue and e, e g Pormguese perna (leg), nove (lame), porta (door) Spamsh çzerna, nue've, puera (v) Pormguese orthography shares w!th French the accents ", , , » The acute accent labels as such an open and sressed vowel, the clrcum- flex a closed and stressed one, e g î0d, powàer (Spamsh polvo), pôr, put (Spamsh point) Grammaucal OEerences between the two chalects are tnflmg Por- tuguese chscarded haver (Spamsh habêr) as a helper verb at an early date As such t perssts only m set expressmns Its modern eqmvalent s ter (Spamsh genet) Hence tenho amado (I bave loved), tenho chegado (I bave arnved), for the Spamsh he amado and he llegado Both languages favour chmmutaves The Spamsh favounte s -ito, the Portu- guese -mho In one way Portuguese sull lingers behmd modem Spamsh, French, or Itahan The agglutmauon of the mfimttve wtth habere to form the future and the conchuonal s mcomplete In an a.ffîrmagve
346 The Loom oJ Langzge statement the personal pronoun may shp between the mfimuve and th'e auxary, e g dzr-me-as (ht tel1 me you have- you wïli telI me), dar-vos-eros (ht gave you we have- we sha11 gve yeu) ENCH The first Romance language to have a considerable hterature was a chalect of the Mz&, e Southof France Tins Provençal had a flounsh- îng cult of romanuc poetry greatly mfluenced by Moonsh culture. Its modem representauves are hayseed chalects of the same regon. CAosely related to it ls the vernacular of the Spamsh province of Cataloma, mc!udmg lts capital, Barcelona What ls now French began as the chalect of the Pansmn bourgeosxe. Owmg to the pohucal, cultura!, and economtc predommance of the capital, t spread throughout the monarchy, submerged local chalects and encroached upon Breton, whch s a Celue» and Flemsh, wluch ls a Teutomc language It ls now the dmly speech of hall Belum, and of substanual mîuonues m Swtzerland and Canada In I926 a compact body of 4 o mxlhon European people habltually usëd French» 37 nulhons in France kself» excludmg the bthngual Bretons, Alsatans, and Cor- sxcan% 3 mhon Betgans and nearly a mtlhon Svtss Outslde Europe about three and a hall mflhons m the lrench (or former French) dependences and a million and a half Cana&ans use xt dafly. Canachan French has archac and chalect pecxthanues due to long lmgmsuc isolation and the influence of early ermgrants from Normandy French has twxce enjoyed immense presuge abroad» fit durmg the twelfx.h and thtrteenth cenmries when the wctonous Crusaders camed it to jerusalem, Anuoch, Cyprus, Constanunople Egypt, and Tunî% and agam m the sevênteeth and eghteenth llve years belote the Revolu- uon the Royal Academy of Berlm set the followmg questions as theme for a pnze competïuon what has made the French language umversal, why does It ment ths prerogauve» and can we presume that It wtll keep lt? The wmuer was a French wt and chauvmst, named tvarol Rvarol's answer to the first and second was that French owed xts presnge to ts mtnnsc ments, that s to say, to the order and construc- uon of the sentence ("What ls hot clear ls hOt French. What ls hOt clear s sull Enghsh, Itahan, Greek, or Laun ") Tins ls nonsense, as s the plea of some mterlmgtusts, mcludmg the Iate Havelock Elhs, for revxval of French as a world aumhary. Its vogue as a mechum of chplomacy was partly due to the fact that t was already a tnghly standardïzed language, but far more to a suc-
The Latin Legacy 347 cessmn of extrmszc ctrcumstances From the Treaty of Westphaha (1648) ull the col!apse of Napoleon, France was usually In a position to dactate the terres of ber treates on the continent Belote the penod of enhghtenment whlch preceded the Revelutxon the Court of Versaflles was the culmral cltadel of Absolunsm The Encyclopaedasts were the commercaal travellers of Enghsh ratonahsm and the ïevolutlonary wars emblazoned the fame of French cukure m a new stratum of European socaety The Empre remforced Its prestige, but provoked a nauonahsuc reactlon throughout Europe. After the defeat of Bona- parte ts influence receded in Scandmavan countnes, among the Russmn anstocracy LU Russm, wherc oflîcul foregn correspondence was conducted in French ull abou 84 o, and m Erpt under the unpact of Bnush lmpenahsm Though t st bas ostentauon-value as a female embelhshment m well-to-do clrcles, unfamfllanty wth French no longer stamps a person as an gnoramus among educated people Nether Lloyd George nor Wson could converse Wlth file Tger m s own tongue. Tha they could &scuss the spots wlthout resource to an mterpreter was because Clemenceau had hved in the Umted States ITAL/AN A!qD RUBiANIAN The three Latin &alects chscussed m the Iast few pages bave trans- gressed the boundanes of sovercgn states Itahan and Rttmaman are essenually nauonal, and other Latin descendants, e g Romansch m Svntzeïland are local splmters, on al1 fours with Welsh or Scots Gaeïtc Phoneucally Itahan has kept doser to Latin than Spamsh or French, and ira vocabulary has assmlllated fewez loan-words The oldest avatl- able spectmens of Itahan (A 96o and 964) occur în Laun do cuments as formulae repeated by wmesses In connemon wlth the spectficataon of boundarles. Wntten records are sparse u11 the tha'teenth century. By then haly agam had a hterature of ts own. The dominant dalect was that of Florence, whlch owed ts prestîge less to the poems of Dartre, Petrazch, and Boccaccm than to a flourïshmg textile mdustry and wealthy bankmg bouses It bas changed remarkably httle smce Dante's urne In 1926 there were 41 mAhon Itahans m the Peninsula, m Sxoey, and In Sardmm Less than a quai'ter of a mflhon account for Itahan mmonues eIther m Swltzerland or in Corsca Rumama corresponds roughly to the Roman province Dacaa under the Emperor Tralan. From one point of wew Its officml Ianguage s the Enghsh or Persmn (p 41o) of the Latin family Strange-lookmg words
34.8 Ttze Loom of Language of Vulgar Latin origin mingle with Bulgarian, Albanian, Hungarian, Greek, and Turkîsh intruders. The Slavonic loan-words predomînate. Apart from its hybrid character, comparison with English or Persian breaks down. Rumanîan grammar bas xxot undergone great simplifica- tion. One odd feature mentioneà on p. 280 is remîniscent of the Scandi- navian clan. lin the eastern Empire, Vulgar Latin favoured the post- posited artîcle, e.g. homo ille, rather than the more western ille homo. For that reason, the article is xxow agglutinated to the end of many Rumanian nouns in such centractîons as omul = homo ille .(the man), lupul = lupu i!le (the wolf), câinele-----cane illê (the dog). Earliest Rumanian documents do hot go back more than four hundred years and are ecclesiastical. To-day 5 million people speak the langage. FURTHER READING BOURCIIZ Eléments de Linguistique Romane. RANDGEIT An Intoduction to Vulgar Latin.
CHAPTER IX MODERN DESCENDANTS OF LATIN A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF FRENCH, SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, AND ITALIAN GRAM_MAR ON the whole, OEerences between modem descendants of Latin are less than d.tfferences between the two mare branches of the Teutomc famfly The Teutonlc chalects had dnffed apart belote OEerenuauon of the Romance languages began The Romance languages bave many common fearures whlch they share wath Vttlgar Latin, and others whach are products of parallel evoluuon Because t s the most regular representatlve of the group, Itahan offers the least daflïculty to a be- grener, especlally to anyone who mtends merely to gêt a rêadmg knowledge of t Out blrd's-eye vlew wlli therêfore deal mamly wth Spanish and French. We shall chscuss them together The reade cm assemble mformauon appropnate to mchvadual needs from chf- ferent secuons of thm chapter, from tables prmted elsewhere, or from relevant remarks m other chapters Wth the ald of a &Ctlonary thê rëader, who is leammg Porruguese or mtends to do so, wfll be able to supplement previous tables of essenual worcts (Chapters V and VIII or elsewhere) hstmg only French, Spamsh, and Iahan ltems. The standpomt of the Loom ofLanguage s pracucal Out deflmtlon of grammar is knowledge essenual for mtelhgable correspondence m a language or for ablty to read t, other than mformataon contamed in a good &cuonary So we shall hot waste space over what ls common to the xchom of out own language and to that of those dealt wlth in thls chap- ter What the home srudent cannot fmd in a chcuonary are mcks of expression or charactensucs of word-eqtuvalence pecuhar to them There are fllustrauons of outstalldmg features of word-order m fixe Romance languages in Chapter IV, p I5 et seq, and hmts about pronunctatlon of French, Itahan, and Spamsh in Chapter VI, p 254 et seq Al1 there s need to say about companson ofthe ad]ectlve Is m Chap- ter VIII (pp. 333-337) Odler garnmaucal pecuhanues of Spamsh, Portuguese, French, or Itahatl essentlal for reachng or wrltmg know- ledge are mcluded tu three topcs (a) concord of noun and adlecuve,
35o Thê Loom o] Language mcludmg ploeal formatmn; (b) vaganes of the defimte arncle and of the pmnoun; () verb flexion Of OEc Romance chalects dealt wlth» Enghsh-speakang people find Spamsh easler than French Imhan ls more easy than elthez Tins ls so for severa2 reasons (1) the sound of Spamsh (or Itahan) arc much more hke those we ourselves use» (n) the speilmg convenraons of Spamsh and Imlmn are much more consistent than rhose of French» (m) the Lann orlgm of the older--and OEerefore many of the more famfllarFrench wods ls hard to recognïze, and they arc therefore da!ficult to zdentt wth Enghsh words of Laun orgm (p 238)» (v) the entare apparatus of noun-adecnve flexaon îs zmmensely more regular m Spamsh and m Itahan than m French Thus the rules or plural formataon of nouns admït less exceptions, and» what s moze împortant» ît ls eamer to detect the gender-class of a noun from ls enchng Apart from the gxeater regxtlanty of thezr flexons» there are other eatoEes whmh brmg Spamsh or Itahan mto line wth Anglo-Amencan usage One s a pecuhar durazve construcraon, eqmvalen to out own n expressons such as I was voazt.g NODN ANrD ADECTIVE The only flexion of the notre now left m Romance languages marks dïstmction between smgular and plural In eomparison wxh that of Teutom¢ languages other than Enghsh, plural formation of any Ro- mance language s remarkably regular On paper the typcal plural endmg of Spamsh, Portuguese, and French nouns and adjectwes s -s, as m Englsh Thts is parrly due to the mastery (p 327) of the oblique, m compelanon wth the subject, case-form Otherwxse the masculine smgular form of French nouns mtght also end m -s, as do a few sur- vvors, e g fils (son) and some proper names such as Charles. Lucklly for anyone who mtends to leam the language, the regulanty of Ilalan noun-adlectivê concord approaches that of Esperanto Whether sinmflar or plural, natîve Itahan nouns end m a wowd The sublect case (see p 3x7) of the Latin noun ls the one whmh bas sur- vxved m both numbers Thus most Itahan smgular nouns end m -a, if femmme, or -o (cf muro on p 327) tf masculine, accordmg as they corne from Latin ones of the first and second declensmns Alost of the remamder are smwlvors of the thd, and end in -e In the v.mu., -a changes to -e (Lama -ae) and -o or -ê changes to - These rules admlt eery few exceptions The only notable ones are" (a) Three common nouns have rregular plurals- uomo-uomm (man- men), moghe-mogh (wge-wves), bue-buoz (ox-en) (b) Masctme nouns of whach the smgnalar endmg xs an unstressed
Modern Descendants o] Latin 351 -a take - in the plural, e g poeta-poetz (poet-s)» tema-tem (theme-s), dramma-dramm (drama-s) (c) Some descendzzlts of Lavm neuters bave smb-mIar mascu]me and piural femmme forms, e g l'uovo-le uova (the egg-s) We also bave to use the plu.fa! terminal -a for bracczo» labbro» gznocchzo (arm, lp, knee) as for zl dzto-le dta (the finger-s) when we refer to a pair. These bave alternate masculine pluml forms wzth the endmg -1, as bave fruto (fruit), legno (wood), dto (finger), osso (bone) (d) Molosyllables, and all nouns whch end m a stressed vowel axe mvmxant llke ou_r sheep, e g la czttà-le czta (oEe cry--the caries) (e) In conformty mth the consistent spellmg es of itahan (p 354) a hard G belote the smgxltar termmals -O or -A becomes GH belote the plur -I or -E, e g lago-lagh (take-s), luogo-Iuogh (place-s) Lkewse the hard C of the femmme smgular becomes CH, ê g arzcc-azche (frend-s) Mascuàme nouns may retam the hard so ,tmd» e g fuoco-fuoch (fi.re-s),fico-fich (fig-s) stornaco- somactn Many mascu!mes wth final -CO !lave the soif sound of C befoîe I in the plural, e g amzco-am, c, (frlend-s), nedco- medzc, porco-porcz (pg-s). The regular types are ï11ustrated by COY On ano fl, or (crowa) (year) (flower) (crowns) (years) (flowers) Plural formauon in Spamsh or Portuguese as as egular as m Enghsh ALI plural Spamsh nouns end with -S. There Is one noteworrhy irregu- larlty. Smgular nouns whch end in a consonant» m y» or an a«cented corona ao hombr e flot (crown) (year) (man) (flower) coronas aïws hombres flores (crowns) (years) (men) (flowers) The saine rule apphes to Portuguese nouns e g hvro-lzvros (book- books)» pena-penas (pen-pems) Portuguese nouns whmh end m ..âo change It usually to ôes m the plural» e g naçâo-naç5es (nataon-s) Noans endmg m -al» -el» -oi, -ul, form the plurad m -azs» -ezs» -ozs» -uzs» e g lapel-Palezs (paper-papers) Nouns endmg m -m change it to -ns» e g homem-homem (man-men) There ls tbas OEerence bem'een French on the one hand and Spamsh or Portuguese on the other The French plural -S, hke so many other vowel take-es, e g.
The Loom o Language flemonaI smwvals of the wntten language, ls often nonng more than a convenuon of the pnnted or wntten page Unless the next word begïms wath a vowel--or a mute H (p 258)--the plural -S ls a dead let-ter When it does precede a word begummg wth a vowel, t sounds hke z. Otherwse flemonal dastmcuon between smgular and plural m spoken French s usually guaranteed only by the presence of the defimte arucle le (masc smg ), la (fera sing ), or les (plur), and the French use therr defnnte grade far more than we use out own In fact, t bas become a sort of nuaber-prefix. A small group of French nouns has hot yet been brought mto 1me wlth the prevaztmg pattern The smgular endmgs -azl or -al change to -aux m the plural, e g emad-emauz, hôptal-hôpztaux Apart from these, there are a few vesuges of auchble number-(hstmcuon The Fîench word for the eye, l'oez/, has the trregular plural les yeux The ox, le buf and the egg, l'oeuf» 1ose ther finai -f m the spoken plural--les bceufs (pronounced bo), les fs (pronounced o) You wi hot be spe "akmg the French of the text-book ff you forger these trregularmes and pronounce the plural of ufs and bozufs hke the smgular, or say les oezls for les yeux, but you be understood You are merely domg what mdhons of modest French- men themseives do Ail that needs to be added xs that nouns wth the smgular endmgs -au, -eau, -eu and -ou take -x mstead of-s m the plural (e g cheveux, haîr eaux, waters, genoux, knees) Tins agmn s a paper chstmcuon The x Is sLtent belote a consonant, and pronounced as ff it were z when the next word begms wlth a vowel To replace a French, Portuguese» Spamsh» or Itahan noun by the nght pronoun» and to choose the nght form of the adjecuve or the arucle to accompany t, we need to know the gender class to wlnch it belongs Any noun of a modern Romance language falls mto one of two gender classes» masculine and femlnme. Somemnes ts mean- mg helps us to ldentffy the gender dass of a Romance noun Three rules appIy to the group as a whole (a) male human bemgs and male domesuc ammals are mascuhne» female human bemgs and femsde domesuc mmls femmmê; (b names of days» months» and compass beanngs are masculine; (c) most metals and trees are mascuhne» most frtuts femmme The reader can turn to the ex[nbts of Part IV to test these rules and to note excepuons. Usually» we have to rely as best we can on the erdmg, as already fllustrated by reference to Itahan nouns Two dues bave tumed up m what bas gone belote. (a) Descendants of Laun mascuhnes ana neuters wth the nommatave smgular êndmgs -US and -UM are nearly always masculine in Spams,h» Portuguese» Itahan, the correspondmg terminal is -O
Moder Descendants oj Latin 353 More often than not, French descendants of thas class end m a consonant (b) Descendants of Lann femmmes wlth me nommanve smgular endmg -A are also femamne and retam the saine terminal m Spamsh and Portuguese, as m Itahan. In French t usually makes way for a mute -E Porruguese nouns endmg m -;âo (Latin -tzone) are femmme These two clues teLl us how to deal wth the enormous dass of Itahan, Spamsh, and Portuguese nouns whach bave the smgalar ter- mmals -0 (toast) or -A (.fera) Among Latin nouns wtnch chd hot havc the charactenstc masculine, neuter or femmme endmgs -US, -UM, -A m OEe nommauvc smgular some had termmals whach stamp the gender class of t.hem descendants throughout the group In the followmg hst the Lama eqmvalent ls the ablatave case form. LATIN ITALIAN SP&NISH [ FR.ENOE CULINE -ALE -ENTE accidente FEMININE -IONE hbertare canale -ENT accidente -A hbertà hbertad grantud -ION -ENT acctdent -E hberte -TUDE gratitude Lama abstxact nouns woE tahe ablanve smgular termanal -ore were masculine Ther descendants snck to then: ongmal gender m Spamsh and Itahan» but have become effemmate m French LATIN ITALIAN SPANISH FRENCA-I ENGLISH clamore 1 clamore el clamor la clameur clamour colore fl colore el color la coin!eut color dolore I dolore el dolor la douleur para pudore fl pudorê el pudor la pudeur modesty sapore 1 sapore el sabot la save ur taste (savour vapore fl vapore el vapor la vapeur steam, vapour M
354 The Loom of Language Ru!es of t1-.s sort are net absolutdy rehable Even if a noun ls mascu- line or femm!ne m Latin, lts descendant m a daughter &alect does hot mvanab!y fall mm the saine gender-class Consequently knowledge of one Romance language as not an mfalhble g-mde to gender m another Tins as fl!ustrated by the followmg hst. LATIN flore ( oe)» In lepore (ha e), In In-rote (lumt), m pulvere (dust), m sanguine (blood), In aestate (summer), f dente (tooh). In fronte (fo ehead,, f arte (er), f FRENCH fleur, f lierre» m hm_tte» f poudre, f sang, m été, m dent» f front, m SPANISH flot, f hebre, f limite» m polv% m sangre, f estî% m chente, m f_rente» f arte, m or f IT/kLI/2g flore» In lepre, f 1mute» m polvere, f sangue, m estate» f dente, m fronte, f. arte, f A smgle common excepnon to the mie that Itahan and Spamsh -0 nouns are mascuIme s the word for hand, wtnch m femmme Thus the whtte hand ls la mano blanca (Span), la mano bzanca (Itahan). Itahan nouns of the mmorzty class, 1 e hose wh,ch do hot have the smgular termmals -o or -a end m-E and are ether masculine or femmme. There Is an-E class in Spamsh and Portuguese, and an even larger group of Spamsh and Pormguese nouns wtnch end in a comonant Spamsh nouns wtnch bave the smgular endmgs -D or -Z are usually femmme Spamards make a pecuhar chsnncnon between aromate and manmaate oblects When the chrect oblect Is a person or Its pronoun eqmvalent (de- monstrattve, mterroganve, relanve, and mdefimte), xt must be preceded by the preposlnon a, e g veo a Don duan (I see Don Juan), no he v,sto a nade (I have seen nobody), but veo la plaza (I see the square) The preposlnon 'a may also be used when the obiect lS a fancuhar ahuris1, e g llama al perro, he calls the dog We on-ut t after ener (have) and querer (want), but hot when ener means hold or quere means love, e g tengo a mz anuga (I ana holding my fnend) LATIN OVO vmo anno aqua porta bucca ITALIAN uovo VlI10 anno acqua porta bocca SPANISPI huevo VLI10 mîo agua puerta boca PORTUGUESE 6vo vmho 8/io agua porta bôca FRENCH uf vin eau porte bouche ENGLISFI egg year water door mouth
Modern Descendants of Lathz 355 Relanvely few French nouns bave an exphctt gender label hke the -O or -A endmgs of Spamsh, Portuguese, and Imhan The original Latin vowel terminals whch help to mark the gender of the Spamsh, Porruguese, or Itahan noun havê chsappeared or have changed past recogmnon The precedmg examples (p 354) dlustrate thîs The followmg rules are useful to the smdent of French, and the begmer who s hot famhar wth Latin or wth another Romance language should leam them French nouns are (a) MACOEINE ff' r.hey end m -- 0) -AGE -AIRE,-EGE,-OIRE,-E.AU (u) -É (exdu&ng those endmg m -TÉ and -TIÉ) (va) Consonants other than those mennoned below. Examples l'herztage, mhenmnce le vesmzre, cloak-room le college, co!1ege le laboratmre, laboratory le va;sseau, vesse!, stup le congé, Ieave (b) M_m xf they end m (0 -TÉ and -TIÉ (u) -ÉE (va) -E preceded by one or more consonts (e g -aie, -ole» -uie; -be, Examples la rature, v l'amvde, val l'ztzd, iendsp la vzae, mt In al1 Romance languages the behawour ofthe adlecttve talhes dosely wth that of the noun, and m all of them there are two classes What s always the larger class s ruade up of adjecnves wth four forms, e separate masculïne and femmme forms both smgular and plual The smaller dass s genderless Adect,ves of thas type have only two forms, smgular and plural. The smgular forms of Spamsh, Pormguese, and Itahan adlecnves of the larger dass bave OEe ermmals -O (masc) or -A (fera) The genderless itahan adecnve bas the smgular terminal as bave many genderless Spamsh and Portuguese adecnves Smguiar forms of other genderless Spamsh and Portuguese adlecnves end m a consonant. The plural forms of all Itahan, Spamsh, and Portuguese adlecttves fo]low the saine rule: the plural f orm of thé ad7eztve s hke the plural f orm of a noun wzth the saine szngular en&ng The followmg examples therefore filustrate all essentlal rules for use of the Itahma adjecnve,
356 The Loom oj Language un hb o gza!lo (a yellow book) un Duce loquace, (a talkatave leader) hbr gmlh (yellow books) Dues loquac (talkatave leaders) una nazzone rzcca (a rlch nanon) una macchzna fo te (a strong machine) nazzom rzcche (nch nanons) macchzae fortz (strong machines) The Spamsh equtvalets for black, poor, and common sufficenfly tllustrate the use of appropnate forrns of the Spamsh or Portuguese adectave Smg Masc negro ) pobre comAn Smg Femzn negra Plut Masc negros ) pobres comunes Plur Femzn negras There s one noteworthy excepuon to the rules fllustrated by these examples Adlecttves mgnffymg natzonahty take the femmme termmals -a or-as» even ff the mascuhne smgular ends m a consonant, e g mglés- znglesa, espagol-espaîzola Representatlve exhïbts of Portuguese noun-adlecuve concord are: o nawo novo the new s/top a pessoa sznzpdtzca the congemal person os navzos novos the new shaps as pessoas szmpdtzcas the congemal persons o(a) aluno(a) zntehgente the mtelhgent pupzl os(as) alunos(as) mehgentes the mtelhgent pupds Genderiess Portuguese adectaves endmg m -I bave contracted forms m the plural, e g neutraI, fat»l, azul (blue)neutraes, facezs, azms. The genderless class of French adjectlves s relauvely small About the rime of Agmcourt the old genderless adjecuve got drawn mto the orbt of the two-gender class It assnmlated the femanme endmg -E, so that fort (strong), ongmally a common gender form, bas now separate mascxthne (fort) and femmme (forte) smgular and correspondmg plural forms (forts-fortes) Genderless are b ave, large, juste, rzche, vzde (empty), trzste (sad), faczle (easy), dzfficzle, rouge (red), tzède (lukewarm), ternble, humble, capable, an others wch end m -ble The plural sut of all thêse s -S (rouges, facïles, etc ) Tins rule apphes to the separate masculine or femmme plural forms of most French adjecnves whach do hot belong to the genderless dass If we want to wrzte down the femmme eqmvalent of the masculine smgular of most French adjecuves, ail we bave to do xs to add -E. What happens tu speech s another story The final consonant (p. z57) of most French words xs salent When the masculine smgular form of
Modern Descendams oJ Latin 357 th¢ paper adjectlve ends in such a sllem consonant (-T,-S,-ER, adchtlon of the -E makes the latter artculate Thus the pronuncaauon of vert (masc) and verte (fera), meanmg green, ls roughly vazr-vazrt Sometmles the final -T or-S is double in the wntten form of the le_rumine eqmvalent, e g net-nette (clean, distinct), sot-sotte (stupld), gros-grosse (big), gras-grasse (fat) SLx adecuves endmg in -et do hot double the final consonant (complet-complète, concret-concrète, ducret- dscrète, mquzet-znquzète, uneasy, replet-replète, stout, secret-secrète) Those endmg in -er change to -ère, wlth change of vowel colour, e prermer-premzère, réguher-réguhère Vowel change also occurs f the masculine smgular terminal lS -N Thts sdent consonant symbol labels the precedmg vowel as a nasal (p 257) The vowel of the femmme form ls hOt nasal A sllent -N becomes an exphct -NE or -NNE, e g bon-bonne (good), plem-plezne (lu11) Doubhng of the last consonant before the final -E of the wntten form of the femmme atso occurs the mascuhne smgutar ends in the amculate termmals -EL or -UL, e g crueI-crudIe or nul-nulle (no) In the spoken languagê these adjecuves belong to the gendefless class. .A_ few lrregulanues among gender fox-ms of the Fench adjecttve recaH fermnme forms of couplets whlch stand for persons (e g masseur-masseuse) Thus -eux becomes-EUSE» e g glor2euxloneuse, fameux-fameuse Sumlarly we have a berger-bergere (shepherd-shepherdess)class repre- sented by premzer-premzère As -eux becomes -euse» -aux, and-oux become -AUSSE and -OUSE, e g faux-fausse (false), jaloux-jalouse 0ealous) As wlth the couplet veuf-veuve (wldower-wdow), -f changes to -VE» e g heurt-neuve (new), bref-brève Four apparent excepuons to ru.les gtven depend on the fact that there are alternatave masculine smgular forms One whch ends in a vowel precedes a word bennng wth a consonant The other precedes a word be_rm_ng with a vowel or h These masculine couplets are nouveau-ouvel (new)» beau-bel (beautaful), vzeux-vze, l (old), mou-moi (soif), as m un vzel homme (an old man), un vzeux mur (an old wall) or un beau garçon (a fine boy), un bel arbre (a beauta_fi tree) The femmme derlvattves correspond to the second or older number of the couplet in conformxty wth OEe rules stated» e nouvelle, belle, vzedle, molle, e g une welle femme, or une belle dame Tlae few lrregular masculine plural forms of the adjecrave xecall those of nouns wxth the saine smgular termmals If the smgular ends in -s or -x there s no change Thus zl esr heureux = he zs happy, and ,ls sont heureux -- they are happy If the masculine smgular ends In -EAU or -AL, the masculine plu_rai termmals are respecravely-EAUX or -AUX, as in beau-beaux» nouveau-nouveaux, or cardinal-cardinaux The corre- spondmg ïemmme forms are reguaar, e g nouvelles or cardmaies The masculine plual of tout (all) s tous The correspondmg femmme forms are regular (tove-outes) When tous stands by ztself wthout a notre the final s ls always artlculate
358 The Loom of Langue The posluon of the epithet adlectlve m Romance languages ls hOt as ngdly fixed as m Enghsh As a rule (whch ailows for many excepuons) the adjecuve cornes after the noun T/ms xs uearly always so ff the adlective denotes colour, nauonahty, phymcal property, or ff t s longer than the noun The two ubxqmtous Spamsh adlecuves bueno and malo usually precede, and the masculine smgxtlar forms are then shortened to buen and mal, e g un buen rnno (a good wme), un mal esmtor (a bad wnter). French adecuves usually placed belote the notre are: beau-belle (beautfful), joh-johe (pretty), wlazn-wlaine (ugly), bon-bonne (good), mauvazs-mauvase (bad), meehant-méchante (wlcked). mezlleur- meilleure (better),grand-grande (great, tall), gros-grosse (big), petzt-petzte (small), jeune (young), wuveau-nouvelle (new), weux-velle (old), long- longue (long), court-cmrte (short) Both m Spamsh and French almost any adlecuve may be put belote the noun for the purpose of emphams, e g une formzdabte exploswn, though the saine effect xs acl-aeved by leavmg t at ts customary place and stress- mg it Ths shuntmg of the adlecnve s much less charactensnc of every- day language than of the hterary medium wtch pays attenraon to such mcenes as rhythm, euphony, and len2ï of words Sometmaes a OEerence of posmon goes wlth a very defimte dLfference of meanmg Where there ls such a dastmcuon the adecuve follomg the noun bas a hteral, the adlecnve precedmg t, a figurauve meanmg When gran appears before the Spamsh noun t sgnes quahty» e g un gran hombre» a great man, when placed errer, sze, un hombre grande, a tall man The saine ls true of French In French un brave homme s a decent chap, un homme brave xs a brave man» un hvre trzse xs a sad sort of book, un trse hvre Is a poor sort of book THE ARTICLE IN THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES All forms of the Romance defimte amcle (as also of the Romance pronoun of the thzrd person) corne from the Lama demonstrauve ILLE, etc (p 329) The form of the deftmtë amcle depends on the number and gender of the noun, but the choce of the nght form ïs comphcated by the mtml sound of the notre tself, and by agglutmatlon wlth pre- posmons When tt ts hot accompamed by a preposmon, the range of choce s as follows , ..... Masc Smg , Fera Smg Masc Plut Fera P!ur FRENCH LE } L LA LES PORTUGUESE 0 A OS SPAN!SH (or ) LOS LAS ITALIAN (orno) } n' (Or GLI-GL') LE 01 L
Modern Descendants o] Latin 359 Our table shows a bewlldenng vanety of akemauves So far as Spamsh* ls concemed, the onIy chdce whlch calls for exp!anatmn fs the occasmna! use oï el belote smgular femmme nouns. La precedes all feminme smgular nouns except those wklch begm wlth a stressed A (or HA), e g el agua--las aguas (he water-s) Thts a!s apphes to the mdefimte amcle For the sake of euphony the masculine form un re- places the femlnme una, e g un ana (a tune), un hacha (an axe) If a Spamsh femmme noun begms mth an unstressed a (la ambcdn), we have to use the ordmary ïemmme form If a French smgzdar noun of etker gender or flan Itahan smgular masculine noun begms mth a vowel (or h In French) we have to use the trancated l', as m thê table below Excepuons to the rule that I' precedes wods begmmng Wlth H are words (p 258) of Teutomc and of Greek ongm (e g héros) Chmce of the hahan arucle is comphcated by (a) the emstence of a specaal smgular form (!o for mascxflme nouns whïch begm wlth Z or wth S followed by another consonant (SB, SP, ST) cf d padre (the father), lo mo (the uncle), (b) the masculine gh whlch replaces z belote plural, nouns begnnmg wth (a) vowels, (b) wlth Z or wth S followed by a consonant The next table fllustrates these rules ENGLISH (a) a fiêtd the field the fields (b) a door the door tt, doors (c) a fnend the fnend the fnends FRENCH un champ le champ les champs une porte la porte les portes l'ara/ les ans PORTUGUESE um campo o campo os campos uma porta a çorta as port,as o amlgo os atmgos SPANISH un csnlpo el campo los campos una puerta la puerta las puertas un armgo el armgo los anugos ITALIAN un campo I carnpo 1 campl una porta la porta le porte l.iIl flIIllCO l'anco gh an:rira Unfortunately, out troubles wlth the vaganes of the Romance amde do not end here Both the deflmte artacles and the demonstranves of Romance languages are addtcted to romanuc attachments to preposl- * The table OlmtS one form of the Spamsh arucle Spamsh preserves a separate neuter arucle» lo It bas the sole ftmctlon of ratsmg a smgutar adlec- rive, parncaple, etc, tothe stams of a notre, e g lo Amencano, what s Amencan, lo urd, what xs useful, lo dcho, what bas been smd
360 The Loom oj Language tmns The preposmon of Vulgar Latin was unstressed, hke the demon- strattve (defimte arucle) wtnch often went th t Se the two got fused Such agglutmatton chd not go very far m Spamsh R s confiaed to the smgular mascuhnê amcle and the two preposmons de and a, de ÷ el became del (of the), and a ÷ el became al (to the, by the), e g el mal humor del maestro = the bad mood of the teacher (but de los maestros), el bote alfaro = the boat at the hghthouse (but a los faros) In wntten Spamsh these two are r.he only contracuons of the kaad In French, agglutmatmn Is confined to the saine preposltmns, but extends to the p!ural form, as shown m e followmg table Smg Plut Smg Plut OLD FRENOE dels (de + es) al (c ÷ le) als (à ÷ ies) MODERN FREN CH du de« In anclent French the mascuhne smgular m-ad plural arttcle also agglu- tmated wxth the preposmon en (Latm 2n) to el and es The former ched out Trie latter survlves m the t_tdes of Umverslty degrees such as docteur ès lettres, doctor of hterature, doctem es sczences, doctor of sclence From tins point of wew, French fs a half-way bouse between Spamsh and Pormguese Portuguese Is a half-way house between French and hahan The agglutmauon of Portuguese preposmons to the arucle, whtch hs lost the mmal Laun L, are as follows PREPOSITION (Lama eqmvalent m talics) a (---- ad) de em (--m) po (= per) pelo DEFIlqITï &RTICLE pela OS aos dos nos pelos S nas pelas The Pomguese preposmons de and em also aggluunate to the pomter-words of whtch the masculine smgular forms are êste, êse, açuele Thls gives nse to dêsfê, dêsse, daquele, or neste, nesse, na4uele,
Modern Descendants oj Latin 36I and correspondmg femmme smgular» masculine plural» or femmme plural forms Imhan has a luxuriant over-growr of such fusmns between preposmon and artacle. IL dei dz/ al coi ! COl LO dello da!lo allo nelao collo sullo per lo (pello) GLI degh agh negh cogh sugh per gh L ddla dalJa alta nella col_la sulla per la (pella) LE elle dalle aile nelle co!le sulle per le (pelle) deli' dall' ail' new coll' sull' per 1' (pell') In modern Romance languages, and m none more than m French, the defimte amcle ls now an almost mseparable bedfellow of the noun Consequently it bas lost any personahty t once had We bave to use st m many slmanons where no Anglo-Amencan amcle occurs Thus t appears before colleoeve or abstract nouns, e g l'homme or la nature, names of substances, e g le fer (tron), names of counmes, e g le Canada, names of colours, e g le bleu (blue) and the genenc plural, e g j'ame les pommes (I hke apples) It was hot always so In em.ly French, as m otherRomance lanmaages,t was hOt the custom to put thedefimte arnde before an abstract noun, e g covotzse est racine de toz mais for la con- votse est la racine de tous les maux (envy s the foot of ail evals) Thas accounts for lts absence m some set expresslons (see also p 390) such as in French, avoir raison Çoe nght), avmr tort (be wrong), prendre garde (take care), prendre congé (take leave), demander pardon (ask ïorglveness), m Spanlsh, or rmsa (hem" mass), hacer fiesta (take a hohday), dar fin (fimsh); m Itahan, far onore (do honour), corner percolo (rtm a nsk), prender rnoghe (take a wlfe) Where we use the mdeflmte arncle a or an before names of professlons and trades» lts equlvalent ls absent m Romance languages, as m German Thus the French say d est méclecm = he ls a doctor, and the Spamards say es mé&co One of the pltfalls of French ls correct use of what grammar-books call the partzt2ve article. Wherever Enghsh-speakmg people can use some or any to slgmfy some mdefimte quanuty of a whole, as m I had some beer, the French must put before the object the preposluon de together wlth the defimte arucle (i e du» de la, des) Thus the French M*
The Loom oj Languê say buvez du tazt (drmk malk), j'az acheté de la farine (I bave bought flour), est-ce que vous avez des pozres? (bave you pears?), mad even abstracfly, 1 me témozgne de l'amztzé (he shows me fnendshp) Thas arttcle partztzf s a trade-mark of modern French The habit goes back to late Latin It occurs m the Vulgate and talhes wth the xchom of the Mayflower Bble, e g catdh edunt de mzcs = the dogs eat of the crumbs (Matt. 5, ZT) The partmve arucle may even be prefaced by a preposmon, as m je le mange avec du vnazgre (I eat r wth vmegar) The French de s used alone, e wthout the defimte arucle: (a) after beaucoup (much, many), peu (Itttle, few), paç (no), plus (more), trop (too much, too many), e g je n'a pas de monnaze (I have no money), j'az trop de temp (I bave too much rame), (b) f the noun s preceded by an adecrave, e g j'a vu de belles masons (I have seen some race bouses). The second of the two rules s generally gnored m colloqtual Freach. The parnttve article occurs also m Itahan, e g damm del vuzo It s Nor compulsory Spamsh and Portuguese usually do wthout t, but bave a pecuhar plural eqtuvalent for some, hot comparable to that of otheï European languages The mdefimte artacIe bas a plural form, e g. SP,LNISH PORTUGUESE a book un hbro um hvro some books unos hbros uns hvros a letter una cara urna carra some letters unas cartas umas cartas THE RORIANCE PERSONAL PRONOUN Our tables of personal pronouns (pp 33, 332, and 363) and posses- sves (p 369) do hot gave eqmvalents for IT or ITS The reason s that Romance nouns are etther masculine or femmtne. What s gtven as the French, Spanlsh, or Itahan eqtuvalent for SHE s the subjêct pronoun whach takes the place of a female human bemg, a female domesnc ammal and any group» mammate object, or abstracuon placed m the femmme gender dass Analogous remarks apply to any other ponoun of the thard person Equtvalents of he, hzm, bu stand for pronouns whtch replace a masculine noun, equtvalents for she her hers for pronouns whtch replace a femmme noun, and what s hsted as the equtvalênt of he o hun, she or he would correspond to out zt, when the latter refers to anyrhmg sexless The pronoun of Romance, as of othcr European languages» has been more reststant to flextonal decay than the notre, and chotce of the
Modern Descendants o] Latzn 363 correct form m one of the most troublesome thmgs for a begmner. Thts m so for several reasons" ROOE PERSON PRONOUNS--STSSD* FoRMs FRENCH PORTUGUESE SPANISH ITALIAN MOI MIM Mi TOI Tf HIM LUI ËLE LLrl (.sso) HER LEI US NOUS NOS NOSOTR0S NOI FRENç PORTUGUESE SPANISH" ITAI2&N YOU vous v6s VOSOTROS VOl Tt. (m) rm. (f) LORO (sx) (s) REFLEX.IVE , . SOI SI SI s * Stressed forms always used when preceded by a preposmon f There xs a stressed neuter Spamsh pronoun ELLO (--r). see foomore P 359 For femmme forms of NOSOTRO$, VOSOTROS see p 33z (X) Pronotms of rhe tturd person bave separate direct oblecz (accusanve) and mdarect ob;lect (datzve) forms» (n) Pronouns of all three persons have sêparare umressed (conjmactlve) forms as subject or ob:lect of an accompmaymg verb and stressed (chsBmc- rave) forms for use af-ter a prepostraon and m certain other sltuaraons» (m) The rudes of concord for the possessive of rixe r.trd person bave nothmg fo do wlth the gender of the possessor, (Iv) Pronouns may agglutmate wlth other words, (v) Pronouns of th¢ second person bave dafferent poIzte and famthar forms The personal flextons of the Portuguese, Spamsh, and Itahan verb are snll intact If s customary to use Pormguese» Spamsh, or Itahau verbs wlthout an accompmaymg sublect pronoun, though the latter haudy for emphasm or greater clanty, e g " ENGLISH FRENEE PORTUGUESI SP &NISH ITALIAN he s good d es bon e bore s bueno e buono
364 The Loom oJ Language We cannot omt the French subject pronoun Indeed, xt bas no sêparate existence apart from the verb In answer to a questxon, the Spamard» Portuguese, or Itahan w use yo, eu, to Except m the legal je sousszgné, the Frenchman does hot use je m answer to a question, he mes the stressed mm where we usually say me, e g Qu l'a fat? Mm. Who chd xt ? Me (-- I chd) Thls fuie apphes to French pronouns of al1 persons m so far as there are chstmcuve stressed forms (mm, toz, tuz, eux) In the saine stuauon the ltahan uses the stressed form ïor the thrd person (luz, laro) The French- man uses the sr:ressed forms whenever the pronoun (a) s detached from ts verb, (b) stands alone Frenchmen never use them next to the verb, eg (a) Lin, mon a.n He, my fnend (b) Mot, te n'en sazs r, en I (mysel know notbang about it (c) Je fera comme toz I'il do as you (do) There are emphauc French forms of myself, hzmself» etc mo- méme» lm-mëme, etc The Spamsh eqmvalent of même s msmo(s)- mzsma(s) The unstressed sublect form precedes xt» unïess t emphasmes a noun» e g Io hago yo msmo I do t myself raz mu]er msma my wife herself In ail the Romance languages deak wlth m ths chapter the stressed forms are the ones we have to use after a preposmon, and they take up the same place m the sentence as the correspondmg noun, e g Enghsh I came wzthou her. French Je sms venu sans elle Portuguese Tenho vïndo sera ella Spamsh He vemdo sm ella Imhan Sono venuto senza ella The unstressed chrect or indirect obect form ls overshadowed by the verb, wluch It mmaechately precedes or follows We always have to use It when there s no precedmg preposmon m a statement or ques- non It always cornes before the French verb, and nearly always does so m Spamsh and Itahan statements, e g de t'azme beaucoup Erench), Te amo mucho (Span), Tz amo molto (Ital) = I love you a lot Portuguêse ls out of step wxth lts sster chalects. In simple afflrmauve Portuguese sentences the oblect usually follows the verb and a hyphen connects themo e g. Ce procura-me = he xs lookmg for me dd-me o hvro = he glves me the book
Modern Descendams o/ Latin 365 In egatve statemets of ail the four pnncapal Romance languages, the oblect pronoun (whether chrect or mchrect) precedes the verb, e g Enghsh I doa't see French Je ne le vos pas Portuguese No o ve:lo Spamsh No lo veo Itahan Non 1o vedo The rules on p 156 for placmg the oblect in a stacement do hot tel1 us where to put It m a command (or request) on r_he one hand, and a questwn on the other. The Romance object pronoun always cornes after the zmperatzve verb, ff the maperatve s affltauve, but belote the verb if a protnbmon, e g French embrasse-la (kass ber t), ne l'emb asse pas (doa't kîss ber t) The chrect oblect s always the accusatlve un- stressed form; but m French, mm and toz replace me and te as the zndzrect oblect, e g donnez-mo de l'eau (Nve me some water) In French and Portuguese, the hyphen mchcates the mnmate relation of the unstressed form to the verb maperauve, as In the followmg examples, whch Hlustrate ag#ur_matton or two pronoun obîects (me-o = mo) m Portuguese dë-me u,n hvro = gtve me a book. dê-mo o senhor = gve tt tor me (Szr) It s customary to wnte the Spamsh and Itahan maperatve» mfinluve and parucples wthout a gap between It and the obect, e g. ENGLISH EPANISH ITALIAN shoeo me muéstrame mostrazm Z wam o speak to hm qmero hablarle vogho parlargh Fusion of verb to xs pronoun object goes further m Itahan" (a) the mfm_mve (e g parlarê) drops the final E as m the last example, (b) th mmuve drops -RE tf t ends m -RRE (e g condurre) as m condurlo -- to àtrect hun, (c) there ts doubhng of the tmtml consonant of the pronoun tf the unperattve ends m a vowel wth an accent» e g damm = gve me» &llo = say tt Wth con (wth) the stressed Itahan pronouns me» te» se fuse to form meco (wtth me), eco (wth thee)z seco (wth hun or wxth ber) The three Spamsh stressed pronouns m, tf» s, get glued to con to form conmtgo, comzgo» ¢onszgo Agglutmatton goes ftrrther m Portuguese Wth coin we bave comzgo, contzgo» comgo, connosco, convosco (wth me, wath thee, etc ) Smallarly the unstressed Portuguese me, re, lhe, glue on to the direct object of the thd pexson to form mo-ma-mos-ma, to, etc, and lho, etc, e g Da-os = he gves t.hem to you (thee).
366 The Loom oj Language The Portuguese da.rect obect forms of the thlrd person bave alterna- lave forms Io-ta-los-las for use af ter -R» -S» or -Z If the precedmg pro- noun ls nos or vos, the laer drop the S Dd-no-lo -- he gves it to us Da-vo-lo = he gves it to you Thus the same rules for the posmon of two pronoun objects do hot apply to French on the one hand and Spamsh or itahan on the other" (a) The Spamsh and Itahan drect object pronouu follows the indirect, e g. no te fo daré = I shall not gtve t to you = non t lo dar3 Thas rule apphes to statement, quesuon, or command (request), e g LU Spamsh corregidmelo, correct it for me (b) If the French mchrect obeee s a pronoun of the ffrst or second person the saine rule holds for a simple statement, e g le ne re le donnera pas = I shaIl hot glve you It (c) If the French mdtrect pronoun object s of thc thlrd person, t follows the chrect oblect, e g Te le lu dzraz = I shall tel1 ham t (d) The French chrect object prccedes the mchrect one m a positive command, and the mchrect obect bas the stressed form, e g comgez-le-mo = correct it for me (e) If both Spamsh pronoma objects are of the t.hd person SE takes the place of the mdarect object whach retams lts usual place, e g se lo d, ré = I shall tell hun t (f) Negatve commands of al four languages bave the saine word order as statements Out hst of unstressed French pronouns should lnclude two pecuhar forms whlch are troublesome These are en and y In oelloqmal French the former refers to persons and thmgs(or proposmons), whereas the latter s generally used for thmgs (and proposmons) only. Both are descendants of Laun adverbs of place, en from mde (thence), y from th (there) Both en aud y may preserve tins old locauve meanmg, en for zn, to, from, etc, and y for here, there, thtther, e g en provznce (m the country),jy serai (I shall be there) In Vulgar Latin znde and bz often replaced the pronoun of the thd person, e g st potu mde manducare, te, ht. you can eat (from) t, adjzce zln ovum, Le add an egg there (= to lt). The French offen use the pronoun en where we say sorne or an.y, e g en avez-vous (have you any?), or where we say of t, about t, frorn zt, e g j'en ai assez (I bave enough ofit), nous en parlerons (we shall talk about t), ri en pourrazt mourir (he mtght che of it). Also note En ,)odà une surpnsd = what a surpnse l As pronouns eqmvalent to IT, en and y keep company wlth a specïal class of verbs The French eqmvalents for some Enghsh verbs whlch do hot precede a preposiuon always go wath de (of or from), e g se
Modern Descendants of Latzn 367 servzr de = to use If the marumate obect IT then accompames the Enghsh verb, we translate It by en whïch always follows another pro- noun oblect, e g je m'en sers = I use zt Another expression of ths class Is avozr besoin de. e g l'en a besoin -- I need ît In the saine way y xs the eqmvalent for zt or to st when the preposuon à follows the French verb Smce penser à meam to thmk (about). j'y pensais means I was thznkmg about t The Italaz descendant of nde s ne, as m quanto ne oIete», how much do you want (of t)'a, me ne ncordo» 7£ remember t :For both ftmctaons of the French y, Itahan has c (Latin ecce-hc), v (Latin b) These are interchangeable, e g oz penser3 (I shall see to t), w e sato (he bas been there) Nether ,nde nor ,b, bas left descendants m Spamsh or Portu- guese For French j'y pemera2 the Spamard says pensare en ello We bave sui1 to chscuss the reflemve and possesmve forms of Romance personal pronouns Out own words myself, yoursdf, etc, have to do two lobs We can use them for emphass, and we can use them reflexvely. Whenever we use them reflexvely (e g wash yourself) m the first or second persons, the eqmvalent word of a modem Romance chalect xs the correspondmg unstressed drect oblect form For the thd person there s a smgle reflexve pronotm for smgula or plural use It ls a current Anglo-Amenca habxt to ont the reflextve pronotm when the context shows that we are usmg a verb reflemvely Tins s never per- nmsslble tu Spamsh, Portuguese, French, or Itahan The Idenuty of the reflemve and chrect obect pronoun xs fllustrated by the fixst two of the followmg The last xllustrates the use ofthe common smgular and plural reflerave of the tbard person FRENCH I wash .e me lave we wash nous nous lavons they wash zls se lavent SPAliSH me !avo 05 arlzo$ se la'an Romance languages have many pseudo-reflexve verbs, such as the French verbs se mettre à (Itahan mettersz) to begm» se promener, to go for a walk (Spamsh pasearse), s'en aller to go away (Spamsh .se). se souvemr, remember (Spamsh acordarse), or the mapersonal .d s'agzt de (.t s a quesuon of) elle se mt à pieuter she began to cry allez-vous-en go away (beat t) no me acuerdo de eso I don't remember that eIla se pasea en el parque she walks in the park
368 The Loom of Language The reflexave pronoun may gnve the veb a new meamng In French ye doue qu'il venne means I doubt whether he wfll corne, and .e m'en dour:e means I tb_mk so The Latin reflemve se of the thtrd person 1 COlilIllOn to Portuguese, Spamsh, and French The unstressed Itahan reflemve ls oe, stressed sè The Pormguese reflextve fol!ows file verb hke an ordmary Portuguese pronotm object, e g Ievanto-me (I get up) The Spamsh se does two jobs When the dLrect and mdzrect oblect are both of the thlrd person, a Spamard uses se for the mdxrect object (le, les), or for the unstressed datve form, e g se lo dgo (I tell It to htm -- I say so to htm) Pos«eçsve pronouns and adjecnves (p I I S) of modern Latin chalects are descendants of the old Latin forms meus (my), tuus (thy), suus (b_ts, ber, lts, thelr) or of zlIorum (of those)» and noster, woster (our, your) French and Itahan derîve the possessive of the thtrd person plurai from the Lann gemnve zIlorum OErench leur, Itahan lin o), Spamsh and Portuguese from the reflemve suus Ltke Enghsh, Spamsh and French bave two sers of possessïves (ci" my-mzne), contracted (possesszve adjec- ttves)» wtnch accompany a noun, and fuller ones (possesszve pronouns) wtnch stand alone For an Enghsh-speakmg smdent of the Romance languges the ctnef dculty about possessves ts mastery of the gender- fol-ms Out smgle surwvmg trace of possessive concord mvolved m the choce between hzs-zts-her refers solely to the possessor Nexther the grammaucal gender nor the sex of the possessor shows up m the form of the Romance possesmve adjeoeve or pronoun in French son père ---- hs or her father sa mere --- tus or her mother ses parents -- Iris or ber parents Thus the gender form of the Romance pronotm depends on the thmg or person possessed The masculine smgular French forms mon, ton, son, replace ma, ta, sa belote a fennnme noun begmnmg wth a vowel (or h), e g mon amze (my garl-fnend) and mon am, (my boy- fnend) Un5ke the unstressed mvanant dartre leur, the possessive leur has a plural (leurs), e g leur mmson--leurs mmsons = thexr bouse(s) The Spamsh su does the job of hs, ber, ,ts, thar, or your m any context unless ambgxnty maght anse, and cotmtless ambgumes c.an anse from fins type of concord If the Spamard washes to make xt clear that su casa stands for h,s home, he says su casa de él, m contrachstmcnon to su casa de ella (ber house) or su casa de ellos (ther bouse). Smldarly the Frencbmau may say son père à luz (lais father) or son père à elle
Modern Descendants oj Latin 369 (her father) The combmauons à moz, à luz, etc, c.an replace le men la senne, etc, as m c'est à moz (lt ls mme), c'est à Both m Itahan and Pormese the possessive adjecuve bas rahe same form as the possessive pronoun When used attnbuuvely, the possessive takes the defimte amcle, e g Itahan zI mzo bracco (my arm), Portuguese o meu braço The defimte amcle ,s ormtted affer essere or ser, meanmg beIong to, e g Itahan la casa e mm (the house ls mme), Portuguese a casa e mmha The Spamsh possessive adjectve has tvo forms, a shorter whach pre- faces the notre wthout the amcle, e g ms casa, and a more emphatlc one whach Is put after the noun wlth the amcle, e g la casa mia The latter also acts as pronoun, and m tins capacIty takes the arucle as in French, ella olvzdd el suyo, e saco (she forgot het s, 1 e bag) ROMANCE POSSESSIVES I-IIS» HER» ITS ou YOUR Ti-IEIR (b) Pronouns HIS» t-IES» ITS OURS mo(m ) ma(f ) mes@l ) ton, etc. notre, nos (pi) votre, vos (pl ) leur(s) la mzenne, les mz8nnes te tzen, etc le sz» etc le or la nôtre les ndtres 2e vôtre, etc le, la, les /r(s) PORTUGUESE as above preceded by r_be demte artacle SP.4JqïSH m(s) u(s) su(s) nuestro» etc vuesro, etc m[o, etc u.yo, etc suyo» etc (as above) suyo(s) IT&L rmo» etc îuo, etc etc nosrro, etc »ostro, etc loto as above preceded by the defimte amcle POLITE ADDRESS Onc of thc booby-traps of thc Romance languages ls chotce of pro- nouns (and posscsslvcs)appropnate to murnate or formal addrcss Roman cluzens addressed one anor.her as tu The thou-form of rcnch
370 The Loom o] Language Spamsh, Portuguese, and Itahan ls now the one used to address husband or wffe, chfldren, close relauons, and mumate fnends There ls a French verb tutoyer (German duzen) whch means to spêak famz- harly, that ls, to address a person as tu in preference to the more forrnal vous (French vouzoyer, Gennan sezen) In the days of the Roman Empre, nos (wc) often replaced the em- phauc ego (I) This led to the subsutuuon of vos for tu The custom began m the upper ranks of Roman soclety Eventually vos percolated through the uers of the socaal herarchy ull It reachcd those who had only their chains to lose So vous s now the pohte Fr¢nch for you The verb whtch goes wth t has the piural endmg, whfle the adlecttve or past parucaple takes the gender and number of the person addressed Thus the Frenchman says Madame, vous Ces trop bonne (how kmd of you, Madam), but Monszeur, vous êtes trop bon In spire of the Revolu- non of 1789, the Frênch often use Monszeur, Madame and Mademmsdle wlth the thlrd pêrson, e g Madame est trop bonne Spamards and Itahans bave pushed deference further by substt- tutmg a less direct form for the original vos (Span) or o (ital) The Itahan mes le (or more formally ella)= she, with the thd pezson smgular» e g le è amencano (you are &merlcan ) Let îs the pronolmal representatlve for some femmme noun such as wosszgnorza (Your Lord- shlp) The plural of lez ls loto In Itahan conversation we can often omat Ie and loro Instead we can use the thd person wlthout pronoun, e g ha mangato (bave you eaten) When a Spamard addresses a smgle mdlvldual who ls hot an mnmate or a chtld, he uses usted (wratten V or Vd for short) mstead of tu. The correspoixdmg pronoun for use when addressmg more than one person lS ustedes (Vs or Vds ). Usted ls a contractaon of uestra merced CYour Grace) Consequently the verb appears in the thd person» as m Itahan, e g. cdmo se llama usted? (what Is your name?), c6mo se llaman ustede# (what are your names »). In very short statëments or questlons we can omlt usted, e g. que dzce (what do you say?) Portugnese ls more extravagant than elther Spamsh or Itahan The usual eqmvalent for out you when it stands for a male s o senhor, and for a female a senhora, or (m Brazll) a senhonta. So the Portuguese for the smaple Enghsh bave you got mk> s rem o senhor (or a senhora) tnta; Out catalogue of pohte behavlou_r would be mcomplete withont the Balkan eqmvalent The Rumaman for thê polite you lS the pelaphrastlc dow#2ia vaastra (Latin dormna wostra, Your Lordshap) The pohte forms of our mvanant YO U m Italîan and Spamsh are m the table below.
Modern Descendants oJ Latin Sublect (Yo) Indirect Ob)ect (zo Yo) Direct Ob}ect (-o) Smgular Masc Bem USTED LE» LO L& Plural _= Masc USTEDES LES Smgular Masc Fera Plural LES»LOS LAS Masc Fcm LEI LORO LI IMPERSONAL ROMANOE PRONOUNS Fve Enghsh words (p I44)make up a battery of what we shall here cal1 mzpersonal pronoun-adlectves They are thzs, that, whch, what, who(m). All except the last (who or vhom) can stand as pomter-words alone (demonstrat,ve pronouns) or before a notre (demonstrat, w adlec- t,ves) In quesuons the last three can also stand alone (interrogative pronouns) or m front of a notre (mt¢t rogatwe ad3ect,ves) All of them except thzs can mtroduce a subordmate clause They are then called rdatwe (or hnk) pronouns To tins battery of rive essenual words corresponds a much larger group m any Romance chalect Chmce of the nght eqmvalent for any one of them s comphcated by severaI cïrcumstances, m parncu!ar (a) Romance equîvalents of any one of them may bave dïstmct forms as ad]ecuves or as pronouns comparable to the separate adecuve and pronoun forms of out possesstves (e g my-mme), (b) The Romance eqmvalent for any one of r.hem may depend on whether t o¢curs m a quesuon, whether tt lmks two statements, or whether t s a pomter-word To help the home student thxough th maze, ther¢ are separate tables (.pp 373-375) m whch the saine rive Enghsh unpersonal pronouns turn up Captals or small letters respecnvely show whether the Romance equtvalent s. (a) the pronoun form whlch stands alone (e g read that,» or what?), (b) the ad]ectve form belote a noun (read th,s book, or whwh book2) Italïazed captals mgnffy that the word gtven can be etther.
37 The Loom of Laguage Some are unchangeable, hke what Others hke hzs or that take endmgs m agreement wth the nouns they quahfy or replace If so, the final vowel ls ltahczed to show that t lS the masculine smgular endmg We then have to choose from one of all four possible regular forms The tables show whch oaes are lrregular, and gve appropriate forms m full Correspondmg to two smgular demonstrauves thzs and that of Anglo- Amencan, some Brmsh chalects have thzs, that, and yon The three grades of proxamaty m ths sertes correspond roughly to the Latin sets of whach the masculine smgular forms were hzc, ute, zlle Two of t.hem went mto pa_rmershap (cf tt, zs. here) wth ecce (behold), whach sur- raves m the French cet (Latin ecce zste) and celle (ecce zlla) Spamsh and Portuguese preserve the threefold Latin Scots dlstmc- taon- este, esta, estos, estas--ths (the nearer one), ese, esa, esc, esas = that (the further), aquel, aquella, aquellos, aqztellas = yon (remote from both speaker and hstener) All three sers can stand alone or wth a noun hke out own corresponchng pomter-words When they stand alone (as pronouns) they carry an accent, e g esta golondzna y aquella (tlus swallow and yonder one) A three, kke the arucle Io (p 357) have neuter forms» esto, eso, aquello, for comparable usage The correspondmg threefold set of Potxuguese demonstratves are ëste (-a, -es, -as), êsse (-a,-es,-as), aquele (-a,-es,-as) Spamards hke the Germans, reverse the order for the former . the latter = éste (the nearer) . . aquél (the further) The Itahan order quello . questo ls the saine as ours The chstmcuon between the adjecuve and pronoun eqmvalents of thu-these and that-those m French mvolves much more than an accent on paper Where we use them as adlecttves the French put ce or cet (masc smg ), cette (fera smg ) or ces (plur) m flont of thë noun, and cz (here) or là (there) behmd lt, as m ce pet«t paquet-c tls httle parcel ce petzt paquet-là that httle parcel cette boutalle-cz thas bottle cette boutelle-là that borde ces pores-c these pears ceç pozres-là those pears In colloqmal French the là combmauon has pracucally superseded the ct folTn» and serres m ether stuauon. To trans!ate the adjecuve thu-these (m contrachstmcuon to that-those) we can use the smapler from ce, etc, vthout -ch e g ce journal (thas newspaper), cet ouvrier (tins workman), cette jeune fille (tins young woman), ces instruments Where we would say here or there zs (was or were), look there goes or lo and behold, French people use the mvanant pomters vozct or vatlà Htoncally they are aggluunauons between the smgular maperative of
Modern Descendants oJ Latin 373 or (to sec) mad the locauve partlcles c (= zcz) and là So çoz (Old French v ) once meant see he, and vozlà (Old French rot la) see te BooE oc m modem French, but conversanonN Iage tends towds usmg vodà moEout &scag beeen hoee d the. The foHowmg exples show how ese geste subsnmtes are used voc mon chdque ere s my check t), ta vozlà (he or th«e she s t), le vozIà part (off he goes o wtt), olà deux ara que 0t s now o years OEat) The It= eqmvent is ecco (La ecm), as m eccolo (here he zs t), ecco un fiammzfe 0 @ere s a match t) RONCE POINTER WORDS LAT! PRONOUNS (see p 37) (a) Demonstratlves i FRENCH I SPANISH ITALIAN c.rs-ci (f) s cettec(t) ces c cm-n (ca) CFE-LA (f) OEat ce(t) la cee ces la wNch quel (-le, -s,-les) (b) L proaosncver omzced T o, OE (as ect) o, (t) (as OM (er a preposmon)' (er a preposmon) WI-IOSE» OF WIllCll ESTE (.A, -OS, -AS) ESlZ(-A-O S, -AS) cual (-es) QUESTO -E) QUELLO (-A, ..i quello (-a, -z, -e) QUE cm que LEQUEL OUI.EN LESQUELS DONT DE QUIEN (-ES) qra (peso) [ (co,-,-os, DQ, etc, I -) P 376 ! , CHE ci6 CHE I IL or LA QUALE I or LE QUALI IL °r LA I CUI I or LE j
374 The Loom of Language The followmg French examples fllustrate the use of the elght pro- nouns correspondmg to tkzs-these or that-those (sec table p 373), when they refer to (a) le chapeau (the hat), (b) les chapeaux (the hats), (c) la nmx (the nut), (d) les nazx (the nuts) (a) je p ç«ere celzz-cz I prefer tins one (b) Ceux-c sont trop cher, These are too de (c) Casse celle-c Break thas one (d) :Elle a acheté celles-c She bas bought these je prefère cëlm-là I prefer that one Ceux-la sont trop chers Those are too dear Casse celle-là Break that one Elle a acheté celles-là She bas bought those There are two other French pronotms, cect and cela (commonly abbrevaated to la) correspondmg respecuvely to thzs and that, e g ne &tes pas ça = don't say that. We can never use r.hem for persons Ce (c') often stands for zt, e g c'est vraz = It lS truc, c'est trzste--It ls sad After the mvanant ce, the adlecnve can keep the masculine smgular form, e g c'est bon may mean etther d est bon or elle est bonne accordmg as d refers to le vin or elle to la bzère. Tins ts useful to know, when we are în doubt about the gender of a notre The French for the former... the latter s celu,-là . celu-cz Thu s a pomter-word pure and smaple That can also be a lmk-word, and as such appears twtce m the table of lmk pronouns It does so because we use t m two ways. (a) THAT so prmted occurs af-ter such verbs as know, doubt, deny, hope, wtsh, fear, dread We can usually omlt lt, but we can never replace it by who or whch Its Romance eqmvalent as gtven m the table cannot be left out, e g Enghsh I know thar he zs lyzng French e sas qu'tl ment Portuguese se que mmte Spamsh sé que mlente Itahan so che mente (b) that so prtnted may refer to some word m the precedmg clause and ls then replaceable We can put who» whom, or whzch m place of t (e g the house that dack budt = rhe house whzch dack budt) To translate that m all ctrcumstances we therefore need to know eqmvalents for who, whzch, whom, and whose when such words lmk two clauses. Choice s comphcated (a) by casê-forms hke zvhorn or whose for use with or wtthout an accompanymg preposmon, (b) by the dtstmc-
Modern Descendants of Latin RONCE INTERROGATIVES (see p 37) (ç) Adverblal how? how muc.J? how many when» where why ? comment combxen quand ou pourquo (bi Pronotms and Adjecuves wch? quel (etc) who whom? what? (subject or obect) what? (after a prcposmon) LqtmL (etc) QUOI SPANISH como cuto (-a, etc ) cu,ado d6nde pot que CUÂL quL (-' quE» que cosA ITALIA qunto a» etc ) qundo dove perche CHE, CI-IE COSA uon between persons (who) and anlmals or thmgs (whzch or what), (c) by the emstence of interchangeable forms analogous to out own that-whzch couplet For self-expression we need only know one correct subsutute, preferably the most common For glustrauons of the use of the table on p 373 we shall confine ourselves to Spamsh and French. As subject or object of a subordmate clause the common Spanish eqmvalent for who, whom or whzch ls the mvarîant QUE, e g. el medzco que me ha curado = the doctor who has cured me los hbros que hemos lecho = the books (whach) we bave read In all carcttmstances que ls the correct Spamsh eqmvalent for the hnk- pronoun whzch or that, but it caîmot replace whom when a preposmon accompames the former of the two The correct subsutute for whom ls then QUIEN or lts plural quzenes, e g los politzcos de çuenes hablamos = the pohucaans of whom we are talhng A specaal Spamsh relattve pronoun CUYO (-a,-os,-as) eqmvalent to whose or of wh:ch can refer ahke to persons or t/xmgs, e g el tren cuya partda = the tram whose departure .... las zslas cuyas recas = the ,slands» of whach thê rocks ....
376 The Looe o:f Language French offers a bewïldermg cholce of posslblhaes for words oï thls chss, some approprlate to persons only, some to persons and thlngs The followmg rules apply to persons or thmgs ahke (a) QUI ca Mways replace ho or hzch as sublect of a clause» e g l'homme qu l'a d* ---- the man who smd lt, le train qu est arrvd = rahe trmn wtnch came m (b) QUE can always replace who(m) or whzch as object» e g le mdeczn que j'a consMre --- the doctor whom I consulted, les bscuzts que j'az manges = the blscmts I ate (c) DONT can always replace whose or of whzch, e , la femme dom le man est przsonmer = the woman whose husband lS a prlsoner (d) LEQUEL (laquelle, lesqvels, lesquelles) can always replace zohom or whzch preceded by a preposmon (or, what cornes to the sarne thmg, thar followed by a preposmon at the end of the suborda- nate clause) Lequel, etc, bas agglutmatave contracuons wlth à and de, e auoEuel» auxoEuels, auxquelles (but à laoEuelle), duquel» desoEuels, desquelles (but de lwuelle) la femme pour lcatuelte zl a donné sa wze the woman for whom he gave lus hfe The words who, whom, whose, whzch, as also what, can turn up m questions as mterrogauve pronouns Both whzch and what can also accompany a noun m a question The chece of the correct French substltute depends on whether they do or do hot The French inter- rogative adlecuve is QUEL (quelle, quels, quelles), e g quelle route dozs-je suzvre (whlch road must I follow) Quel, etc, bas also an exclamatory use (e g quel doermaget = what a pty I) When a quesaon mvolves the verb to be followed by a noun, what or whzch are really prechcaave (p 156) adlecuves So we can say auelle est votre oImzîon what Is your opn-non ? quels soin lers amzs wluch are theLr fnends ? The French pronoun substitute for whc]a) ls LEQUEL (etc) Lake QUI, wtnch can stand for who or whom, lequel, etc, can follow a preposmon The French for what» falls out of step As sublect or object tt lS QUE After a preposmon the correct eqmvalent s the stressed form QUOI * The use of these pronouns s fllustrated by. * Both French qut (who ) and ue (what ) bave alternauve forms We may ask OEuz est-ce quz» for quz», or eu'est-ce que for OEue» Spoken French favottrs the longer of the two forms, e g quz es-ce quz veut venzr avec moz» = quz veu avec avec mo2» (who wants to corne wth me?), qu'est-ce que vous desrez, monszeur» = que deszrez-vous, monsieur» (what do you watt?).
Modern Descendants of Latin 377 Lequel de ces erEEants est votre fils Wch of" t.hese chîldren Is your boy? DuqeI pa,qes-m Of wl-ach are you talkmg Qu I'a dzt» Who sald so De qm parle-t-d Of whom Que dt-zP What does ho say? De quo. parIe-t-zP SVhat as ho taLhng aboat The Spmsh for who, whom s qz zdn, for what, qué In conversanon we usuay replace qué by qué ,osa h,ch s dl 1 es) qut, canta» who é ha dzcho » what OEd he say ? dl de l Cudl tes e place of qué (what) belote fows, e g dt es zmprest6z (what xs yo presslon) RONCE INDEFNXTE POINTER-WOS* ENGLISH ALL BOTI-I CERTAIN EACII, EVE:RY (adl) EACH ONE EVERY ONE ENOUGH EWERYTI-F/G LITTLE» FEW NOBODY NOTI'IING OTHER ONE o (so) soin (A SUCH TOO MVCa WI-IOE"VER tout (-e), tous, toutes autant de . que tous (t'oues) les deux certain (-e) chaque* chacun (-e) assez de tout peu de beaucoup de aucun (-e) personne autre (-s) On seul (-e) même (-s) plusieurs quelques (see p 36z) quelqu'ua (-e quelque chose tel (-le), tels, telles trop de qmconque SPA_NISH todo (-a,-os,-as) tanto (-a, etc ) . como ambos (-as) caerto (-a) cada* cada tmo (-a) bastante (-s) todo poco (-a) mu,no (-a) nmguno (-a) nade nada otro (-a) se» uno umeo (-a) msmo vanos (-as) algtmos (-as) unos (-as) (see p 36) a!gmen algo alguna cosa tal (-es) demasmdo (-a) cualqmera ITALIAN tutto (-a, -,-e) taato (-a, etc ) corne ambedue certo (-a) ogn « cuno (-a) ognuno (a) asetmo (-a) abbastanza* poco (-.a), pocha poche moko (-a) nessuno (-a) nesstmo C-a) mente nulla akro (-a) s solo (-a) umco (-a) stesso (-a) medesmao (-a) parecchb parecclue alcum (-e) (see p. 6) qualcamo (a) qualchecosa mie (-) troppo (-a) chatmque * Invarmble
378 The Loom of Language Out hst of personal and tmpersonal pronouns m the tables glven makes no allowace for sltuatmns m wluch the agent !s mdefimte or genenc (e g. you never can tell» one wouldn't thmk that . . , they say that . ) In mecheval Lama, and perhaps m the popular Latin of Caesar's ttme, the eqmvalent of out mdefimte pronotms one (they or you), was homo (man), e g homo debzt conderare (one must conslder) Smce homo was tmstressed m thls context» t shrtmk In French t became on» m contrachstmctaon to homme (man) To avold a haatus on becomes l'on after et (and), s (ff), ou (or), and où (where) Parallel evoluuon bas produced the mdefmate German, Dutch, or Scandmavaan man, whach ls denved from Mann» etc The French equlvalent on bas a far greater range than the Enghsh one We must always use xt as subject of the actave verb when there s no defmate agent of the eqmvalent Enghsh passive constructaon The followmg examples fllustrate xts vanegated use: on pourrazt dre on dt O f 8Fme ! on demande une bonne on Son8 s l'on part:azt on pardonne tcm que l'on mme one maght say they say = It ls sald closmg rime--rame, please ! wanteà a malaservant somebody ls rmgmg what about leavmg ? we forgave as long as we love. There as no eqtuvalent chom m Spamsh or Itahan The mdeftmte pronoun of Spamsh or Itahan s the reflemve Thus the Spamard says se &ce (or slmply dcen) for s sad (= they say), se cree (or creen) = xt zs beheved (they beheve) Smularly the Itahan says s crede (one beheves), si sa (one knows) TI- ROMANOE During the break-up of Vulgar Latin and subsequent evoluuon of ts descendants, smapldicauon of the verb chd hot go nearly so far as that of the noun Even to-day the iense-system of the Romance languages xs more elabomte than that of the Teutomc languages has ever been Accordmg to the character of thetr tense or personal endmgs, the verbs of Romance languages are arranged m classes called conjugatzons (P 107) We can group regular French verbs m three conjugauons (p 37) The ftrst, hke out weak class, mcludes the majority of verbs in the language, and nearly al1 new ones It comms of those (about 4,000) hke chanter (smg), of which the mfinmve ends m -ER The second faïrly
REG FR.ENCH VERB TYPES Present Imperfect Defimte Futttre Coi2- dmonal chant-e chant-es chant-e cham-ons ehant-ez chanz-ent chant-ms chant-ms chant-rot cnant-lon$ chant-lez chant-ment chant-m chant-as chant-âme chant-tes chant-erent chant-erre chant-eras chant-era chant-erons chant-erez chant-eront chant-eras chant-erres chant-errer chant-errons chant-enez chant-erment chant-e Present chant-es Sub- chant=e )uncuve chant-lons chant-lez chant-ent *chant-e Imperauve -chant-ez Present ParuoEple chant-ant PartoEple chant- vend-s vend-s vend vend-ons vend-ez vend-ent vend-ms vend-a,s vend-rot vend-lons vend-lez vend-ment vend-s vend-s vend-lines vend-îtes vend-lrent vend-rai vend-ras vend-fa vend-tons vend-fez vend-ront vend-rms »end-rms vend-ïmt vend-rions vend-nez vend-rment vend-e vend-es vend-e vend-lons vend-Iez vend-ent vend=s vend-ez vend=ant vend-u fin-t fin-ssons n-lssez fm-ssent fin=s n-t fm=hnes fin-kes fin-rent fm-rons fro-irez fm-tront fm-rms fm-rmt fro-ruons fro-ruez fm-rment fl-lsse fm-tsses fm-lsse fin-zssîons fm-ssez fm-ssent fin-tssez fin-ssant PARTI par=s par-s par-t part-ons part-ez poE-ent part-ms part-ms part-rot poE-zons par-lez part-ment çart-s (see fin- ) (see fin- ,' part-e part=es pa part-ons poE-ez part-ent par-s part-ez part-mat part * Smgular of famflaar form " Plural of famahar form, and smgular and plural of pohte form
38o The Loom ql Lwg«ge large class (about 35 o) embraces verbs hke fim (fimsh o w hch the mmuve ends m -IR The thd îs ruade up of about 5o verbs hke endre (sell» of whch the mfinmve ends m -RE A small group of about twenty verbs whch end m -IR are also worh consldermg as a separate farmly It ls ruade up of words hke partir (go away)» and dorer (sleep» wbach are m constant use These verbs lack the t.rade- mark of the tirer conlugatmn Verbs of the tirer class have a suff added to the stem throughout the plural of the present» through- out the mperfect tense and the subluncave Tls sufiîx» -ISS» cornes from the Latin accreuon -ISG or -ESC whch ongmally mchcated the begmnmg of a process Thus the Latin verb for to burst mto flower Is florescere The saine sllt, wtnch sunves in evanescem, putrescent, ncandescent» adolescent lost ts meanmg through too frequent use m Vulgar Latin Wth the models shown m the table on p 379 to grade hnn (or ber) and the parts hsted m any good dlcunary, the home studen of French can add to the stem of most (foomote p. 39) zrregular verbs the endmg approprmte to the context The ovelwhelmmg malonty of verbs are regular» and fall mto one of the conNgatlons hsted To wnte French passably» It I$ therefore essenuaI to learn a model of each conlugauon as glven m the table on p 379 and to memorlze the pelsonal termmals of each tense To hghten the task the home student may find it helpful to make tables of (a) personal termmals common to all tenses, (b) personal termmals common to the saine tense of ail conlugaaons Fortunatdy, we can get by m rem 1oEe wth much less (see p. 391) For readmg purposes what is most essenual ls to be able to recogmze the tense form Wlthm the three conugatons a few devatlons from the rule occur -er verbs whlch bave a sflent E or an É in the second last syllable, change E or É to E belote the endmgs -e, -es, and -ont, e g mener (lead), je mene (I lead), posseder (possess),je possede (I possess) Most verbs enchng tn -let or -ter, double L or T mstead of havmg È, e g appeler (call), l'appelle (I call), leter (throw), je lette (I throw) Verbs m -ayer, -oyer, -uyer, substt- tute I for Y belote a sflent E or a consonant, e g essayer (attempt), l'essme (I attempt) If C belote A or O has the value of a sblant, a «edzlla (5) s added, e g percer (perce), nous perçons (we perce). (7 m the saine smaton takes a stlent E unto tself, e g manger (eat), nous mangeons (we eat) If the thd person smgular of the verb m a quêmon has a final vowel and precedes a pronoun begmmng wlth a vowel, a T s mserted to avoid a ktatus, e g azme+d, parle+on, vendra-t-ele We may also mange Spamsh, Portuesê, or Itahan, hke French verbs, in three mare conuganons, of whtch there are models set out m
Modem Descendants o/ Latin 381 tables on pp 381 and 382 The large.st Spamsh goup» corre- spondmg to the chanter con)uganon m French, ls represented by cantar wlth the mfimuve endmg -AR Vender, hke the French (thd) vendre con]ugatlon, ls representatlve of a second class mth the mfimuve endmg -ER A thd, rêpresented by partzr, bas the mfimnve endmg -IR REGULAR SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE VERB TYPES f cant-o cant-as cant-a cant-amos cant-ais ç.qt-an cant-abas cant-aba cant=bamos canr-,bats cant-aban ¢ant-ar caat-ar cant-aremos cant-arels cant-arla canz-arlas cant-arla cant-ariamos cant-arfms cant-axian cant-e cant-es cant-e cant-emos cflnt- tant-en cant-a l cant-ad cant-ando cant-ado vend-o vend-es vcnd-e vend-cmos vend- ets vcnd-em vend-La vend-las vend-fa vend-lames vend-lals vend-lan vend-i vend-lstc vend<6 vend-maos vend-lstets vend-toron vend-er e vend-eras vend-era vend-eremos » end-er ets vend-cran vend-eria vcnd-emas vend-ena vend-enamos part-o part-es part-e part-xmos part-ls paxt-cn paf-ms paf-la p-xos pm-l pm-os p-stcxs pm=xon p-a pm-emos pa-a poE-as p-a cant-o cant-as catxt-oEo cant-als anl:-ava cant-avas vant-ava eaut-avamos cant-avels tant-avare cant-arel c_nt-aremo$ can-arets cant-o_r2o cant-arla tant-a/laS cant-axxa cant-oEainos vend-o vend-e vend-e vend-emos vend-ets vend-eîn ç end-m vend-las vend-m vcnd-zamos vend-feas vend-am vend-t vend-este vend-eu voEd-emos vend-estes vend-eram vend-erex vend-ers vend-e_nl vend-exemos vcnd-eas vend-er;o vend-ena vend-enas vend-ena vcnd-edamos vend-erias vend-erlan vend-a vend-as vend-a vend-amos vena-s vend-an vend-e vcnd-ed vend-lendo vend-zdo part-wims part-trima part=a part-as part-a part-amos part-ms part-an part-e pan-td part-lendo pari:-do c9311-e caIlt-es cant-¢ ca/I-emo$ cant-ezs tant-cm cs/lt-a cant-m cant-ando cam-ado vcnd-enes vend-errata vend-a vend-as vend-a vend-amos vend-ats vend-ara vend-e vcnd-ez vend-endo vend-xdo part-o part-es part-e part-zmo$ part-zs poE-em part-ms p't-m part iamos part-le, fs part-mm paxt-te part-zu part-unos part-stes part-uam part-u-s part-u- part-lremos part-re part-oEo part-lr part-ri'ms paft-una pa-u--lamos part-ïrlcs pa.rt-a pst't-as part-a part-amos part-ms part-azn part-e part-mdo part-ldo The student of Spamsh, even more than the student of French» bas to concentrate on file correct use of the verb The termmals of the * Imperauve smgular (famahar form) For maperauve of pohte address see p. 399- " Imperanve plaral (famàtar form) $ Present paruclple (gerund) § Past parucple
382 The Loom q/Language rr« VE T.S cant-o cailt-I cant-a c£tnt-larno cant-atc cant-ailO cant-ava cant-av1 Imperfect cat-aa cant-avaino cant-avate -avo Pmt Dtc -o I-ono uc -crà t-erete t-ero t-erel t-eres Con- t-erebbe uol t-ereo t-ereste t-erebbero g-1 Prient t- t-late -0 t-a t-ate mt-do t-ato imperative Parucaple Past Panacaple vend-o vend- vend-e vend-amo vend-ete vend-ono vend-eva vend-ev vend-eva vend-evamo vend-evate vend-evano vend-e vend-esra vend-e vend-emmo vend-este vend-erono vend-er6 vend-erre vend-era vend-eremo vend-erete vend-eranno vend-erre vend-eresu vend-erebbe vend-eremmo vend-ereste vend-erebbero vend-a vend-a vend-a vend-mzno vend-rote vend-ano vend- vend-ete vend-endo vend-uto FINIR fm-,sco fm-sc fin-sce n-amo fin-ite fm-scono fm-,va fm-va fi.n-va fm-vate n-lvano fin-sta n-mamo ftn-te n-rono n-rb fro-ira fm-remo fm-rete n-ranno fin-re fi_n-resn n-rebbe fin-remmo fm-reste fin-ïrebbero n-xsca fm-sca fin-sca n-amo n-me fm-xscano fl/1-1$Cl fin-xte fin-eado n-to PARTIRE part-o part- part-e part-mmo part-he part-ono part-lva part-v part-va part-vaino part-vate part-vano part-sU çartq part-ste part-xrono part-ar6 çart-raa part-trh part-Jiemo part-lrete part-ranno part-lrel part-resU part-rebbe part-remmo part-reste part-rebbero part-a part-a part-a part-latê part-ano part-i part-te part-endo part-to
Modern Descendants o/ Latin 383 Spamsh verb are much doser (p I83) to those of lts Latin parent than are those of the French or Itahan verb; but change of stress has led to changes of the stem vowel, and irregulantîes so produced have been levelled less than m French. So the stem of a verb, whose French equivalent usually bas the same vowel throughout, may ring the changes on O, UN, and U as m: duermo (I sleep), dorrmos (we sleep), TO HAV m ROMAC FwY Pt Defimte Future Con- chtzonal Present Sub- ltmctve Imperat,ve Present Past Pample Itx nou avons vous avez ils ont j'ava 11 avmt nous ao vous aez ils avmoEt e e d eut no ee ils eoEt fl aura no on8 vo aont fl vous aez ils aurt j'aie tu ales fi rot no ayons vous ayoE ls azt ayez AVOIR PORTUGUE hez has ha» emos have or hezs h2o havre haviamos havlms houve houvestc houvc houvemos houvcstes houvexam hava havenas havena havemamos havenels havên.m haa hatas hala hammos ha) ms ha, ara hR bavez havendo SPANISH he bas ha hcmos habes ban habm habfas habIa nabiamos habits habIan hubc hublste hubo hubzmos hubstes hube.ron habre habrs habra habremos habre.s habran habrh habnas habna habnamos habrlms habrIan hava hay haya hayamos hayms hayan hé habed habzendo habeo habes habct kabemus habeus habent habebam habebas habebat habebamus habebaus habcbant haboE bbmsra habmt habmmus habmsus habuerunt p habeam habeas habeat habeamus habeaus habeam habe habete habens ho bat ha abbmmo avet hanno avril avrebbe avrestc avrebbero abbm abbm or abb abbm abbmmo abbtate abbtano abbl abbmte avcndo durmzendo (sleepmg) The modem French eqmvalents are .e dors» nous dormons» dormant Other nternal wregulanues of the wntten language are purely ortho- graptuc, e they are penalues of the regulanty of Spamsh spelimg Thus a final -C stanchng for the hard K sound m the stem of a Spamsh verb becomes Q U, ff the verb endmg begms wlth E or I Ths change» whtch
384 The Loom oJ Language conceals the retaraon of derent parts of a verb when e mect them on the wntten page. adds to the d!fculw of usmg a chcuonarv It ls ruade to preserve OEe rule that the Spamsh C belote I and E» hke the Spamsh Z. stands for the TH sound m thm Thus both zoque (1 touched) and toco (I touch) belong to the mSmuve toca.', as hsted m the chctmnary The Q U remmds us that the hard K sound of the stem goes through M1 lts derlva- raves The most nportanu of these spellmg changes'are OEe followmg (I) The lerters C and G when to be pronounced hard befote/ and I. are wnen QU and GU respecmrely, e g pagar (pay). çago (I pay). çagd (I pmd) (e) To mchcate that G before A. O. U. stands for the CH m Scots loch. o r s wntten mstead, e g coger (gather). co.îo (I gar_her) (3) Verbs endmg m -cet or -czr» preceded by a consonant change C to Z before A and O. e g ecncer (vanqmsh). venzo (I vanqmsh) It s not possible to guve the prectse Anglo-Amercan eqmvalent of the vanous tense-forms hsted m these tables wthout recourse to roundabout expressmns, and there are altemauve compound tense- forms corresponding to some of thein Belote chscussmg use of sn-nple tenses, we should therefore fammze ourselves vnth the Roinance ichoin appropnate to vanous stuauons m whtch we ourselves use the helper verbs be and bave Tins s a long story AUXLIARY VRB$ Some Aryan languages bave no possessive verb o haee Russan bas not It s possible to sdetrack the possessive sense of to haç by the use of the verb to e mth a possessive or wth a preposmon Thus a French- man can say c'est a mo (Latin mh est) -= thls s mme (I possess tins) That the Laun verb habere s eqmvalent to out hae s true m the sense that both denote possession (e g habet d, as llas -- he bas two farin- bouses) Latin authors occasmnally used a past pamcple v0ath habere, as when Ccero says cogntm habeo (I bave recogmzed). In late Laun hSere was becommg a helper to express terfected acuon as in Teutoinc languages To say that the Latin verb eçxe corresponds mth out verb to be s also true m so far as both can (a) denote existence as m the Cartesan catchphxase cogzto ergo sure (I thmk, therefore I ara), (b) act as a «opula (lmk) between person or thmg mad a characterstac of one or the other, as m leo ferox est -- the bon s tierce, (c) mchcate location, as m Gaesar n Gallta est = Caesar s m Gaul, (d) tate dass membershp, as m argenture metallum est -- slver s a metal, (¢) go with the past partac;ple m a lassve costructaon such as ab amnbus amatus est -- he was loved by everyone» (f) state pure dzntty, as Augustus mlerator est Augustus s the emperor
Modern DescevMants oj: Latin 385 The rate of habere s a comparauvely s,mple story !ts modem repre- sentauves m Itahan (AVERE) and m French (AVOIR) stl bave a pos- sessive sgncance The French and Itahans also use parts of avere or avow as we use bave or had m compound past tense-forms of al1 verbs other than" (a) those whch are reflemve (or pseudo-reflemve), (b) most mtransmve verbs (mcludmg espeçatly those whch sgmfy mouon) Ths is m keepmg (pp. 7) wth the use of the German haben and Swechsh hava. We can use the Spamsh HA.BER to budd up compound past tenses of ail verbs, but t never denotes possessmn The Spamsh eqmvalent for bave m a possessive sense s TENER (Latin tenere = to hold). TENER someumes mvades the temtory of the Spamsh HABER as a helper The Portuguese eqmvalent TER has completely taken over the funcuon of habere, both m ts original possessive sense and as a helper to sgm perfected acaon The followmg examples fllustrate the use ofmodem descendants of habe e and tenere as helpers TF, NER (SPsH), TER Imper taugo rendus tenta tentas tertres tuvlste ivlmo$ < ten tened rem temo8 tm tfnhamos tmhexs tmham tire teve uvemos tcndc teneo tenemus toEet tenent tenebam teneba tenebas tenebamu tenebans tenebant tenul tcnu,«t tenmt tene tenete tendré tendrs teudr tendxemos tendxes enca tendrfas tend_rfa tendrfamos tendian P 339 p teueat tcnmu8 tenendo tcmtum Enghsh he has money he bas pazd he had pazd French fl a de l'argent ïl a payé fl avat payé Portuguese rem dmhero rem pagado tmha pagado Spamsh uene dmero ha pagado habia pagado Itahan ha denaro ha pagato aveva pagato Important set expressions in wch habere survlves m Portuguese as well as in French and Spamsh are: N
386 The Loom ]: Lazggage FF, ENOE PORTUGUESE SPAIqlSH There s or are H y a h, hay (ha n u y) There was or were zl y avmt haxaa habm There wzll be zl y aJra haverh habr There tins (or bave) been zl y a eu tem hando ha habdo Besdes denotmg possession and nchcatmg ttme, out own verb have expresses necessty» as n eoe bave o eat before we tan phlosophzze So a/so, the French for bave fo s avozr à» the Spamsh haber de, or (more emphaaoelly) tener qze, followed by the mfimttve, e g I bave to go out -- ]'az sortir = he de (or tengo que) sahr What ,s called the comp]ete conjugatmn of esse, hke that of our own verb fo be, mcludes denvanves of several OEerent roots In Vulgar Latin sta e (to stand) sharêd some of the terntory of esse. Though the French g e and the hahan ese e are mam/y offsprmg of esse, some of ther parts corne from store The imhan esse e» hke ,ts Latin parent» keeps company wth the past parucaple m passive construcuons, e g zlfanczuIlo lu Iavato (the chdd was washed). In French also ,t s poss,ble to wnte d es azmé de tout le monde (he ,s loved by everybody); but such passive expressmns rarely tutu up m dafly speech. It s more usual to rely upon. (a) a reflexave consr.ructaon, e g la propnete se vendra saine& (the pzopety wxll be sold on Saturday) (b) an anpersona/expression ïnvolvmg the use of on, e g on rapporte de Mos«ou qua (one reports fzom Moscow that = it s reported from Moscow at) The French-Itahan verb to be bas an auxzhary use comparable to that of ltS Teutomc eqtuvalent That ,s to say, t takes the place of to have m compound past tenses u¢ the veïb ,s eflex»e or f zt ,s mt.ransmve (especally zf t expresses mouon) Enghsh, ï washed zztoza soap we arrved too laie French" e me sus lavé sans savon nous sommes arnvés trop tard Italzan. Ma sono lavato senza sapone smmo arnvatx troppo tarch The Latin and It_ah_a verb s/are surwves m Spamsh and Portuguese as ESTAR The latter s eqtuvalent to out veb to bem three sîtuatmns, one of whach calls for moxe dëtafled treatment. Spamsh examples suffice to fl.lustrate the other two, wz. (a) when our be sgmfies location, ownershap, professmn» e g Budapes: esta en HungHa
Modern Descendants of Latin 387 (b) when out be connect a noun wth an acoEdental or temporary attrbute» but never when be precedes a voun complement, e g la seFwra estd enferma = rdae lady s ïLt. Itahans often use stare as the eqmvalent of out verb o be» e g corne sa.» = how are you? sto bez -- I ara wel! A thd use of êstar or of ts Itahan eqmvalent sgare» mvolves a unique and agreeably famflar construcuon, pecuhar to Spamsh, Pormgxese, and Itahan on the one hand and to AngIo-Amencan on the other It s a helper equivalent to be m expressmns whach maply duratzono e g" Enghsh." he is wmnng we were workmg Portuguese: ] est espexando estvamos trabathando. Spamsh" esbamos trabajando Irahan" sta aspcttando stavamo lavorando. It is hOt correct to couple the French verb être with a present parta- ciple such as mangeant or gravadlant. To emphasize contmuity or dura- tzon, lrench people c.an use the zdaomauc expression être en train de (to be m the process of), as in je sus en train de manger (I ana busy eating), or if the past s involved, the imperfect tense form, e.g. elle p!eura, quand je suu arrzvé (shc was crymg when I arrived). Customanly there s no distincnon between transztory (elle dame maintenant = she s dancing now) and habimal (elle danse bien = she dances well) action m French. Only the contëxt te!Is us when elle parle au canari means she s talkmg to the canary or she talks to the canary What s sometmaes called the present parla¢aple of a Spamsh or Portu- guese verb (e g. trabajando) s hot hstomcally eqmvalent to the present parttoEple of a oerench verb Latin had two verb forms correspondmg to the smgle Enghsh one endmg m -zng One, the gerund, corresponds to the use of the -zng form as the naine of a process (we learn by teachmg), the other, the present part,cple, was a verbal ad]ecuve (she ched smzhng) Only the latter left a descendant m lrench, always wth the SUffLX -ant (chantant, vendant, fimssant). Tb_ts French-ant denvatxve ts equtvalent to the Enghsh -mg demvatavê m three of sxx vays m wtuch the later s used: (a) as an ordmary adlecrave, e g de l'eau courante (runnmg water); (b) as a verbal ad]ecttve, e. an adjecttve wtth an obect followmg t, e g cet arbre domman le paysage (tins tree dommatmg the scenery), (c) m adverbml phrases, e g I',dee m'est venue en parlant (the dea came to me whfle talkmg)
388 The Loom oJ Language xm svsa-vogxutms, vgs sgn Imperfect Past Defimte Futtlre Prescnt Su- ]unc1ve Present Parueaple Past Parncaple SPANISH soy eres somos SOIS son era ems ersmos CErtlS crtrl fmste futmos fmstes fueron seremos sCrelS serin seria soErls serla seriamos serfJs sea scas sca sc8inos seAzs sé sed szendo mdo PORTUGUESE SOU es somos SOlS so ' era eras ela crarnos eram fro foste fomos fostes forain seras serh seremos sereLs sero serla SerlaS serla ser/amos sereas seja seras se]a sejamos sejms seam sê soede sendo mdo SPANISH estoy cstas esUi estos estats estn estaba estabas estaba esthbamos estabms estaban estuve estuvlste estuvo estuvlmos estuvlstels estuvleron estaré estaras estar estaremos estaréxs estar cstarla estanas estarla estariamos estar/ms estes este estemos esteIs esten est estad cstando estado PORTUGUESE estou estts est cstamos estals est2o estava estavas estava esrvamos estves estavam estlvc estlveste csteve esUvemos estlvestes estlverarn cstarex estarfis estanl estaremos estarels estaro estana estarlas estana estarIamos estaffes estanalal estea estelas este]a estejamos estejazs esteam est cstal esmndo csCado
Modern Descendans of Latin 389 Here the correspondence ends It s hot correct to use the French "prescrit part¢aple" to translate the Enghsh -mg form when accompamed by the aumhary be» and we cannot use xt to translate or -mg denvauve when the latter s an ordmary notre (spelhng s &cult) or a verbal noun wth an oblect (spelhng Enghsh words zs dzflîcuIt) For the last two French usage corresponds to the alternauve Enghsh mmuve constructmn e g. o spell (Enghsh words) s à.îcult épeler (des mots anglau) esï dzl The Latin gerund and the Latin present parucaple had a OEerent ïate m Spam and Portugal. The present parucple» whch ended m -ans-ens» or -ens (nomm) ceased to be a part of the Spamsh verb system Spamsh words whch now end m -ante or -zene are» wth few exceptmns» smaple ad- ectves or nouns» e g depen&ênte (dependent)» esu&ante (student) The form of the Laun gerund survves m the verbal suff -ando (for the regular verb of the first class), and -endo (for ali other regular and most rregular verbs) The form o the veçb wh¢h ends thus s never a pure adecttve or verbal noun (sec p 39) It Ieans upon another verb and remams mvanan We can always translate t by the Enghsh -zng gorm» though flac converse s by no mcans truc Accompamed by estar» as well as by r (go), and çemr (corne) it ex- presses prcscnt» past, or fuvarc contmtuty (compare Enghsh talkmg) It may also qualffy a vcrb» c g oa sonrendo (hc listcncd smzlmg), as also flac subcct or ob]cct o¢ flac vcrb» eo al muchacho jugando en la plaza (I sec flac boy playmg in thc square) Though ncvcr an ordmary adcctîvc, Spamards do use xt as a verbal ad)ccuvc wth an ob]cct, c g he recbdo la carta anunczando su partda (I bave receved thê 1errer annotmcmg bas deparmre) Bestdes the regular verb estar there s another Spanîsh-Portuguese eqmvalent of to be It s SER, a muxed verb» mamly descended from the Lama esse, lïke the French être, but pardy denved from sedere (to The smaple copula between two nouns s always a tense form of ser, as s the copula whtch connects a noun to an attnbute whlch s more or less permanent or charactensttc, e g ïn Spanish m hermano êra pmtor = my brother was a pamter la seaora es hermosa = the lady s beaunfal Occasmnally ser mms up m passxve constructions» e g el doctor es respetado de todos (the doctor s respeoeed by ail), and the paru- ople then takes the gender and number termmals (-o» -a» -os» -as) appropnate to the subject. Both partîoEples are mvartant m other compound Spamsh-Portuguese tense-forms, e (a) I-IABER or TER wth the past partacaple (to sgmfy perfected acuon), (b) ESTAR wath the present pamcaple (to sg'mfy duratton or contmumg actton). Spamards» hke the French, avod usmg passtve constructaons So the ¢hoce of the nght terminal rarely crops up at least m conversatton
390 The Loom oj Language When Itahans or Frenchmen use ESSERE or ÊTRE to express perfected acuon 0 e. v, ath the past partioEple of a reflextve vêrb or a verb of motion) the pamcaple takes a gender-number terminal appropnate to the subject» e.g.: l'homme est veu the man came la femme est venue the woman came les hommes se sont suzc2dés the men commatted smclde les femmes se sont suzcddeç the women commatted suicide When coupled varia AVERE the Itahan past paruciple (masc. smg form) s mvanant The same is true of the French past partldple when conjugated wth AVOIR Grammar books often gave the'rules. (a) it xs mvarlant when the obect fo!lows the verb, (b) it takes the terminal appropnate to the number and gender of the object f the latter precedes the verb» e g j'ag reçu une carte (I bave recelved a card) and la carte que j'az reçue (the card whmh I bave recelved) in many common expressxons out verb to be Is hot eqmvalent to TRE or ESSERE m French or Itahan, nor as t equtvalent to the Spanîsh-Pormguese pmr SER and ESTAR The French for to be nght, wrong, afrad, hot, cold, hungry, tlnrsty, sleepy, ls avozr rason, avozr tort, avoir peur, avmr chaud, avmr frmdo avmr fatm, avozr sooE, avozr sommed In the Spamsh eqtuvaleuts tener takês the place of the French avozr and Enghsh be tener raz6n, no tener raz6n, tener medo, tener caler, tener frio, tener hambre, tener sed» tener sueîw When they comment on the wear.her, Spamsh and French people use verbs eqmvalent to the Launfacere (French fazre, Spamsh hacer) Wtltch meant to do or to make Tins usage s traceable to Vulgar Latin, e g. t s coM fl faat froid hace frto tf ts fresh II fait frais hace fresco t fs hot 11 fait chaud hace calot t ts wmdy il fait du vent hace vento t s fine (weather) £[ fait beau (temps) hace buen raempo ,t z dayhghr tl fret our hace luz Anglo-Ametacan, hke the Teutonîc languages, bas only two simple tenses, prescrit (e g. I have) and past (e g. f had). Orhermse we mchcate tmm or aspect by parncles, adverbml expressmns, or comlxmnd tenses
Modern Descendants oj Latin 39 r ruade up of a pamoEple and a helpêt verb Modem Romance lnguages have at least four simple tenses, the present, the future, and two whlch refer to the past, the împerfæet and perfect (or po.st &fin#e) It s possible, most of ail m French, to hghten the heavy burden of Iearnmg such fleraonal wealth, by resorting to mms whach may hot be specîally recommended by gramrnar books, but are în harmony wath common usage. For everyday French conversauon or correspondence t s usually sutficaent to know the present tense form, the nnperfect, infinmve. present and past pamcaple of an ordmary ve.b, the present and lm- perfect of être and avoir» together wth the present of the irregular helpers aller (to go)* and venir (to corne) Of ail tenses the present stauds first in nnportance. Apart from expressmg what ts naine n- phes, it serves m stuataons analogous to the durzo opens to-morrow, and may legatumtely and effecuvely be used m narrauve, e g j'arnve à deux heures du matin, et quaest-ce que je découvre Elle est morte, raide morte (I arrive at two ha the mommg, and what do I chscover? She dead, stone dead). For the more tmmechate future conversauonal French habtually uses aller ÷ înfimfive (Spanish if a ÷ infiruve), wtnch re- duces flexion to a bare mmmugl and talhes wth Enghsh be gomg to -t- infiN_five, e g French je vau tél@honer? Spamsh voy a telephonar To indicate the nnmediate past, as in I bave just swallowed a tooth ( e bave .iust q- past paracple) French and Spamsh bave thetr own ex- pressions The French one s vemr de ÷ mfimuve, the Spamsh acabar de -[- nfin{tive» e g he has ]ust gone out = d vent de sort»r ----- acaba de sahr In everyclay speech French people always use a compound tense form to express what Is more remote, e g. I met l'a rencontr hter. This construction ls ruade up of the past pamcple and the p, resent tense of avoir (or être, ffthe verb s reflexve or snfies motaon) Thas rounchbout way of saymg I came, I saw, I loved Iooms as large in French conversation as does the preseat, and the Enghsh smdent of French be wise to use xt hberally The beginner must also acquamt bamself wîth the so-called mperfect Tls tense maphes customary, repeuuve, or contmuous past acuon in contrast to a com- pleted process. Thus it is always nght to use the zmperfect when we tan subsumte used to ÷ mfimuve for the simple past of an Enghsh * The conlugataon of ALLER hke that of être, s bmlt up from severa] verbs Two of t.hem, one of wtnch ts derwed from Laun raclera, the other from ambu/ar» form the present tense e g d va (he goes), nous allons (we go) The thtrd, wtch s the Latin zr» occurs m the future and the condauonal, e g ( shaU go)
39 The Loom oj Language statement» or when we could alter the Enghsh sentence to was or zoere + the-ng form of the verb, e g.: (a) Quandl'avms vngt ans je futures quarante ngarettes par jour At twenty years of age I smoked (=used to smoke) forty cigarettes a day (b) Elle fmsat la cuisine quand1« sus arrvé. She was cookmg whe ][ arrxved The second of the two statements could also be gnven the form Elle étazt en train de faz e la cugsne, etc TIns ls useful to know because by resortmg to être en trazn de Çoe m the act of, be busy wth) you can get round the unperfect form of the verb mother tense form, the past definzte or pretente, bas completely dis- appeared from conversauonal French» and ls now the hall-mark of the htêrary language It means that the event In questxon took place once for al1 at a certain tme, and as such corresponds to the sunple past of spoken and wntten Enghsh, and to the compound past of spoken French (e g zl se rapprocha for l s'es rapproché -- he came nearer). In hterature xt s the tense of sustamed narratïon, hence also called the past hutorw The first mpressîon ofthe begmner who reads a French narrauve s that altematmg use of perfect and maperfect s qtute capn- caous In reahty ths s hot so When two acuons or processes are gomg on at one and the saine urne, the perfect expresses the pzvotal one For what ls descriptive, expIanatory» or mcdental to the mare theme, the unperfect replaces t passage from Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard by matole France fllustrates ths rule, wlch apphes to all the Romance languages. d'approcha (past bastorxc) du foyer mon fauteuzl et ma table volante (I pulled my easy-chaxr and httle table up to the firesxde), et le prs (past hstorc) au feu la place qu'Hamzlcar dêzgnm 0mperfect) me lazsser (and oceupxed so much of my place by the re as Hamflcar condescended to allow me) Hamdcar, à la rête des chenets» sgr un cousszn de plume, état (unperfec) couche en rond» le nez entre seç pattes (Hamflcar was ]]nng m front of the anchrons, curled up on a feather-cusbaon, wth tus nose betweem hs paws) Un souffle égal soulevat (m'perfect) sa fourrure épasse et Iegère (bas tback, fine fur rose and fell wth hs regular beath). ,4 mon approche, 1 coula (past hstorc) doucement ses prunelles d'agate entre ses pauJnères m-closes qu'il referma (.past hstorc) presque ausstôt en songeant "Ce n'est rien, c'est mon maître" (At my approach tus agate eyes glanced at me from between hs half-opened hds, whch he closed almost at once» thmkmg to hunself "It s nothmg» t s only my toaster" ) The ehmmation of the past definzte from everyday speech is con£med to French In Spamsh, Pormguese, and to a lesser degree, m Itahan
Modærn Descendants of Latzn 393 convcrsaUon t s sttli gomg strong, and thc studcnt of Spamsh who bas prcvaously leamed some Fzench wfll thcrcfore fee! tempted to say he comprado un sombrero (Frcnch j'a acheté un chapeau) wherc thc Spamard would use the pretentc (compré un sombrero) THE INFINITIVE VERB We have seen (p 263) that the Anglo-Amencau eqtuvalent of the verb form called the znfinttzve of T eutomc languages s denucal wth the fist person present, and xs recogmzed as such wheneve t mame- chately follows a) the partacle to, or (b) any one ofthe helper verbs shall, vdl, may» must, can, let, rnake (mextmng compel), (c) the verbs see» hear, heIp, and (somewhat archacaI1y), d.are The mfimuve of a modern Romance language, hke that of a typcal Teutomc Ianguage, bas xts owa charactensuc terminal and bas the saine relauon to out owa usage That as to say, xt s the verb form wtnoE occt=s after a preposmon, or after one of the followmg auxanes, wtch do hot take a preposiuon SPANISH FRENCH querer (want to) oulor deber (shall, must) devoir poder (can, be able to) pouvozr osar (date) oser sa.ber (lmow) savoir hacer (make, cause) faire dqar (let» allow) laisser The mfimuve wathout a precedmg prcposmon can also occur af-ter other Freaach and Spamsh verbs A second group wbach do hot take a preposmon mcludes verbs of seemg a.ad hearmg, French voir (see), entendre (hear), sentzr (feel), Spamsh ver» mr, sentzr. Of the remamder the more maportat are. French azmer mzeux (prefer), compter (count on), dés:rer (des=e), en- voyer (send),espérer(hope),falhr (to be on the point of), paraître (appear), Spamsh parecer (appear), desear (des=e, want), remet (fear), esperar (hope) One of the helper verbs gaven m the two coIurnns prînted above calls for comment The Spamsh-French couplet DEBER-DEVOIR, ltke the Pormguese DEVER and Itahaa DOVERE hterally meaa to owe; but they c.an be used as helpers m a compulsive sense by a process of metaphoncal extemlon parallel to the formauon of out word ought, ongma!ly a past tense form of owe The French present, je dors, may mean I owe or I must, the past j'az da, I had to, the future je devra,, I shall have to, and the concttuonal je devrazs, I ought to To use eatber devoir and pouvoir or thcar eqmvalents m other Romance languages correctly» we have to be on the look-out for a pxffall menuoned m
394 The Loom oJ L«nguage OEapter IV (p. I5). Tbas ls the pectth af Anglo-Amerlcan construcuon I should hava (Freach j'aurazs dû), I could have (French j'aurazs pu) The Freach often resort to a pecuhar construcaon for must It m- volves the anpersonal verb falloz (fo be necessary that), e g. d faut sorît ] d faut que le sore je ds sortz I must go oui When out own eqtuva!ent of a Romance mfmitave cornes after a preposlnon» the latter ls always to Several preposluons may stand lmmedlately belote the mfimtîve of a Romance language The two chlef ones are desceîadants of the Latin de (from or of) and ad (to) Both an French and m Spamsh they survive as de and à or a respecuvely The first bas become more common» as m the followmg sentence, whlch also àlustrates the rule that the pronotm object precedes the mmuvê je suzs bzen heureux de te »ozr (I ara very happy to see you) Correct cholce of the appropriate preposlùen depends arbltrardy on the precedmg main verb, noun» or adjecuve» and we fmd xt wth r.hem m a good chcuonary Where we c.an replace to by en order to, Romance eqmvalents are pour (French), para (Span), per (Ital), e g I am commg $ repalr t--je vzens pour le réparer = vengo para repararlo = vengo per rzpararlo Itahaii has a chstmcuve preposmoi da derved from the fusmn of two Laun ones (de ÷ ad) Iii OEereiit contexts t can mean from, at or for When the mnmve bas a passzve meam2ag we can usually translate to by DA» e g "-- Egh ha un cavallo da vendere he bas a horse to sell (= to be sold) Questa e una regola da zmparare a memora thas xs a rule to leaxn by heart (= to be leared by heart) In al/Romance, as m TeutoJc, laîxguages OEe nfin,tave form of the verb (see OEapter IV» p x39) s the one wtuch replaces out -zng form when the latter Is a verb-notm, e g vozr, c'est crozre (seemg lS behevmg) The Pormguese mfimtlve has pecuhar aggluuaatlve possessive forms eqmvalent, e g to your seemg ÇVERes), out dozng (FAZERmos), thezr asln, ng (PREGU'NTARem), wlth the endmgs -es (your)» -mas (ou.r), -em (thelr) The followmg example 1Ltustrates thas constracuon: passez sera me verem = I passed wlthout ther seemg me. MOOD Up tall now nearly all out illustrauons of Romance verb behavtour
Modern Descendants o Latin 395 bave appeared în what grammanans cal] the in&cative mood Two other moods, the subunctve and the condmonaI, reqmre speclal treatment The latter xs srOl very ahve, both an spoken and written French, Spanish, or Itahan. The fomer leads a precanous and uncertam existence m the spoken» that ls, the hçnng language, yet is usually gven so much space m mrroducaons to French (or German) that the begmner is scared out of tns wlts A few facts may help hma to regain tns confidence The first Is that the sub/unctîve, except when it replaces the maperafive as it does m Spamsh or Itahan (p 399), îs pracncally devoid of semantac slgmficance, mad for thas reason alone no masunderstandmg wfll anse ff the begmner should ignore lts extstence. French grammars, for instance, are m the hab_t of tellmg us that the inchcatve states a fact whereas the subluncttve er.presses what is merely surmsed, feared, demanded, etc, and then fllustrate this assertaon by e g je doute lu'zl vzenne (mchcatve vient)= I doubt that he corne Now tins is palpable nonsense The doubt ls hot sîgnalled by the subttmctave form v/enne It is expressed byje doute, and the sub]unctàve of the dependent clause is as much a pleonasm as ls the plural flemon of the verb m ,/s se grattent (they are scratchmg themselves) There is another source of comfort. Of the two sub]unctaves m French» the present and the past, the latter has dïsappeared from the spoken language; the former sur- wves, but ls very resmcted in its movements If you should say, for instance, je ne crots pas qu'zl est malade for.., sert malade, as prescrïbed by grammar you are merely fo!towmg what lS common usage You should also hot feel tmduly mmmdated when you wlsh to express your- self in wntten French, because It Is possible to travel a long chstance wthout ca!lmg in the sublunctlve, prowded you take the followmg advlce: Smce the subluncuve ts a charactensuc of dependent or subordmate clauses, say what you have to say In smaple stratghfforward statements, and use alternatives for expressmns whlch are usually followed by this troublesome mood. The Spamsh subuncuve has a wader range than the French one, in speech as well as in prînt, be- sldes there are four OEerent forms for the two m French (a present, two past, and a future subluncuve). The reader who wishes to acquamt htmself with all the ways, by-ways and blind alteys of tins mood wfll bave to go outsxde The Loom for information. Here It must suttîce to say that in ail Romance laaguages grammar prescnbes the subluncuve (a) after expressîons denotmg doubt, assumpnon, fear, order, deslre, e g French douter, crmndre, ordonner, ddsrer, Spamsh duclar, temer, rnandar, desear, Itahan dubztare, ternere mandate» desiderare, (b) af-ter
396 The Loom of Language the eqmvalents of Enghsh t s necessary that (French d faut que, Spanish es menester que, Itahan hsogna che), (c) after certain conjunctlons of whch the most maportant are. FRENC PANISH pour que para que afin que a fin de que ITALIAN ENGLISH perchè m order that affmchè quoique aunque sebbene although bien que bien que benchè sans que sm que senza che wlthout pourvu que con tal que purchè provlded that à motos que a menos qu a meno che unless au cas que en caso que in caso che in case that Ail you have to do to get the con&tzonal of a regular French verb lS to add the personaI endmgs of the zmperfect to the mfimuve To under- stand tts form and one of lts functlons we must go back to Vulgar Latin Perhaps the reader of The Loom bas already heard once too often about how Roman clazens of the later Empre could express future tnne by couplmg the infinltave varia the present tense of habere» e g credo quod vemre habet (I beheve that he wlll corne); but there ls a good enough reason for mentlonmg it agmn For I beheved he would corne, Romans would use past tense-forms of habere wlth the mfimuve, e credebam quod vemre habebat, or credebam quod vemre habuzt ust as the future tense of Romance languages (other than Rumaman) lS based on agglutmauon of the verb mfimtave wath the present of habere, the conchlaonal results from glumg the verb mfimuve to mperfect (Spamsh, Portuguese» French) or past hstortc (itahan) tense-forms of the saine helper verb This tells us the original ftmctaon of the conchuonal mood, x e that we bave to use xt when we speak about a past event whtch had hot yet happened at the truie mvolved m the precedmg statement Its original past-future function survxves in ail construcuons analogous to those OEted bove The followmg examples show the ordmary future and the past-future 0 e conchuonal) Enghsh. he says h wdl corne . he sad he would come French. fl cht quhl viendra 11 chsmt qu'il vendralt Spamsh. dlce que vendra decIa que vendrm. Itahan" &ce che verrà chceva che verrebbe Thê conchuonal has taken on another ftmctton, and denves its name from t. We bave to use it in the main clause of French conchtlonal statements when fulfilment s unreahzable, or at least remote, e g
Modern Descendants of Latin 397 (a) OE he came i should go; (b) OE he had corne I should have gone Here» as in future-past expressIons, fllustrated above, the French conchuonal xs eqmvalent to out constructton mvolvmg should or would wath the mfimuve of the mare verb For out simple past tense-form of an ordmary verb of the OE-clause» as m (a), or of the helper as m (b), the French eqmvalent xs the ordmary mapeffect (or pluperfect) The followmg examples tllustrate French conchuonal smtements. ( a) French " S ' avas de l'argent je l' achèteras Enghsh: If I had money I should buy it (b) French S'I avazt eu de l'argen elle l'aurazt acheté. Enghsh If he had had money she would bave bougtlt t Spamsh usage is more tncky. Where we use the woutd-should con- structaon, It lS always sale to use the condztzonal m the main clause» and Spamards wlll not mtsunderstand a foreagner who mes the ordmary (mchcauve) present or past tu the OE-clause. They themselves resort to ttae subjtmcttve form» as we use were for was, s are: Spanash. le darian el prernzo st fuesê mas aphcado Enghsh: they would gave haro the prze ff he werê more mdusmous. Spamsh" S tuwera &nero Io compraria Enghsh: If I had money I should buy it Spamsh: S hubzera temdo dmero Io habrla comprado Enghsh. If I had had money I should bave bought t. The main thmg for the begmner to know about the Romance subtmc- uve xs how to leave t alone r.t11 he (or she) bas mastered al1 the grammar essenual to clear statement The conchtaonal turns up m many sxtuattons wbach more or less lmply conchuon» e g suggestaons and m general where we use shou!d-would wth the mfimuve m a smaple statement For instance, t xs a useful form for pobte request In headlme x&om the French conchuonal may mchcate uncertamty or even rumour, as tllus- trated by the last of the ensumg examples de ne le feras pas a,rm I shouldn't do xt hke that. Voudnez-vous bzen m'ader un peu Would you kmdly help me a bzt ? Quej'ameras te vort How I should love to see you Darlan renconrerat Htler Wtll Darlan meet t-Lltler? It xs important for anyone who s takmg up French to know several common expresslons wktch mvolve the conchlaonal form of certain helpers, e g vouloir (to want) and devoir (to owe) m the sense would hke to» and ought to» e g je voudrais bzen te wster I should much lake to vlsit you. ,l ne devrazt point le faire. He shouldn't do
398 The Loom of Language The Latin verb had specîal forms--the so-called «mperatwe mood-- to express an order or request Such specal mperauve forms of the verb are rare m modern European languages. What ls called the French anperauve has two forms, one denucal wth the first person smgular of the present m&catve, the other wth the second person plural, e.g attrape-attrapez (catch!). Both occur m everyday speech The first ls used m famthar mtercourse when addressmg one person, the second m the saine sltuauon when spe -akmg to more than one. The latter ls also the unperauve of pohte adckess, smgular and plural, e g prenez garde, madame (take care!) If the verb s reflerave, the reflexave pronoun be- baves hke any other objecuve pronoun (p. 366), i e t cornes after the verb m an afin'mauve command» e g ouvriers de tous les pays, umssez- vous (workers of the world, tante l), and b¢fore the verb m a probmon, e g. ne vous en allez pas (don't go away!) Another way of mg a request or recommendauon s by employmg the mmuve. Thïs ls also the Itahan and German method, e g. don't lean out of the wmdow = French ne pas se pencher en dehors, Itahan non sporgem, German mcht hznauslehnen The atmtharles avozr, être, savozr, and voulozr bave maperatave forms correspondmg to the subltmctave (aze-ayez, sms-oyez, sache-sachez, veudle-veudlez). Interrogauve expressmns may take the place of an imperatxve. For venez.t (cornet), we may say voulez-vous vemr? (wfll you come), ne voulez-ous pas vemr? (won't you come), vous v,endrez, n'est-ce-pas? (you wl corne, won't you ?), etc. In Spamsh, as m French, the ïorm of a command or a pohte request depends upon personal relatmns between speaker and hstener. When speahng to a chtld, an intlmate relation, or a fnend, the Spamard mes an mlperauve form whtch xs xdemacal wth the thd person smgular of the present mchcattve, e g tomalo (take if t). If he addresses more than one he mes a form constructed by subsututmg d for the final r of the mfimuve» ¢ g. corred, mos (run» boys!) Thas maperatxve ls hot very tmportant, because the begttmer w seldom have a chance to use it The form whlch we habitually employ s the thtrd person sîngular of the present subjtmctxve ïollowed by usted, when addressmg one person, or the thlrd plural followed by ustedes when talklng to more than one, e.g. dupense usted or dzspensen tedes (excuse me). To make requests or mvltauons (e g. let us befnends again) the French use the first person plural of the ordmary present tênse wïthout the pronoun, as tn the Marsedlaue" allons, enfants de la patrie (let us go forth, chfldren of the fatherland). The.Spamsh eqmvalent is the sub-
Modern Descendants oJ Latin 2399 :tmctive fi_rst person plural, e g demos un paseo (let us take a walk) If the request mvo!ves someone to whom It lS hot &rectly addressêd, the thzrd person ofthe sublunoeve s used m bo languages, e g m French, qu'zl attende (let lxm watt I), m Spamsh Me no entre nadze (let nobody corne mi). NEGATION AND INTERROGATION The predommant negaave paracle of Latin was non, wtnch survives as such m Itahan The Spamsh eqmvalent s no, Pormguese nâo The Spamsh no always precedes the verb and con be separated fmm It oaly by a pronoun obect or reflemve In its original form the Latin non (hke our Enghsh no) surwves m French as an answer to a questmn or as an mter]ecaon In Spamsh, double negatmn s common The paracle no accompames the verb even when t, he sentence conms other words wtnch bave an exphcfly neganve meanmg, e g mnguno (no), nadze (nobody), nada (nothing), jan,As or nunca (never) Thus a Spamard says no ,mporta nada (t doesn't sgmf-y nothmg = t doesn't marrer) Smn- larly, Itahans use non wth the verb of a sentence whch contams nessuno, mente, nulla Such construcuons are analogous to the obhgatory double- barrelled negaton of French (ne . pas» ne.. jamais, ne . ren, etc ) explaîned m Chopper VHI (p 34 o) Double negatons (e g I don't want no more nonsense) were hot tabu m Ma3flower Enghsh The following are fllustrauve Enghsh: I do hOt see anybody French 3e ne vins personne. S pamsh no veo a nadze I t ah an non vedo nessuno Enghsh: whdt does he say?... Nothmg. French que dzt-l»-rzen Spamsh qué dzce»-nada Itahan che dzce-nzente The French words whch go wth the verb preceded by ne are aucun (no, none), nul (none), personne (nobody).. ren (nothmg), plus (no more), amazs (never), e g zl n'avazt rien à &re (he had nothmg to say)» aucun des délégués n'est present (none of the de!egates s present) When they stand alone m answer to a questmn, aucun, rzen, amazs, personne are negattve, e g who s here Personnet» what chà he say? Rent In reply to a questmn demandmg a strmght yes or no, Romans repeated the verb of the questaon. To feastzne (dad you do xt?), the reply was szc fecz (so chd I), or non feoE (I chd hot) In Spamsh, s denved from s¢ s the affirmattve paracle (yes). French bas two, sz and oto (Old French o1, from Latin hoe zlle) Sz, or st.ronger» si, sz, deraes a negat,ve statement or suggestaon, e g tu ne m'azmes plus? S,, s ! (You don't love me any more ? Yes, yes, I do) Nether Teutomc nor Romance langaages bave a single ¢lear-cut and
4oo The Loom oj Language obhgatory method of mterrogauon Each offers several ways oir puttmg a question A Latin questton to whmh the answer was yea, yea or nay» nay, was marked as such by one of several pamcles (ne, hum, nonne) eqmvalent to eh? Note of these has surwved. In spoken French or Spamsh a quesuon can be chstmgtushed from an assertmn by a devace whch ls both prmunve and well-mgh umversal» 1 e. by change of tone wthout change of word-order, e g French tu ne vtens pas» (you are hot commg?) As m Teutomc languages, verb-subject mversmn also labels a quesnon, e g French l'as-tu v. (have you seen htm?), Spamsh tzene êl tren un sleeper» Oaas the train got a sleeper) Such mversmn rot mranably mterrogalave. The Spamsh verb often cornes belote ts subject m constructaons analogous to came the dawn, e g dijo la madre a su hzja (said the mother to ber daughter) French mterrogatton bas several pecuharmes hot shared by Spamsh (a) If the subject ls a personal pronoun» It s jomed to the verb by a hyphen» e g n'en destrez-vous pas (don't you watt any?) If the thxrd person of the verb ends m a vowel, a t ls mserted between verb and pronouno e g chante-t-eIIe (does she smg) (b) If the subject ts a tout, t remams at the begmmng of the sentence, whale the mterrogarave charaeter of the sentence s mchcated by the adchtton of a pleonastc pronoun» e g French ta s,ur» est-elle manC» (Is your sster marned an arrangement hOt unknown to Spamsh French bas yet a thd way of expressmg a questaon It s by the use of est-ce que 0s t that)» an inversion of c'est que T]e method began to emerge m the sJxteenth century» and s st.dl gammg ground at the expense of smaple inversion» e g est-ce que nous sommes 1oto de Londres? (Are we far from London?) The begmner should use tbas interrogative form freely because» apart from ts popu- lanty, t bas the advantage of makmg inversion unnecessary The reader who xs learnmg French may one day meet the common people of France m the flesh So at ls useful to know beforehand that popular speech s amazmgiy rch m comphcated mterrogalave turns» e g où c'est-l qu'zl est for où est-l (where xs he), qu'est que c'est que vous voulez? for que voulez-vous : Fommately, thls goes hand m hand wxth a têndency oï popular French to avoxd or to strmghten out the xrregular verb and regularze xt on the patten of the first conugalaon In dus and many other ways, common people French speak what thelr descendants may wnte ROMANOE AFFIXE$ No accotmt of the grammar of a language ls complete mthout reference to afflxes other than those of the sort usually called fie]dons People who speak Romance languages resort httle to notre couplets such as oager power or compounds such as rubberneck or gumboots. The French chou-fleur (cauhflower) s a representatvê of a small class
Modern Descendants o Laffn 4o whîch s hot gainmg much ground The saine s less true of verb-notm couplets represented by the French compotmds porte-monnae (purse), gagne-para (hvehhood) or the Spamsh mondadzentes (toothpck) and rascacelos (sky-scraper) Where Ang!o-Amencan purs two words together wthout any mtervenmg hnk, Romance languages generally reque a preposmon. To mchcate the purpose for whch somethmg lS meant French uses the partacle à, Spamsh para, and Imhan da. Thus a tea-cup s une tasse à thé m French, har-od s acete para d pelo m Spamsh, and a typewnter s una macchma da scrtvere In Itahan The msertaon of preposmons whach we tan ormt (e g trade cycle = cycle of trade) makes hêadlmes bulge Thus the French for oorkers' fashon plates is planches de gravures de modes pour ouvrières Llke notre couphng preftxmaon s hot fashonable Frenchmen or Spamards do hot hghtty make up adjectaves hke pre-dgested. Thus the vocabulary of French lS haghly conservatlve The saine ls true of Spamsh, Pormguese, or Italîan f we use Anglo-Amencan as a yardstck, but French lS far less flextble than tts sster languages, because t has no machinery for denvmg words of a class relauvely common an the latter Many languages bave speclal sufflxes to mchcate damensmns of, chsapproval of, or estêem for the thmg or person of the word to whach they stck Almost any German noun wtach srands for a thmg or ammal becomes dmlmutlve (and hence endearmg or contemptuous) by adchtlon of-ehen, or less commonly -le, n, e g Haus-Hauschen, Mann- Mannchen The prevalence of thïs rock explams why dmamutîves are hot hsted m German chcttonanes In Enghsh such couplets as duck- duckhng, goose-goslmg, or nver-rzvulet, book-booktet, are taxe» as are French ones, e g mason-mazsonette, jardzn-yardmet; and we bave to leam them mchvxdualay More hke German than Enghsh or French, Spamsh and Itahan abotmd wth words of whch the suffixes sgnueT sze, appreczatwn, tenderness, contempt, ac¢ordmg to context; and we are free to make up new ones Masculine forms of" some Spanish &mmutve termfnals are -to, -tzco,-cto, -llo We recogmze the femmme eqtuvalent of the last one in guemlla from guerra (war) Itahan dmamuuve suffixes are the -mo of bambzno» the -etto of hbretto, also -êllo, -celIo, and -cno Thus we get flonczta (htde flower) from the Spamsh flot, and fioretto (of flo et) from the Itahan flore From the Spamsh names Carlos and duan we get Carhtos, uamto (Charhe and Johnnie) Such termmals can attach themselves to adectives or adverbs Iffence the Spanlsh couplets ahora- ahonta (now--nght now), ad, ds-adwszto (good-bye--bye-bye), or Ian
4o2 The Loom of Language povero-poverino (poor--poor dear), poco-pochino Oîrde-wee). There is scarcely any limit to usage of this sort. In Spanish, Portuguese, and Ira!Jan alîke, the chier augmemative suffix cornes from the Latin-one. Hence in Spanish hombre-hombr6n (man--big man), in ïtalian îbro-litrone Çoook-tome). The Latin depre- ciatory sutEx-aceus (or -uceus) becomes -acho (or -ucho) in Spanish, -accîo in Italian. Thus we bave the Spanish couplet vino-vinacho (wîne.- poor wine), or the Italîan tempo-tempaccio (weather--bad weather). These affixês are fuir gaine for the beginner. Alfred-accio is gooâ Italian for naughty Alfred. One prefix deserves specîal mention. It is thê Italian s-, a shortened form of the Latin dis-, e.g. sbandare (disband), sbarbato (beardless), sbarcarê (dis.embark), sfare (undo), smînuire FURTHER READING cmEs Durt= The Basis and EsseniaIs of French. The Basis and F.ssenrials of Italian. The Basis and Essentials of Spanîsh. D. B.EZ B'ash Up Your Spanish. rtTco Brusk Up Your tTrench. TSSISrr Brush Up Your ItahTan. Also French, Italîan, Portuguese, Spanish in I-tugo's Simplified System, and Teach Yourself Spanish Teach' Yourself French, Tëach Yourself Italian in the Teach Yourself Books (Englisla Urtiversity Press).
PART
CHAPTER X THE DISEASES OF LANGUAGE IN the remammg chapters of the Loom we are gomg to look at language as a man-marie instrument whach men and women may sharpen and redemgn for human ends Before we can take an mtelhgent mterest in the technique of language-plamamg for a soctety whach bas removed the causes of war, tt s helpful to recogmze the defects md ments mherem in languages whlch people now use or bave used in the past. The mm of tlus chapter s to gave relevant informatao about some languages whlch bave been mentloned m passmg elsewhere, and about others whach bave been left out m the cold In ther relation to the progress of hum= kaowledge we may chvade languages mto two groups. In one we may put those whlch bave a wmten record of human achaevement exterldmg back over hmadreds, ff hot thousands, of years To the other belong those wath no nch or ttme-honoured secalar ltterature whch could be descnbed as mdî- genous The first mcludes representataves of the Hammc, Semmc and Aryan famahes, Chmese ad Japanese The latter xs ruade up of thê Bamu languages, the Amermcha chalects, and members of the Malayo- Polyneman group Though may of r.hem are by now eqmpped wath scnpts through the efforts of Buddst» Moslem» and Chnstlan mas- Slonanes, such hterature as they possess s largely sacred and denvatlve Tfll qmte recently the saine remark could bave been ruade wth more or less justace about Fltmo-Ugrma, Tttrlash Mongohan, Caucasmn, and Basque After the Revolutloa of 1917 the educanonal pohcy of the Soviet Umon ruade script a vebacle for secular knowledge among Mongols, Mordwmaas, Turco-Tartars, Caucamans, and other non- Aryan speech commumtes Thë 2,oo0 malllon people oa this globe speak approximately 1,5oo OEerent languages. Only about thm3r of t.hem are each spokea by more than IO malhons The daîly speech of nearly hall of the world's populanon belongs to the Indo-European famfly, wlrhm whch ts Anglo-Amencan representatve takes first rank Anglo-Amertcaa s now the mother-language of over oo mhom, hot to mention those who habtually use it as a means of cukural collaborataon or rely on it for world commumcatlon tf we add to the figure for Anglo-Amen-
406 The Loom of Language can _o malhon people who speak cognate laguages (German, Dutch and Flemsh, Scandmavaan), we gêt the enormous total of about 39.0 ma]hons for the Teutonic group Next corne the Aryan tongues of Lucha, spoken by some 23o mdhons» and the Romance languages, spoken by a total of oo n-l_hons Then follows the Slavomc-speakmg people, of whom there are some r go mllbons The precedmg gure for German does not mclude Ydchsh. Yxdchsh was ongmally a west German chalect taken to Poland and Baltc countes by [ewsh refugees from persecuuons of the 1are MddIe Ages Its phonetlc pattem preserves many chactenstcs of Nhddle I-hgh German Its vocabulary s sull predommantly German v¢th a consdêrable adm- ture of Hebrew words, of Pohsh words, mud of words o languages spoken m countnes to wtch eImgrants bave taken t Ydchsh can boast of a rtch mternauonal hteravure, prmted m Hebrew characters Wth the excepuon of the splmter-speech commtmïues whch use Basque, Turlsh, and Caucasmn chalects, all European languages belong to two great familles, the Aryan or Indo-European, and the Fmno- Ugrian (p 97) European representauves of the latter are confined to Hungary» Esthoma Fmland, and Lapland Major contnbuuons to modem science are due to the efforts ot" men and women who speak languages belongmg to the Romance and Teutomc anguages, mcludmg Anglo-Amencan, wtnch s the hybnd offsprmg of both. These have been dealt wlth m Part II The most ancaent hterature of the Indo- European famfly belongs to the Indo-Iraman group, wtnch mcludes Sansknt and O!d Persmn Of languages spoken m modern Europe, the Baltzc group wbach mcludes Letush and Lthuaman stands nearest to prmnuve Aryan, and the Slavonc, headed by Russmn, stands nearest to the Baltac group Classcal Greek wth ts parocbaal descendant, modem Greek, occupès an solated postmn as a language clearly related to other Indo-European languages wthout being more clearly related to any pamcular group than to another. At the extreme Western geographacal hmats of the present chstnbuuon of the famfly, we fmd remams of the once wdespread Celuc group wth pecuhar structural characteristtcs whch separate t from ail others Albaman and Armenïan are also Indo-European languages, but because both have asslmîlated many loan-words from Senuuc, Caucasian, or Turkash neghbours, lmguists dad hot genera]Iy recognîze thetr relauon to other members of the famlly ttll the latter half of the nmeteenth century THE INDIC GROUP Wdely separated branches of the Indo-Europem famïly have a long
The Diseases of Language 407 hterary past, and we are therefore m a posluon to recogmze smflaz processes mdependently at work m the evoluton of dflïerent groups The early hterature of the Eastern, hke that of the Western members of the Indo-European famfly, mtroduces us to a complemty of gram- rnatcal usage m sharp contrast to that of lts modern evolutonary forms. In the Western branch, smaphficanon sm_rted first and went fiarthest m Enghsh In the Eastem branch, smaphfication of Perslan began earlier and bas gone almost as far The most ancrent stage of Inchc Is known as Ve&c or Vedzc Sanskrt, the language of the Vedas, a collecaon of hymns, htames, prayers, mcantauons, m short, the Bible of the Brahrnznac cult The oldest part ls the Rzg Veda, based on oral trachuon transuntted for several cenmnes belote the mtroducuon of wmmg Posslbly it is as old as Iooo B c--- several hundred years before the art of wntmg reached Incha By that tune the Old Inchc of the otlgmal Vedmstic mcantatlons had ruade way for a language wtuch became the standard among the prestly caste as well as the mechum of hîgh-class secular lterature Perhaps to preserve ts ptmty from contarnmauon wth lowbrow chom, prestly grain- man.ms drew up a code of correct usage. Sansknt means arranged, ordered, or correct. In fins state of arresed devetopment it co=tmued to exs sde by sde wth hwng dïalects» as Latin, the occupattonai mechum of the church and umversnes, coexsted for centunes wth lts new evluuonary forms, the Romance lanages In the drama of the classxcal perod of Inchan heramre, petrîed Sansknt ls used, together wath a newer 2akrt, separated from t by a socaal barrer. Men of elevated tank, such as kmgs and press, speak Sanskrt The lowly, mcludmg women, speak Praknt Some of the Praknt or Maddle Inchc dmlects became hterary languages, that s, stagnant» whfle popular speech moved further One form f Praknt» Pfih» was carrled by massonares to Ceylon, where t became the sacred language of the ]3uddst cuit The ctnef representauves of Inchc m lts present-day form are Bengah (53 mdhons), Western Hzn& (7=), Bzhar (34), Eastern Hnd' (3), Maath (), Panjab (r6), Guarat (rr), Raja.sthan (3) The language of the Gypsles, who hafl from the north-west of Incha and mvaded Western Ettrope fi_rst m the fifteenth century, xs also of Inchc ongm Closely re!ated to Old Inchc ls Old Iranzan Its earhest stage ls represented by two forms, Zend or Avestan, that ls, the sacred language of the Zoroasman fath, and Old Perszan, of whch the best-known specïmen ls a rock-msctapuon of Danus I (522-486 c.) at Betnstun. The next evolutonary phase of Perslan ls called Pehlev (1 e Parthzan)
4o8 The Loom oj Language Modem Perszan begms wth the tenth century It has changed but httiê durmg the last thousand yeas More than two thousand years ago the Vechc texts had already burdêneà the l]rakmamc pnesthood wth competmg versmns They had to harmomze them, to explam archac forms and to clmfy dun meanmgs The Vechc hymns were mvmlable For centunes pnests had chanted them vath puncuhous attentton to the ume-honoured fashaon They beheved, and had an mterest m makmg others beheve, that correct observance deoded whether the gods would daspatch bhss or otherwe So tr_mng m prestcraft, as to-day, mcluded careful schoolmg of the ear for sound, for rhyflma, and for speech- melody For tls reason ntual reqmrements eventually gave nsê to one of the major cultural contnbuuons of Handu cavtmnon The Handu pnests were pmneers of the ru&ments of a science of phoneucs Subsequendy tNs preoccupauon of the pnest-grammanan wth the sacred texts extended to sectflar hterature It culmmated m the Sansknt grammar of Pamm (ca 300 c ) Pamm took a step that went far beyond the mval exploits of Amc Greece, and had a deosve influence upon the course of mneteenth-century mvesugauon when t became known to European scholars He, and presumably hs forerunners, were the first to take words to peces, and to chstmgmsh roots from ther es Hence grammar s called ayakarana m Sans- knt, that ts, "separauon," "analysts " Owmg to thas precocaous preoccupaton wxth grammar we bave a very clear pcture of what Sansknt was hke Wtth ts etght cases and dual number, the flexaonal apparams of the Sansknt noun was even more elaborate than that of Latin or Greek, and the Sansknt adlecuve wth ts three gender forms reflects the luxunance of ts patiner As we retrace our stêps to the earhest source of out mformataon about the begmnmgs of Aryan speech wê therefore approach a stage whch recalls the state of affatrs m Fmmsh mth xts feen sets of smgular and plural postposmons defmmg the relation of a noun to other words m the saine context It may we11 be that we should arnve at such a goal f we could go back further; but the fact ts that the use of Sansknt case- forms was hOt clear-cut and the case-es were hOt, kke those of Fmmsh, the saine for every noun Ths ts shown by the followmg examples of Sansknt gemuve case-forms NOATIV SIlqGULAR GElq'ITIVE SING (god) deodsya (tire) agnes
The Diseases o/ Language 409 Many pages of thas book could be filled if we set out ail the flextons of a smgle Sansknt or a smgle Greek verb wath respect to tzrne, person, vozce, and mood The followmg example fllustrates ordy the personal flextons of one tense (present) and of both voces (active and passive) The mood ts mdzcatzve, e the form used m srmple statements. Smg 2 3 {. Dual 2 3 {" Plut 3 ACTIVE SANSKRIT dadhvs dhatthas dhattas dadhmis dhatrha dadhau GREEK chdSml chd6s didSsi(n) chdoton chdoton didomen d/dote chd6fisl(n) PASSIVE SANSKRIT dadhé dhatsé dhatte cdhvahe dadhthe dadhate ddhmahe dhaddhve dadhate GREEK chdomm d/dosal chdota, didosthon chdosthon chd6metha dfdosthe dfdontm The Anglo-Amencan eqmvalents would be I, you, we, or they gzve and he gwes (acuve), and I ara, you, we, they are, he zs gzven (passive), makmg altogether three forms of the verb gzve and three of to be, or six m ail to represent the meanmg of elghteen Sansknt words For elght derent forms of a modem Enghsh verb we can make above thlrty-six correspondmg forms of the Sansknt or Greek verb The complete Sanskrît verb flatte, that ls the verb wlthout tts m_fimttves, parucaples, and verbal adjecuves plus ther flextons, has 743 chffêrent forms, as agamst the 268 of Greek From a complete Greek verb we get the enormous number of 5o7 forms» from a Latin one r43, and fronà a Gothlc verb 94 The Enghsh verb usually has four, or at most rive forms (e g gzve, gzves, gave, gîvmg, gzven) If we add seven forms of to be, four of to bave, mgether wtth shall or wdl and should or would,
4o The Loom o Langze for constructmn of compound tenses» we can express wth OEo words everythmg for wluch Sansknt burdens he memory wlth nearly forty urnes as many OEerent vocables MODER LANGUA3ES OF THE EAST Dunng the past two thousand years thele has been a umversal drfft among Aryan languages towards reducuon and regulanzauon of fleraon Tins tendency towards economy of effort ls as stnhng on the Eastern front as on the Western, and m no language more than in modern Perslan and Hmdustanî After the Islannc conquest, Perslan soEered a heavy mfiltrauon of Arablc words Consequently lts present vocabu- lary ls as Senunc as it is mchgenous Even Senutc grammaucal forms crept m, but these OEect only Arable words There can be httle doubt that the decay of Perslan flexaons was accelerated by the Moslem conquest In fact, Perslan and Anglo-Amencan prowde an nnpresslve example of parallel evoluuon from snnflar begmnmgs. Both have abandoned the &stmcuon of grammaucal gender. If the sex of an aromate bemg Is tobe exphct, Persian prefixes equvalents to our words man or wzan for human bemgs, and maie or female for non-human bemgs Lke Anglo-Amencan, Perslan has chscarded the case-system In both languages words whch correspond to French or German, Latin or Greek adjecuves are mvanant, as m Chmese The companson of the Persian adecuve xs qmte regul= To form the comparauve we bave to add -tar, to form the superlauve, -tann, e g bo»org Çog), bozorgtar Çmgger), bozorgtarm (the biggest) Perslan bas no chstmct adverblal form. The battery of Perslan personal pronouns ls cven smallcr than ours, becausc the smgle u (hterary) or an (colloq) stands for he, she, z alike The Persmn verb has a present and two smple past tense-forms (past and imperfect), wr_h fifll personal endmgs whlch ordmanly do the work of the pronoun subject, as m Spamsh and Itahan Therc ts one conlugauon, and thc personal endmgs are wth one excepuon the sïne for ail threc tenscs Apart from the thd pêrson smgular they are hke the correspondmg parts of the verb to bé (budan). The present t¢nse of buan is , thou art td» you are as, he, she, or It s and, they are The pxesent and mperfect tense-forms bave the prefix raz- attached to
The Diseases o.[ Langzge 4I the present stem and past stem respectîvely Thus the present tense of the verb khandan (to buy) mzkharam mzkharim mklmrt mkhand mkharad rmkharand The correspondmg past ternes are: khartdam, khartd, etc (I bought, you bought, etc.), and rmkhandam, mtkhardz, etc (I was buymg, you were buymg, etc ). For perfected action, future tmae» and OEe passive volce, constructxons mvolvmg helper verbs do service: budan for the first, khastan (to wsh) for the second, and shodan (to become) for the third. Though rhe modelm Inchc languages of Aryan origm bave not covered the saine distance as Perslan, they bave travelled m the saine drecïon. Sir George Gxaersoi1, who was m charge of the Lzngu, stc Survey of Inaa, writes of the Hmch &alects. Some of these chalects are as mmlytacal as Eigltsh, ooEers are as syn- thetm as Germa Some bave the srnplest grammar» wath every word- relattomktp mdïcated, hot by declenslon or colxjugalorl, but by the use of help-worcls, while others bave grammars more comphcated tha that of Latin, wlth verbs that change thetr forms flot olxly m agreemem wr_h the subject, but evelx wth the object &ccordmg to the prevalence of lsolatmg atld flexionat feattlres, we can divxde modem lmdo-Aryan vemacttlars (I7 standard lmaguages wth 345 chalects, spokeix by some 23o mflhons) mto two classes, one covermg the centre of the North Indtm plain, called Mtdland» the other, called the Outer» surrotmdmg It m three-quarters of a ctrcle The former ls represented by Western Hnd, Panjab, Rajastham, and Gujaratz, the latter by vernaculars such as Lahnda, Stndh, Maratht, Bhar, Bengah. Grmrson says. "The lmaguages of the Outer stb-branch bave gotxe a stage furttxer m Imgmstlc êvolutlorl They were otlce» m thelr Satlsknt form, syathettc; then they passed tlxrotxgh art maalyttcal stage--some are passmg ottt of that stage only now, and are, ltke Smdlxt mad Iasdamm, so to speak caught m OEe act--alld bave agam become s3mthettc by the mcorporattolx of the aux!mry words, sêd m the analytxcal stage, wth the mare words to whtch they are attactled .... The grammar of each of the Ilmer laix- guages tan be wrxtten oi1 a gew leaves» wktle» m order to acquaxe atx acquamtance wth orte of the Otxter languages» page after page of more or lëss comphcated declenstom and COiljugataons must be mastered." Bengalz ls spoken m the delta of the Ganges, mad north and east to
412 The Loom oJ Language It» by a populatton eqmvalent to that of France. The gap between the wntten and the spoken word forces the forelgner to learn two chfferent languages Ttxls complete separauon of the spoken from the wntten mechum xs the work of the Pundlts of Calcuta who recently borrowed an enormous number of Sanskm words moE a spe!hng fashlonable two thousand years ago The Bengah verb has eght synthetlc tenses There are but three weegular, but only shghtly lrregular» verbs (gwe» come, go) Bengah developed a synoEetc though as yet very rudnnentary declen- smn of the noun, e g ghar (house), gemuve gharer, agent case ghare It bas gender-dîstmcuon, but Bengah gender as a paragon of orderly behavmur in companson wlth that of Sansknt Ail male ammals are mascu]me, ai1 female femlnme All mammate thlngs are neuter Only masculine and femmlne nouns take the plural endmg Hndustam ls a chalect of Western Hmch It s the dafly speech of a population shghfly larger than that of England» but x Is better known as a lmgua frama, current over ail Incha Accordmg to the Lmgmmc Su ¢, t developed as such in the bazaar atached to the Delh Court From there, oiclals of the Mogul Empire carned tt everywhere One form of Hmdustam ls Urdu. Its scnpt s Perslan, and t has a strong admmture of Perslan and Arablc words Owmg to expansion over a mde rea and hence contact mth peoples of diverse speech commumtles Hmdustam grammar bas shed many lrregulantles and superflmues Wlth few exceptaons the verb follows one and the saine pattem. The present and past forms of a smgle helper (hona, to be) combine mth two partlcaples to do most of the dally work of a tense system Llke the Romance languages Hmdustam bas scrapped the neuter gender, and the case system bas completely dlsappeared Parucles « placed affer the noun (.postpostwm) do thc ob of otlr preposmons, e g : mard ke of man mardon ke of men mard ko to man mardon ko to men THE BALTIC AND SLAVONIC GROUPS Among modem Indo-European languages, those of the Baltlc and Slavonîc groups bave almost enurely escaped thls tendency towards easmg the flemonal burden They sull preserve a weker of fleraonal forms The Baluc group surwves m a reglon north-east of Germany. It * In spire of tlns regularlty of the Hmdustam word, some Indmn and Euro- pean compflers of Hmdustam grammar-books stfll stick to the Sanskrlt or Latin pattern and arrange nouns wlth thelr post-posmons in seven cases East and West meet m the scholarly trachtmn oZ makang dtffîcult what ls easy.
The Diseases o.[ Language 43 has two hvmg representauves. Lthuanian îs the dmly speech of some two and a hall m,lhon people» Lettsh that of about one and a hall mllhon m the nelghbounng community, Latma Of the two survïng members of the Bahac group» L1thuanîan ls the more archmc. The accompanymg table whch gaves the smgular forms of the Lathuaman word for son mde by sde wth the oldest Teutomc (Gothac) eqm- valent% shows that Llthuaman actually outstnps the latter, as It also outstnps Lama» m the vanety of lts case-derivauves LITI-I'UA.NIAN GOTHIC Nom Smg. sunus sunus Acc » s1.1u sunLI Gen ,» saus sus Dal ,, sm sau Loc » sue Voc ) SU SU East and south of the Baluc and Teutomc reons we now find the huge group of Slavomc languages, spoken by some r 90 mdhon people. Phflologasts classffy them as foliows. A. EAST SLAVONIC" I Great Russlan (Ioo mllhOnS) z Llttlc Rusman (3o malhons) 3. Whxte Russmn (x2 ons) B vrEST SLKVONIC I Slovak and Czech (r2 mJJhons) 2 Pohsh (z3 milhons) c SOUTH SLAVONIC: x Bulganan (5 mhons) 2 Serbo-Croauan and Slovene (xz mflhons) At the begnnng of out era the Slavs sttll mhabxted the regon between the Vstula, the Carpathian Mountams, and the Dmeper. Durmg the fifth and smx_h centu_nes, they swarmed over huge tracts of Central and Western Europe At one tmae they were m possessmn of parts of Austria, Saxony, and the North German plains to the Elbe During the Middle Ages, Slavomc surrendered all this terntory to Germany; but Polabzan, a Slavomc chalect, perssted m the 1ower regaons of the Elbe up to the eghteenth century, and even to-day Germany harbours a minute Slavomc language-sland, thê Sorb)an of Upper Saxony Whfle Slavomc bas had to retreat from the West, it
4r4 The Loorn o.[ Languagê s stfll g_mmg ground on the Asan¢ conunen as the ve/aide of a new ctvflamnon Russmn s now pushmg as far BIorth as the Wktte Sea and as far East as the shores of the Pactfic Ocean The earhest recorded form of Slavomc s Old Bulganan, mto wtach two Greek rmsstonanes, Kyrdlos and Methodos, both from Salomka, translated the Gospels m the rmddle of the nînth century. Ts Btble language, also called Church Slavomc, became the otficaal language of the Greek Orthodox Church It sull ls Smce the art of wntmg was then the exclusive pnvtlege of the pnest-scrlbe class, Church Slavomc also became the secular mechum of hterature The Russmns chd hot begm to emancapate themseIves from the hterary tyranny ofthe Church, and to create a wrïtten latguage of ther own, ull the end of the elgh- teenth century. Its basls was the speech current m the region of Moscow As a hangover from ther church-ndden past, catazens of the U S S R. sttll sttck to "Kyrflhza," a modlfied form of the Greek alpha- bet (Flg I) ortce current in Byzantmm The Poles and the Slovaks-- but hot the Serbs or Bulganans---are free from thas cultural hanchcap When thetr forefathers embraced the Roman form of Chnstiamty, an mtemanonally current alphabet was part of the bargam Ltke the Sematac famfly, the Slavontc group shows comparattvely httle mtemal 6tfferenttataon. Slavomc languages form a clearly recog- mzable umt, mcludmg nataonal languages whach daffer no more than Swechsh and Damsh or Spamsh and Itahan. It s easler for a Pole to tmderstand a Russan than for a German to understand a Swede, or for a Parman to tmderstand a Spamard or an Itahan. For a long ttme SlaÇomc-speakmg peoples remmned cut off flore Mechterranean influ- ence. What reached r.hem was confined to a thm and muddy tnckle that percolated through the Greek Orthodox Church The compara- uvely late appearance of loan-words m the Slavomc lexicon fmthfy reflects fins retardauon of culture-contact wlth more progressxve commumues Smcê the Sovaet Umon embarked upon rapd mdus- trialization there has been a great change. Ass_ïrnltaon of mternauonal techmcal terms bas become a fashion To thas extent lmgtusttc solatîon s breahng down. Meanwhtle m Russm, as elsewhere» Slavonic lan- guages consutute a fossfl group from the grammaucal standpomt. They preserve archmc u-aats matched only by those of the Balttc group. Notre-flexion, always a rehable index of Imgtustic progress, ts hot the least of these. Slavomc lauguages carry on a case system as comphcated as that of Laun and Greek, Bulgarian alone has freed tself from ths mcubus
FIG 39--STONE ITH CELTIC INSCRIPTION IN OGAOE SIGNS lRObI ./BOYIq'E IqEAR _A_BERDEEI,<[ IN SCOTLAND
[Reproduced front c smmp kmd[y lent by Stanley Gtbbon6, Ltd FIG 40--POSTAGE STAMP OF KEMAL ArATURk TEACHING (P 436) THE TURKS TO USE THE ROMAN ALPHABET Some people say that we cannot change people's language habits by Act of Parhament Ths pcture shows that it can be done Rproduced from a stamp lmdly lent by Stanley Gtbbotç, Ltd FIG 4I--MoNGOLS LEARNING THE LATIN ABC
The Diseases o.[ Language 415 It would be congenial to axmounce that the Loom of Lanuage can sîmplu the task of leamîng a langxage spoken by more tha a twen- tteth of the world's mhabtants, and used as the vernacular of a umon of states whlch bas undertaken the first large-scale expenment m economic pIannmg Unfommately we are hot able to do so. It ls a commonplace that Russian coliectvasm ongmatecl m a country whtch was m a backv¢ard phase of techmcal and pohucal evoluuon It ls also, and conspicuously, truc that It orîgmated m a country whxch was m a backward phase of Imgmstc evoluton. Because other Aryan languages such as Damsh» Dutch, or Persaan bave chscarded so much of the grammatcai luggage whach ther ancestors had to carry, t Is possible to sîmpkfy the task of transmxmng a workmg knowledge of them by summanzmg fine relatvely few essentaaI ruIes wth whtch the begmner must supplemen a basc vocabulary. There xs no royal road to fluency m a language whach shares the grammaucal intncacaes of Sansknt, Lxthuaman, or Russlan. It ls therefore mposslble to gîve the reader who wshes to leam Russlan any good advice except to take the precauuon of bemg born and brought up m Russm Some reader may doubt whether thîs s a fatr statement of the case. Let us look at the evldence. () Lke that of Llthuaman, the Russlan noun ls burdened wlth locanve and mstrumental case-forms whlch some other Aryan languages had already chscarded a thousand years B C. (2) Russlan shares wlth German and Icelanchc the three genders, masculine, femlnme, neuter Lïke German, Icelanchc, and Lthuaman, xt possesses two adjecuval declenslons, one for use when the adlecuve ls attrlbuuve, the other when It ls prech-- cauve (dom nov, "r.he house s new"--novzy dom» "the new hoùse") Tbe n'regulanues of adjectaval behawour make those of Laun racle mto mslgmficance (3) The numbers 2» 3, 4 with fully developecl case and gender ftexlons form a declenslonzl ctass of thexz own From 5 to 30 numbers are dechned lnke certain femmme nouns From 50 to 80 both parts of the number are dechned From 5 upwards the thmgs counted must be put mto the gemuve plural The numbers -o carry a subslchary set of forms ca!1ed collecuves for use where we would say, e g, we were rive of us, or she bas szx sons (4) The essenual Russlan vocabulary, hke that of German, ls mûated by a wasteful luxunance of verb-forms Thus there are couplets chsungushed by lresence or absence of an mx wtnch denotes repeuuon, or by one of several prefixes whtch mgTnf3r com- pleuon For instance, dydat and dyehvar sl o do once and to do rpeatedly» ya ptsa[ means I was wrmng, and ya nainsdl
46 The Loom oj Langzg¢ mean 2" have wrtten If you say evrzte to hm (at once) you have to use the perfectave form napzshz yemu. If you say wrzte better (va future), you use lts mperfecrave co-twm, pzsh lushye Bntain bas relmqmshed the mcubus of gender wathout chscardmg the blshops' bench, and Amencans who have no use for case-concord sull condone lynchmg So xt goes wthout saymg that shortcommgs of the Russlan language reflect no chscrecht on the Soviet system, sttll less on the cïtazens of the U S S R themselves What they do sagnffy as the exastence of a powerful soc obstacle to cultural relanons between the Soviet Umon and other countnes The archmc character of the Russaan language as a forandable mapedlment to those who may wsh to get first-hand knowledge of Russlan affatrs through foreagn travel Because such daificultaes beset a forelgner, t as chsappomtmg to record lack of revolutaonary fervour m the attitude of Sowet leaders to the damas of language-plannmg Whfle the Kremlln curbed the power of the Greek Orthodox Church, at ruade no attempt to brmg atself mto hne wlth Europe, Amenca, Afnca, Austraha, and New Zealand by hquadatmg the cultural hanchcap of the Kyrdhc alphabet. That there as no msurmountable obstacle to such a break wth the past as shown by the example of Turkey, wtuch has replaced Arablc by Latin script. The task of reform was slmphfied by the pre-exlstence of alhteaacy m Russaa, as m Turkey Russla bas always been, and srail remams, a Tower of Babel. Wlthm the boundarxes of the Soviet Umon we find representataves of the Indo- European, the Fmno-Ugrmn, the Turco-Tartar, the Mongohan» and the Caucaslan famahes of speech----all m al1 some hundred languages and chalects, most of whch are mutuaily unmtelhgble. The sltuaraon s deplorable enough if we confine ourselves to the three Russxan languages Crreat Russzan, spoken m the north-east» wth Moscow as the centre, Lzttle Russzan, or Ukraïman» and IVhzte Russzan, current m the north- west along the confines of the Balrac group These languages are separated by such small dtfferences that they are mutually mtelhgble Formerly the wntten language common to al1 of r.hem was Great RUSSlan But to-day the W]mte Russans as well as the Llttle Russlans bave wrltten languages of ther own. THE CELTIC TWlLIGHT The unequal decay of fleraon m the Indo-European famfly does not dtrectly reflect the progress of OEsnl=auon We can see ths by con- trastmg Russmn or Ltthtmman wth the Celttc languages. Celuc speech as now confined to the western frmge of Europe It was once possable to
The Diseases oj Language hear t over a temtory as vast as the Holy Roman Empzre At the tune of Alexander the Great, Celtc-speakmg robes mhablted Bntam, most of France and Spam, North Italy, South Germany, and the valley of the Danube down to the Black Sea Hordes from Gaul crossed to Asla Mmor, and estabhshed themselves m the chsmct sttll ¢alled Galatza Wthm a short tmae, Celtm chalects were chsplaced everywhere except m Gaul By the maddle of the first century, Gaul ltself surrendered. The Gauls were Romamzed, and Latin wlped out Celtc lîve hundred years later, the Celnc-speakmg remaant had reached vamshmg point Documentary remams of ts former exastence are place names, a handful of meagre mscnpnons from France and Lombardy, and mchwdual words whch he embedded m French and other languages Durmg the four hundred years of Roman rule, the Celuc chalects of Bntam escaped the rate of ther Continental km They were sttll intact when Emperor Constantme wthdrew tus legtons After tins bnef resplte, they succumbed to successive waves of Teutomc mvaders Wherever the German bordes settled, Celtlc had to make way for the language of the conqueror It bas perssted only m Wales» m West Scofland, and m Ireland As t now extsts, the Celuc group can be chvaded mto two branches, the Godehc (Gaehc) and Brythomc (Bntlsh) The former includes Insh or Erse, satd to be spoken by some 400,ooo people, Scots-Gaehc of the "poor whtes" m the Western I-Itghlands, and Manx, an almost extmct chalect of the Isle of Man The oldest Insh documents are the so-called Ogam rumc mscnpuons (p 76), wlnch may go as far back as the fifth century A D To the Bryomc chalects belong IFelsh and Breton, each spoken by a ma]bon people, and Cormsh, wch chsappeared at the death of Dolly Pentreath m the year I777 Welsh ls stfll a hvmg language A hagh proportton (about 3o per cent) of people who hve m Wales are bflmgual Breton ls hot a splmter of the ancaent language of Gaul It ls an lsland Celuc brought over to Latmlzed Bnttany by Welsh and Cormsh refugees m the fifth and smth cent-urle$ Remarkable strucmral smnlanttes umte the Gaehc and Brytonic chalects Clear-cut dafferences chstmgmsh them Of the latter, one s speclally charactensuc Where Old Insh mscrlpuons exhiber an matlal qu, represented by a hard c m Erse (qu- m Scots Gaehc), Welsh bas p. For this reason the two branches are sometmaes called Q and P Celttc. A few examples are gaven below
The Loom of Language WLSH EPI pa (wbat?) ca pen (heaa) ceann pedwar (four) cathazr par (couple) cormd Apart from Basque, the Celuc group remamed a playmg-field for fantasuc speculauons longer than any other European language Even when most of the European languages were brought together, wath Sansknt and Iraman» in happy famfly reumon, Celuc stayed out m the cold « The large number of roots common to Celuc and other Aryan languages now leaves htfle doubz about the aflùnues of Celuc, especlally to Latin and to other Itahc tongues Were it otherwse, there wouId be hrde to betray the Celuc group as a subchwsmn of the Aryan famfly The Celuc languages lack any trace of many flemons wbach are common to other members of the Aryan famaly In so far as the Celuc verb exlbts flemon wth respect to person» the present endmgs bave hOt passed beyond the stage at whch we can recogmze them as pro- nouns fused to the verb-root The saine xs true of some fronuer chalects m in&a, here the Old Inchc personal endmgs of the verb bave dlsappeared completely and analogous enchngs have emerged by fusion of the fixed verb stem mth erastmg ponouns Fron thas point of vaew, the grammar of Celuc is more ltke that of Fmno-Ugnan languages than that of Sanskrlt» Armeman, or Swechsh Two feamres, whach have been fllustrated already, emphasze tts essenually agglutinative character of Celuc grammar: (a) among Celuc Ianguages we fmd a parallel use of a contracted or agglutmauve form of the verb used wzthout an mdependent pronoun (19 oo), and an unchangeable verb-root used together wth a pronotm placed after t, (b) in all Celuc languages preposmons fuse wuh personaI pronotms so that chrecttves have personal termanals analogous to those of verbs. The parallehsm between the conjugatton of the preposmon and the verb s common to the P and Q epresentauves of the group» and the charactensucs of each throw hght on the ongnn of the other For m- stance, we have no dculty m recogmzmg the ongm of the personal flexaons of the Gaehc preposmon le (wath) when we compare them wath * A Scotsman» Anclrew Murray, wrote tu r8or two remarkable volumes called a Hutory of European Languages emphaszmg znter aha the relauon between Gaehc and Sansknt
The Dîseases oJ Language 419 the correspondmg usage of the lnvarmnt verb tha when arranged m paral!el columus: » m, I ara tha thu, thou art tha sznn» we are tha stbh, you are tha zad, they are. Ieam, Wltà me (= le + leat, wtà thee (= le + thu). Iemn, wx us (= le + snn) le2bh, Wltà you (= le + sbh). leotha, wlth them (= le + We can mvert thls process of mterpretataon by usîng the persorml conugaraon of the preposmon as a clue to OEe personal flexaon of Welsh verbs in the two followmg examples, wch tilustrate two types of coxa- jugation correspond.mg to the two OEerent forms (fi and rm) of the Welsh pronomls of the first pet'son O) danaf, (=dan+ff) tmder me wyf, I ara (=wys+fi). danat, (=dan+t,') tmder thee. zoyt, thou art danoch, (=dan+chw') under you ych, you are danynt, (=dan+hwynt) tmder them ynt, they are (=wys+lrwynt). tm, (=t + m3 to me t, (= i+ t] to thee wch, (=t + chn') to you iddym, (=i + hwym) to r.hem. bure, I was (= bu + mO buost, thou wert (= bu + buoch, you were (= bu + ch) buont, they were (= bu + hwym) The Celuc languages bave many subsumtes for the very hetero- geneous system of roots whtch we call the verb to be The Insh as or s, the Welsh oes (cf. out own ara or s, German tst, Sansknt asm], the G-aelîc bu, Welsh bod (cf. out be, German lxn, Persan budan, Old Saxon bmm, Sanskm bhavamO, are common Aryan roots. To these we must add other pecuharly Celttc roots» such as the Gaehc tha and Welsh mae. The several forms of the verb to be are very nnportant ïn Celtc usage Ltke Baszc Enghsh, Celuc zs remarkably thnfty In zts use of verbs Where we should say I feel, the Celt would say there zs a feehng zn me I-Iere îs an Insh example of this characrensttc Celtic lchom, creud adhbhar na mmchewghe szn ort In out language ths reads: why &d you rue so earlyZ Lzterally zt means what cause of this early nsmg by you? A Scots hghlander can use expressions contamng the eqmvalent to zs to do the work of almost any other verb In his dlom: It mil surpnse you to hear tins = There zs a surprise for your ears. The Celtic languages have several merits whtch tmght commend themselves to the deswaer of an international auhary. One great VLrtUe
4o The Loom o Languagê they share ls that they are hot tnghly mflected There ls httle trace left of gender or number concord of the adjecuve and noun. Case-chsuncuon of the latter ls vesttgïal So such flextons as erast are hot chfficult to leam A second vnxue is a thrifty use of verbs These consplcuous ments are mslgncant when we place on the debIt slde a charactensuc vhich isolates Celnc dialects from all other membêrs of the Aryan group, and places them among the most chfticult of ail the Aryan Ianguages for a forelgner to learn The fleraonal derivatives of other Aryan languages depend on end2ngs. So they easlly accommodate themseIves to the convemence of alphabeucal order in a standard dlcuonary The specual dlfficulty of the Celtic languages ls that the mîual consonant of a word may change tu dtfferent contexts For instance, the Welsh word for "kmsman » may bê car» gar, char, or nghar, e g car agos "a near kmsman," ez gar "tus kmsman," ez char 'her kinsman,"fy nghar "my kmsman" In short, the begînmng and end of a word may change to meet the chctates of Celuc grannnat. Sothe use of the chcuonary ïs an exploxt whtch the foregner undertakes wlth _mmlnent sense of danger, and httl¢ confî- flence of success A quotauon from a book by a Breton nauonahst wl]l scarcely gve the reader an unduly harsh statement of the dlfficulty "As for readmg, to look up a word m the chcuonary» t s enough to know the few consonants wtnch are interchangeable--K, P, T wlth C'H, F, Z, or with G, B, D, G, D, B, wlth K, P, T, or wlth C'H, V, Z; M wth Vo and GW wth W » THE SEM.ITIC LANGUAGES me hunded years ago» the Moslem worId was the seat o the most progressive culture then emsung Clnna could point to a mch secular trachuon of hterature coeval wth the sacred texts of Aryan In&a. Th Aryan languages chd hot as yet enjoy the unchsputed prestige of Anglo- Amencan, French, and German m out own age If we go back to more remote anuqmty, Aryan, Sennuc, and Chmese yield place to the lanuages of Egypt* and Mesopotanna, where the permanent record of human smvmg began « Ancaent Egypttan was one of the t-Ianntlc languages They demve then: naine from FIam» the blbhcal brother of Shem ]3esldes Anczen tgyptzan, they mdude Cuhtc (of whtch Somah and C_ralla are the chier representatuves)» together wth the B¢rb¢r chalects of lgorth-West Afrlca Though the Sentc sud ttannuc group chverge wdely, thetr klmhtp ls genemlly recogmzed They share more root-worcls than can be explamed by borrowmg, and they bave ome common teal pecuhamues
The Dseases oJ Language 4 21 Nearly three thousand years ago, hen Aryan-speakmg robes were letterless savages, Semuc tradmg peoples tut on the devace emboched m out own alphabet lulIy a thousand years belote the true relataon- shap between the pnncipal European languages and Indo-Iraman was recogmzed, jewsh scholars, who apphed the methods of ther Muslma teachers, had already percelved the umty of the Senmnc daalects then known The Rabbl's mterest m language problems was half-super- stmous, half-pracncal, hke that of the Brahmamc priest or the student of the Koran I-las mm was to perpetuate the correct form, spellmg, and pronuncaauon of the Sacred Texts; but there was a OEerence between the Brahrn!n__ and thë ew. Because he often hved m centres of Mushm Ieammg such as Damascus, Sevllle, and Cordova, and also because he had mas/ered more than one tongue, the Rabbl could eastly transgress the confines of hs own language Inescapably he was unpressed by sumlantxes between Arammc, Hebrew, and Arabc, and compelled to assume ther kanshtp Though he used the chscovery to bolster bas behef that Hebrew was the parent of Arabc, and mctdentally of all other languages, he planted the seed of comparative grammar. The lmgtusuc preoccupataons of the mecheval Jews, and of thetr teachers the Arabs, were contmued by European scholars of the six- teenth century Protestant scholarstnp mtenmfied mterest in Hebrew, wIch took xts place wth the Latin of the Vulgate and New Testament Greek, and Ethoplan jomed the scholarly repertory of known Setmuc dlalects Babyloman-Assynan (Accachan) was hot decaphered and ldenn.fied ult the mneteenth century. The famaly as a whole denves lts naine from Shem, the son of Noah m the I-Iebrew myth It ls now commonly chvlded m the followmg way: East Semztzc, Babyloman- Assynan (Accachan), lVest Semmc, (x) Arammc, () The Canaamte chalects -Iebrew, Phoemcaan, Moabtic); South Semztc, (r) Amblc, (-) Ettnoplan The Semauc languages form a utut far more closely kmt than the Aryan famfly, and have changed comparanvely httle durmg thetr recorded lmstory. As a hterary language, modern ArabiE stands closer to the Arabc of the Koran than does lrench to the Latin of Gaul m the ttme of Mohammed Tins suggests one of the reasons why the Semîuc tongues have repeatedly superseded one another. Three Semattc lan- guages have successfully competed for fa-st place, and have become current far beyond thetr original homes. They are. Babyloman-Assynan, Arammc, and Arabxc The oldest represenmttve of whch we possess documents, and the first to assume international maportance, was
4z T Loom oJ Lnguage Acca&an Accachan w e speech of people who abîted e ps of bm ore ey mvadefl OEe feue ds of e Eupates md T There ey e mto conoE OE e Se, md adopt a supenor e, togeer a system of sybc g, o as cunf A we of eo msons d hbrares of recor ved on ders d bncks of bt day have preseed e Babylom-sm lage. The oldest assessable doent goes ba to e e of e goEt conqueror, Soegon I ( 240o). For oenes Acca&m was a me& of coeral d &pIomauc coespondence oughout the Ne and doee East We d e- dence of mde en m le,ets wch Palesan pces adessed to enops m e een cen c. They were eed at Td-d-a, in Et By e e of exder e Great, Accaoean had csed to emst as a hg lage The me& at took ts plaoe was Aramac. The es were a uag people. er reqsg dese e, ey e to ocoepy OEe so-ed Sy sadoee to e No-West of Mesopoa ThaoEs to s s=atec position, ey were OEen able to oed the coerce OEat went flong e lmd routes beeen e Me&te=ean md e ddle East From about e egh cen c onwards» ey beg to filter mto e Babylom md Assynm emp=es WE em went etr langage md spt, and m e mc eesphced hOt oy Acca&an, but so Hebrew md Phoemm It even peneated abc-speang reons, md bee one of OEe ooEal lages of e Pers Emp=e Even er OEe advent of CtsoE, mc was pot cd me& The fous Neston Stone, scovered m t6z5 m Sm-n-, shows t ssonoees red OEe Neston heresy m later mc (Syrmc) gospel tels as f as It was erected m A . 78, and repos m pel e d Symac mscnpuons e successes d ure of e Neston sson at sves to-y of s once a froe s e speech of ee sl oe- es n ascus q hot Hebrew, was e moer-tone of Palese dug e penod moE wch e gospel narrauve defls. en OEe Ev- gehsts quote e words of st, OEe lage fs mc, hot Hebrew By at e e lo ate &ale m whxch OEe rher pts of OEe Old ToEent were =en was eady a dead langage The dece of Hebrew set m wx e deson of Jemsalem d e OEpu w begm m OEe s cenm c It was soon supersed by c, w bee e hterary as we as e spoken me& of
The Dzseases oj Language 423 the ews after the Maccabean penod. Hebew surved only as a language of scholarshlp and ntual, hke Laun m mechevai Chnstendom. It never qmte ceased tobe wntten or spoken. Its umntêrrupted, though slender, conuntuty wath the past bas encouraged Zmmsts to mcrease the dîtficulttes of erastence for Jews by tï3ung to revve t as a hvmg tongue. Another Canaamte chaiect, Ihoemcian, Is closely related to Hebrew Ata very early penod the Phoemcmns had succeeded m monopohzang the Mediterranean trade, mamly at the expense of Crete and Egypt Phoemcmn settlements were tobe round m Rhodes, S1oEy, Marseflles, and counfless places a!ong the North Afncan coast In the fourth century c Phoemcaan shîps were tradmg wth South Bntam, and had even skaïed the shores of West Afnca As the result of ths mgorous commercial expansîon, the Phoemcaan language, and wxth t the Phoenî- dan alphabet whch bec.ame the moer ofmost ofthe world's alphabets, was chstributed throughout the Mechterranean basm Oïtly m Carthage, the nchest Phoemcian colony» chd It become firmly estabhshed as a mechum of speech. Several centunes agter t had ceded place to Arammc m the more anent Phoemcïan communïues of Tyre and Sidon» It mamtamed tself in the Afrxcan colony OEhere t persxsted tfll the fourth or fifth century , D Accerdmg to St. Augustine, who came from North Afiaca» Cmrthagmlan Phoenicaan, sometnnes called Pumc, dTered httle from Hebrew Phoemcan s preserved m many but msgncant mscnpuons fom the home-country and from ts colomes, and m ten lines wtnch the Roman playwnght, Plautus, mserted m bas Poenulus Dunng the four cenmnes aker Mohammed, the spectacular spread of Islam pushed aside nearly all other Sermuc languages m favour of Arabc The Komn had to be read and chanted m the language of the prophet hamself Unkke Ckmsuamty, oeAushms never proselyrzed for ther fath by translauon The vanous Arabc chalects now spoken from Morocco to the/ddle East OEer gready, but a oemmon lîteary language stl holds together wdely separated speech commumues The Mushm conquests ed Arabc over Mesopotanna, Syrla, Egypt» the north of A£nca, and even parts of Europe Its mapact left Perslan Wlth a vocabulary chluted by addition of Semadc, aknost equal m number to mchgenous words Even European languages retam many to tesuf to commercaal, mdustnal, and scaenufic actnevements of Mushm cavïhzauon Fnar examples are. tanff, trafftc, magazine, adrmral, mushm, alcohol» Aldebaran, w, dtr, zero, cpher, algebra; sugar
The Lom of Langnage Between the begmmng of the mnth and the end of the fifteenth centm3r . D, Europe asslmflated the technique of Mushm clvzauon, as Japan asstmflated the technique of Western clvlhzauon durmg the latter hatf of the nmeteenth century Scholars of Norrern Europe had to acqture a knowledge of Arablc as we11 as of Laun at a urne when Moonsh Spam was the flower of European culture, a thnwng centre of world trade, and the sole custochan of ail the mechamcs, medïcme, astronomy, and mathemaucs in the anclent world Whtle Arablc scholars of the ctuef centres of Mushm culture, such as Damascus, Calro, Cordova, and Palermo refused to devlate from the classlcal Aablc of pre-Islamluc poetry and the Koran, the speech of the common people evolved further and spht mto the several vemaculars of Syrïa, Tnpoh, Iraq, Algena, Tums, Egypt, and Morocco Thetr common charac- tensucs are a reducuon of vowels, the decay of the flextonal system, and heavy admmmre of non-Arablc words To-day Arablc ls spoken by about forty mflhon people About the fourth century A ), Ettnopa responded to the efforts of Copuc nnssmnanes, and embraced the Chnsfian falth Thereafter Abyssmlan Sennuc, known as Ge'ez or Ethzopzc, became a mechum of hterary acuwty It ched out as a spoken language m the fourteenth century, but hke Sansknt, Latïu, and classlcaI Arablc, contmued to funcuon as a mechum of rehguous pracuce» and as such Is sull the hturglcal language of the Abysslman Church Its hvmg descendants are Amhanc, Tzgnna of Northem Abysslma and Tzé of Itahan Entrea MaItese, whch ls of Arablc ongm, ls the Ianguage of a Chnsuan commumty. It ls transcnbed m the Latin alphabet The readêr of The Loorn of Language wfll now be famfltar vath two outstandmg pecuhanttes of fixe Sermuc group One is called trzhter- ahsrn (p 7 o) The other ls the prevalence of mêrnal eowel change When reheved of affixes and interna1 vowels the malonty of foot words have a cote of three consonants, grlthm tins fixed framework great vanety ls possible by rmgmg the changes on OEerent vowel combmauons. Wlth only rive sunple vowels t Is possible to make twenty-five tfferent vocables of the pattem b-g-n, m the Enghsh trïhteral groupmg, begzn-began-begun It s scarcely an exaggerauon to say that a Semtuc language exhausts most of the concetvable posslbfltues of mternal vowel change consistent with an mflemble triple-consonant frame A &stinct arrangement of three paructflar consonants bas lts charac- tensuc element of meanmg Thus m Arablc, qatala means "he kled," qutda means "he was ked," qat, l means "murderer," and ¢,tl means
The Diseases oJ Language 425 "enemy" The range of root-mflemon m the Semmc famfly vastIy exceeds what we find m any Aryan language Wlthm the Axyan group interna1 vowel change always plays second fiddle to externai flexmn Even m German, where it looms lazge, the variety of" denvatves chstin- gulshed by affixes ls much greater than the vanety of denvauves chstmgtushed by mochficauon of a stem vowel Among the Senuc chalects modficauon of the vowel pattem ls orderly and all-pervadmg The Senuc noun bas possessive affines hke those of Finno-Ugrian languages (p 98). In other ways the grammar of Semtîc chalects recaIls features more characterlstîc of the Aryan tnbe The verb bas two tense-forms, zmperfect and perfect, denotmg aspect (p o3) The noun bas subject and object forms, smgular and plural The older Semmc chalects had dual forms The Arablc dual chsappeared m the seventh century A D Pronouns of the second and thd person, kke adjecuves, bave endmgs appropnate to two noun-classes, respecuvely cai!ed masculine and fernlnme» wlth as m,.ch and as httle jusuce as the so-called masculine and femmme nouns of French or Spamsh. Gender-chstlncuon bas aIso mfected the verb Thus the thrd person of the Arabxc verb bas the suffixes a (masculine) and at (femmme). The absence of exphcxt vowel symbols m the old Sezmuc script actds to the difficulues wtnch ths load of grammaucal ballast unposes on anyone who wshes to learn Arabtc or YIebrew. CHINESE Two characterlslcs make a lanmaage more easy to learn than It would otherwse be One ls grammaucal regulanty The other ls word- economy Nearly all the languages prewously chscussed m ths chapter are over-charged wth 'regtnues or wth dewces wtuch unnec- sardy muluply the number of word forms essenual for acceptable commumcauon The dculty oflearnmg Chmese and related lan=nmges s of a derent sort Chmese vemaculars make up one of three branches of the great Indo-Chmese famlty The other two are represented by the Tbeto- Burmese group and the Taz languages, mcludmg Szamese and An- namese. The several members of the famfly are geographcally con- tguous and bave two outstandmg szlannes One is that they are tone languages Orherwîse denncal words uttered m dlfferent tones may have geat chversty of meanmg In fact, tone dzfferences do the same job as the vowel dIfferences m such a sertes as pat, pet, lg, pog, put Ther second peculmnty s hOt equally chamctensuc of the O*
426 The Loom of Language Tlbeto-Burmese group wtllch bas agglurmatave features Wlth thas quallficaraon, it ls broaclly true to say that ail the foot words--1 e ail words excludmg compounds ruade by juxtaposltlon of vocables wlth an mdependent existence hke that of ale and bouse an alehouse--are monosyllabzc For what we tan convey by mtemal or e.xtemal flexion Ckmese languages rely wholly on posmon, on atmahary parncles and on compounds For the common ancestry of al1 the members of the famlly one clue ls lackmg In theoe present form they have no clear-cut communlty of vocabulary, and we have no means of bemg certain about whether FIG. 4 2, --COMPOUtN"D CtZ[.NF.SE CHAR&CTERE WITI-I Two MNING COMPONTS (Adapted from F=oE's The Tongues of Men) OEey ever had a recosably coon sto of word mazenal The hteme of a goes back sever OEommd yes» but t does not ve us e oauon we need. ese g s a logoaphc spt 57) It te us ve he about sods co=espong to OEe oeen symbols when g first e mto use en OEe Cese of to-y rd oE a psage om one of OEe dassloel auors, ey pronooe e words as ey wod prononce e wor of a news- paper or m adveement. Some 4oo on people of a» MmoEa, d pt of Mongoha now sp e ves whch go by e ne of Cese. They mdude. (a) e Mann &e, of wch e Noth Ghnese of am 25 o on people s e most pot, (b) e Kzangff &e, (c) OEe Cenal-Gotal oup (Shghm, Nmo, How), ( OEe
The Diseases of Language 427 South Chzzese chalects (Foochow, Amoy-Swatow, Cantonese-Hakka) The dlalects norda of the Yang-tse-klang are remarkably homogeneous ff we take mto conslderatxon thetr geograptllcal range; but it s mis- leadmg to speak of the vernaculars of at China as chalëcts of a smglc langaaage The Southemer ho knows only bas own vemacular cannot converse wxth the Northerner. China has no common mechum of speech m the sense that Bntam, France, or Geralany bave one, but as .. "erc 2 FIG. 43--CovxPOU>m CI-IINEs CX-IARACTtmS WlTH .MEANII,,TG OC Coo (Adapted om Fh's The Toges of now m OEe process of evolmg a coon lage bed on OEe noem e, more OEpey Pege « ere are ve few excepnons to OEe e at alI oee wor e monosyablc Such as ey oee, some e repeve or onoma- topoelc, e.g KO-KO (broth«) or - (lht«), d ooEe wodd probably prove to be oempo, we were able to delve back mto OEe past o ge bas moved f OEe sine eoEon. OEe corne of a OEod y ere been wholNe dmudanon of N vowels d asson of teN sybI The rdt bas boen a ge moEse of o sto--=ade of monosyHablc wor. Though tt fs far fr fo say tt Ml o= wds are of ths cl zt zs meam rd fo m t a lg sp of t In f t, you ve e m front of y es y m th, s. If y fo do the se, y' wdl fi t that the s y choose are the w y me, at le, « e ples ven m wt foows rr¢nt Pgese
428 The Loom o. Language the words that most of us use, mos! of the tme The ones we bave most on our laps are just these small words By the tzme you get as far as the next full stop you wzll bave met more than szx score of them wzth no break, and zt would be quzte a sort job to go on a long tzme zn the same stram as the old rhyme Jack and Ths Is hot the only way m whch Anglo-&mencan approaches C21mese. The reader of The Loom of Language no longer needs to be told that Enghsh bas dlscarded most of the flexaons wlth whlch It was eqtupped a thousand years ago or how much we now rely on the use of unchangeable words Truc the process chd hot complete ltself, but there are now few ways m whch we bave to mod word-forms Out stock of essenual words mc-ludes a small and stenle class wth interna1 changes such as thosê of szng-sang or foot-feet Othervse the terminal -s of the plural noun, the endmgs -s, -ed and -zng of the verb togethe_ wlth the opuonal a/fixes -er and -est whch we tack on to adecuves ctrcumscnbe thê flextons whlch usage demands. It xs a short step to C2maese vemaculars of whch all words are mvanant Wth very few excepuons the Chmese word xs an unalterable block of marcha1 It tolerates neather flexaons, nol dervatives affixes such as the -er m baker In general, lts form tells us nothmg to suggest that It denotes an act, a state, a quahty» a thmg, or a person One and the same word may thus shp from one grammatical niche to another, and what we ca the parts of speech bave httle to ào wlth how Chmese words behave The word SH&NG may mean the above one, 1 e. ruler, and then corresponds to an Aryan noun In SHANG PIEN (above sde) It does the ob of an Aryan adecuve In SHANG MA (to above a horse, e to mount one) t s a verb-eqmvalent. In MA SHANG (horse above, e on the horse) t does serwce as post- posted &rective correspondmg to one of out preposmons I-Iere agam we are on famar ground We down a man, take the down train and walk dozon the road We bouse out goods, sell a house and do as httle house work as possible Tbas s hot to say that all Chmese names for thmgs may also denote aoeons The word NU (woman) xs never equavalent to an Aryan velb, though J]N (man) may mean performîng the act of a man» a one-sded way of expressmg the act of coxtus. Anglo- Amencan provdes a parallel We man a boat but we do hot woman a cookery class. We buy salt and salt our soup, bottle wme and dnnk from the bottle, but we do hot as yet mustard out bacon or cupboard out pants. Whether a parucular Chmese sound sgnafies thmg, attnbute, direc-
The Diseases oJ Language 429 tlon, or action depends m part on comext, m part on word-order» as lllusxated above by MA SHANG and SHAzNG MA In everyday speech there ls an mclplent tendency to mark such dlsunctlon by afflxauon as we chstmgmsh the nou oenger from the verb oeng or by prommclauon, as we dlsmlgmsh between the noun présent and the verb presént (1 e make a present) For example, OEe toneless TZU (pronomlced dze), a hterary word for cklld» attaches itself to other words» formmg couplets whlch staad for thmgs» e g PEN-TZU (exercse book) So TZU ls now the slgnpost of a concrete object m the spoken lallguage, a_s -ly (orlgmally meanmg hke) s now a slgapost of an Enghsh quahfier (adeoeve or adverb) I the folmJa tone (p 433) PEI meam the back» and m the flrst tone it meam to carry on one's back Dlfference of tone also chstmgmshes CH'ANG (long) from CH&NG (to get long, I e. to grow) A stxong aspiration after the mtal CH furthe &stmgmshes the first from the second number of the couplet There is no trace of gender in Chmese vemaculas Thus a smgle pronotm of the thd person does service (T'A m P¢kmgese) for male or femme, thmg or person ahke. By recourse to separate partlcles such as out words few, many, several, plurahty becomes exphclt for emphasls or when confusmn imght anse To express totahty Chmese resorts to the age-old and wldespread trick of duphcatlon Thus JÊN-]ÊN means ail men and T'IEN-T'IEN means everyday One plural parucle MÊN (class) attaches itself to names for persons, e g HSIEN SHÊNG MÊN (teactwrs) or to personsï pronouns Thus we have WO I, me WO-M',N wê, us NI thca«, thee I'qI-M]ÊN you TA he, she, zt, hzm, her T'A-MÊN they, them Llke the noun, the Chmese pronoun bas no case forms. Belote the indirect oblect the partlcle II whîch me2als gve does the work of to in Enghsh or of the datwe terminal in German Thus WO CHIE KEI LAO-JE LA means I tend gzve gentleman fimshed, e I have lent zt to the gentleman In htezary Chmese juxtaposmon does the work of the gemuve terminal, e g MIN LI (people power) means the power of the people» as money power means power of money md mother love means love of a mother Colloqmal C2unese mserts a parncle TI between MIN (pêople) and LI (power), as we can prepost of va the precedmg The posrposted parucle TI may also attach tself to a
430 The Loom oJ Laguage pronoun So WO-TI means mme, of mê If Karlgren xs mght TI began ts career as a pointer word, but it no longer exlsts as an mdependent word It as now comparable to a flexaonaI aifix such as the -s m people's Needdess to say, C2nnese has no specaal mazks for person, tense, mood, or ronce As m colloqmal Itahan and Spamsh, at Is the usual thmg to leave out the personal pronoun when the stuanon supphes It In pohte or subnussxve speech a deprecaauve expressmn takes the place of the ego (WO an Pekmgese), and a laudatory one ("hononfic") does service for you Smce there s no flexmn the saine syllable LAI may mean go» went, gomg etc In the absence of another word to stress that a process or state xs over and done wth, or that the ssue as closed, the perfecuve pa_mcle LA tan follow the verb LA as a tonêless and contracted fonn of LIAO meanmg complete or jmshed Future truie can be ruade exphcat: (a) w an adverbIal pamcle eqtuvalent to soon, henceforth, later on, etc, (b) by the helper YAO whïch bas an mdependent existence eqmvalen to wzsh or want, the original meanmg of out own helper wll Thus we may say, T'A LAI he cornes, he s commg; T'A LAI LA he has corne, he ccne, T'A LAI he wll corne The parucle P& (stop) s the snal oï a peremptory command, e g CH'13 PA (clear out), but at s more pohte to use YAO exactly as we use wzll and the French use vouIozr In rail you tell me or veuillez me due. It goes wthout saymg that a language wth complete absence of flexaon and a large number of ambxguous words must bave rules of word-order no less ragad than those of Enghsh What as surpnsmg Is that so many of the syntacucal conveauons of Chmese agree wth our own In a strmghfforward statement, the order an both languages subect---verb--blect Tins ls lustrated by the follovang. I do hot fear haro WO PU P'A T'A. He does hOt fear me T'A PU P'A WO. These sentences show that positmn alêne stamps IFO as what we call the subject of the first and the object of the second The obect s placed for emphasas at the head of the sentence only where masunder- standing xs anpossble. In such a statement zs the followmg, the subject s stall mamechately m front of the verb. thzs language I not beheve CHE-KO HUA WO PU HSIN ( e I don't beheve that)
The Diseases o Language 43 r The posmon of the adecuve eqmvalent s the saine in Chinese as m Anglo-Amencan The attnbuuve adecuve cornes ftrst as m HAO JÊN (a good man) The predtcauve adjécuve cornes afte the noun but wathout a copula eqmvalent to be Thus J'ÊN HAO means the man u good At other points Anglo-Amencan and CAnnese mies of syntax chverge to greater or less degee Conchuonai statements and interrogation are two of t.hem Chmese uses OE spanngly. It gets along by mere luxta- posmon as m convesauonaInghsh T'A-MEN --TI SHUO WO CHIU MING-PAI hey slowly speak I then undersmnd 0 e f t.hey spoke slowly I sUoud understand) There is no mversion of word order in a quesuon of the yes-no type A Chmese question may be a plain statement wlth an interro- gative partlcle eqmvalent to eh.» ai the end of lt, e g. T'A LAI MO he cornes eh, e u he comzng Instead of addmg MO (eh) to T'A LAI (he s cormng) It Is possible to add a negaton rermmscent of the nursery lmgle she loves me, she Ioves me hOt. Thus T'& LAI PU LAI (he orne not corne) means the saine as T'A LAI MO One feature of Ckmese bas no parallel in European Ianguages What corresponds to a tran- smve verb must always tmll an oblect behînd It. In effect the C.Jamese say he does hot want to ead books or he does hot want to wrzte characters where we should smaply say he does hot want to read or he does not ant to conte Omission of an oblect confers a passive meanmg, e g. CHE-KO jÊN TA-SSU LA (ths man kdl fimshed) mcans thzs man bas been kdled Everyflzmg smd so fa underhnes the hkeness of the C.&inese to out own way of saymg somethmg, and fllere would be nothmg left to wrîte about, ff the sound-pattem of Chmese were comparable to an Enghsh purged of polysyllables. Wxth no rules of grammar but a few common- senze d.trectlons about the arrangement of words, wxth no muluplîcîty of words chsgmsed for OEerent gramrrmucal categones, as we chsguise bzble in bbhcal or as German duphcates xts transmve and intransitive verbs, a Chmese dlalect would be the easlest language to leam In fact, t is not. Thc range of clementa sounds» c stmple vowels and oensonants» m no ianguagc cxcccds about forty So tt stands to rcason that thc numbct of pronounccablc syIlablcs cannot be cqual to the numbcr of
43 Toee Loom oJ Language stars in Chmese, the possible maximum s reduced by two character- 1sucs of the spoken language One ls that the Chmese syllable never tolerated mmal consonant clusters other than TS, DS, and CH» e no CAxmese words bave the saine form as out spree, clay, plea The second s that the monosyllable ends ether m a vowel or m one of a small range of consonans Even m anclent urnes the terminal consonants were hot more than s m number (p, t, k, m, n» ng), and m the northem chalect to-day» only the last two (n, ng) occur That Is to say, nearly al1 words are monosyllables of the open type kke ou.r words by, me, so Wthm the framework of these lmtauons, the number of pronounce- able syllables wtnch can be marie up xs very small compared wth th sze of our vocabulary Indeed, it ls a uny fracuon of what the vocabu- lary of a monosyllablc language would be if it admîtted closed syllables» hke stamps or clubs, wth double or treble consonants at each end The reader wfll hot be slow to draw one mference At an early date Chmese was encumbered wth a large number oï homophones, 1 e. words wth the saine sound and OEerent meamngs When ftmher reducuon of ffual sounds took place, the number muluphed At one umc the lauguage of North China chstmshed bctwc KA (song), KAP (frog), KAT (cut), and KAK (each) Now the four dlïTerent words bave merged in the smgle open monosyllable KO Tins loss of word-substance, together wlth lxmtauons set upon the character of the syllable, means that less than rive hundred monosyllables are now avaflable for ail the thmgs and xdeas the Chmese may vash to express by smgle or compound words Professor Karlgren descnbes what thls entads as follows. "A small ch-aonary, mcludmg only the very commonest words of the language, gves about 4,oo snnple words, whach gaves an average of ten dafferent words for each syllable But xt s hot to be expected that the words should be even]y chstnbuted among the syllables0 the number of homophones m a sertes s therefore sometames smaller, sometnnes larger Of the common 4,zoo words there are only two that are pronounced .un, but 69 that bave the pronunclaUon , 59 shz, 29 k» and so forth" Homophones exïst m modem European lanalages though we often overlook thelr presence because of spellmg dnTerences (to-too-two), of gender, as in the German words der Kefer (the jaw) and dze Kzefer (the tir), or of both, as m the French words le porc (the pork) and la porc (the porc). They are parttcularly frequent m Enghsh. Even if we kmlt ourselves to those homophones wtuch are ruade up of an nntlal con- sonant and a vowel, hke a typical Chmese word, we find such famlhar
The Diseases oj Language 433 examples as bay (colour), bay (tree), bay (sea), bay (,bark)*, sea, see, See or so, sew, sow, or the followang parts- be, bee doe, dough roe, row boy, buoy hze, hzgh toe, tow bow, bough nay, negh we, wee dze, dye no, know way, wezgh Tins enumerauon does not nclude words whlch are also homophones because of the sflent Enghsh (as opposed to Amencan and Scots) r, e g. maw, more, saw, soar In spire of thelr great number» Enghsh homo- phones cause no embarrassment m speech because the mtended mean- mg ls mchcatecl by the sentence m whach they occur, and by the sltuauon in whach speaker and hearer find themselves For thas reason, no naval decorator has pamted the boys when asked to parut the buoys No dlfflculty arlses m real hfe because f/ag signifies a pece of btmtmg, as well as a harmless Engllsh water-flower, or because spirzt stands for an mtoxlcant and part of a mechum's stock-m-trade. Though homophones are more abundat m Enghsh ttlan m any other European larguages, Enghsh homophones are few compared wath the total number of woràs m common use Indeecl, we may wei1 ask how It Is possible to communicate wlth only htfle over four hundred monosyllables, most of whlch stand for scores of uarelated thlngs The answer s that Chmese possesses several pecuhar safeguards agamst confiason of sound and meanmg To begm wth, most of C_2nnese homophones are hot true homophones of the Englîsh by-buy type On thas page LI (pear), LI (phrra), and LI (chestnnt) look exactly the same In speech they are hot Dlfference of tone keeps t.hem apart. Tone OEerences whch go wath a OEerence of meanmg emst m other languages, as when we pronounce yes or yeah m a matter of fact» mterrogauve, tronacal, or surprlsed manner, but such OEerences are casual The tone dxfferences of Chmese are hot casual intrusions Its proper tone ls an essenual part of the word The number of tones vanes m OEerent Chmese languages Cantonese xs said to bave nme Pekmgese bas now only four It ls maposslble to convey the dxfferences on paper, but we can get a hmt from the language of music The ftrst the tugh level tone ; the second the high zasmg ; the thzrd the low nsmg ._; the fourth the tngh fallmg . * (1) From French baz, (n) from Old Frellch baze, Latin bacca (berry)» (m) from French bae» Latin baza, (iv) from Old French bayer, Modern French aboyer.
434 The Loom o.[ Language' In the Iirst tone FU means husband, m the second fortune, in the thd government office, and In the fourth nch Nobody knows how thas eIaborate system arose ]t would be naîve to beheve that the Chmese ever became aware of the dangerous tutu theïr language was takmg, and dehberately started to OEeremiate homophones by tone It as more kkely that some tones represent the pronuncaauon of old monosyllables, whtle other tones are survxvals of words whach were once chsyllablc and as such had an mtonauon OEerent from that of monosyllabc words Though the existence of chsunct tones greatly reduces the number of genume homophones» many words spoken m one tone cover a bewfldermg varïety of OEerent notions For instance, I m the Krst tone means one» dress, rely on, cure» m the second barbanan, soap, doubt, more, m the thrd chaz, ant» tazl, and m the fourth sense» wzng, ezty» translate» dtscuss Evdently therefore Chmese must possess other devces beside tone to make effecuve speech possible The most maportant as the uxtaposmon of synonyms or near-synonyms An example wfll make thas cIear Our words expzre and de would both be hable to masunderstandmg ff hsted as such m a vocabulary Dze may mean (a) cease fo hve, (b) a metalhc mould or stamp, (c) a small toy of cu[ tcal shape txre may meau. (a) breathe ouwards» (b) cease to ltve We can make the first meanmg of dze exphcat an out word hst, f we wnte dzeexpre The second meanîng of expzre cornes to ltfe m the saine way» when we wnte expzre- dze. Tins is what the Chmese do when they combine Iç'Al (see or mvestgate) wath CHIEN (see or buzld)to make K'AN-CHIEBI wtnch means see aione We maght clanfy the second meanmg of &e as gven above by wnung dze-mould or dze-stamp m whach the second element xs a genenc tcrm Tins s hat the Chmese do when they make up IU-CH'IN from FU whch m one tone means father, oppose, splzt, or belly and CH'IN (a kmsman). The trick of sorting out homophones by mahng such couplets pervades Chmese speech and asserts tself when the labourer speaks Pdgzn, e g look-see for see If we tank alehouse and housemad as chsyllabc words, colloqmal Cbmese as nch m chsyllables It s a monosyllable language m the sense that t contams scarcely any trace of syllables whch bave no mde- pendent mobhty, e g the syllables -dom in wsdom or -es m bouses In nearly ail such compounds as those zllustrated above» one part hke the syllable man va postman may carry a weaker stress» but hke man sull has a verbal hfe of ats own Dmly speech accommodates a few syllables whîch bave as httle autonomy as the -shzp m fnendship We bave
The Diseases oj Language 435 alteady met TZU (p. 429). Then there a snll extant word for boy. Ongmalty z gave the word wth which it went a dtmmunve meaning, and had the saine funcnon as the m duckhng or goshng As such zt became fused in such contracaons Z. mu . me
436 The Loom of Langzzge or mterrogauve as head follows the numeral m three head of cattle Dffferent classes of words have OEerent classffiers of thas sort We bave alréady met one KO (pzece) wluch keeps company wath JÊN (man) as m SAN-KO J]ÊN (three pzece men, x e three men) KO xs the numerauve of the largest class Others are K'OU (mouth) for thmgs wth a round openmg such as a pot or a well, PA (handlê) for kmves spoons and the ltke, FENG (seal) for Ietters and parcels, IçUA (hangmg) for a necklacê, beard» and other suspended objects. Classfficatory parucles of ths sort are wldely current m the speech of prehterate commumues the world over» and are tughly charactensuc of such (I 9 3If) Seemmgly the numerauve of Chmese is hot a new dewce for dealmg wth the homophones but a very anclent charactensuc of human commumcauon kept ahve by a new need If we chsregard tone chfferences the number of distinct root words m spoken Chmese as httle more than 400, or shghtly over 1,2oo if we make allowance for them These have to do the work of a much larger number of thmgs, acuons, and concepts The wntten language (p 57) s hot embarrassed by the plethora of homophones. Each symbol has a parucular meanmg, and several symbols may therefore stand for the saine sound Thus ten symbols of Chmese script stand for the vanous meanmgs of LI m the second tone Unhappl/y thls advantage bas xts own penalty To become proficent m readmg and wntmg the Chmese pupfl has to Iearn a mmmaum of about 3,ooo to 4,000 characters Tbas entatls several years of exactmg work wtuch imght othervse lay the foundauons of more useful knowledge So much thankless tofl tempts us to wonder why the Chmese do hOt chscard ther archalc script m favour of out own more handy and more thrffty alphabet Turkey bas already gven the world an mspn'mg object lesson Under the benevolent despotism of Ataturk it has exchanged the mvolved and unstutable Arablc for Lama letters The result s that Turlsh boys and garls now toaster the elements of readmg and wntmg m sx months mstead of two or three yeam Admattedly Turkey's problem xs a smapler one. Turtush s an agglutmauve language, adapted as such to regular convnuons of spelling; but the Romamzauon of Chmese script would lead to hopeless confusion, ff st followed the customary pracuce of transcription m maps and Western newspapers. A sauffactory alphabeuc orthography has to brmg the tones to hfe, and there are several feaw_ble ways of domg so We maght dastmgtush the four Pehngese tones by chacrtuc marks as in the French sertes, e» é, è, ë. in accordance wxth the system
The Diseases of Language 437 of Sr Thomas Wade we can put a number m the top right-hand corner, as m many pnmers for European smdents A new and much better ttansclaptlon s the Natzonal Language Romamsaton (Gwoyeu Romatzyh) deslgned by a Chmese scholar for Chmese use In the Gîvoyeu Romatzyh the syllable bas a basm core wch corresponds to lts prommoEauon in the first tone, and cames a terminal element to dlstmgmsh the sedond, thd» and fourth tones rêspecuvely Where Wade gaves TA , TA z, TA a, T EE the Gwoyeu Romatzyh purs DA, DAR, DAA, DAH Compounds are treated as smgle umts hke pIay- bouse and housewoEe Absence of humera1 superscrpts or chacnuc marks hghtens the lob of the stenogapher and keeps down the stze of the keyboard Below s a sentence (I add ye another horzzontal stroke) m Wade's system and m the Natzonal Romamsazon WOO TZAY JIASHANQ YIGEH HERNGL W0 a TSAI CHIA-SHANG I-K s HÊNG-ÊRHO I agam add-upon one-pzece hor2zomal + dlm- ilUraVe The Natwnal Language Romamsatwn bas ruade a prolmsmg start. Dctmnanes» perlochcals, and mxtbooks bave been prmted m t, and associations extst to adv¢rttse xts far-reachmg beaefits Iix the absence of other obstacles, ltS adopaon m xts present or an amended form would brmg the art of readmg wïthm the each of every Chmêse boy and girl lVorelgners could learn Chmese wthout havmg to toaster the mtrïcacles of a wholly ahen script Ekmmatlon of flhteracy would go hand m hand mth chmmshmg prestige of scholars who bave now a vested mterest in the survlval of worthless trachnons The pesellt form of wmmg shuts the doo to the mteraaonally current termmology of modern scaelxce and technology Sometlmes the Chmese assmulate foelgn words m pdat by usmg the dewce mentmlmd m OEapter II (p 6s) To a large extent they zely on Ersatz products for new techmcal terres whlch they paraphrase m thelr own words. Thus a wtamm ls zohat protects the peopIe's lzfe and amhnG less mfor- mattvely, ls foretgn red. Electrczty ls the hghtmng azr and gaz xs mr of coal In short, China ls assmlllatmg twentleth-cezlmry scaelme through the meoeum of a seventeenth-century techmque of chscourse. A socaal obstacle to reform remams whale the Roman alphabet con- tmues to be a symbol of forelga exploltaoi1 and Western arrogance; but the advantages of pholxenc wrltmg do IlOt ixecessarfly emtafl the use of out own letters A phonetc script based on 239 ese characte. bas been tmder discussion smce I9I:3 in I9I 8 It woxx a place on the
438 The Loom of Language school syllabus Mass_onazïes alert to the advantages of the Ghu-Yzn.. Tzu-Mu, as it is called, bave used xt m adult educauon They clatm that Chmese men and women who had never been able to read or write their own names mastered the use of It after 3-6 weeks of tmuon One common objection to reform of Chinese wrttmg lS the plea that xt would cut off China from ber hterary past The truth is that contact wth the classics through the medîum of script has been the prerogatve of a very small dass for whom a classcal education bas been the toaster key to a successful career m the sermce of the government The Chmese masses who toi1 for a handful of rice cannot lose what they bave never possessed Another objection s less easy to refute As yet, China has no common spoken language whch everybody everywhere understands The onty language common to North and South is the wntten language, m wtach literate peoplê of Pekmg or Canton, Foochow and Shanghat can read the saine nouces at the raflway stauons or thë same advertise- ments by the roadside The fact that they can do so depends upon the fact that the wrîttên language is hot based darectly on the chverse sounds they utter when they read them aloud Happfly the northem speech is gnmmg grotmd» and a common Chmese s takmg shape, as a common Enghsh took shape In the fourteenth cenmry» and as the dialect of Paris became the language of France. The chsabfltues ansmg from the existence of the homophones extends beyond the boundanes of the Indo-Chmese group. Through- out its history [apan bas continually borrowed Chmese words. At one rime tins ctneflyaffected &scussion of rhguous, artistc, and philosophic toptcs Oflate years the range ofthe Chmese loan-words bas broadened, becanse the Japanese someumes bmld up techmcal terms from Chmese as we bufld them from Greek roots Thus electrzcty is DEN-KI (light spirit) The [apanese vocabulary s now supercharged with monosyllabc sounds wtnch mean many OEerent things When the Kana or syllabic wrîtmg (p. 67) was new, Japauese writers wottld use it exclusively without recourue to Chmese characters as such Gradually the habit of mtroducmg the tdeogram gained grotmd owîng to he influence of Chmese models The restflt ts that modem Japauese îs a mixture of two syllabc scripts and a formidable battery of Chtnese charactes The syllable stgns represent the sound-vaiues of the afftxes and parades, the îdeograms are used for the cote of an mflected word. Thus the Japanese pupfl bas to learn the two syllabazies (Hragana and Katakana) together vnth about ,5oo Chînese characters Educated
The Diseases o/ Lanuage 439 Japanese aoetely reahze ther handzcap, but the ambgmues which would anse from an enormous number of unpored homophones are an almost msurmountable obstacle to the plea for exclusive use of one TO wo
44o Tlze Loom oJ Language or other of the syllabanes Consequently there ls a movement to mtroduce the Roman alphabet. It is somewhat mole econormcal than the syllabanes, and it would have two more substantaal advan- rages One ls the possbthty of chstmgtustnng betweên homophones as we do when we wrzte, wnght» nght» and zte The other s that xt is mlpossble to represent the compound consonants of Latin or Greek roots m mternataonal techmcal terres wath Kana sgns Westermzatlon has brought about a new reflux of foregn word% M N S Z P B T D K G Y R H Fa 46- Jm, m,rsE Katakana SYu.mmY Some of the correspondmg sounds are hot exacdy as mchcated m the table» 1 e TI = ch% TU = tsg and HU =/bu Note tha the vo,ced and voceless pazrs s-z» l-b» z-cl» le-g are chsungmshed only by chacnrac marks an the op nght-hand corner. mamly from Enghsh sources, and Japanese bas freely assm-nlated mtemauonal techmcal terms m preference to compounds of Chmese monosyllables In domg so xt chstorts them m conformlty wth lts own phoneuc pattem (Flg x4 and p E5) What ls forezgn red an China ,s amnn, and spnt of coaI ,s gasu Typcal of such chstornons are pe]z (page), basu (bus), pondo (pound), dorèsu (dress), gurando (sports ground), kunmu (cream)» taz2urazm (typewnter) Ttll recent tlmes European scholars chd hot doubt that the mono- syllablc unffonmty of Chmese reflected human speech at tts lowest level There ls now some ewdence for the wew that Chmesê may hot aIways bave been an ,solatmg language of monosyl!ables Modem scholars beheve that Chmese once had dasyllablc words wtuch became shortened through phoneuc decay and fusmn, as the Old Enghsh lufg bas been reduced to love, and the Latin bestza (beast) to French bête Accordmg to the researches of Professor Karlgren, the personal
The Dseases oJ Language 441 pronoun had stdl chsnnct forms m the nommalave and accusative m the latter part o£ the Chou Dynasty (1122 B C-/t.D 249) Unfortunately the xdeograpc narttre of C_2unese script prevents us from gettmg any mformataon about the phonenc pattem of the lan- guage through ts ancient hterature. Knowledge of the structure and prontmcaataon of anclent Chmese is largely based on the sister-language Tbetan, wlth hteIary documents datmg from the seventh cêntury A D. These documents were transcnbed m an alphabetac script of Hmdu ongm From what they dlsc!ose» and from evadence based on rhymes, corroborated by companson of vanous modem Chmese chalects, scholars now conclude that the language of China bas a chsyllablc» mflected past. If ther reasonmg is correct, Clamese and Enghsh may be sald to bave travelled a_long the saine road at dzfferent epochs of human htstory or pre-lmstory Tins prompts us to ask whether the future evoluuon of Anglo- Amencan may le.ad to greater slmilanttes between the two languages, and tf so, wath what consequences We bave seen that Chinese bas one gross defect. It bas an __m_m__ense number of homophones, and xt xs hot sympathetlc to the manufacture of new vocables by the use of afflxes, or to maportatlon of technîcal terres of ahen origm Fommately» there ls no hkehhood that Enghsh would reproduce these defects, tf xt came snll closer to Chmese by clroppmg lts last vestages of useless flextons Enghsh bas two safeguards agamst mlpovenshment of meanmg by depletlon of Its vocable resources One ls tlaat tt xs constanfly commg new techmcai terms by combmatlon of borrowed afflxes wth nanve or ahen roots The other xs that lts mherent phonetlc pecultantles permit an mmense vataety of monosyllables. So îts stock of separate pro- nounceable elements would smll be relattvely enormous, even if ail of them were monosyllables CONTACT VERNA In valaous parts of the world mtercoursë between Europeans and mdlgenous peoples bas glven blrth to contact vernaculars The best known are Beach-la-Mar of the western Pacc» Pdgzn Englzsh of the C_&mese ports, Gambm, Sierra Leone, Iaberm, etc, and the French patois of Nlauntlus, Madagascar, and the West Coast of Afnca The formative process bas been the saine for each of r.hem. Partly from contempt, partly from an tll-founded behef that he lS makmg thmgs easler for the native, the wNte man addresses the latter m the trun- cated ldiom of mothersor loyers Some people drop mto such
442 The Loom of Language tnck of expressmn when talkmg to a foreguer who s nt at home m thelr own language Thus a Frenchman wfll say to an Amencan tounst mo, beaucoup azmer les améncams, e j'ame ben lés amdncams On the= sde, natïves of subject commumtes react to the wtute man by re-echomg the phraseology m wbach they receve thetr orders Everywhere the new speech-product conslsts of more or less deformed European words smmg together wath a mmrnum of grammar In Pdgm Enghsh» grammatical reductlon does hot amount to much, because Enghsh has met Chmese half-way French, whach chngs to more rerrmants of its flexional past, offers more to bite on Thus the noun of French, as t s spoken by descendants of/kfncan slaves in Maurmus, has lost ts gender. If the adlecttve has OEerênt masculine and femmme forms, the Creole ehmmates one, e g éne bon ntadanre (= une bonne madame) The demonstrattve ça stands for ce, cet, ces, as well as for ceci, cela, celui, celle, ceux, celles Mo (= mo) means I beîore a verb, and rny belote a noun Lz (= lu3 means he or hm Slmphfica- tion of the verba! apparams s pushed to the uttermost. The Creole verb s the form most often used, e. the past partïctple or the mpera- tare, e g vznz (= vemr), manzd (= manger). To mchcate rime or aspect, the Creole rêhes on helpers. Thus a (or pour) points to the future, e g h va vzm (he wzlI corne) The helper whch sgmfies the sïmple past ls té or tz (= Ce0, e g mo é manzé (I are) in the saine way finWor finz ex'presses completed aclaon, ê g mo finé causé (I bave spoken, and won't say more) The form té or t, whach combines wlth the mvanant verb stem lS all that s left of the conjugation (or mage) of être There ls no copula For le suu malade, the Mauntlan Creole says mo malade (I sIck). Smce té or tz bas no other functîon, there is no hteral equivalent for the Carteslan claptrap I thmk, therefore I ara. Orthodox Imgtusts bave patd scant attention to these vemaculars Consequently there s llttle avaflable information about them. To thê student of language-plannmg for world-co-operatîon, they bave salu- tary lessom Above all» they open a new approach to the question, what are mmmaai grammatical requirements of commumcation at a parti- cular cultural level &part from S têmer, the mventor of Pasilzngua (1885), none of the pmneers of language-planmng seems to have consdered them worthy of sympathetac study.
CHAPTER XI PIONEERS OF LANGUAGE PLANNING Olm last chapter was about the chseases of naturaI languages. Tins one s about the pathology of amficaal languages To many people the last two words, hke mterlanguage or oorld-auxhary, are terres synonymous wlth Esperanto In reahty Esperanto is only one among several hundred languages w!uch bave been constructed durmg the past three hundred. ye2xs; and many people who are m favour of a wofld-aumhary would prefer to choosc one of the langxmges which a large proporuon of the world's hterate populauo alrêady use The ments of such wews wlll corne up for chscusslon t a later stage. Larlguage-plannmg started durmg the Latter hall of the seventeenth cenmry. The pmneers were Scomsla and Erlghsh scholars Several clrcumstances combmed to awaken mterest m the problem of mter- nauonal commumcauon at rh,s tlme. One was the declme of Latin as a mechum of scholarstnp For more than a thousand years Latin made learned Europeans a smgle fratermty After the Reformauon, the me of nauonahsm encouraged the use of vernamflars. In Italy, which had the ftrst modem scaenttfic academy, Gahleo set a new fastnon by pubhshing some of Ms dtscovertes m bas native tongue. The s¢aemlfic acade!mes of England and France followed lxls example From Its begtunmg m 1662, the Royal Socaety adopted Enghsh. Accordmg to Sprat, the flrst tnstolaau of the Soclety, tts statures demanded from lts members a close, naked, natural rvay of speang . . . efemng the language of the amsans, countr>vnen, and merchants 3efore that of ts and scholars About tlm'ty years later the Para Acadérme des Sciences followed the example of lts Enghsh coumerpart by subsmutmg Frcach for Laun Thc echpsc of Latin meant that there was no smgle vetucle of cul- rural mtercourse between the leamed acadelmêS of Europe Another contemporaneous ctrcumstance helped to make Europeau scholars language-consclous. Smce the stxteênth-century Swiss naturahst, Conrad Gessner, had collected samples of fixe Lord's Prayer m twenty- two rfferent tongues, an ever-mcreasmg vanety of mformauon about strange languages and stranger scrlpts accompamed rmscellames of new herbs, new beasts, and new drugs wlth cargoes coming back from
444 The Loom of Language voyages of chscove3' Navigatxon and nnsslonary fervour fostered new knowledge of near and imddle Eastem lanmaages, mcludmg Coptlc, Ethoplc, and Perslan It made samples of Amermchan, of Drawchan, of Malay, and of North Inchc vemaculars avadable to European scholars In becommg Bble-conscaous, Europe became Babel-conscaous One lmgmsuc &scovery of the seventeenth century s of speçaal tmportance, because t suggested a possible remedy for the confusmn of tongues. The labours of Jestut msslonarles sed new knowledge about Ctunese script. To seventeenth-century Europe CAmaese, a soEpt whch substtuted words for sotmds, was a wholly novel way of wntmg. Sttll more novel was one consequence of domg so To the reader of the Loom it is now a commonplace that two people from dlfferent parts of China can re, ad the same texts wlthout bemg able to converse wlth one another To seventeenth-centuryEurope it was a nme days' wonder, and the knowledge of it synchromzed wth a spectacular innovation. Symbohc algebra was takmg new shapes The mventaon of loganthms and the calculus of Lelbmz, himself in the forefront of the lmgmstc movement, gave mankmd an international vocabulary of computauon and mouon Wlthout doubt, the novelty of mathematxcal symbohsm and the novêlty of Chmese logographlc wntmg mfluenced the first proposais for a system of mtemauonal communlcauon through script Lelbmz corresponded wlth Jesuït imssionanes to find out as much as possible about Chmese; and Descartes» the French phllosopher-mathemauclan, outhned a scheme for a constructed language in I6Z9 Thanks to our Hmdu numerals, anyone--and by anyone Descartes meant anyone except the common people of tus ume--can master the art of nammg ail possible numbers whtch can exlst m any language m less than a days' work. If so, the mgenutty of phdosophers should be up to the job of finchng equally umversal symbols for thzngs and notzons set out in a systemadc way. These would be the bncks of a language more loglcal, more econonncal» more precase» and more easy to learn than any lan- guage whlch bas grown out of the makeshïfts of dafly mtercourse At least» that ls what Descartes beheved He chd hOt put tus convxctlon to the test by trymg to construct a umversal catalogue ofthmgs and nouons. Forty years later the dream matenahzed. In 1668 Blshop Wflkms pubhshed the Essay towards a Real Character and a Ph2losophcaI Language Wàkms was hot first m the field George Dalgarno, of Abedeen, also author of a language for the deaf and dumb, and mventor of a new
Pzoneers of Language Planning 445 type of shorthand appltcable to all languages, had undertaken the same task a few years before Wllkms In I66I Dalgamo pubhshed the Ars Sgnorum, or Unz,;ersal Characer and PhlosophzcaI Language Dalgarno clatmed rhat peoplewho spoke any language could use s for mtelhgble conversanon or wrIting after two weeks Essentaaliy, ths Art of Symbol was a lextcon based on a locaI clasmficatlon of "horions" Al! know- ledge, or what Dalgarno and hls contemporanes thought was know- ledge, was chstnbuted among seventeen mare pigeon holes, each inchcated by a consonant, e g K = polîncal matters, N = natural objects Dalgarno davlded each of the seventeen mare classes mto sub- classes labê!led by a Latin or Greek vowd symbol, e g Ke = juchclal affalrs, K = crîmmal offences, Ku = war. Further sphttmg of the sub-classes mto groups îndîcated by consonants and vowels successlvely led to a pronounceable polysyllablë sigmfymg a parncular thmg, xnchvadual, process, or relatton Thus the four mammals called éléphant, cheval, cTne and mulet in French, Elefant» Pferd, Esel, and MauIesel in German, or elephant, horse, donk,, and mule m Enghsh, are respectavely NTka, Nkq, NTke, and Nlko in Dalgarno's language The ambition of lts engîneer was to design somethmg that would be speakable as well as wnteable, and the grammatical tools he forged for weavmg the items of his catalanguage mto connected statements mcluded genuinely progressive character- Istacs The verb is absorbed in the noun, as in headlme ichom (p I3I). Case goes mto the dustbm The sangle suIfix -z shows the plural number of all names To show how it works, Dalgarno concludes the book wlth a translanon of the first chapter of Genesis, rive Psalms, and two of Aesop's Fables Herê is a specamen Data semu Sava samesa Nain t?n Nom = In the begmnmg God created the heaven and the Two feamres of tins pioneer enterpnse are of specaal mterest to-day. One ls Dalgarno's recogmuon that all grown languages, încludmg Latin, are mational, lrreomalar, and uneconomlcal The other xs exphctt m the introduction to lits Dtdascalocophus or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor (168o), whlch contams e!oquent testîmony to the author's Bacoman faith m the mventaveness of man ".About twenty years ago I pubhshed . a SynopsIs of a Phflosophlcal Grammax and Lextcon, thereby showmg a way to remedy the daIficulttes and absurdlnes wtnch ail languages are clogged wth ever smce the Confusmn, or rather smce the Fat1, by outang off ail redundancy, recn- fymg all anomaly, takmg away ail ambaguty and eqmvocanon, contract- mg the prmutves (pr=nary words) to a few number, and even those not
446 The Loom of Language to be of a mere arbltrary, but a rauonal msUtuUon, enlargtng the bounds of dertvatton and composluon, for the cause both of copra and emphass In a word» deslgnmg nor only to reme&e the confusion of language, by glvmg a much more eae mechum of commumcauon than any yet known» but also to cure even Plosophy ltself of the chsease of Soptusms and Logomaches, as also fo provade ber wath more weldy and manageable instruments of operauon, for definmg» chvadmg» demonstranng, etc" The Councfl of r.he Royal Socaety shared tbïs fath In ï664 the Royal Soaety appomted a comrmttee for lmprovang the Enghsh language. A minute of December 7th runs "It bemg suggested that there were several persons of the Socety whose gemus was very proper and mchned to maprove the Enghsh tongue, and pamcu/arly for phltosophacal purposes, It was voted that there be a comrmttee for tmprovang the Enghsh language, and that they meet at $r Peter Wyche's lodgmgs m Gray's Inn" What the suggesttom of the commtttee were we do hOt know Ap- parently» no report was handed m, but we know from a let'ter addressed by the Royal Chancellery to Dalgamo that hts language was recom- mended to the Kmg for support by several Cambndge and Oxford dons, who stressed xts value "for facLlttatmg the mat-ter of Commumcataort and Intercourse between people of drfferent Languages, and consequenfly a proper and effecnml Means of advancmg all the parts of Re.al and Useful knowledge, Clvh- zmg barbarous Nalaons, Propagatmg the Gospel, and mcreasmg Traflque and Commerce " In conclusmn the letter observes that tf the project of the Aberdoman was properly supported mankmd would later on look back upon tas age with admiranon and, fired by lts example, endeavour "to proceed n a further repamng the Decayes of Nature, untfl Art have done xts last, or, whtch ts most probable, Nature cease to be, or be Renewed." The letter s an mapresstve example of' the Bacoman fath m the un- limated power of man over nature Nearly three hundred years ago It began to dawn upon a few human mmds that language, mstead of bemg left to the hazards of a slow evoluuon, could be mtelhgently mterfered wth and darected towards a destrable goal Dalgarno's Ars Sgnorum sumulated Bshop Wlkins to undertake something simllar, but on a vasfly more ambmous scale The Royal
Pioneers o.f Language Planning 447 Society pubhshed tJae outcome of bas efforts Wllkms was one of founders, an exdent Parhamentanan, husband of Cl omwell's sIster, Robma, a man of great versatlhty and soclal xdeahsm He was the first man to populanze Gahleo's deas m England, and chd som a sctentfic fantasy, pubhshed m I642. In t he descnbed a ourney to the moon by rocker UndoubedIy he was a genïus It would be pleasant to add that he acknow!edged bas mdebtedness to an obscure Scos schoolmaster He dd hot Bshop Wflhns stars fmm the fact that we already possess such symbols as +, --, ×, , c, ©, m the language of mathematlcs and astronomy. Though pronounced m OEerent ways m OEerent coma- mes, these symbols are the same on paper, and everywhere sgmfy the same thmg to the educated From this he draws the Cartesan con- clusmn: "If to every thmg and notaon there were assgned a ckstmct Mark» together wxth some promsmn fo express Grammatical Derlvatlons and Inflexlons» tins mlgh suflïce as to one great erd of a Real Character, nameiy, the expressmn of out Conceptions by Marks whach should slgmfy thmgs, and hot words" Wllkms realmes that ff the number of marks Is to be kept msxde manageable bruits some classification of thîngs and notions s mchs- pensable I-Ie therefore compiles, as Dalgamo chd» a systematc cata- logue as the foundataon of his language. The whole body of contem- porary knowledge is fosslhzed in a hlerarchy of forty &fferent classes, such as plants, ammals, spmtuaI acuons, physical actions, motions, possessions, matters naval, matters ecclesIastlcal, ee Each of the forty pgeon-holes has ts subchvismns wîth the exception of e ffffh class, whtch encloses HIM The Bshop aptly remarks that the captahzed (and much h3-mned t) Hlm is hot ckvlslble mto any subordmate species The world-Iexacon of W -llkms xs a pot-pourn of Anstotelean fictton, theoioglcal superstition, namrahsnc fancy and much factual marrer The anthropomorphïc ouflook of the author and the low level of con- temporary knowledge embocheà in the catal%ae s fllustrated by hs treatment of Substance Inammate He dlvldes it înto vegetatwe and senstzve The vegetatzve sphts mto zmperfect such as rmnerals, and perfect, such as plants The mperfect vegetave chstrîbutes what we should now call the matelaals of inorganîc chemlstry between stone and metal Stones take fixe labels vulgar, mddle-pnzed, and precwus Wflkms dlvides the last mto less transparent and more tramparent
448 The Loom oj Language I-tavmg completed hs herarchy of knowledge Ws now gets to gnps wïth symbols for wsual or au&tory recogntnon He begms wth the Real Gharacter, or wntten languagê, wbach everybody wRl be able to understand wthout leammg how to speak the Phflosophacal language tself The real character s tobe 1Lke Chmese Each word sagnes a notion, hOt a sound. Wflhns s confident that about %ooo symbols wfll cover aH reqmrements The form of tins new deograpPac wnnng and ts relauon to the catalogue s best dlustrated by the commentar wtnch W kms appends to the word father m hs attempted translatmn of the Lord's Prayer mto Real Character " __] Tf:us next character bemg of a blgger proportaono must therefore represent some Integral Notaon The gemus of lt, wz - ls appomted to sgmfiê Oeconormcal Relation And whereas the tmnsverse Line at the end towaîas the left hand bath an affix makang the acute angle wlth the upper sde of the Line, therefore doth t refer to the first &fference of that Genus, whach accord.mg to the Tables, s relataon of Consang-mmty And there beuag an affzx makmg a Rzght Angle at the other end of the saine hne, therefore doth t slgnafie the second speces under ths Dffference, by whach the nonon of Parent s deflned .... If It were tobe rendered Father m the stnctest senseo it would be necessary that the Transcendental Note of male should be joyned to lt, bemg a httle hook on the top over the maddle of the Character a_ter ths manner ' And because the word Parent ls hOt here used accordmg to the stnctest sense but Metaphorically, therefore maght thé Transcendental Note of Metaphor be put over the head of it af-ter thas manner ----._A ." So far the B1shop's catalogue and lts wutten form To use words :n ranonal chsurse a grammar s necessary The mm.mum reqmrements of commumcanon must be fixed It would be an exaggeranon to say that Wflkms marie any outstandmg contnbuuon to grammatical analyses. He was snll far too much under the spe11 of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Indeed, he held that flexaon s "founded upon the phllosophy of speeeh and sueh natural grounds, as do necessardy belong to Lan- guage" None the less, he recognazed that classcal languages were hOt the last word, and Latin came in for a rentable trommelfeuer of crm- OEsm. He OEncazed ts abundance of OEerent flexaons for one and the saine funcuon, the ambgumes and obscuntes of ts prefixes, the intrusion of grammatical gender mto sex relatmns, ts welter of excep- nom to al1 rules of conluganon and declensmn, the dtfficultaes of concord, and so forth. Wflkms keeps bas own grammaucal apparams vathin the hmats set
Pzoneers of Language Planning 449 by forty slgns, conslsnng of clrcles and dors for partlcles, and hooks, loops, etc, for termmals For e urne, tins was thrffry Where the chcuonary form of an Enghsh verb such as fear has only three denva- uve forms (fears, feared, fearmg), a smgle Greek verb may appear m over two hundred, and a Latin one m over one hundred costumes The forty grammaucal categones of al1 sorts m the Phflosophcal Language are a sucent mchctment of the rregulanues, anomahes, and super- flUlUeS of the two classlcal languages Though less mterested m mere talk, Wllkms had the ambuon to raake lins language auchble To do thïs he apes Dalgarno's plan, m bas own way Each of iris forty classes or genera has a simple sound-com- bmauon consstmg of an open syllable of the [apanese sort The fifth malor class (Goal) ls labelled by the "foot" Da, the thn-teenth (shrub) by Gz, the t2m-ty-nmth (naval) by So, and the last (eccleszastzcal) by Sy Subchvsons follow the saine plan To form t_bose of the rst order we bave to add a consonant to the foot Thus we get words such as Bab, Bad, Bag, etc If you want to tmderstand what s httmg your eardrum, you must therefore be au fazt with the whole classficatory set-up You may then bave no &fficulty m daagosmg De as "elemetary," Det as "meteor»" artd Deta as "halo" To attack the Blshop's project m the hght of out mcomparably greater scaeattfic and lmgmst¢ kowledge would be equally fatuous and uncbavalrous The great defect of xt s hot that it maposes on the memory the almost superhuman burden of the Chmese characters That would be bad enough Its greater weakness s at the base, the catalogue of human kaaowledge A Dalgarno or a Wflkans can constract such a catalogue only m the hght of mformanon avalab!e to hs owa contemporanes Thereafter any adchtaon to knowledge, a smgle chs- covery» a fresh mterpretanon, calls for a complete overhaul of the catalogue. The reference symbols of "each thmg and notioa" spectfied after the item added to t would call for rewson Had Wflkms's plan corne mto use among scenttfic mea science would bave been fossRtzed at the level t had reached m 65 o, as Chmese culture was petred m a logographac script several thousand years belote Wflkms wrote. Wxth ail bas awareness of what s "maproper and preternatural" m Latin, Wxlkms fafled to apply to ts grammatical categores the test of funcuoaal relevance So he never grasped the smaplest grarnmalacal essentmls of effectxve commtmacaton -las continental contemporary Lebmz, famous for mtroducmg the modern symbohsm of the mfim- tesmaal calcu]us, chd so. Lelbmz knew somethmg of Dalgarman as well
45o The Loom oj Language as Wflhns,an, and rejected both oî r_hem for hot bemg "phtlosopbacal" eough Slnce the age of mneteen he had clreamed of a language wh,ch was tobe "an algebra of thought" m the servace of sclence and philo- sophy He had httte concern for lts value as a me&um of international communication I-hs own efforts to collect all exastmg nouons, analyse them» reduce them to smapie elements, and arrange them m a logacal and coherent system ls of no mterest to people who hve m the twentleth century If was another wfld-goose chase What ls more sgncant to out urne are the conclusmns he reached When he took up the task of provldmg hs choeonary or concepmal catalogue with a grammar, he broke new ground Unfortunately he never put hts views mto book form They remamed unnoAced by all tus successols wldl the exception of Peano» a twentieth- century maemancal logl«an who also mvented Interlmgua What purs Lmbmz far m advance of s urne ls that he recogmzed the scaenttfic bablS of mtelhgent language-plannmg What the mventors of Volapuk and the Esperannsts never grasped, Lmbmz saw wlth Lelbmman lucldty The factual foundatlonS of language-plannmg must be rooted m comparative analysls of natural Ianguages, hvmg and dead From the data such analysls supphes we can learn why some languages are more easy to toaster t.han others The versatile lmgtusuc eqmpment of Lelbmz supported hlm weLl m the task He could learn lessons from the hngua franca, a 1argon spoken by sallors and street urchms of the Medlter- rallean ports, and he had an expermlental gumea-plg to hand The gumea-plg was Latin As Lelbmz Nmself says, the most &fficult task for the student of a forelma ianguage xs to memonze gender» declensïon, and conlugatlOn So gender-dastmctlon goes overboard because "lt does hot belong to ratlonal grammar " Besldes gettmg lad of gender, Lelbmz advocates other reforms Conluganon can be simphfied Personal flexion ls a redundant devce, because person xs închcated by the accompanymg subect In all thls Leabmz says nothlng to starde the readers o£ Loom, though he ls way m flont of Esperanto He shoots ahead of many of out own contempomnes--Peano apart--when he chscusses the number-fleraon of the noun What he mtended to substltute we do not know, most probably eqmvalents to some, several, all, etc Unhke the Esperanust adeclave, whlch conunues to execute the archac anucs of concord, that of Leabmz, hke that of Enghsh, surrenders a battery of meanmgless termïnals whch accompany a Bantu tribal chant to the correspondmg noun
Pioneers oj Language Planning 451 What remams for dascusszon s case-, mood-, and tlme-flexaon Very properly Lebmz casts doubt on the razson d'être of the first two wlth the followmg argument. As thmgs are, case- and mood- flextons are useless repetlnOnS of partlcles Elther case- and mood-flexlons can do wlthout preposltîons and conuactlons, or preposmons and conunc- tions can do wthout case and mood terminal Besdes, s maposslble for flexaon to express the immense vane of relatlons whlch we can mchcate by means of partlcles Affei some wavermg between a hlghly synthetlc mechum and an analycal one, Leibmz cornes out in favour of the latter When all ths samtar3" demohuon s over, the only thmg left wth the verb xs me-flexion Lelbmz consders thls essentml, but wshes to extend x to adlecuves (as m Iapanese), to adverbs, and to nouns Thus the adectlve ndculurus would qual an obect whach wzll be lachculous, the noun amavztzo would sgmfy the fact of havmg loved, and amaturttw the dtsturbmg certamty of gomg to love Letbmz's next and most revolutonary step Is to reduce the number of" parts of speech Clearly, the adverbs can be merged wxth adjectlves because they bave the saine relation to the veto as adjectlves have to a noun, x e they quah lts meanmg For reasons suctenfly famhar to readers of The Loom (.p I25), distraction between ad]ectave and substanuve Is also "of no great im- portance m a rauonal language" The only logxcal dafference between the two is that the latter lmphes the idea of substance or exastence Every substanuve s equlvalent to an adecuve accompamed by the word Ens (Bemg) or Res (Thmg) Thus Idem est Homo quod Ens hu- manum (Man xs the same thmg as I-Iuman Bemg) Smnlarly (as m Celuc lchom) every verb can be reduced to the smgle verb substanuve to be and an adccuve. Petrus scnb#, id es est scrzem (Peter wntes, 1 e xs wrltmg). So the trreduclble elements of dlscourse boll down to the smgle noun Ens or Res, the single verb est (Is), together wlth a congenes of adectlval quahfiers and partlcles whlch bmd the other parts of a statement together by exposmg relauons between t.hem A complête vocabulary lS exhausted by a lexacon of roots and a hst of affixes each wlth tts own and sharply defmed meanmg Ail thts tes wlth the ri'rats of research in comparauve grammar two hlmdred years later. Lebniz was far ahead of hts rime m other ways He was ahve to what Malmowsh calls "the shdmg of" roots and meanmgs from one grammaucal category to another" (p. I7o)» and anudpates Ogden's Baslc (19 473) by embarkîng on an analysls of the partcles to ascertam thear meanmg and the requlme mm.mum number.
The Loom of Language He regarded ths as a task of the utmost tmportance, and carned it out v¢th parncular care Notably modem m ths context ls a skrewd guess Lelbnlz suggests that meraphoncaI extension bas expanded the field of reference of preposmons, a11 o£ whch orgmally had a spatial slgn- cance Thus we gve r.hem a chronologncal value, whên we say between the nmeteenth and twenteth cenmnes, zn the future, before I789, etc The piolects of Dalgarno and Wzllrans had ths m common wth others put forward durmg the eghteenth and the first hall of the mne- teenth century They started from a preconceved logcal system wlth- out reference to hvmg speech As late as I858 a conumttee report of the French Soczété Internatwnale de Lmgmstzque denounced the design of an mtemauonal auxary budt of bncks taken from natural languages The reason gaven was that atl natural languages, classcal and modem, dead and hvmg, are embedded m cultural levels wbach modern man had left behmd hma A language "cIear, smple, easy, rauonal, logacal, ptosopktcal, nch, harmomous and elastac enough to cater for all the needs oï utuze progress" must also be a language ruade out of whole cloth The vogue of a przort languages concelved m these terres s easy to understand Language-plannmg was cradled by the needs of a scholar- caste eut off from the common asplratmns of ordmary people, wthout the gtudance of a systematîc scaence of comparatxve kngtusucs Ineva- tably the mevement mmated by Dalgarno and Wxlkms shared the rate of proposais for number reform put forward by Alexandnan mathe- maucaans from Archunedes to Dlophantus Proposais for an interna- tional language vnth any prospect of success must emerge £rom the expenence of ordmary men and women, hke the Hmdu number- system whch revolutomzed mathematacs after the echpse of Alexan- dnan culture Snll it ls not fiur to say that the efforts of Dalgamo, Wflkms, or Lebmz were frmtless It may we11 be true that mternattonal reform of sclenufic nomenclature mtated by the Systema Naturae of Lmnaeus was catalysed by controversy wtnch hs more ambmous predecessor provoked The movement wktch came to a focus m the Systema Naturae encouraged rewslon of chemcal termmology vnth results wlmch ats author could hot bave foreseen It created an mternanonal vocabulary of Latin and Greek (p 250 ) roots In a sense, though unwmngly, revlson of chemïcal termmology realized Wflkms's dream of a rea/ ckaracter Modern chemstry has a vocabulary of ldeographic and
Izoneêrs o/ Language Planning 453 pictographIc symbols for about a quarter of a mzlhon pure substances now known The efforts of the catahngmsts were net snllborn They contmued to snmulate other speculauons for fi.y a century Diderot and D'Alem- bert, joint echtors of the French Encyclopéde, allotted an arucle to the saine theme The author was no less a personage than Paguet, Trea- suret of France Its de was Nouvelle Langue (765) Though merely a sketch, it anucpated and outchstanced proposais of more than a hun- dred years later Lke s forerunnêrs m England, Fmguet recogmzed the wasteful and lrranonal features common to Western European languages, and had enough instoncal knowledge to nonce the anaIyncal drft n the lstory of hs mother tonique The outcome was a tughly regulanzed skeleton of grammar for a Unlversal a posterzor Iangaage, I e one wtch shares features common to, and clraws on, the resources of exasung lanages In contrast to Fmguet's mother tongue, the New Language had no arucle and no gender-concord The adleoeve was to be mvanant, as m Enghsh, or, as the desg'ner says, a sort of adverb Case-chstmcuon, whch has chsappeared m nouns of French and other Romance languages, ruade way for free use of preposmons In a.I1 tlus Faiguet had a far bercer understandmg of what ls and what s hot relevant than the mventor of Esperanto wth ts dead ballast of a separate oblect case (p 463) and lts adeoevaI pIural Perhaps because hs own language gave Imm hrde gmdance, Fmguet made no very rachcal suggesnons for smphfymg the verb system I was to consst of a szngle regular conjugauon wthout personal flemons Tlms cleansmg of Augean stables was offset by the termmals -a for the present, -u for the future, -é for the imperfect, - for the perfect, and -o for the pluperfect In adchtton there were three chfferent mfimuve forms (present, past, future), and a subuncnve whch was mchcated by an -r added to the mchcamve Sull, it was net a bad attempt for ts mme Perhaps Fmguet would bave used the axe more energencally zf he had been mspred by the needs of humamty at large Lke ls predecessors he was chefly at pares to provde "the Ieamed academes of Europe" wlth a new means of commumcauon Faguet chd hot compzle a vocabulary, and none ofhs contemporarïes took up the task Alermess to the waste and mconvemence of language confusion was stll confmed to the scholarly few It chd not become acute and wdespread ttll steam-power revolunomzed oeansport, and the ocean cable anmhzlated chstance Language-plannmg receved a new mpulse m a contractmg planer Where the smgle mm had been to tarer
454 The Loom oj Language for the needs of international scholarshap, the needs of mternauonal trade and mtemauonally olgamzed labour became tenfold more clamolous Humamtanan sentmaent remforced more matenal conslderataons The mventor of Volapuk, and many of lts adent advocates, regarded hngmsnc OEerences as fuel for warmongers and hoped that an mter- lmgua would help to seal the bonds of brotherhood between nauons In fiffy odd ephemeral aumhanes whch cropped up dunng the second hall of the nmeteenth century, several common features emerge Wth few excepuons each was a one-man show, and few of the showmen were sufficaently eqtupped for the task lth one excepuon they were continental Europeans bemused by the chosyncrases ofhaghly mflected lang'aages such as Germa,a, Russan, or one of the offshoots of Latin. Each of them created a language m tus own maage They chd hot look beyond the boundanes of Europe If the mventor was a lrenchman the producït must needs bave a subjunctave; and when the Panslan votanes of Volaptfl oblected to Schleyer's a, o, and u, thetr Teutomc brothers marms took up the defence v¢th a zeal befittmg the custody of the Holy Grafl of the Norchc Soul The nmeteenth-centm-ploneers of language-plannmg chd hOt apprecate the fact that Chma's four hundred m,lhons conmve to hve and che wthout the consolauon of case, tense, and mood chstlnCtlOn, mdeed wathout any denvanve apparat'us at ail ç'hy they lgnored Chmese and new hybnd vernaculars such as Beach-la-Mar, Creole F ench, and Chzook etc » s easy to understand rhat sttll amazes us s that they could no profit by the extreme flexaonal smaphclty of Enghsh, th ts lumanant hterature, outstandmg contnbunons to science, and world-wade mapenal satus They had httle or no know- ledge of the past, and were therefore unable to denve any beneflt from research mto the evolunon of speech Almost alone, Gnmm saw what lessons hlsory has to teach A few years belote tus death, Gnmm recamed hs trachnonal Ioyalty to the flexaonal vaganes of the older European Ianguages, and lad clown the essennal prereqtustes of mtelhgent language-plnn_ng. The creanon of a world-auhary s hot a task for peremptory decîsons: here zç onTy one oay out fo study zhe path whzch the human mznd has followed ,n îhe development of languages But ,n the evoIutzon of all czvzhzed languag¢s ortuztous mterference frorn ousde and unwarranted arbztrarness have ploEved such a large part that he utmost such a study can achzeve zs to show up he danger-racles whzch bave tobe avoeded Wse words!
Pioneers o.f Language Planning 455 VOIAPUK The first constructed language whîch human bemgs actual!y spoke, read, wrote, and prmted was Vclapuk (r88o) Its mventor was Johann Martre Schleyer, a German cathohc pnest, zealous ahke m the cause of world-trade and umversal brotheIhood I-Ience bas motto Menade bal pukz bal (For one humamty one language) Accordmg te bas chscples, he knew an amamng number of tongues. If so, he benefited httle from hls learning !t was evadently a hanchcap It prevented bain from understandmg the diIficultles of Volapuk for less gnfted hngmsrs The new medaum spread very rapldly, first m German), then m France, where it found an able apostle in Auguste Kerckhoffs, pro- fessor of Modern Languages at the Paris Igh School for Commercial Smches There was a French Assoclataon for the propagation of Vola- puk, there were courses m 1t--and chplomas Maybe wth an eye on the atmual mmover, a famous departmental store, Les Grands Maga.ns du Printemps, also espoused the cause Succèss m France èncouraged others, especïally m the Umted States By r889, the year of ts apogee, Volapuk had about OEoo,ooo actherents, two dozen pubhcattons, sup- ported by 30o socïeties and clubs Enthuslastc amateurs were hot the only people who embracèd the new fiuth Academacally waned Imgmsts also fled wath lt. Volapuk petered out much faster than i spread When Its pamsans had flocked together m Paris for the thtrd Congress m 889, the com- mattee had decnded to conduct the procee ,dmgs excluslvely m the new language Ttus hght-hearted decsmn, wbach exposed the mherent dzfficulnes of learnmg t or usmg it, was ts death-kneA A year iater the movement was m fuli chsmtegratîo What precîpltated coliapse was a famfly quarrel Father Schleyer had constructed the ammar of bas propnetary product wth the redundant embelhshments of bas own lmghly mflected language Professor Kerckhoffs, supported by most of the active Volapukasts, spoke up for the plain man and catled for reductïon of the fnlls In the dispute whach ensued, Schleyer took the hne that Volapuk was his pnvate property. As such, no one could amend t wlthout bas consent It s tmpossble to explam the amazmg though short-hved success of Volapuk m terms of ts intrmsc ments There was a monstrous nâveté m the design oft A short analysls of ts sounds, grammar, and vocabu- iary suIfices to expose ts retreat m the natural line of lmguistc pro- gress Part of the comedy ls that Schleyer had the nerve to clam that
456 The Loom oJ Language he had taken spoken Enghsh as bas model, with due regard to any ments of German» French, Spamsh» and Itahan The vowel battery of Schleyer's phoneue appararus was made up of a» e» z, o, u, together wlth the German a» o» u» of wtuch the last ls notonously daJficult for Enghsh-speakmg people to pronounce In conforrmty wth tus German bras» the consonants mcluded the guttural ch sound Out of ctnvalrous conslderauon for chflden» elderly people, and OEna's four hundred mflhon, Sckleyer chscarded the r solmd 111favour of l (absent lnJapanese) and other subsututes Thls happened belote anyone drew Schleyer's attenuon to the fact that the Chmese have an r By then he had changed out Enghsh red or German rot to led Smflarly rose becomes lol In fixe grammar of Volapuk the noun, hke the noun of German and unhke that of Anglo-Amencan or of any Romance language, trafled behmd it case-marks wth or wathout the unïform plural -S In thls way father becomes SINGULAR PLURAL Nomm fat fats Acc fat, fatzs Gen f ata f atas Dat fate fates There was no grammattcal gender Where sex rmsed ts ugly head the sunple noun form represented the male, whach could asslrmlate the lady-hke prefi_x 3z-, as m blod-lzblod Çorother-slster) and dog-.zdog (dog- bltch) The adlectave was recogmzable as such by the sttfx -zk, e g gudzk (good), supplemented by -el when used as a noun, e g gu&kel (the good man), jzgu&kel !the good woman) Gara on the roundabouts by levellmg the personal pronoun (ob = I, ol -- thou, obs = we, = you, etc ) was lost on the swmgs, because each person had four cases (e g oh, obz, oba, obe) From the possessive adleoeve denved from the pronoun by adchng the suffax -zk, e g obzk (my), you got the pos- sessive pronoun by an adchuonal -et, e g obzkel (mme) Con]ugauon was a bad ]oke In what he had to learn about the vaganes of the Vola- puk verb, the Chmese pad a heavy pnce for the hqtudataon of r. Whether there was or was hot an mdependent subject, the personal pronoun stock to the verb stem So fat lofom hterally meant the father love he There were sx tenses, as m Latin, each of t.hem wth ts own charactensttc vowel prefixed to the stem, presumably m m'ntaraon of the Grêek augment
Pzoneers of Language Planning 457 Iofob I love zlofob I had loved alofob I loved olofob I sha11 love elofob I bave loved, ulofob I sha11 bave loved Strange to say, the prefix a- of the maperfect and the o- of the future also appeared on adverbs formed from del (day), adela (yesterday), adelo (to-day) There were charactenslac suffaxes for a subluncttve and a potenlaal mood, and each wth all six tense forms, e g elofomla (that he has loved) By prefixmg p- you could change the active to the passive, and mterpolate an z mamechately after the tense-mark to slgnffy hablmal actton So It was possible to make one word to say of a woman that she had been Ioved all the tzme The Schleyer maperanve, hke the Schleyer dety, was threefold, wth a genfle nll-you-pIeasê form m -os, a normal one m -od, and a categoncal of the won'-you-shut-up sort m -oz The mark ofmterrogatton was a hyphenated h, prefixed or suffzxed, and the negattve partîcle was no placed belote the verb, e g no-h elofons-loEZ (wï11 you hot have loved?). If admtttedly more regular than elther, Volapuk had almost as many grammattcal mapedmaenta as Sansknt or Llthuaman The Volapukasts nghtly claïmed that the root-materml of thezr language was taken from Enghsh, German, Lama, and ts modem descendants Unlucky, the roots suffered drasuc casugauon from Father Sctfleyer's hands before they became unrecogmzable m the Volapuk lexacon The memory of the begmner had nothmg to bte on All roots had to conform wth a set of arbxtrary conchuons To take on several prefixes and su/fixes, they had to be monosyllabc» and even so the enormous length to whach such a word could grow forced Schleyer to xtahcze the foot tself He had to alter al1 words wtnch ended m a sibilant (c, s, z» etc ) to accommodate the plural s; and every foot had to begm and end wth a consonant, lrom thas German sausage-machme» knowledge emerged as nol» dzffzculty as fikul» and comphment as plzm, the German word Feld as fel, Lzcht as ht» and lVunde as vun The naine of the language tself zllustrates the dlflîcultaes of detecuon Even geo- graptncal names dld hot escape pumshment. Italy» England, and Portugal became Tal» Nehj, and Bodugan :Europe changes to Yulop, and the other four continents to Melop, Szlop, Fzkop, and Talop Who would guess that Vol m Volapuk cornes from evorld» and puk from speech? The method of word-denvauon was as fancufial, as fllogcal, and as sKly as the maltreatment of roots In the manner of the catalanguages, there was a huge sertes of pgeon-holes each labelled wath some affax.
458 The Loom of Language For instance, the sutfix -el denotes mhabztents of a country or person- agents So Parzsel arlslan) w ore the same costume as mztd (butcher) The stttRx -af denoted some an_mals, e g suplaf (spider), tzaf (v_ger),but len (bon) and jeval (horse) were left out m the cold The names of btrds had the label -zt, e g gaht (mghnngale), tre names of chseases -zp, e g vatzp (hydropsy), and the names of elements -zn, e g vatm (hydro- gen). Thê piefix lu- produced somet_hmg amblguously nasty Thus lwoat (more htera[ly drty water) stood for urzne Luben (a nasty bee) was a Volapuk wasp Schleyer's techmque of bmldmg compounds of Teutomc length turned the stomachs of tas most devoted French chscples As a sample, the followmg s the openmg of Schleyer's transtattcm of the Lord's Prayer "0 Fat obas, kel bmol m suis, pa.saludomoz nem ola Komomod monargan ola lenomoz xaI ohk, as m su1, su talC" We cm understand the success of Volapuk only ff we assume that t satlsfied a deep, though st_ uncntlcal, longmg equally acute m humain- tartan and commercaal czrcles So st was a catastrophe that a German pansh pnest provlded thas longmg wlth ephemeral sattsfactlon at such a low techmcal level lor a long rzme to corne the naïvetés of Volapuk and lts well-deserved collapse chscrechted the artcal language move- ment Cunously enough t round many chsclples m academtc crcles, mcludmg language departments o unlversItles, always the last refuge of lost causes The Amerzcan Phzlosophzcal Soczety, founded by Ben- jamin Frankhn, though sympathettc to proposais for a wofld-auxthary, was hot taken m It appomted a commttee m 1887 to assess the ments of Schleyer's mterlanguage. In a very enhghtened report the commattee formulated prmcples of wl"ach some should be embodled in any fuuxe constructed world-auxthary It rejected Volapuk because its gram- matlcal structure uams back on the analyucal drlft of alt the more modem European languages, and because its vocabulary s hot suflï- cendy mtemattonal The commttee suggested the issue of an mvltataon to ail leamed socletaes of the world with a view to startmg an international cornmttee for promotmg a umversal aumhary based on an Aryan vocabulary con- sonant wth the "needs of commerce, correspondence, cozlversaton, and science" Abou two thousand learned boches accepted thIs mvxta- taon of Frankhn's Soclety to a Congress to be held m London or Paris. The Phzlologcal Soczety of London declmed the invitation wlth thanks, for reasom equally fatuous One was that there was no common Aryan
ñioneers of Language Planning 459 vocabulary. The other was that Volapuk was used alI over rhe world It was therefore too late in the day to offer a substtute After the thd Congress of 1889, votanes of Volapuk washed ther hands of the whole business, or ratted Many of those who ratted followed the nsmg star of Esperanto Some regamed confidence and contmued fo tmker wth Schleyer's system Befor the final collapse St de Max had proferred Bopal (1887), and Bauer Spehn (1888) Thereafter came Fleweger's Dzl (1893), Doz'înoy's Balta (I893)» W. von &rmm's Ve!tparl (1896), and Bollack's Langue BIez«e (1899) There were several other amendments to Volapuk vnth the saine bas!c defects The stock-m-trade of al1 was a baery of monosyllabc roots, cut to measure from natural languages, and that past human recogmtaon, or cast in an even less famhar motùd from an arbttrary mtxtae of voweIs and consonants The foot was a sohtary monohrh surrounded by con- centnc stone-crcles of superfluous, if exqmsltely regular flexlons There was declens!on and conjugauon of the trachnonal type, and a lumzriant overgrowth of derlvatlve aifixes The essenual problem of word-economy was hot in the p,.cuzre Indeed, the mventor of La Langue Bleue (so-called because the celestlal azure bas no frontters) boasted that I44,I39 dlfferent words were theorencally possible wlthm the framework of hs phonencs Belote Volapuk, far better amficml lanmmges had appearêd on the market wïthout attractmg enthusmstlc followers One was Plrro's Unversal-Sprach6 a purely a postenor system of a very advanced type The noun, kke the adjectïve, ls mvanant Preposmons take over any funoEon wbach case-chsunctlon may retam m natural languages The outward and wslble slgn of number ls left to the amde or other deter- mmants The personal pronoun wxth a nommatïve and an accusattve form bas no sex-oEerentîauon m the thd person /k verb wthout person or number flemons bas a slmpIe past wth the suffix -ed, a future vath-raz, and compound tenses bualt wlth the aumhary haben. Unle so many before and after ktm, Pïrro dld hot shrk the task of deslgnmg a vocabulary I-tas lextcon conmsted of 7,ooo words, largly Latin» hence mternauonal, but partly Teutomc The number of affixes for denva- ttves was small, but smce he took them over from namral languages they were hot pamcularly precse The ments ofthe follomag specmxen of the Umversal-Sprache speak for themseIves. Men semor, I sende evos un gramauk e un varb-bbel de un nuov glot nomed umversal glot In futur I scrptrm evos semper ïn chd glot, I pregate evos respond¢n ad me m chi self glo.
46o The Loom of Language Though t chscouraged some, Volapuk also stunulated others to set out along new paths More than one chsflïUSloned Volapukst recovered to undertake the task whach Schleyer had executed wth maladroit resuks One ex-Volapuk enthumast, tthus Lott, mvented Mundohngue (89o) It was a neo-Latm langaage A moderately well-educated person can qtute easfly read t, as the followmg specmaen shows. Amabll armco, Con grand satasfacnon rm ha lect teï 1errer de le mundohngue Le posslbhi de un umversal hngue pro le clwhsat nattons ne esse dubltabfl, nam no ha to elements pro un tal brigue in nostr lmgues, scïences, etc Another Ianguage w/nch owed lts exastence to Volapuk renegades was Idwm Neutral (r9o3) It was deslgned by members of the Akadem Internaswnal de hngu unwersal Thls body came mto bemg at the Second Volapuk Congress. When it developed heretac doctrmes the great DatuvaI (mventor) unsuccessfuIJy excommumcated the rebels The clama of Ichom Neutral m lts own tune was that It had a vocabulary based on the prmcple of greatest international currency The reader who compares Schleyer's verslon of the openmg words of the Lord's Prayer (19 458) wlth the folIowmg can see how completely It had grown apart from Volapuk l'qostr patr kel es m sehl Içe votr nom es sanktafiked» ke votr regma veto, ke votr volu es fasaed, kuale an me1» raie et su ter ESPERA/qTO The collapse of Volapuk left the field clear for Espemno Esperano was the chfld of Dr. Ludw Lazarus Zamenhof, (59-97) 1-1e pul forward lus firsl propossls when Fsther Schleye's mvennon was si thê heh of s popuhnty Zsmenhof esrly youth Belostock, here Russmns, Poles, Germans, and ews hated and fll-treated one another Remforced by a humamtanan out- look, tins &stasteful expenence sumulated the young poneer to recon- che racml antagomsms by gettmg people to adopt a heurta1 mechum of common understandmg Incubauon was long and pamful He was sulJ at grammar-school when msprauon dawned So t was natural to seek a soluuon m revval of one or other of the two clasmcal languages Slowly Zamenhof learned to recogmze the chaouc superflmty of forms m, natural speech It was English wlnch opened young Zamenhof's eyes I leamt French and German as a chald, and could hot then make comparïsons or draw conclusmns, but when, m the fi£xh class at the
Pzoneers of Language Planning 461 academy, I began to study Enghsh, I was struck by r.he stmphclty of lts grammar, the more so owmg to the sudden change from that of Latin and Greek I came to see that nchness of grammaracal forms ls only a bastorlcal chance occurrence, and ls hot necessary for a language Under the influence of thas ldea I began to Iook through my language and to cast out unnecessary forms» and I percelved that the gïammar melted away m my hands, rail it became so small as to occupy» wlthout any harm to the language ltself, hot more than a few pages The design of a stmphfied grammar chd not detam han long, but he was held up when he began to construct a vocabulary Then it dawned on hJan that we can make an unhmlted number of new words by means of denvatlve aifixes added to a smgle foot The manufacture of smtable afftxes led hzm back to Wflkms's theme, analyses of nouonal relauons I-Ils fzrst ldea was to make up bas own stock-m-trade of roots I-Ie soon reakzed the dlIficulty of leammg the arbtrary root-forms of Volapuk and began to see that hvmg languages work wth a tugh propomon of common or mternatlonaI words A prehmmaH Romano-Teutomc lemcon was born of thas recogmuon In lts final form the prolect appeared m 1887 tmder the pseudonym Lmguo Internacza de la Doktoro Esperanto (International Language by Dr Hopeful) UnlJke Schleyer, Zamenhof sustamed a sensible humtty towards bas own creatmn He chd hot look upon it as final He mvlted Cntlcasm t-Ias intention was to collect, &scuss, and pubhsh the objections rmsed, then to amend ts shortcommgs m the hght of the fmdmgs The pubhc lgnored Zamenhof's request for sympathetm and enhghtened Cntlcasm Esperanto remamed unchanged ull 1894, when lts author htmself mltlated a drastlc reform It found lts flrst adherents m CzarlSt Russa where the authontles suppressed its organ, La Esperantuto, because t pubhshed an amcle by Tolstol From Russm xt spread to the Scanch- navaan counmes, to Central Europe, thence to France, where xt had strong support m umversxty ctrcles In 19o5 the Govemment of the French Repubhc ruade Zamenhof an Oificer of the Légzon d'Honneur In 19o 9 H M Kmg Alfonso conferred upon haro rhe honour of Com- mander in the Order of Isabella the Cathohc After a bnef echpse durmg the Great War of x94-98, the wave of pacîst senttment whtch subsequently swept over the world gave it new momenmm We shotùd accept figures about ts spread and populanty, when gaven by Esperanusts themselves, wth the cauuon we should adopt towaxds data about the wtahty of Erse or Gaehc when those who supply them are Celuc enthusmsts Accordmg to a report pubhshed by the General Secretanat of the League of Nauons (but based upon data
462 The Loom o Language provlded by Esperanusts), Esperanto could boast of about 4,000 pubhcauons, conslstmg of original works, translauons, text-books, propaganda 1teins, etc ïn Albama it became a compulsory sub]ect m secondary and lngher educauon In China the Umversty of Pekmg offered courses. Madnd, Lsbon, and several German towns placed It on the cumculum of Pltce Schools In Great Bntam It was popular m Labo Colleges, an got some encouragement flore such pubhcsts as Lord Bryce, H G Wells, Lord Robert Cecfl, and Arthur Henderson In the U S S R, the People's Commassanat fol Pubhc Educauon appointed a Commssïon to examine lts clanns tu January 19x9, and to report on the adwsabthty of teachmg an mternauonal language tu Sowet schools The Commasson decded for Esperanto, though Zmowev favoured Ido Flve German towns ruade Esperanto a com- pulsory subject m pnmary schools under the Wemaar Repubhc, and the Nauonal Esperanto Insutute for the trammg of teachers at Lelpzlg receved oflîclaI recogmuon from the M.tmstry of the interor Durmg the wmter I9I-22 there were 1,592 courses m Germany for about 40,00o adults, half of them workmg-class people On Iune 8, I935, the Nauonal-Socmhst Mtmster of Educauon, Bemhard Rust, decreed that to teach Esperanto m the Thzrd Relch was henceforth Klegal. The reason he gave was that the use of a tfizzal languages such as Esperanto weakens the essentmt value of national peculmrtzes EsperalltO just falled to gara support whlch imght bave ruade bastory In splte of wlre-pullmg and hlgh-grade publlclty management, lts promoters were ilOt able to pelsuade the League of Nations to corne out tmeqmvocally in favour of lts use as the mternataonal language. Whether thls was a calamlty the reader may ludge from what follows Let us flrst look at ltS phonetlc bmld-tp Though Esperanto uses all the letters of the Roman alphabet except ttlree (Q, x, v), lts aspect ls uIffamlar on the prmted page Thts is due to lts rive accented consonants, d , ,/7, oî, , a novelty open to more thai1 one crltclsm, more partlcularly that such symbols mlpede recog- mtlon of mtematlonai roots and slow down the speed of Wlatmg Ttle correspoildmg sounds are equally open to lmfavourable comment The H Olke h m horn) and thê 117i (ilke ch m Scots loch) are dlfficult sotmds for people brought up to speak Romance languages. Other Somlds whlch cause embarrassmetlt to many natmnals are represeated by such combmatlons as SG (----sis), KG (----kts), asad NKG, e g funkao (fuilctlon) In coltradlstmcttol to the praclace of Volapuk» wlch had end-stress appropriate to the maporrance of ïts suffaxes, the accent of
Pzonez, rs of Language Planning 463 an Esperanto wrd falls mvanably on the last sy!lable but one, e.g. wrb6vo Coull) Wlth many other armficml aumhanes, Esperanto shares the duhously useftfl ammaucal rock of labellmg each of the "parts of speech" wth lts own trade-mark The noun smgular must end m -o, the adjecttve m -a, the der_ved adverb m -e, the mfinttve m -z The officml defence ls tbas. A reaàer can recogmze at once whch words express the mare theme of an Esperanto sentence and wlmch merely express quahficatmns The ubqmtous vocahc endmgs of Esperanto, hke those of Itahan, make the spoken language sonorous and prevent accumulauon of consonantal clusters whmh are dztficult to pronounce, e g m Enghsh economsts expec spread of slumps throughout cvzlzzed world Zamenhof leamed nothmg from the obhtemuon of subject-oblect chstmctton m the Enghsh and Romance noun Esperanto bas an oblect case-form en,mg m -n both for nouns and pronouns, e g nz lernas Esperanton (we are learnmg Esperanto) Esperanusts clama that people who speak or wnte Esperanto enloy greater frêedom of word-order, and can therefore repîoduce that of the mother tongue wthout makmg a statement tmmtelhgble m wntmg. If the goat eags the cabbage, we can also say that the cabbage eats thegoag, because OEe n ofthe Esperanto cabbage shows that xt s harmless The Esperanto oblect case-form xs also an accusatve of dtrecuon in the Latin style Instead of the pre- posmon al (to) you may use the accusatlve and say, e g mz zras Lon- donon (nom Londono)= I am gomg to London Apparenfly the Esperanto for out verb go does hot sutficnently express !ocomotmn To make the pluxal of an Esperanm noun we add - to the smgmlar, e g kato (cat)--ktoj (cats), accus kaon--teao.n There s no gram- maucal gender, but for some reason fficult to fathom Zamenhof could hot break away from the mmtuuon of adjeoeval concord I-Is adlecuve bas to tratl behmd t the case and number termmals of the noun, e g nomm. bela rozo or obI belan rozon (beaunfi.fl rose)---belaj rozoj or belajn rozojn (beauuf-ttl roses) Wthout regard for femmst senument, names of females corne from names for males by mter- polauon of-m before the trade-mark -o of the noun, e g patro (father), patrmo (mother), frao (brother), framo (sster) Wthout dehberate deference to femmme sentunent Zamenhof reverses the process to manufacxure the novel product frlo (unmarned young man) by analogy wth fraïhno (German Fraulem = Mass) The Esperanto verb bas, kke that of most of the more recent amficaal languages, a smgle regular conlugauon, wthout flexton of
464 The Loom o Language number or persoll, e g m skrzbas (I wrlte), h skrzbas (ge wntes), n skrbas (we wnte) It stocks to affixatton for tense and mood, and there ls no shortage of them We gave to Ieam the -2 for the mflmtave, -as for the present m&catve, -s for the past mchcative, -os for the fumxe, -u for the sublmactve and mperattve, and -us for the con- chttonal TIaere s only one auxahary, estz (to be) By chasmg it through the OEerent tellses and moods (estas, estzs, estos, etc ) and then corabmmg It wth the ttîree acttve partlclples (amanta lovmg, ammta laang loved, amonta gomg to love), you can mallufacture 18 OEerent compomad constructons, and then double ttle llumber by substlmtmg passive pamclples for the acttve ones (amata loved, amzta havmg been love& amota gomg to be loved) Zamelahof's vocabulary collssts of a col!ectaon of arbltranly chosen roots, wtllch grow by adchtoll of about 50 derlvatlve prefixes, suIFaxes, and mfixes The most glarmg defect of the Esperantlst stock of words ts that It ls llot collsisteItly mternatlollal To be sure, Zamenhof dtd choose some roots wNch are pan-European In tins category we fmd atom, aksom, tabak, tuaIet He also chose roots whcla are pamally international, 1 e commoll to a large number of European languages Ill tins class we meet, e g ankr (anchor), emall (eamel) Tlese mter- llatlollal and seml-mtematxonal words laad to comply vnth Zamenlaof's somad and spellmg conventions They also gad to talçe on Esperanto termmals As ofteg as hot they are therefore unrec%mazable, or at best datticult to recogatze, e g kafo (coffee), enko (wctory), kon (kow), kur (run) What s worse, they are often masleadmg Thus sesono does llot mean season, as we mglat suppose It memas one-sxth So also foslo stands for a spade, llot for a fossl Not even the starchy food called sago escaped muttlatoll Its lagltf llame was clanged to saguo pre- sumably because sago (Latin sagtta) was badly needed to desgaate the Esperanto arrew Zamenlaof reected an enormous number of mternatlollally current words He chsmassed hundreds endmg In -atwn, -ztzon, and -swn, or dlstorted them, e g naczo for natzon, nacza for natwnal A large class of words m the Esperanto dleollary are llot mterllattollal m any sellse To coax the susceptblhtleS of Germans, or Russlans who do Ilot or chd hot thell welcome adchtlon of mternattollal terres denved from Latin or Greek roots, Zamenhof mcluded words wlalch add to the dtfficulttes of a Frellchman or a Spamard wlthout apprecaably hghtenmg the burden for a Dutctlman or a Bulgarian Thls compromise was responsable for roots such as bedaur (German bedauern = regret), flug
Pioneers of Language Planning 465 (German Flug = flght), knab (German Knabe-- boy), kugl (German Kugel = sphere) Strxag fllustrauons of Zamenhof's fear of nauonal suscepublhty, and bas des,re to keep an even balance, are the Esperanto words for dog, year, hazr, and school For dog, one naturally expeexs kano (cane in Itahan, co m Portuguese, chzen m French) correspondmg to our adjectave canine In deference to German and Scandmavlan senument, it lS hundo For year the Swechsh eqmvalent s d, Germa Jahr, French an, Itahan anno» Spamsh ao, Portuguese ano There s clearly no agreement between the Romance and the Teutomc word-form, but the foot ann- ls common to annual (Enghsh)» annuel (French), Annalen (German) Zamenhof selected the German form, 3af The word for hazr zllustrates the saine absurchty In Swechsh It ls hdr, German Haar, Itahan capello, Sparush cabel!o, Portuguese cabelo» French cheveu Agam we bave an mternattonaI foot m out techmcal words capzllary or capzllarzty, correspondmg o the German Kapzllar--- (Içapllargefass» Kapzllaztat) Zamenhof chose the purely Teutomc form bar One of the most mternauonal words m dazly speech Is school (Lama schola, Itahan scuola, lrench école, German Schule, Swechsh skola). Zamenhof chose lerneyo From such roots as raw matenals of tus chctlonary, the Esperanust btulds new words by simple luaposmon, as m vaporgzpo (steamboat), fer'vojo (rallway)» or by addmg prefixes and suffes. Some of the affixes corne from other languages lth a natïve halo of vagueness Others are wbAms of Dr Zamenhof hunseJ£ Thus the prefix bo- slgnes relation through marnage, as m bopatro (father-m-law), the suffix -et is dmamu- rave, as m venteto, breeze (from vento» wmd), and -eg s augmentatlve, as m ventego (gale) Even among the votanes the prefix mal- has never been popular. The ummuated European would naturally assume that if means zll or bad as m many international words In Eperanto mal- denotes the opposzte of, hence such strange bed-fellows as malbona Çoad), malamzko (enemy), malfermz (to open). The denvatve affres of Espe- ranto have a charactersuc absent from other constructed languages They can lead ther own hves f proteed by an endmg to sgnffy a part of speech deemed sutable for pbxlosophc abstracttons Tins trick s encouragmg to phalosophers who mdulge m the zn-ness of a one-shzp whzch fills the us-don wtth antz-ty Esperanto clamas to be an aumhary whch satasfies human needs on an international scale, yet s easer to learn than any natural language One should flamk that such a clazm mvolves exastence of a vocabulary
466 The Loom of Language free from redundanes and local odchues The sad truth s that nether Zamenhof nêr bas chscp!es have ever made an mtelhgent attempt at rauonahzaton of word matenal Unless one s a gourmet, a horu- ctùtunst, or a brd-watcher, It s d.ffficult to see why a 36-page Enghsh-Esperanto dacuonary shou]d be encumbered by enmes such as amchoke = artûoko, aruchoke (Jerusalem)= hehamo, mghtshade (deadly) = bdadono, mghtshade (woody)= dolamaro In the saine opus nursmg of the sck (Esperanto flegz, from German pflegen) s dfferennated from nursmg of chfldren (Esperanto vart,, from German warten) when an Esperanto eqmvalent of to look after would have covered both The Key to Esperanto pushes specaahzatmn further by hstmg kzso = kass, and §maco = nosy klss If I shake a botxle Esperamo calls t skuz, but/f I shake my fnend's hand It is manprerm When a chamois leaps mto the Esperanto world it mms mto a £amo, but the stuff wlth wbach I get file dlrt off my wmdow ls hOt a compound of chamozs and lêather, as you mlght thmk, xt ls amo Esperanto fostered several rival proects, and thelr appeaance gave nse to anmety, The year I9o was the foundatlon of the Delegatzon of the Adoptzon of ct?z Internatzonal Auxzhary Language Thls body, whlch had the support of leaders in the academlc world, mcludmg the chemlst Ostwald, the phllologast Jespersen, the logcaan Couturat, approached a large number of scaentlfiC bodles and mdïvldual men of science wlth the suggestion that some competent mstlmuon, preferably the Inter- natzonal Assoaatzon of Acaclemzes, should take over the task of pronotm- cmg udgment on rival clatmants The Assocmtlon refused to do so» and file Delegatwn ltself eventually appomted a commtttee mth thïs ob]ect in 19o 7 Imually discussion focussed on two schemes, Esperanto tself and Idzom Neutral (p 460) The delegates then receaved a thlrd proposal under the pseudonym Ido The author of ths bolt from the blue was Lotus de Beaufroat, 11 then a leadmg French Espe- rantlSt The Commit-cee decaded in favour of Esperanto wlth the proviso that reforms were necessary on the lines suggested by Ido The Esperantlsts officlally refused to collaborate wlth the delegatton m rhe work of reform, and the delegatlon then adopted the reformed prduct wbach took the pseudonym of xts auoEor In some ways Ido s bercer, but tt bas the saine defectlve fotmdatlons as Esperanto It bas dropped ad]ectlval concord but retams the accusatlve form of the noun as an op- tional devce The accented consonants ofEsperanto have chsappeared The vocabulary of Ido contaIns a much tngher proportion of Latin roots» and s well-mgh free of Slavonic lngredlents The roots them-
Pioneers oJ Language Planning 467 selves are less chstorted The system of denvauve a/fixes bas been pruned of some glarmg absurchues, but mflated by a fresh battery based on quasl-local preoccupauons In place of the sx prefixes and twenty-two su!fixes of Esperanto, Ido has stxteen prcfixes and forty suffmes There have been other bxtter feuds berween orthodox Esperanusts and refornnst groups After !do came Esperantzdo by René de Saussu e The three followmg eqmvalent sentences tllustrate the famdy hkeness of Esperanto, Ido, and Esperanudo. ESPERANTO Por homo veie clvikzlta, filosofo au junsto» la kono de la latma hngvo estas dezrebla, sed mternacla lmguo estas unla pot moderna mter- komurukado de lando al aha IDO Por homo vere ciwltzlta, filozofo od yunsto, la konoco da Latma esas dezlrmda, ma hnguo mternacmna esas uttla pot !a komumcado moderna de un lando al air.fa ESPERACrIDO Pot homo vere crm» filozofo or yunst% la kono de la latma hnguo estas dezrebla, sed mternacua hnguo estas uula pot moderna mter- komumcado dey un lando al aha INTERLINGUA No rival successly arrested the spread of Esperanto, though several of lts compeutors were mameasurably supenor Every new prolect ruade for more intemauonahty of the baslc word matenal Commg from OEerent dîrecuons poneers of language-plannmg were convergmg to a smgle focus Some searched the hvmg European repre- sentanves of the Aryan famaly for terres common to the greatest number of them, and mevltably arnved at a vocabulary essennally Lann m character Or.hem took the outcome for granted, and went strmght to the neo-Latm languages for bncks and straw A ttnrd group extracted from Classlcal Latin what remams ahve, ne ts vocabulary, and chs- carded what s dead, i e its grammar The most mteresung, and now the most enhghtened, attempt to modermze Lann is Latmo sine Flexzone (h#erhngua), devased by the Itahan mathemancmn, Gmseppe Peano In 9o8 Peano became Dtrector of the Academîa pro IrzterhNza, formerly the Akademz de Lmgu Umversal, and af a snll earher stage m ts career, the Kadem beunetk Volapka, founded by the second
468 The Loom oJ Language and t_hrd Volapuk Congress The Academza was a meetmg-ground for people mterested m apphed kngmsucs Any enthusaast could jom and contnbute to ats organ m any amficaal language wlch has fellow- travellers could easaly understand The aun was to chscoçer what as most international among the exastmg welter of European languages Smce 19o3 Peano had been pubhshmg has research m a smaphfied folm of Latin He chd hot know that Leabmz (p 45I) had proposed somethlng sunflar» 11 one of bs pupfls came across the German pl.lo- sopher's observauons on rataonal grammar and a umversal language On January 3, I9o8» Peano &d somethmg qmte unprofessorml He read a paper to the Academza delle Sczenze dz Tormo It began an con- ventaonal Latin and ended m Peanese Catng Leabmz, he emphaslzed the superflmtaes of Latin grammar As he chscussed and ustîed each mnovataon he advocated, he mcorporated at m the lchom o£ hs chs- course forthwath. Grammr-book Latin underwent a metamorphosls on the spot What emerged from the chrysahs was a language whxch any well-educated European can re.ad at fst sght lnterhngua mms at a vocabulary of Latin elements whach enloy wdest currency m the hvmg European languages of to-day It there- fore mcludes all words wth whch we ourselves are already famar, together wth lattmzed Greek stems wbach bave contrbuted to mter- national termmology Of ltseKt_hls does hot dlstmgulsh Interlmgua from some other aumllarles Fave out of" six wods an the Esperanto chctlonary bave roots taken from Latm dlrectly or mdlrecdy The Latin blas of Ido, Occidental» or Romanal lS even st.ronger What dlstmgulshes Interlmgua from Esperanto and ltS relatives as the garb wlalch the mteratlollal foot wod weas I. Zameahof's scheme the bozrowed word had to conform wath the author's adeas about spellmg, prollun- clatlon, and flexlonal appenchces After chppmg and addmg, the end- product often defies l ecogmtlon on an mtemaraonal scale Peano followed a dlfferent plan He chd hot muate hls packangs The Latin word bas the stem-form, that as, roughly the form ïn whach we meet at in modem languages What Peano regards as the stem of a noun, adleCtlVe, or pronoun lS the ablarave (p 3 I5) ïorm, e g. argento, campo, arte, carne, monte» parte» ptebe» prmoEpe, celebre, audace, novo Every one of these words occurs ïn Itahan, Spamsh, and Portuguese We ourselves are famlhar mth r.hem m argentzne, camp, artzst» carmvorous, mountazn, part, pIebezan, pr«ncnpaI, cdebnty, audactous, novêlty In thts way Latin words preserve ther final vowels The stem-form of the Peano verb ls the Latin lin-
Pioneers of Language Planning 469 peranve, or the mmttve wthout-re So we get ama (amare), habe (habere), scrzbe (scrzbere), au& (audz e), z (zre) Interhngua bas no mobile denvauve afïes to juggle wath If ls whotly analyucaI, hkê Chmese or, we mlght almost add, Anglo-Amencan What prefixes and sufflxes remam stack firmly to the Latin or Greek loan-word wth a11 ther chversty of meamng, contrachcuons and obscunnes m Enghsh, French, or Spamsh usage The grammar of Interhngua wdl hot delay us Iong Its supreme vrtue ls lts modesty In Peano's own words, the mmzmum grammar zs no grammar at all No ploneer of language-plannmg has been more lcono- clastc towards the rrelevancles of number, gender, tense, and mood It ls Chmese va Latin roots, but bec,ame the roots are Latin (or Greek) there ls no surfeur of amblguous homophones What Latin labels by several OEerent gemtve case-marks, Interlmgua bmds together wlth the "empty" word de, eqmvalent to out word of Thus Lama vox popuh, vox dez, becomes voce de populo, »oce de Deo Number m&cauon s optzonal, an muovauon w!nch no future planner can gnore. What s now famar to the reader of the Loom, Peano first grasped He saw that number and tense mtrude m sltuauons where they are Lrrelevant, and we become slaves of ther erastence Whether we hke t or hot, we bave to use two rreIevant Ang!o-Amencan flemons when we say" there were thee hes m yesterday's broadcast The plural s fs redundant because the number hree cornes belote the noun The past were s rrelevant because what happêned yesterday ls over and done wth I,terhngua reserves the optzonal and mternauonal plura] affix -s (Laun marres, Greek meteres, French mb es, Spamsh madres, Dutch moeders) for situauons m wluch there ls no qualufier equavalent to many, several, etc, or nothmg m the context to spec plurahty, e g the father bas sons = patte habe fihos, but three sons = tres fiho It ls almost an msult to Peano's gemus to add tha rnterhngua bas no gender apparams or that the adjecuve is mvarant If sex is relevant to the SltUauon, we add mas for the male, and femma for the female, e g cane femzna -- a bztch There lS no arucle, defimte or mdefnnte The chsunctmn me, he---hzm, etc, which alrnost al1 Peano's predecessors preserved, ches an overdue dèath Me stands for I and me, dlo for he and hzm iî)emohtlon of the verb-edlfice lS equally thorough Therê are no flexmns of person or number Thus me habe = I bave, te habe = you bave, nos habe -- we bave There xs also no obhgatory tense-chstmctlon TNs Is in line wth the analyucal dnft of modern European languages
47o The Loom o Language (cf especally Afnkaans, p 285) whch rely on helpers or pamcles to express urne or aspect The -ed hke the -s tu two rabbzts escaped yester- day ls rêdundat We bave no need for elther of t_hem when we say' ¢wo sheep hurt themselves yesterday The Interlmust says herz me es n London (yesterday I BE n London), hoAe llos es n Pars (to-day they BE m Paris), cras te e n ezo York (to-morrow you BE m New York) Peano's amtude to tense ls on atl fours wth hls amtude to number Where exphct pamcles, or context do hot already specffy past tune, the helper e before the verb does so Simtlarly (flore re) mchcates the ture as m the French consrrucaon je vas me coucher (I ara gomg to bed) Thus the Interimgtnst says me bbe ----- I ara gomg to drmk, or me e bbe = I drank Though one of the most attramve prolects yet desgned, Peano's Interhngua bas several weak points Some of them spnng from the fact that ts author had hs eyes glued on the European mzse-en-scène, and more parucuiarly, on the cultural tnerarchy So he never asked htmse!f whether [nterhngua was free from sounds hkely to cause dzflîculues to lingmsuc commumues outsde Europe There s another grave but easfly remechablê omission A completely fleraonless language such as Ingerhngua calls for nNd rules of word-order Pemao bothered httle about the necessary traffic reguiauons The captaI weakness of Inter- hngua s that ts vocabu!ary ts too large Its author Ignored the mterests of the peoples of Afnca and Asa, as he also gnored the plain man m Europe Had he had more sympathy ,mth thetr needs he would bave worked out a mznzmum vocabulary suflîcaent for everyday purposes He did hot The 95 echaon ofPeano's Vocabulano Gommune contams 4,ooo words wtnch have currency tu leadmg European languages Here s a sample of Interhngua Telewsorîe. aut transmssone de magmes ad chstantm» es ultmao apphcauone de undas electnco In che 8 februano 9.8, magmes de très hormne m Long Acre apud London es transrmsso ad Hartsdale apud New York, et es recepto super uno piano, de 5 per 8 centmetro, ub assstentes vde faces m London ad more, apen ore» etc NOVIAL Bacon bas sald that OEe truc and lawfizl goal of science s to endow human lffe wth new powers and mventïons Throughout tns long and chsungmshed career» the great Damsh lmgut Jespersen bas had the courage and ongmahty to emphasze that phflologT bas the saine "true and lawf goal" as any other science As a young man he espoused
Pzoneers oJ Language Planning va mm Volapuk and Esperanto Later he helped he put forward a prolect of hs own mahng, bu hke many other Esperanto renegades chd hot succeed m sheddmg the larval skm of hs tnghly mflected past He called t Novzal Novaal s the latest arnval It s hot the last word in tanguage-plan- nmg Nararally, t s better than Esperanto o Ido Because t had the advantage of commg later, t could scarcety be otherwse Besicles, Jespersen s the greatest hvmg authonry on Enghsh grammar. It would be surpnsmg ff a construcuve Imgmst faîled to recogmze the cardinal vrmes of a langage so dear to hma What Jespersen calls the best t3pe of mtemauonal language xs one whzch ,n every point offers the greatest f acd#y to the greatest number. When he speaks of the greatest number he refers only to Europeam and those mhabztants of the other continents who are ezther of European exîractzon or whose culture s based on European czwhzatzon. Ths sutficaently explams why Novzal retams so many lummes common to Western European languages For instance, the Noval adlecave bas a conceptual ,zeuer form, end.mg tu -um From what s otherwase the mvanant »er we get verum, wtnch means tue thmg In defiance of decent t.hnft, Nowal bas two ways of expressmg possessxvê relauons, an enaIyucal one by means of the parucle de, and a synthettc by means of the endmg-n Thus Men pa¢ron kontore s Nowal for. my (mme) father's olice Jespersen's treat- ment of the verb conforms to the anaiyucal techmque of Angio-Amen- can Tbs at least s an enormous advance upon Esperanto, Russan, Lthuaman, and other ddflicult languages, but s hot pamcttlarly mpressve ff we apply the yaxdstck of Pekmgese or Peanese Future and conchtaonal are expressed by the aumhanes sal and vzd, peffect and pluperfect by the auxtanes ha and had Nowal departs from Enghsh usage m one pamcular The chcuonary form does the work of out past pamcaple m compound past tenses, e g me protekge, I protect, me ha potekte, I bave protected Tins recaBs the class of Enghsh verbs to wtnch cug, pug, or hur¢ belong What sunphficatîon results fromthts s nulkfied by the superfluous existence of two ways of expressmg past urne, a syntheuc one whch ends m the Teutomc weak -d, e g me protekted (i protected), and an analyacaI one mvolvmg an eqmvalent non-emphatc Chaucenan helper &d, e g me &d protekte There are no flexmns of mood; but the student of Nowal bas to learn how to shunt tense forms appropnate to indirect speech Ltke Espêranto, Nowal bas a bulky apparams of denvauve atfixes for commg new words They recall forms which exast m contemporary
47z The Loom oJ Language European languages, but espersen xs at pares to gve each a clear-cut meamng There are many wlztmscahues m the choce of them A specml sut denotes acuon, another mchcates the result of an acuon, and a thd xs for use when the product of the actzon zs speczally meant, as &stznct from the way zn whzch zt zs done (Got t») In the hst of prefixes we meet an old acquamtance, the Esperanto bo- Ths mchcates relauon by marnage, e g bopatro (father-m-law), bomatra (mother-m-law), bofiha (daughter-m-law). How long the mother-m-law wfll commue to be a menace to monogamy, or how long monogamy wfll continue to be the prevazlmg mores of cved commumues we cannot say Mean- whfle t as just as easy to make a oke about the analyucal Enghsh or Chmese eqtuvalent of )'espersen's bomatra In bmlchng up iris vocabulary Jespersen auned at choosmg the most mtemauonal words Smce there are many thmgs and nouons for whch there are no fully fledgecl internauonal 0 e European) terres Jespersen embraces the eclecucsm of hs predecessors The result s a mongrel pup The foliowmg story fllustrates xts hybnd character Da G Bernard Shaw Un amo de me keI had smcha spesxahm okulah krurga, exammad m un vespre men wdpovo e mformad me ke lum esed totn-n non-nteressant a 1% pro ke lum esed "normal " Me naturtm kredad ke tutu mgmfikad ke lum esed snnfl a omm altren, ma lo refusad n mterpetauone kom paradoxal, e hastosma exphcad a me ke me esed opnkahm exepnonal e tre fortunos persone, pro ke "normah" wdo donad h povo tu vda koses akurattm e ke nor dek pro sent del popule posesed to povo, konter ke h restantt nmann pro sent esed non-normal Me mstannm deskovrad It exphkauone de men non-sukseso kom roman-aurore Men mental okule kom men korporal okule esed "normal", lum wdad koses altrmaan kam h okules de altm bornes, e vdad les plu bomm (Traduktet kun perrmsmne de aurore ) THE ANGLO-AMERICAN REACTION Wlth one excepuon, G J Henderson, who pubhshed two proposais, Lzngua m 1888 and Latmesce a few years later, none of file promoters of constructed languages durmg the nineteenth centttry were Amerlcan or Bnush Wlth few excepuons, no continental hnguïsts of the nîneteenth century, and none of the leaders of the world-auxlhary movement, recogmzed the fact that one extstmg language, that of file largest Clvlhzed speech commumty, ls free from several defects common to all outstandlng projects for an artlficaal mechum, before the pubhcauon of Peano's Interhngua.
Poneers o Language PIanning 473 Tls ls hot altogether suprismg t3ecause Enghsh sçellmg teems wlth legu]anues, and stfii more because of the vast esooEoes of hybnd vooeba, leg Enghsh s hot an easy msk for anyoe who s to get a wde remg knoledge So acadec sts ed m seema psts ovelooked e astomsg se w wch a bezef get a good wog owledge of e mterlage as a vecle o çetenuous self-expresz. C K Oge and s coeae, I A chds, oee lagely esponsble for OEe og recouon oï e men whch wo hgh rebute om Gmm Ogden d char chose glo-enc usage as OEe oese maten of ghe Meamng of Meamng, a hdbook of mode logée Wha beg as acaoEec exauon of how we define gs, led one of e auo mto a more spacmus dom eo we had OEought of Eghsh as e lage OE OEe lge oecuo Ogden's wok bas taht s to ecoe ï exoeeme word ecomy To esoIve s padox e oede ee to ow e pmblem wch Ogden d chds soess m er book Latent m OEe OEeme of OEe Tte Meanmg o/Meamng s OEe foHowmg quesuon: what s OEe absolute mmzmum number of words we need to retam. we oee to gve mteble de.non of ooEer words m Webster's or OEe ord Don The swer s. about 8oe. or beeen o d ee mon' work for yone g to memome tweIve new words a day Ts groet potennal word-economy of glo-enc s due to OEe wzthng away of wd-fo.s dzctated by context wtt.out regard to meanmg We have had many exples of s process, espeaHy m Chapte III. IV. d VII O naal mterlage bas shed reddt conteal oeons beeen pcles d beeen oemve d mammve verbs We can now do oEout a bae of about 4o spec verb- fos wch e ost senmal to or se-eressmn m French or Ge Ts s hot oesputed by noe who at OEc absence of nes for eveday objets m Ogden's 85 ° Basc Word Lst. d t s hot necess to rend roede of OEe Lo OEat glo-enoen bas ooEer supreme ment wch pmnee of lage-plg, ooEer OE OEe eat st He Sweet» were slow to ree Aoedec Bnush . oE few notable excepuons such as Braoeey, have always been apologenc about e flemon "pove" of Enghsh. d sposed to fonoee y svmg flemons OEey cod fish up. fa, OEere e only ee sug obhgaty flemom wch we need to add to o tems for a seceabie vocab of new words (a) -s (for OEe rd pemon sm of e prient tense, or for e
474 The Loom oJ Language plural form of the noun, (b) -d or -ed for the past tense or pamcaple of verbs, (c) -mg, whch can be tacked on to almost any word whach sgnes an aoeon or process The geitve -s ïs ottonal, as are the -er and -est of essental comparatives or saperlatves The seven fonns of the verb be, four or rive forms of a îew--not more than a dozen-- common strong ç e bs, and ha!f a dozen lrregular nun plurals, round up the essentals of Anglo-Amercan grammar other than rules of word-order. Thus the essenttal gramrrtr of 2knglo-Amencan s much smpler than that of the only two armficaal languages wlnch bave htherto attracted a constdeïable popular followmg The language tself s the most cosmopohtan medlum of cîvlhzed mtercourse, and t can boast of a copous hterature produced at low cost It s the exclusive Western vebacle of commercml transactîons m the Far East, and the common tongue of business enterpnse on the Amercan continent It ts also a hngua franca for the pubhcatton of a large bulk of scaenttfic research camed on m Scandmama, Japan, China, and m countrïes other than France, Germany, or Italy For ali these and for other reasons, the movement to promote Anglo-Amencan as a world-alzxthary has echpsed the enthusmsms wth wbach former generataons espoused proposais for constructed languages Whatever rate has ïn store for Ogden's system of Basc Enghsh, everyone who s mterested m the mterlanguage pt oblem must acknow- ledge a debt to ts author for clanfymg the problem of woÆd-economy and speclfymg the prînclples for makmg the chctlonary of a sattsfactory world-aurahary What s hot beyond chspute s whether bas partlcular solutton of the problem s the best one To avod the inflation of a basc vocabulary wth separate verbs, Ogden takes advantage of the enormous number of chstmctave elements whïch can be replaced by one of about sncteen common Engllsh verbs in combmatïonwtïl other essentaalwords Thus we can make the followmg combmatons wxth go followed by a darèoEve- go around (crcumscrzbe, enctrcle, surround), go across (traverse), go away (depart); go after (follow, pursue), go agazn (retum), go agaznst (atmck); go belote (precede), go by (pas)» go clown (descend) go for (fetch), go m (enter), go on (conranue), go out (leave), go rhrogh (pere- trate), go fo (vmt), go up (ascend), go îvth (fit, suït, accompany) We can also manufacture many verb eqmvalents by combmmg some common Enghsh verbs wlth nouns or adecttves, m accordance wth the precedent ofBble Enghsh" makë clean, matee wet, make whole» make
Pioners of Language Plannzng 475 zveIl» nake a tire of, make a fuss about» make trouble Rehance on such combmanons îs the method of verb-economy pecuhar to Baszc F_,nghsh. The Baslc Word Last contams only the verbs corne» go» get» gve, keep, let» make» put» seem» posslble to say any,.kmg m effecuve Enghsh whach does hot offend accepted conventmns of grammar wthout mtroducmg any verbs hot mcluded m tins hst. We could make any language more easy to leam by loppmg off' Its useless flemons and regu!aneang rbose whch are useful, and tf we depnved French of ts preposterous encumrance of personal flexaons (fifty per cent unpronounce and the sull more preposterous burdeîa of gender or number concord, Frenchmen rmght sulI decapher the product» as we can decapher pldgm Englsh It ls doubfful whether tins would he!p a foreîgner m read French books, and the eat prac- ucaI advantage of a hwug, m contra&stmcaon to a constructed, lan- guage s the amemty of cheap bocks already avable Besicles, no Frenchman wotùd agtee to learn a muulated form of bas own language as an aumhary for peaceful commumcauen. Tins ls hot the restflt at wlnch Ogden auns SpeIlmg reform or sunphficaton of Ano-Amencan gïrmmar, beyond the ehmmatmn of optonal sunnvals for whch accepted lsolaung construcuons already exast» would lead to somethmg OEerent from the Anglo-Amencan m whach mllbons of cheaply produceà books corne out yearly So Ogden accepts al1 the few obhgatory flemons and n'regulanties mherent m correct usage and relects only those (e g the optmnal gemnve) wtnch we need hot use He has proved Ms c!anns for Basc as a means of self- expression by translatmg techmcal works and narratves for educatonal use mto a terse lchom wlnch s hot unpleasmg to most of us The prose style ofl B S.Haldane s often almost pure Basc Basc s hot essomally a OEerent sort of Enghsh from Anglo-Amencan as we usually under- stand the term It wou!d be beer to descnbe it as a system by whïch a begmner can lêarn to express h, oEelf ciearly and co=ectly accordmg to accepted standards wth no more effort than leammg a constructed language entatls The recently pubhshed New Testament m Basc s a sufficent refutauon of the cnttctsm that Basc s a pdgm Enghsh The word hst of the Basc New Testament contams some specaal Bbie words wtnch make the total up to a round ,ooo The followmg s a fa.tf sample for companson vnth the Kmg James (Authonzed) Bble (Marlî x. and Acts
476 KING ]'AM.ES BIBLE Then Jesus beholchng hlm loved hn, and sald unto hlm, One thng thou lackest go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and glve to the poor, and thou shalt bave treasure m heaven and corne, take up the cross, and follow me And he was sad at that saymg, and went away grîeved for he had great possessions And Jesus looked round about, and salth unto bas chsclples, How hardly shall they that bave riches cnter mto the lngdom of Godl And the ds- cples were astomshed at bas words But Jesus answereda agam, and salth un,to em, Cb_ddren, how hard s It for them that trust m riches to enter mto the kmgdom of God The Loom of Laguage BASIC NEW TESTAMENT And esus, lookang on hm, and lovmg lum, sald, There s one tlng needed go, get money for your goods, and ve it fo the poor, and you wfll bave wealth m heaven and corne wth me But lus face became sad at the saymg, and he went away sorrowng for he was one who had much pro- perty And esus, lookmg round about, smd fo bas chsclples, How bard t Is for those who have wealth fo corne nto the lngdom of Godl And the chscp!es were full of wonder al hs words But esus smd fo them agam, Cluldren, how hard t s for those who put fmth m weaith fo corne nto the -klngdom of God I And the mulntude of them that beheved were of one heart and one soul nelther smd any of t.hem that ought of the thmgs whlch he possessed was bas own, but they had ail thmgs common . Nether was there any among t_hem that lacked for as many as were pos- sessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the pnces of the tbangs that were sold, and lad them down at the aposfles' feet and chsmbuuon was made unto every man accordmg as he had need And ail those who were of the fmth were one m heart and sou] and hot one of r_hem smd that any of the thmgs wbnch he had was hts property only, but dey had ai1 r_hmgs m common And no one among them was m need, for everyone who had land or houses, exchangmg them for money, took the pnce of t.hem, and put xt at the feet of the Apostles for dïstnbutmn to everyone as he had need Some cnucs of Basc wùi say that tt ts tamted wlth the phdosoptucal preoccupattons of Wdkms, Lebmz, and Bentham--the armchar vew that the mana business of language s to "transnt deas " To be sure, tmnsmissmn of tdeas s an unnecessanly charitable descnpnon of the everyday speech of people who have to eat, dress, buy cugarettes, pay rent, mate, or excrete Adrmttedly a large part of the dally mtercourse of mtellectuals themselves deals wtth mtuauons in wtuch t s not con- vement to defme a beefsteak as a cut from the back end of a male cow
Pkrneers o.[ Language Planmng 477 kept on the tire long enough wlth the nght thmgs--and so forth Advocates of Basic may reasonably reply that thas concem for our common humamty ls spunous, that early trmmg by the method of defimtaon would do much to rase the general mtellectual level of mankmd, and that the mana thmg for the begmner ls to get self-confi- dence as soon as possible, at the nsk of a httle Iong-wmdedness The focus of mtelhgent cntlclsm lS the form of verb-economy whlch Ogden has chosen t-Ils crlncs point out that those who have used Baslc dlom as a substltute for the more usual type of Anglo-Amencan m exampIes such as those clted above already know Enghsh and have no doubt about the meamng of such combmations as get for or go wzth Is the correct lchomanc construction for the verb of another language equally obvlous, ff we do hot already know Enghsh Is It certain that a forelgner w111 deduce from lts hteral meanmg the chomatlc verb m the sentence Martha had ber hands full of the zoork of the house Tins dlffi- culty cornes out m three ways of translatmg mto Basc l&om each of the hghly mdefimte native verbs (a) try, (b) ask (a) attempt - make an attempt at test : put to the test judge = be the judge of (b) question -- put a quesuon about request -- make a request invite -- gve an lnVtalon Though t ls quite correct Enghsh to put a qvestzon and make a request, It s daflcult to see why a Chmese should prefer these ïorms to makmg a questwn or putmg a request Indeed the Chmaman would be at home in hls native lchom ff he took advantage of the fact that attempt, test, ]udge, request, questzon, can ail be used as verbs or nouns, and that we request the presence of a person when we mwte hlm By exploxting thls most remarkab!e feature of Enghsh word-economy It would be easy to devise a word-hst no longer than that of the officlal Baslc 85o wlthout recourse to thls bewildermg multiphcty of dloms We could also mclude a few words such as purchase, wNch can be verb (to purchase), noun (the purchase of), or adlectlve (,purchase prce), mth- out such penphrases as gzvê money for when we bave to refer to an actlvxty of dafly occurrence Tins way of solvmg the problem of verb- economy bas another advantage The Basxc construction ls long- wmded The Chmese trick lS snappy It goes wlthout saymg that any attempt to smaph Anglo-Amencaa withîn the framework of generally accepted conventxons bas a ready
478 The Loom o.f Laggzmge welcome where there lS contmuous contact between Brîtîsh admms- trators and Oriental or Afncan populauons wath a mulumde of local vernaculars Owmg to the influence of Amencan t-rade and medlcme, and to that of Amencan Umversmes and phalanrhropic tbundauons m the Far East, the influence of thelr common language extends far beyond the bounds of the Bnush Empr or the Umted States As a hngua franca m China and Japan, It has no formïdable European compeutor Esperanto or any form of rehablhtated Aryan would have no prospect of outsmpping Auglo-Amencan unless It first estabhshed itself by general agreement as the oficlal medlum of a Umted Europe In more than one respect Esperanto ls mfenor, and tu none supenor, to Enghsh Wth lts wealth of flexlons It hmps far behmd several European languages, and it would be a bold boast to say that ts vocabu- lary ls more mtemauonal than that of Enghsh There s already a large educauonal pubhshmg chentele for pro- posais wlalch atm at promotmg the use of Anglo-Amencan as the hngua franca of technology and trade m backward and subject com- mumues Baslc ls hot the only proposa1 of thas sort From Toronto cornes West's method Tbas s based on word-counts, and presumably therefore amas to cater for the needs of those whose mamechate goal s rapd progress m readmg facïhty Mass E1ame Swensen of the Language Research Insumte at New York Umverslty has devased another system, H E Palmer of the Instztute for Research zn Enghsh Teachmg m Tokyo a thard (Iret) In Amerzcan Speech (I934), Dr. Jane Ranln Atken has put forward Lttle Enghsh, wath an essenual vocabu- lary of 8oo words, 1 e 5 ° less than Baslc Others exast and w111 corne THE PROSPECTS FOR LANGUAGE-PLANNING The first desideratum of an mterlanguage ls flac ease with wàtch people can learn it If we apply thas test to rival claîmants» two conclu- smns emerge from out narrauve One may well doubt whether any constructed language wth the support of a mass movement s superior to Anglo-Amencan» especaally ff we consder the needs of the Far East or of the awakemug mons of Afica At the same urne, xt would be easy to dewse an aruficaal language vasfly supenor to Anglo-Amencan by takmg advantage of neglected lessons from comparauve gtusucs and of the short-commgs of our predecessors in the saine endeavour. If bastorical ctrcumstances favour the adoption of a hvmg one as a world language» Anglo-Amencan has no dangerous rival, and pracucal reasons wbach make people prefer Anglo-Amencau to any
Pzoeers of Language Planning 479 amficaal mterlaage, however sely coaceved, w mentably cheoE y Nd to supersêde OEe g!o-en &on Sped Enghsh, wheer Basc or !ret, Swensen or ennot m menuon more to come scely aspe to be oer oe a passpo m e more ple temtory of e grt Enh-spg co, and a sffe-condu« to ts nch easw of tec htae To ese conclusmns t s reasonaele to add oer. No cN mterloege movement sponsored by volt effort hope to swp OEe cls of glo-enc m e East. Thus o hopes for a neual consucted loeage std or f m e prospes for a Eope mted by a demoauc consumuon bed on mteNgent pre- wson of suc problems wach demoauc c-operauon mmt suot The choce before us may be seed for many decades to coe by toni cctcoe o»er Nch e bave no conol If Nstonoel coemsoEces do aow to oest o vote, t be supremely pet to recoe Ne phcauos of a decsmn m favo of glo-en or of a new st m lage-plg. æ advocates of cooeed Ianages have been pecoely bd to Ne mtrmsc men of glo-en, ose who champion cls as a wofld-aary have been eqy deff to ts extnrzzc &sabues Though glo-en s hot a nauonal lage, t s hot a pohu- cy neuoeal lage. If a ctono ace of e Enghsh-spg peop!e aempts to me t e oN,al mem of a ted Eope, e w me e Bnnsh nauon a He rvolk It w peemate e mscords wch anse when one speech-co enloys a pneged posmon m OEe N d sooeA Me of a lger oup There s oNy one bass of equ on wch halons c co-operate m a poeceM world order mout OEe mons wch anse om sac erences. A new Eop order» or a new world order m wNch no naaon eNoys favoed eat m be one m wch eve aen s b, as WeNh or SouoE cMoEen oee brought up to be bN e coon lmge of Eope or worId cmzp mt be e b- nght of eveon beoee Ne bght of no one sto has hot yet Nven ver&ct If may hOt be too 1are to fore- sta oesaste of a mNa&ot demsmn For @at reason OEe last chapter of The Loom of LanguNe dl mA paples wch mt &ate a whogy sausafaow solunon of Ne wofldqmage problem aever deasmn bd fate or mteNgent presaence poses on Ne Ne of Ne most mdely oesmbuted d OEe oNy tg aN on s planer, s much s de The effos of e poneers of lage-
480 The Loom of Language plannîng and the work of men like Ogden wîll hOt have been for nothîng. Ogden's prindple of word-economy, must influence the design of any satisfactory artificiaI language of the future. Some features of the later interlanguages» such as Jespersen's and Peano's, wfll inevîtably influence the teachîng of Anglo-Amer/coe» if it is destincd to be the auxiliary language of the whole world. COUTURAT JESPERSEN LOCKHAIT OGDEN PANKHURST FURTHER READING Histoire de la langue universelle. 21 Short History of the International Language #love'ment. An International La,guage. Word Eeonomy. Basic English versus the Artificial Languages. Delphos or the Future of Language.
CHAPTER XII LANGUAGE PLANNING A NEW ORDER* FOR As far as we çan see mto the future, there wfll always be a muktphcity of reguonal languages for everyday use. Those who advocate th¢ intro- duction of an mternattonal mechum do hOt dispute thxs. What they do assert s raie need for a second language as a common mechum for pêople who speak mutually unmteRiglble tongues. They envisage a wodd, or at least federauom of what were once sovereign States, where people of dtfferent speech commtmtues would be bllmgual. Everyone would sull grow up to speak one or other of extstîng nauonal languages, but everyone would also acqmre a smgle aumhary for supra-nauoml communîcauon. This prospect s hot incompatible with the mental capacaues of ordinary human heur; nor does at involve a total break wtth extstmg pracuce Btlmgualîsm exsts already m Wales, Belgium, South A£nca and many other parts Throughout the Enghsh-speakmg world all secondary-school chfldren smdy at least one foregn language, that ïs, French, Spartish, or German; and m some counmes pupfls who leave school wîth a smattermg of a forelgn language are m the majonty. In Bntam they are hOt. Most of the chfldren enter th labour market wth a knowledge of no laaguage other than thetr own Consequeafly mflhons of adult workers are exduded from dïrect commumcatton wxh thetr comanental comrades. Postponement of the schooMeaving age wfll provade an oppormmty for brmgmg the curnculum for ele- mentary mstrucuon m Bntam mto line wth that of many other ¢oun- mes. Thus the adopuon of an international auxtary imphe no more than regulanzauon of exlstmg educauonal pracuce, .e. umversal instruction m a second language and agreement to use one and the saine second language everywhere. Creauon of conchuom for umfornnty of educatïonal pracuce by mternauonal agreement, as a prelude to umversal bl-linguahsm, as defmed above, fs hot a language problem. It zs a pohtzcal problem * The vaews expressed m thts chapter are the outcome of joint chscusston between the author and the echtor The latter bas attempted to gave them shape m a proecr, Interglossa, whmhhas been pubhshed by Pengum Books Ltd. Q
48 The Loorn o.[ l_.anguage Many welI-mformed people sttll doubt whether the socaal need for a smgle umversal second ianguage wlll prove strong enough to over- ride human lazaness At first slght the phght of modem language teachmg m Great Bntam and elsewhere lends some support to pessl- masm Hltherto out schools have produced poor resldts After years of travaal the Brltlsh pubhc school product may have mastered enough French to get m Paris what Paris ls only too wlllmg to sell wlthout French Tins need hot make us hopeless Any society npe for adopt- mg an Interlanguage wdl be faced with a new set of problems. Puplls who now take French or German as school sublects rarely have a clear-cut dea of the purpose for whtch they a.e learmng r.hem» and more rarely stlll, the chance of usmg what knowledge they acquïre The future ls hkely to provlde mcentlves and oppormmtles hltherto unknown Fantastac delays, nusunderstandmgs and waste due to the absence of a smgle common language for mternanonal co-operatlon wll lmpress even those who are hot knowlngly affected by It at present A htmcLred years ago, Europe wxmessed perhaps less than a dozen mtematlonal congresses m the course of a whole decade Delegates were mvanably drawn from the upper class So commumcatlon was easy enough Dehberatlon were m French When international con- gresses became more aumerous, they assumed a more gaudy lmgtustac character Consequently proceduxe had often to be conducted m two or more "otficlal" languages One could choose delegates who were able to compete with the polyglot attendant of an mtemattonal sleepmg-car, but the delegate wlth the best lmgmstlc eqtupment would rarely be one wlth the best lmderstandmg of relevant Issues Tins obstacle to international commumcatmn becomes more formadable as tune goes on People of new strata and more chverse speech habits chscover commumty of mterest, and no smgle language enloys the prestage of French durmg thê eghteenth cenmry In short, the prospects for language planning depetd on the extent to whlch the lmpulse to mternatlonal co-operauon keeps m step wlth the new potentaal of prospenty for ail Socïahst plamlmg, that ls plamamg for the common needs of peoples belongmg to OEerent nattons or cultural umts, wlll brmg about incessant contact between medlcal oflâcérs of health, town-plnnlng experts, electcal engmeers, socaal stattsttclans, trade-umon representanves Increased lelsure combmed wth lmproved travellmg facthtaes waJ_l gave to a large floating section of the populatton oppormmtaes fo estabhsh new socaal contacts through the mechum of an Interlanguage, and Its adoptaon
Language Planmng .[or a New Order 483 would find a ready ally m the mcho. Even those who stay at home perpetually, would be tempted to avall themselves of oppormuitms to iearn more of large-scale socaal enterpnse in nexghbourmg communiues of thc supm-nauonal State The choIce for those of us who chensh th hope lies between constructed language and an already estabhshed mechum, ether m exastmg shape or in some slmpled form, such as Basîc Enghsh. The second iuvolves nothmg more than ageement between educatlonal authorïtîes expressmg the wfll of the people On account of ts gram- matxcal slmphcaty, Its hybnd vocabulary, its vast htemture, and, above ail, xts mde chstnbutmn over r.he planet, the clmms of Anglo-Amertcan would tmdoubtedly exdude those of any other curent Language wktch eould conceavably have a large body of promoters m the near ture; but pohucal objections to such a choce are formidable. It s most tmltkely that a socxahst Continent would decde for Anglo-Amencan as lts mterlanguage ff Bntam remamed hostile to the new order The chances m,ght lmprovê ff a Bntam free of îts mlperial mcubus entered mto close co-operauon wth ts neaghbours next door to butld up a world without class, war and want. Even so there îs much to say for the adoptmn of a heurta/mechum cleansed from the all too exadent defects of exastmg ma=al languages. Some hnguists meet the plea for a constmcted aumhary wth the assertaon that language s a product of growth. It is less easy to detect the relevance than to recogame the truth of ths assertaon. Admtttedly t Is beyond human îngenmty to construct a hve sky-lark, but the aeroplane bas advanrages which no flymg ammal possesses. Apple trees and gooseberry bushes are also products of ;growth» and no reasonable man or woman advances thls trlte reflection as suIficîent reason for preventmg genetacasts from producmg new varietaes of fruit by com- bming mhentêd ments of OEerent strams or alhed specîes. The work acoemphshed by ploneers of the scaence of synthelac lingmsacs shows that It ls also possible to produce new language varîetaes combmmg the mherent ments of derent forms of natural speech. In the hght ofthetr achtevements and shortcommgs we can now prescrlbe the essetmal features of a constructed language whîch would be free from the con= sptcuous defects of any naturel, or of any prëviously constructed, lmaguage. Proîessmnai hngmsts, who do hot dispute the possbfllty of cotruc- tmg a langtmge to meet the reqmrements of mtervanonaI commtmica= tton, sometlmes rmse another obectaoxx They say that the advemure
484 The Loom of Language would be short-hved, ff ever attempted, that no auxflaary could remam intact for long Even ff confmed to the temtory of Europe tself, t would spht mto chalects Each speech commumty would locally nrlpose ts own phoneuc habits and ts own system of stress, and the Tower of Babel would corne crashmg down on the bmlders Only a perpetual succession of international congresses could thus prevent a new chsaster. Such s the gloomy vlew wtnch Professor Wyld of Oxford takes There are three suftîcaent reasons why t need hOt mun'adate us To begm wlth there s nothmg mherently absurd in a suggestton for setung up a permanent mterhngtusuc commasson to check the process of chsmtegrauon For three centunes the forty zmmortals of the Académie Françmse bave tned, hot wthout success» to keep hterary French m a stralght-3acket, and BIorway bas changed ts spellmg and grammar by three Acts of Parhament m less than forty years Ifnauonal governments can control the growth of nauonal languages» an mter- nauonal authonty could also mamtam, an accepted standard for ts own mechum of commumcauon. Though mternauonal comnuttees to supervlse scenufic termmology, e g. the Internatzonal Commzsszo.n on Zoologzcal Nomenclature, are already in exastence, out umversmes chng to the convlcuon that mtelhgent language planning on a world wlde scale s out of the quesuon By the nature of ther trammg academac hngmsts are unduly pre- occuped wlth rimes when few people could travel beyond a day's lourney on horseback or by cart, when readmg and wrltmg, hke steno- graphy to-day, were crafts confmed to a few, when there were no mechamcal means for chstrlbutmg news or mformauon It s true that languages have broken up'tlme and agam m the past, because of chs- perslon over a wlde area, geographlcal isolaraon, absence of a wntten standard and other chsmtegratmg agencaes Those who entertam the hope of mtemauonal commumcauon by an atmfllary envasage a future m whlch these agencaes wfll no longer operate Indeed, we bave expen- ence to sustam a more hopeful vaew than s customary m academlc quar- ters Durmg the cenmnes wtnch have followed the mtroducuon of prmtmg, the gradual dïssoiuuon of flhteracy, and revoluuonary changes m out means of commumcauon, Enghsh bas estabhshed tself as the language of North Amenca and of Australasla It s hot true to say that the three main continental varleues of the common Anglo-Amerlcan language are drlfung further apart. It s probably more true to say that umversal schoolmg, the film, and the racho are bnngmg t_hem doser together In any case, expenence shows that geographacal sola-
Language Planning .for a New Order 485 uon durmg several centunes bas hot mad.e the speech of New England unmtelhgable to people in Old England, or race versa. Expenence should therefore encourage, mther than chscourage, us m pressing for an mtemataonal auxary. The pnmary desiderata of an international aumhary are two Fwst, it must be an eficaent instrument of communicauon, embracmg both the smaple needs of everyday Iffe and the more exacung ones of techm- cal chscusslon Secondly» It must be easy to learn, whatever the home language of the begmner may be. To be an efficaent instrument of commumcauon t must be frec from ambigtutles and uncermmtacs arsmg from grammatacal usage or verbal defimuon The vocabulary must be free from duphcauon and unnecessary over-lappmg It must shtm all that zs of purely regaonal maportance The design of t can turn for guldance to two dverse sources» the pxonee-work of Ogden, and recogmuon of defects wch vocabularms of hatherto con- structed languages share wth namral speech. We can best see what charactensttcs make t easy to learn a constructed language ff we first ask what features of natural languages create dcultaes for the be- grener. Drlficulues may anse from a vanety of causes" structurel Lrregulanues, grammatical compleraUes of small or no funcUonal value, an ahundance of separate words hot essenual for communicauon, un- famthanty wth word-forms, datficttlty of pronuncaauon or audatory recogmuon of certain sounds or sound-groups, and finally convenuons of script Progress of comparauve hngtsucs and cnuctsm provoked by suc- cessve projects for a constructed atmhary bave consderably danfied these dtculues dunng the past fifty years Consequenfly there ls a wde field of general agreement concernmg the essenual features of sausfactory design Though several mterlanguages sull clama a handgul of enthuslasuc supporters, It ls probably truc to say that most people who now advocate an amficaal language approach thê prospect with a ready ear for new proposais. The plethora of prolects touched on m the precedmg chapter should hot make us despaîr of tmanumty On the contrary, fazlure bnngs us nearer to accord As Jespersen remarks m the begmnmg of hls book on hts own oenstructed aumhary (Normal)" Ail recent attempts show an unrmstakable famdy hkeness» and may be termed chalects of one and the saine type of mtemauonal language Tins shows that :lust as blcycles and typewnters are now nearly all of the saine type» winch was not the case wath the earher makes» we are now m flac marrer of mterlanguage approachmg the tune when one standard
486 The Looîn oJ Language type can be fixed authontauvely m such a way that the general structure wlll remam stable, though new words wfll, of course, be constanfly added when need reqmres Thts famdy hkeness w become mcreasmgly apparent m what follows. We shatl now examine prmcaples of design wlth due regard to the measure of agreement to whach Jespersen draws attenuon and to later îssues wktch have emerged, more especlally from discussion of the ments and defects of simple Enghsh. One of" the consplcuous defects of Anglo-Amencan m lts present form ts the dafficulty men- uoned at the end of the last paragraph but one Its script, partlcularly the spellmg of tts mherttêd stock of monosyllables, bas become well- mgh tdeographtc, and thls ls the most strlkmg dlfference between any form of authenuc Enghsh and any modem constructed language Ail advocates of a constructed mtemauonal auxihary agree that It must have consistent» simple» strmghfforward spelhng rules, based on the use of the Roman alphabet. Smce erasung languages such as Itahan, Spamsh, and Norwegaan fin'rush models of orderly behavmur, there has never been any practlcal dtfficulty about prescnbmg a system of phonetm spellmg. A representauve mtemauonal commtttee of experts entrusted wth the task of laymg the foundatïons of a constructed wofld-aumhary would waste few days m reachmg agreement about spellmg conventions. Spellmg ralses only one outstanchng issue for dïscussIon Comïstent spellmg may mean elther or both of two proposais- (a) that every sound has one symbol and one only, (b) that every symbol stands for a single sotmd. To mslst too ngorously on the first has a dlsadvantage touched on m Chapter II Dtfferent languages have drfferent conven- tions of alphabeuc script, and the imposmon of a rule hmitmg one sound to one symbol alone wottld therefore mutïlate otherwlse farmhar roots beyond easy recogmuon. For example, we should hOt recogmze the foot chrom- m panchromatw or polychrome as eastly if we spelt t wath an imual k, and the retentaon of two symbols for some sounds, e g CH or K for k, would hot apprecmbly add to the dculues of lea=mg. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR It tS also safc to sa that gmmar no longer provldcs much fucl for controvery among mtcrhngmsts. We havc movcd far sm thc das of Volapuk» and thc mare outhncs of an mtcrnauonal gramma arc now clcar enough Thc rcader of The Loom of Language uo longer nceds to
Language Planning jor a New Order 487 be told that the muluphcaton of word forms by flexaons ,s foremost among obstacles to learnmg a language In Chaptels III, V, X, we have seen that the dculuês are of two sorts: 0) Some flexaons (e g gender, number accord between noun and adjecuve) have no semanttc value at ail and ther exastence fs an arbltrary imposluon on the memory, 0a) Even when meanmgftfl, flemons wbach do the same type of work may show wdely OEerent forms Thus language-planners meet on common grotmd m recogmzmg that a sausfactory aumhary must have. (a) no useless flexaons, (b) regu- larîty of what flemons It retams About what consututes regulanty advoctes of a constructed language do not OEer. To say that fleraon must be regular means that ff we retaîn a plural, we must form the plural of ail notms m the saine way; ff we retam a past tense every verb must take the mme past tense afftx. In short" a smgle pattern of con/ugatwn--a stngle pattern of declennon. To the extent that thas measure of agreement exsts, any constructed language offers fewer grammaucal obstacles to a begmner than do such Ianguages as French» Russmn, or German. Unanîmity wîth reference to what flexaons are useful bas corne about slowly; and ls hOt yet complete. At the ttme when VoIapuk and Espe- ranto took shape, and long aftero planners were enthuslasuc amateurs blmded by pecuhanues of European languaes they knew best Nme- teenth-cenmry lmguists ruade the saine assumpuons as nmeteenth- century biologasts. They took for granted that what exsts necessanly has a use Awareness of the umversal dnft from flexaonal !uxunance towards analyucal snnphcity in the hastory of Aryan hnguages was not yet part of thelr mtellectual eqtupment. None of them recoguized the many slmflanues between Enghsh» w/nch has travelled furthest on the road» and Chnese, whtch conslsts wholly of unchangeable m- dependently mobile foot words Professmnal phtlologsts, who could have enhghtened r.hem, were hot mterested m constructive lmgtusucs. In ths settmg ït was a bold step to sacrifice gender or mood» and the accepted grammaucal goal seemed to be a language of the aggluu- nanve type tllustrated (Chapter V) by Turhsh, Hunganan, or Japanese. Intellecmal tmpeckments to a more conoclastac atutude were con- sldemble, and we need hot be surpnsed by the tenactty wth whch earher pmneers dung to grammatical devaces chscarded by thelr
488 The Loom oJ Language successors. The history of case tllustrates their d.ttficulues. Since the Reformauon, generauons of schoolboys bave been dnlled to submat to mstrucuon whtch assumes a umversal subject-order chstmcuon fatth- fully reflectmg somethmg m the real world Smce the grammaucal sub- ject ls often the actor or agent wtuch tmuates the process spectfied by the verb, and the grammaucal obect ls often the VlCUm or goal, a juch- clous cholce of fllustrauons (e g. the teacher pumshes the boy), presented at an nnpresslonable age makes it easy to nnplant the suggesuon that thts ls always so If the teacher acts m accordance wath the last example, tins bestows the reassurmg conwcuon that there ls a snnple rule for choce of the nommauve or accusauve case-rotin of a Latin or Greek noun The pup m whom,the teacher bas firmly nnplanted tins suggesuon wfll overlook the fact that the grammaucal subect s not the agent wtnch tomates the seezng process m I see htm, and ls not hkely to worry about the fact that the am_maucal oblect ls what really does so. in such stuattons the pupfl sull apphes the rule correctly, because the nommauve-accusauve forms of the Laun noun tally wlth our own use of I--me and he--htm In tins waywe corne to accept local hkeness of speech habits as a umversal necessty of chscourse. Interlmgmsts started, hke fixe comparauve platlologasts, wth the hanchcap of a load of mlsconcepttons mherent m trachuonal methods of teachmg Greek or Laun It bas taken us long to recogmze that case can be as useless as gender, and we are only bennmg to see that 'no flemonal devce s an' essental vehicle of lucid expression. Whtle everyone concedes that a roundabout turn lS preferable to passive flexion» most mterlmgmsts sttll clmg to the flexlonal plural and the flextonal past Thus It lS common ground that a world-auxflaary must be at least as tsolatmg as Enghsh Indeed, there xs a close famaly hke- ness between Nowal and Enghsh» each wth a hybrà vocabulary of Romance and Teutonlc roots In short, wha bas happened to the flextonal systems of the Aryan famfly during the past 9.5oo years of lts known hastory bas happened to the accepted pattern of an artlficaal mter-language durmg the past half-century There bas been a drtt towards soIatwn Jespersen recognmes the parallel He bans the noun accusauve terminal of Esperanto or Ido, as Zamenhof vetoed the dative of Volapuk» on the grotmd that it ls out of step wtth lmguistxc evolmaon, and cites OEe fact that Itahan, Spamsh, French, Portuguese, Enghsh, Dutch, and Scanch- navxan languages bave scrapped it By the saine token we may be scepucal about the possessive case terminal which turns up tu Nomal.
Language Planning Jor a New Order 489 Absent m modern Romance langaages, t s already vesu m Ensb, md s more so m Dutch and m my Gem &es Nber d tense e OEe oy flemons whch no 'm lmage bas completely sded. Ue gender or OEe oble-oese oetego3 , flemon of nr has a de-oet meg S t s hot m moespensable de,ce We ways use a separate word to forest doubt about whether OEe topc s one sheep or more m one shoep deed t s waste to rock on p1 mk when OEe smtement a whole, or OEe presenoe of a qer such as l, ny, s«al, rive, e t d at e word sds for more OE one of a d. To some eent, Thsh recozes such econo behao The Thsh noun ops OEe pl (-far or -le) when accomped by a humera, e g = home, = bouses, dort = fo boxes The se age ocs m but remis m a ve ment stage, e g dre S remarks apply to te We exprès pl once d oem- pleted acuon once» d booE ehdy, when we say" o de« throh t tht yesty We eress pl ce d completed aon oe when we say two rab esp yestoey e flemon -s does no wch OEe ner two hot oedy done The flemon -ed ds oy wt OEe pde yest«y d more eh=y We me OEe sm fo of OEe no m a oeeve or genenc sense out e shghtest ger of sdeg, for ce, when we say m French le pn es bon rché (rt u cap) nte s oen sent to sed e &son een sm d p1, pt or present. en s hot, we f back on appropnate ner, pomter-word, or pde of e One senous objecuon to flemon a oeo deoe s at f- h breeds contempt. By too oen mmg a flemon fo m a conte woE m t redoit we beoeme ds about mg Ts process of semnc eroson h hot gone f enough to e e pl flemon a smve nmsc but d o ou of te on ve been bled m my g, mduF Engh @ o3). Thus ere s no forble ent for reg y flemo s m a comed lge, des]ed OE due regard to OEe needs of e ese, Japese» d ooEer non- speech coues o woE o o flemo system s d cosmg y oese, a pI fo of OEe no d a past fo of OEe vb oee e oy o ely to d y lge dy of suppoe o mtersts oer
490 The Loom of Lazguage than fanatlcal adherents of Esperato A constructed aumhary now desaed m the hght of defects and ments of prewous proposals would therefore be almast» ff hOt qmte» as free of flemons as Chmese or Peano's Interhngua Tins leaves us r.h the fe!lowmg questaon Would It be also free from other types of word-moduficatmn An mternatmnal lang-uage would hot be paoecable if 1 hsted as many words as r.he Conczse Oxford Dwtwnary or lg7ebster Out hmted leammg capacmes demand somethmg more econormcal. So there lS another need for wbach the planner has to cater. Apart from bemg economacal» the vocabulary must a11ow for expansmn made necessary by the incessant emergence of new amcles» mventmns, and ldeas Marty poneers of Ianguage planning have med to kfll two brds wlth one stone by composmg a resmed set of bastc or foot words from wtnch other words can be denved by a nch battery of prexes and stttfixes. They do what we do when we denve booksh from book, or systernatzze from system Tfll now the prevathng amtude towards such denvatave afin.es bas been on al1 fours wth the amtude of Schleyer, Zamenhof, and Iespersen towards flexaons They have been less cntcal of ther functtonal mportance than of thezr erratc behawour. For instance, the Espêranto suffix -EC for the abstract dea s an mctement to people the world vath new fictaoxxs comparable to the defimtaon of love as the zdeahty of the relatvty of the reahty of an mfinztesmal po twn of the absolute totalzty of the Infimte Bng Irregulanues, formal and functaonal, of Enghsh denvauve affi.xes are typcal of other Axyan languages The prefix re- may, and often does, connote repetataon when atmched to a new word, but It xs qmte hfeless m receve, regard, respect The negatve prefixes un-, m-, m-, rr- attach themselves to a foot wthout regard to phonetïc or phflologcal euquette, as m unabIe--zmpossble, mert--unconscwus, msensztve--- rresponsble. The Teutonm sutfixes -dom, -shp and-head or -hood turn up m abstract nouns of the saine general class (wzsdom--frzendshzp» lordshp--fatherhood). If we tack on-er to some vërb roots we get a member of the agent class represented by fisher, wrzter, reader, teacher» manufacturer We may also get a means of transport (steamer) or a com- partment m one (smoker, sleeper) To ail these ïrregulantïes we have to add those mherent m borrowed Laun roots wlch contam such uncer- taîn prefixes as e- or ex-, and zn-, the iast of whch may sgmfy exther enclosure (nsert) or negaton (mnocuous) Clearly a language wth a regular system of denvatave afftxes for such clear-cut categortes as
Language Planning Jor a New Order 491 repetztton, occupatwn, negatwn, etc, would be free fmm one obstacle whtch confronts anyone who sers out to leam one of rhe exismag Aryan languages Thls advantage does hot meet the obecuon" are such denvat:ve af-fixes really necessary» To do lusuce to xt we must chstîngmsh between ddïerent classes of denvauve aies One c!ass may be called semantw or meanmg The affi eather modtlàes the meamng of the foot to wtnch t Is attached or does the work of a compound formation Clear- cut quahfymg ates such as those whlch express repetmon, negauon, precedence; etc, mereIy usurp the funcuon of necessary mobzle items already on the word hst Thus to re-state Is to state agan, post-natal means after blrth, to mîs-}udge, means to ludge wrongly, and the man m bake-man could do as much work as the accreuon -er m baker. Compounds such as textzle workers, steel workers, wood worleers» etc » are admittedly longer than words of the fisher, wnter baker cs» but postman, rmlkman, wenw, dustman, dazryman show that compounds made from independent words need hot be more long-wmded than denvatives By usmg denvatlve affixes of the Esperanto or NOvlal type we add a new burden to leammg wlthout much gara of space or any addmonal clamy. Affixes of the other class mereIy label the grammatical behawour of a word Thus the -dom in vmdom oî the -ment m arrangement respec- tvely endow an attnbute whzch would otherwse behave as an adectwe, or a process whch would othervase behave as a verb, wth the gram- matical prerogatves of a thzng For instance, we can speak of wsdom m contradlstmcraon to zozse» as zt, and we can put the article a or the» whch never stand lrnmedlately in front of arrange» belote arrangement Tlms shummg dasgmses the fact that wtsdom remams wthm the adjec- rival world and means nothmg more than wzse behavzour. Some mter- languages carry this much further, havmg a specml aflàx for each of the parts of speech. At first sight there seems to be httle m favour of thls devlce. A plausible excuse ls that there lS a rough and ready, if far from perfect, correspondence between parts of speech m an Aryan language and the three pigeon-holes mto whmh we squeeze the physlcal world. Although we meet many excepuons to any ftmoeonal defimtaon of the parts of speech, It ls apprommately true to say that a noun-label usually points to what ls thmg or person, an adjectlve-hbel to what s a pro- perty, a verb label m what lS action m a statement. Such affixes there- fore glve the begamer a due to the lay-out of a semeac¢ whîch oentmm
The Loom oj Language unfamar words They are slgn-posts of sentence landscape To that extent they hghten the task of spottmg the meanmg. One reply to thas ls that lso!atmg languages or near-lsolatmg lan- guages wtach bave no (or few) labels to mark what are the parts of speech m a flexaonal language can use other dewces for gmdmg us through the sentence landscape Four examples from our own language tllustrate t.hem (a) the arttcles label an obect wth or wlthout accom- panymg atmbutês; (b) the pronoun usually labels the succeedmg word as a verb m the absence of any fleraonal marks on the latter, (c) the copula zs, are, eoas, were separates the thmg or person from what the statement prechcates, (d) without recourse to the adverb terminal -ly, the msemon of and m fast and sznkng shzp makes t clear that fast does hot quah smlhng All these examples xmply the emstence of defimte word-order Rules of word-order, vnth whatever safeguards such partcles as of, the, and other hterally empty words provlde, constatute all the grammar of a language, ff ts vocabulary conssts exclusvely of unchangeable mdependently mobile elements Smce mterlmgtusts now lean far towards the solatmg pattem we rmght expect satsfactory mies of worà-order to be a threadbare theme Thls ls far from true. In the K. to, and Primer of, Interhngua, for instance, the sublect xs dealt wxth and chsmassed m a few sentences, the first of whch contnves to state the truth upsxde down The order of words m Interlmgua presents no great dafficuhles» grammar and mflecraon havmg been reduced to a mmamum It ls so nearly smaflar to the Enghsh order of words that one may safely foLlow that usage wthout fear of bemg rmsunderstood or bemg too greatly incorrec In fact, no author of a pro]ect for a constructed aumhary has pad much attenuon to ths problem, and those who advocate smaple methods of teachmg Anglo-Amencan wlth a vxew to lts use as an international language are smgularly sflent about the pltfalls mto whtch the vaganes of Enghsh word-order can lute the begmner. These vaganes fllustrate some of the tssues mvolved m deslgnmg satasfactory mies Whfle tt ts true flat Anglo-Amencan usage favours the method of groupmg together what ïs thought of together» there ls no umformty about placmg the qualffymg expressmn mamechately belote or ïmme- chately after what t quahfies Thus we place the quahfier enough m front of the word t quahfies m enough fat sheep and behmd m fat enough sheep Neather s conststent wath more common procedure» the ftrst because enough xs hot mmedzately m front of the sheep t
Language Planmng for a New Order 493 quahfies, the second because It follows and quahfies the word fat. Urdess we bave somê flexaonal mark such as the much-abused Enghsh -ly to label the adverb as quahfier of the succeedmg adlectlve, a rigld rule concernmg the posmon of two quahfiers s the only way of showmg f one quahfies the other or both may quah a thd Enghsh has rgad rules of word-order, but the rules are hot smaple For every combma- uon of a parttmahr adverb of place with a pamcular adverb of ttme usage s fixed, but no stralght-forward reguuon of precedence m favour of one or the other covers al1 cases A constructive conclusion whch emerges from the precedmg chs- cussmn s the need for a comparative study of word-order both as a safegxlard of meanmg and as an md to ready recogmtlon At present we have htde matenal evldence to guide a decsion about (a) the advan- tages of pre- and post- posmon of lrectlves or qualLfiers, (b) the most sausfactory way of chstmgxushmg whlch word ls qualed by each of a sequence of quahfiers» (c) how best to express mterrogauon, m speech and m script; (d) what latitude of word-order for purpose of emphasls ls consistent wlth clartty and ease of recogmuon, (e) what empty words are necessary sgn-posts of sentence landscape. These are themes to clanfy before the ammar of an mterlanguage prtmed of flextonal Irrelevance and redundancy assumes a rm outlme. In thls and other ways, a more sympathetlc ammde toward the need for a constructed aumhary would open fields of enqmry whlch have been neglected by hngmsts m the past. Because they aoeept langmages as products of growth our scholars bave for too long sacnficed the study of funoeonal effi¢aency to the task of recordmg what ls îrrealar, lrrataonal, and uneconomacal m speech A more hvely mterest m lan- guage planning would chrect thetr efforts towards new tasks. One whach ls of spectal maportance bas been formulated by Edward Saper m Internatwnal Gommumcaton. It ls ghly desrable that along wlth the practacal Iabour of gettmg vnder recogmtlon of the mternattonal language ldea, there go hand m hand comparatave researches whlch azm to lay bare me locaI strucn=es that are madequate!y symbohzed m our present-day languages, m order that we may see more clearly than we bave yet been able to see how much of psychologlc.al msIght and loglcal ngour have been and c.an be expressed m lmgmsmc form One of the most ambmous and maportant tasks that can be undertaken Is the attempt to work out the relatmn between Iognc and usage m a number of national and constructed languages, m order that the evennml problem of adequately symbohzmg thought may be seen as the problem It stlll s. (EDWAV,.D SAPIR, m Imerranonal C'mmumcatzon )
494 The Loom oj La,age AN ICrIOIARY Among the many poneers who have put forward proposais f'or a constmcted mterlanguage» few have tmdertaken the task of gvmg to a skeleton of grammaî the flesh and bones of a fil-fledged vocabu!ary. Its executon brmgs us face to face wth the two malor dzflîcultes of memonzîng a vocabulary» e. tmfamhanty wth the auchtory or vsual shape of words, and superflmty of separate forms Ehmmaton of unnecessary tems came to the ore m the classficatory proects of Dalgarno and of Wtllam; and t has once more become a hve ssue owmg to the populanty of Ogden's method for teachmg and usmg a stmphfied yet acceptable form of Anglo-Amencan ttetween the pubh- cation of the Rëal Character of Wflkms anc the Meamng of Meanmg by Ogden and thchards» no author of a constructed language has corne to grps with the problem of word wastage. Those who bave hot shirked the labo of construng a lexacon bave mvanably concentrated on the more mmechate and mescapable problem of word-form Thus Peano's Interhngua accepts the entzre btflk of Enghsh words denved from Latin. To reduce the nmemomc burden of languageqeammg to a mm___rnum» t s essentml to work wtth fmmhar matenals» e wth roots taken from extstmg langaages. Most of the languages htherto consmacted pay hp-servce to ths prmcple» so stated; but there s less unammty about the best way of choosmg famthar matenal, e. a stock of roots wth wade mternatmnal currency. Indeed, there bas been much confusmn between two ssues--proportonal representataon of OEerent speech- commumtaes m the total stock-m-trade of roots» and vndest possible ntematonal curtency of each mchwdual root Up to date no one bas consstendy followed ether plan. Out-and-out apphcaton of an eclectc solunon, on an mtemanonal scale, would suflîce to demonstrate tts mherent absurchty. A vocabulary drawn from Teutomc, Romance, Slavomc, Chmese, Japarîese, Arabc, Inchan vernaculars, Mongohan, Polynesan, and Banm chalects, wth due regard to the sze of each contnbutory speech commumty would be largely foregn to the eye and ear of mchvduals belongmg to any malor one, and t would contam scarcely a trace of roots famar to mchvduals usmg chalects of a small one. The actd test of basmg choce on a cotmt of heads bas never been camed out The pmneers of language plan- ning bave been Europeans pnmartly concemed wth the needs of travel, commerce, and techmcs Thetr ouflook has been limted by
Language Planning .for a New Order 495 reqmrements and ckfficulnes of natons vnflxm r.he pale of Western cvxhzatmn So their rs contera bas been to accommodate the dauns of countres w here offienal speech ls a language of the Teutomc and Romance groups W1thm ths framework compromase leads to a hybrid vocabula very much hke that of Enghsh Tbas shows up m comparlson of a random sample of Enghsh words and thelr eqmvalents m Jespetsen's Noenal: There is a further oblecuon to the edecùc prmcple A few, yet by no means îsoIated, exampIes suffice to fllustrate what le xs A Frênchman or an Italîan w lmk up the root alt- var.h altztude OErench) and altura ÇImhan), suggestmg helght The German wdt recail hls own ait (old) and go wrong. The Imhan or Spanîard wl at once recogmze the root cahd- m the Itahan woïd caldo and Spamsh cahente, borh meanmg hot A C-erman ls more hkely to assocaate It wth ka!t (cold). Even if he is a student of Latin or f w!th such words as Kalone or Kalonmeter, a lanmaage based on a mmatre of Romance and Teutomc matenals supply no due to the correct meanmg. Clearly, there ls only one way of get-ang over the dzfficultes ansmg from unfamlhar matenal and of making a vocabuIm-y with roots whch teadfly suggest r.hear meanmg to men and women of cb.fferent natmnahtes Our first concem should be to choose mots present m words which people of OEerent nattons llse. Is ths pieu pmcoEble? s possble to answe ts qesuon wthout gomg to the trouble of g stusuci word-counts in dfferent langges. The impact of scaentfi¢ chseovery on humïn socety affected out speech» s it hs affeoEed otheç socxl habits Though few speeoE eommumues in Europe» notbly Ieoeand d to lesser extem ermy and Holland» have shot ther es eo the gowmg stock ïuterntonlly cuent terres fo ma¢luery» Loems» elctrîl pphes ud muoE¢tued produits» mode techmcs s eqully e word mal of the U.S.A. d of the U S S R» mode u and oï Imly It s dy mwdmg thë
496 The Loom of Larzguage East and must do so more and more, if China and Incha emerge from thelr present tmsenes as free and modermzed socle'es The world-wlde and expandmg lexacon of modem techmcs fol!ows the chctates of mtemauonal scenufic pracrace It grows by combmatmn of roots drawn almost exduslvely from two languages--Greek and Latin To the extent that the leracon of many projects, e g Esperanto Ido, Occndeatal, Normal, s largely or, hke Romanal and Peano's Interlmgua, almost exclusvely based on matenal of recogmzably Latin ongm, ali recent mterlanguages chsplay the famfly hkeness to wtnch espersen refers m the passage quoted above In fact they do mclude a conszderable propomon of words based on roots whmh mchwdually enjoy a tngh measure of mtematmna! currency The international vocabulary of tectamcs contams a large pïoporuon of Latin roots, but Greek has furmshed for a long urne the bass of the majorty of new scentzfic words For mstauce, the new termmology wtnch Faraday and tns successors deslgned for the descnptton of electro-chenmcal phenomena zs exclusvely denved from Greek roots, as m electroIyte, electrode, cathode, anode, catwn, anzon, and Wh Yet the Greek conmbuuon to the vocabulary of languages htherto constructed has been small Indeed the Concase Oxford Dcuonary bas a fax tugher propomon (p I6) of Greek roots than any Ntherto constructed language if mterhnguts uuhze r.hem at ail, they confine themselves to those assmztlated by Latin In short, none ofthe pmneers of language- planmng has pad due regard to the ptofound revoluuon m sclenlîc nomenclature wtnch took place m the closmg years of the eghteenth and the begnnmg of the mneteenth century Nor chd they see the rnphcatons of a fact wl'uch chsturbed the Enghsh pMologst Bradley The language of mvenuon now becomes the lchom of the street colner before the lapse of a generauon Bradley gave expresszon to tns alarm at thas process of mtemauonahzauon m words wtnch the parusans of passed prolects rmght well bave heeded At present out Enghsh chctonames are burdened wth an enormous and dmly lncréasmg mass of sclentfic terms that are hOt Engbsh at ail except m the form of thetr termmauons and m the pronuncauons m- ferred from thetr spelhng The adopuon of an mternattonal language for sence would brmg about the chsappearance of these monstrosmes of un-Enghsh Enghsh . Partly because of the tempo of mvenuon, partly because of more wdespread schoolmg, par@ because of the expandmg volume of books and amcles populanzmg new scenufic dîscovenes ths mfil-
Language Planning :for a New Order 497 tratton of what Bradley was pleased to cal1 abstruse words bas mcreased enormously of recent years Nmeteerth-cenmry mterlmgulsts wlth a conventaonal hterary tra____nng and outlook could scarcely foresee a rune when schoolboys would chatter about heterodyne outfits, penscoïtnc sghts, or stratosphere flymg as hght-hearteday as they had chscussed kates, marbles» or tuck Wherever there are petrol pumps and women's journals wth articles on modem standards of nutntaon, anyone wth a good school educaton--Amelacan or Russan, French or Germaa-- wfll recall and understand words compounded wth thermo-, kne-, hydro-, phon-, phot-, geo-, or clzromo- The table on p 498 fllustrates neglect of ths Greek btuldmg matelaal m favour of the Latin one The fi.rst column hsts some 40 Greek brlcks whch frequenfly appear m international words, the second and thlrd exhiber Esperanto and Novaal words whlch bave baslcally the saine meanmg as the Greek element in the first column. WIth the exception of a few marked by an astersk, all of t_hem are of Romance ongm The exceptions (other than rmkn = small) are nether Latin nor Greek. Thus no exastmg proect can claire to prowde for maxtmum ease of recogmtton or memonzatlon of vocabuïary, but if no extstmg project xs wholly sattsfactory, xt s hot dcult to point to the bass of a better soluuon What remams to be done Is hot an msurmountable task The chscovery of a common international denonnnator does hOt call for the elaborate and techous word-counts whch bave occuped the efforts-- and wasted the tmae---of some enthusasts We tan start wth the fact that a growlng vocabulary of international terres ls a by-product of the mpact of scaenufic mventton on modern socaety. Hence out flrst need s a classfied synopss of techmcaI words whlch bave fiItered mto the everyday speech of OEerent language commumtles These we can resolve mto thelr consument parts We can then form a pcture of wknch roots enjoy wde international carculauon The overwhelmmg majorlty wlll be Greek or Latin For constructmg an economïcal, yet adequate vocabulary there wl be no lac& of smtable bufldmg materal What consttutes an adequate vocabulary m thïs sense entêrs înto the problem of word-economy For the present t suces to say that an international vocabulary need cater onIy for communication wlthm the confines of out common international culture Commerce and travel bave eqmpped us wth such words as sugar, bazaar, samovar, suttanas, ford, café, skis, and there s no reason why an mtemauonal language should hOt take from each nation or speech commumty those words wch descnbe thelr own speclfiC amemttes and mstttutions,
498 The Loom of Language GREEK ELEMENT hetero dafferent heterosexual homo same homosexual lso equal lsosceles m_tcro small nucroscope mono alone, slng!e monoplane neo new neohthac palaeo old palaeology pari al1 panchromauc poly many polygamous pseudo falsc pseudonym therm best thermometer derma skm dermauus hypno sleep hypnosls chron tune chronomcter chrom colour chromosome tele &stance televlslon erg work allerglc demo people democracy bru hfe blology physï nature physlology krau governrnent autocracy kosmo world cosmopohtan heho sun hehotroplc morph form morpholo astr star astronomy phon sound phoneucs geo earth geology hydr water hydrodynamacs anthrop man authropologDr gyne woman gynaecology akoust hearmg acousucs graph wnung telegraph skop seemg telescope kane movmg kmetac ball throwmg balhsucs phob feanng xenophobm phd lovmg phtlately gaine marrymg polygamy phag eatmg phagocyte muemo remembenng mncmomc ESPERANTO chfera saine* egala malgranda so!a nova malnova tuta mu!ta malvera hauto* dormo tempo koloro malproksuna laboro popolo vivo naturo rego mondo suno* formo stelo sono tero akvo viro Vlrlno auch sknb vch movl jeta tlm/ edzlgo* mang memon NOVIAL chferencl egah sol, novl olda* totl mult fals varlrll pele dorno tempo kolore chstanu labore popuIe vivo nature regzro monde sune , forme stele suone tere badra çlro fema auch sk.npte wde mova lansa manteso manm memora An analysxs of the geographîcal chstnbuuon of roots denved from scientific and techmcal terms, such as teteaph, megaphone, mwro-
Language Planning .for a New Order 499 meter, rmcroscope, cyclostyIe, thermopIastcs, wfll certamly reveal wide rnternauonal currency of some Latin and Greek roots of the saine meaning Ths prompts the quesuon: whach should we prefer? If one en)oys rnuch wder chstrlbuuon OEan the other, we should generay declde m lts favour; but ff the OEerence ls hot great we mlght take nto comsderatlon other cntera of ment. For instance, the exastence of a Lama and a Greek foot wlth the saine meanmg would enable us to avosd hornophones Thus the Latin sy/lable sol îs common to solar, sohtary, sohtude, and solstzce Whfle there is no equally commoa Greek root to suggest the rneamng of a/one, there ss the suggesuve helto of helwgraph, hehum, pemhehon, helzotropism, and other technical words for the sun We can therefore keep sol for alone and take helzo for the sun Many Lama words whtch are international, at least m OEe European and Amerlcan sense, bave wadely divergent rneanîngs m dlfferent courtines By subsmtmg Greek for Lama we could avold possible tmstmderstandmg For instance, OEe Freach word conscience s oftea eqmvalent to out word comczwa, ness, and the German pralses somebody for bemg conustent by applymg the eplthet konsequent. Another crïteron whch zmght well mflueace out declslOn wlll corne up for chscussIon later on We can also take mto accouat the relatzve ease th eohch t s posszbte for peopIe of dfferent tongues to pronounce a Lama foot or Its Greek equivalent The raw matenals of out lexacon wlll be" (a) a dual battery of cos- mopohtan Latîn and Greek roos, (b) a hst of the necessary stems wbach rnake up au adequate vocabulary for ordmary commumcauon. We then bave ail the dar frorn whlch a representattve body could prescnbe the detafls of a satlsfactory mteïlanguage. If free from gram- rnatlcal irrelevancaes, people of rnoderate mtelhgence and a secoadary school educauon should be able to read st wth httle prevaous mstruc- non and leam to wme and speak st m far less tmae than any ethnic lan- guage reqmres. Admattedly, the intervocabulary outlmed above would be almost excluslvely Western m ongm. But we need hot fear that out Eastem neghbours wlll reject st for that reason. The word-mvason of me&cine and engmeermg need hot be a corollary of pohtlcal oppres- ssoa and econornc exploitanon. Besicles, Euzope can say to China: I take your syntax, and you take rny word. WORD-ECONOMY Thc ncx qucsuon wlnch arlscs ss. z or/ arc cssentlsl? Tlns îs what C K Ogdcn and A4«s L W. Lockhart call thc problcm of ord-
The Loom of Language economy The expression ioorct-economy may suggest tw% ff hot three, qmte OEerem nouons to a person who meets it for the ftrst urne One ls abhty to frame OEerem statements, questaons, or requests wth the least number of OEerent vocables .mother s abty to frame the saine utterace m the most compact form, e wth the least number of vocables, OEerent or othermse Economy of the first sort mphes a mmmaum vocabulary of essential words Economy of the second calls for a large vocabulary of available words Smce it s hot chtcult to muluply words, the ftmdamental problem of word economy from out wewpomt s how to cut down those wtch are hot essenual for self- expressm. There remams a thd and more prmmve way m wNch economy may be achaeved We can save breath or space by contractmg the volume of a word or word sequence, as m U S S R for Union of 8ocalst Soviet Republcs, or Gestapo for Geheme Staatspolzze (Secret State Pohce). At first sght st may seem a hopeless task to construct a vocabulary that would cover ail the essentaal needs of mtercommumcaton, yet contam hot more tha, say, a thousad basic words A modem news- paper assumes acquamtace wth perhaps 2%00% ad m the Enghsh secuon of a very humble Engltsh-French pocket &ctonary some Io,ooo are hsted It requtres no lengthy scrutmy to chscover that a large pomon of the matenal ls hot essenual A rataonally constructed word hst would &scard many synonyms or near-synonyms, of wlch .A_nglo-Amencma s chock-full, e g little--small, bg--large, begn-- commence It need hot tolerate such ftmcuonal overlappmg, as band-- nbbon--smp it would also steee clear of over-specahzataon by malung one word do what m namral laguages ls oftem donc by three or more. Thus the outer cover of the huma body s called la peau m French, that of the omon la pelure, ad that of the sausage la cotte. Though less famdtous tha the French, we ourselves overburden the chcttonary wth the correspoMmg sertes skm--rnd--jacket--peeI When we chstmgmsh between ttread--twzne--cord--smng--rope--tozo we are merely heapmg naine upon naine for what s ulumately a OEerence m slze. Smce out mterlanguage pursues smctly uuhtanan ends and seeks perfecuon m prectsmn» t can do wlthout some of the verbal gewgaws and faldeçals of poeuc ard "cultured » spech There s no need to mcorporate a large number of words fo express subt.leues of amtude. We could safely replace the extsung plethora of vocables denotmg approval or chsapproval by a bare handfial of names. But re]ecuon
Language Planning .[or a New Order of such wotùd hOt keep us wthm the r,ooo word llrmt We bave to look elsewhere for help, and here we can apply wth profit, if we apply t wïth temperance, the basc prmcple of Dalgarno's Art of Symbols and Wflkms' Real Character. Al1 European languages bave words wtnch embrace r.he meanmg of a group Thus the generaI terre clothes (wth the bedfellows vesture, garment, apparel, dress) mcludes rwo man classes" under clothes mcludmg vest, shzrt, kmckers, pettcoat, and outer clothes mcladmg frock, slnrt, trou.sers, coat In the saine way buzldzng covers school, theatre, prtson, vzlta, hospztal, museum, and drmk or beverage mcludes non-alcohohc and alcohohc» to the tarter of whch we assxgn zane, czder, beer, whzsky, gin A careful comparattve investigation would probably reveal that modem Enghsh is far better eqmpped wth words of the food» dmnk, contazner, znstrtment clss than French or Spamsh for instance It s alrnost self-ewdent that classKymg words of rhs sort must play an maportant part m the bmld-up of an economcal vocabulary, because they enable us to refer to a _mamum number of OEereat thmgs, operatons, and propertaes wth a minimum of separate names In a gaven context or stuatton drmk wlI1 usually depulaze well enough for the more specttîc z0zne. It s also self-evident that there are ilms to the use of rnaster-key words, ff we mm at exdudmg vagaaeness and amb- guaty It s not enough to have a general word ammal chstmgtushable as ld or domestc In real hfe we need words for car, cow, dog, horse, pzg So one ïmportant problem w!mch confronts us s tl: wtuch ammals» drznks, garments, etc, bave clmm to a place on a hst of essentaal words» The answer xs not qmte smple. We wou!d not hestate t provide a speclal ruche for wznz, cow, shoe, but can we gnore cder, bulI, or brassière» Let us see how we c.an extncate ourselves from the &fil- culty of havmg no such words One way is to choose a more general terre and leave the test to the stuanon Another s to extract a defim- tlon or use a subsnmnon by iugglmg wlth matenal already to hand Thus we can define czder as a drznk made from appl«s, a bull as the maie of the cow, and a brasszère as support for the breasts At bottom word economy depends on iu&cous seIectaon of genera/ terres and descriptive perlphrase for speczfic uses Wlth reference to what consntutes uchcous selecnon we have to remember two thmgs Defimraon s often cumbersome, and the apntude for pchng out features whch make for dentzficanon m a gven stuanon s the product of trmmng In short, the dKficulty of fishmg out an appropriate defim- taon may be much greater than the effort of memonzmg an extra word.
5o The Loom oj Language Therefore it ls a doubtf advantage to cut out smgle names for thmgs or processes to whch we constanfly refer On the other hand, we can dearly chspense wth separate mmes for an immense number of things and processes to wbach we do hot contmually refer, and the process of defimtton» when context calls for doser defimton, need hot bê as wordy as the lchom of Enghsh or other Aryan languages often pre- scribes Even wathm the framework of acceptable .Amglo-Amencan we can subsumte apple-dnnk for ctder and breast-support for brasszère wthout commtttmg an offence agamst usage Makmg compounds of ths sort ls hot the saine as exact defimuon, but defmiuon need never be more fastchous than context l eqmres From a pttrely pedantc point of vew hme water maght stand for the water we sprmlde on the soi1 for the benefit of lïme trees, but t s precase enough m any real context m whach xt mlght occur In general the combmauon of a genenc mme th another word as m hme water suttices to specffy a partacular object or process in a way wktch ts easy to recall because suffîctenfly suggestive. Here Enghsh usage provades some instructive models Ordmartly a bouse s a pnvate resdence, the sort of bulldmg to whach we refer most often, but tt fs also tlae genenc basls of alehouse, playhouse, greenhouse, poorhouse, bake- house Whale it may be as datficult to construct a defimuoa of a theatre as to leam a separate word for It, xt s net easter to leam a new word thalx to recall a compouad as exphctt as playhouse, m wtach both elemeats are 1teins of an essemml vocabulary Another model for the use of such genërc words lS the setaes handwear, footwear, neckwear, headwear Clearly, we could reduce the saze of out essenual vocabulary by adoptmg the prmclple of usmg such generc terres as -hoe, -wear, -man, -land, for other classes such as vessels, fabrtcs, filaments. Wlth each generic terre we could then leam sufficaertfly suggesttve couplets such as postman, hghland, or handwear for use when context calls for adchtloml mformauort Econorncal compoudmg of tins sort mvolves two prmcaples Farst, the components must be eiemeats of the baslc mmamum of essentlal words Second, the juxtaposmon of parts must ufficaeatly mchcate the meanmg. We eannot let metaphor bave a free hand to presctabe such combmauoas as monkey nut, nber neck, or ,oaffie bottom How much hcence we allow to metaphor m other darectïom fs a marrer of partlcular mterest m relataon to the ments and defects of Basic Enghsh There xs no hard-and-fast hne between metaphoncal usage as m elasttc demand and genenc mmes such as elasttc for rubber,
Language Planning :/or a New Order 503 and we cannot elmnnate the use of suggesuve memphors whtch may point the way to unsuspected stmflannes BIone the less, we have to set some lmat, and one s not hard to see Out essenual hst should contmn separate names for physcal and personal or socml attnbutes wth as httle obvlous conllemon as the drought in dry goods and dry humour. If we prescnbe the saine word sharp for a too, for a twlnge, for a retaper, and for a tellmg reply, we maght as well replace ail mmes of quahtles by two vocables respectlvely slgmfyïng general approval and dasapproval In thls field of word cholce the apparent econolmcs of Baslc Enghsh, as of Chmese, may ratse out hopes tmdu!y The chctaonary of out îdeal mter!anguage would naturaLly hst mternataonally current words such as czga erre, coffee, tram, bus, hoteI, tax, post, znternatwnal, tobacco, soya, valuta Flxauon in prmt would bave two advantages It rmght cscourage local OEerences of prommca- tion whmh lead to confusion between the French word coco, vanously used as a terre of endearment, for coconut or for cocame, and the Enghsh word cocoa It mtght also promote international acceptance of a smgle word for such wofld-wlde commochtles as petrol (Engl), gas (Amer), essence (French), Benzm (Germ and Swed ) One mlporrmx contnbutaon of Ogden's ]3aslc to Elle problem of word economy in a constructed language ïs hls treatment of the verb. The Basic eqmvalent of a verb lS a general term (operator) and some quahf3g word or expression By combmmg the general notion of space change in go mth another word or group of words we dispense wlth all the vanous names now resmed to pamcular types of trans- port, e g walk --- go on foot, nde = go on a horse, or go on a btcycle, etc By the saine method we avold the use of OEerent mmes for par- ticular manners of moving, e g run = go very fast, wander = go from place to place wzthout azm We can also do wtthout all causatzve- zntransmve couplets whtch slgmfy producmg or acqzanng a conchtlon» by combmmg equlvalents of make or get wtth one of the basic adectives, e g mcrease = make or get bzgger, clartfy = make or get clear, accderate = make or get faster. By combmmg I6 ftmdamemal verb substltutes (corne, get, gzve, go, keep, let, make, pur, seem, take, be, do, bave, say, see, send) wlth ooEer essential 1teins of tlae word hst Basxc Enghsh thus provades an adequate Ersatz for 4,o00 verbs m common use. Belote Ogden devlsed the baslc method ofteaching Enghsh, plolleers of language-plannmg had pmd scant attention to the mmanum vocabtt- lary reqmred for effective communication. Consequently, the EngLtsh pattem bas stmaulated as well as ctrcumscnbed subsequent chscusston.
504 The Loom of Language Though t s desxable to keep down the necessary m_mmum number of verbs by the saine dewce, a constructed language could hOt advan- tageously mcorporate eqmva!ents of Ogden's sxteen operators and use them m the saine way. The word-economy of Basc s a word-economy that bas to conform wth a standard acceptable to educated Enghsh- speahng people OEervnse we should be at a loss to lusufy the mclu- smn of corne m a sxteen-verb catalogue already eqmpped mrh go. Wth due regard to the econones wtnch are possible tf we combine go, make, get, or eqmvalent "operators" wth other basc elements, t dxtficult to recogmze some Basc combmatmns such as go on, make get on as subspecnes of smglè classes In fact, they are &oms of standard Anglo-Amencan usage The begmner has to leam them as ff they were separate tems m a hst of verbs Tins rmses the possbhty of mcludmg in out word hst operators wtnch have a wde range hke man and get or gz7;e and take, but do hot comcde wth current Anglo-Amencan usage Some verb couplets are redundant because they express derent general relauons to the saine state or process Thus to gzwe 1oEe s to bear, to take 1oEe s to kzll, to get loEe s to be born. So also to gve nstructwn s to teach and to take (or get) instruction s to learn To gzve credzt s to le, u1 and to get credzt lS to borrow It s easy to see how we mght make smaïlar economaes, ff we had an everyday eqmvalent for the bologncal stzmulus--respome con- trast analogous to the acqmsmve gve---get The word gzve suflîcienfly covers the operatton of stmluIatmg» but Basc offers nothmg whlch expresses to make the response appropnate to mlphcat m the somewhat archaxc heed. The ad&tion of an operator wlth ths functlonal value would exphcatly chspense vath the need for one member of such pazrs as questwn--answer, mformatwn--mterest, command--obedence, defeat ---surrender, zontzng--readmg, buy--sell Thus to answer xs to make the response appropnate to a tuestwn and to obey ls to heed a command Other possibthtes of word economy in a constnlcted aumhary are lllustrated by the large nmnber of grmmatlcally mflated abstractlons m our language Smce we do hot need separate lmk-word forms for the dïrecttvês after and before, we do hot need a separate hnk-word whle correspondmg to the daxecve durmg Smce wz can speak of the above remarks for the remarks prmted or wntten hzghe on the page, we should also be able to speak of the prevzous letter as the belote letter wthout mtsgvmg Smce some people chscuss the Beyond, we mlght lust as well call the sequel the after and the past the before In fact, every dlrectave as the focus of a cluster of OEerent word-forms wath the saine
Language Planning .for a New Order 505 basic functîon In a language wth ngad word order and empty words as slgn-posts of the sentence lay-out, we could generahze without loss of clanty a process wbach bas already gone far m Anglo-Amencan and much farthêr m Chmese Broadly speahng, for every one of our dlreclaves we can fmd an adverbml quahfier» an adjecuve, a notre» and often even a conjuncnon, wath the saine ftmdament.al meanmg Each of these may ltself be one of a cluster of synonyms It ls merely thezr dafferent grammatical behavaour whach prevents us from recognazmg that semantcaIly they are comrades m amas Why cannot a smgle word do all the work of after, sznce, aftovzards, subsequent(Iy), succeed(zng), sequel, aftermath» or of before, prevzous(ly)» preced(mg), past, hzstory ? We could then make about forty temporal, spatial, motor, mstrumental and assoctattve chrectaves do the job of about two hundred words and three or four ttmes as many synonyms or near synonyms sufficaenfly chstmgtushable by context and sxmation alone Partly for tins reason, and partly be- cause thts class of words covers al1 the temtory of auxthanes wktch express me and aspect (pp IO3-4) , xt rmght be an advantage to extend the range correspondmg to the Basac Enghsh battery of dtrecnves by makmg more refined distractions. Such dlsnnctions may occur In one langxlage, but be absent Id another For instance, a specaal word sym- bohzang physxcal contact as non-exastent m Anglo-Amencan, but exasts m German and wouId deser'e mclusmn m an lmproved set of chrectaves For generataons we have had chatrs of comparative phzlolog3,, but mvestagauons chctated by an mstrumenml out.look are as rare to-day as m Grlmm's tîme If it were not so we should now be able to spect what relations and concepts tentatavely or fully expressed m thas or that emstmg mechum can lustt thetr dama to a place on the essenual word hst of a properly constructed language Basxc Enghsh gaves us another clue to word-economy As forma1 chstmctton between noun and verb, when both stand for processes or states, ls an tmnecessary comphcataon, forma.l chstinctîon between notre and adjectve ls superfluous when both symboh a property If we tan go out m the darle or the cold, we have no need of such dtstmctlons as warm--amth» hot--heat, dry--dryness If we can &scuss the good, the beautful» and the true, goodness» beauty, and truth are too much of a good t.hmg At the saine orne» we need a consistent rule about fusion of such word-forms We cannot endorse such mconsxstencaes as ex, st m Anglo-Amencan it may or may hOt be tmportant to chstmgmsh be- tween good actions and good people when we speak of the good» but u ¢ we
506 The Loom oj Language do so wé should be enntled to use the unctean for uncleanhness as well as for the unclean m&wduals The nmse of ail exastmg speech as that useful devaces remam half-explolted Grammanans say that analogacal extension bas hot gone far enough. Enghsh bas now a smaple and haghly regularïzëd flêxaonal system, but m lts lmgusuc expression of concepts and relataons It ls as chaotac as any other languagê, mcludmg Esperanto. Ths s what foreigners mean when they say- Enghsh lS sunple at the start, but, etc Whde we can design a language to acbaeve a bagh level of word- economy m Ogden's sensë, and therefore to hghten the load whach the begmner has to carry, there s no reason for restnctmg thë vocabulary of an Interlanguage constructed vath thls end m vlew to the bare mammum of words essenttal for lucd commnmcataon, and we have no need to excludê the posslbhty of rmgmg the changes on synonyms whch safeguard style agamst monotony. We mxght well add to our mterchcraonary an appen&x contammg a reserve vocabulary of compact altemauves. Even so, a maximum vocabulary of roots excIu&ng alI stnctly techmcal terres and local names for local thmgs or local nstgtutons, nêed scarcely exceed a total of three thousand It would be easy to formulate the outstandmg desiderata of an ldeal language on the nïve assumpuon that phoneuc consderataons are of pror maportance, and t would hOt be daîficult to gave them pracucal expression. To begm varia, we bave to take stock of the fact that the consonant clusters (p. :4) so charactersuc of the Aryan famaly are almost or completely absent m other languages, e.g m Chmese, Japan- ese, Bantu, and m Polynesan dîalects So clusters of two or three consonants such as a bhnds, and, more serous, quadruple combma- uons as m mustn't, are foreagn to the ear and tongue of most peoples outsde Europe, Amerlca, and Incha. Then agam, few people bave a range of eather smaple consonants or smaple vowels as great as our own A five-fold bartery of vowels with values roughly hke those of the Itahan and Spamsh a, e, , o, u, suIfices for many speech communmes. Several of out own consonants are phoneuc rances, and many vanetaes of human speech rëect the voceless seres m favour of the voiced, or race versa A battery of consonants wath very wde currency would hot mdude more than nme tems---1, m, n» r» together vath a chotce between the sertes p, t,f, k, s, and the sertes b, d, v, g, z Even thas would be a h beral allowance. The Japanese have no L
Language Planning for a New Order 507 A umversal alphabet of rive vowels and of elght or nme consonants would allow for between 1,5oo and 2»ooo pronounceable roots ruade up of open syllables kke the syllables of Japanese, Bantu, and Poly- nesxan words Supplemented wth forty-five monosyLlables and a hnnted number of msyllables, thas would supply enough vanety for a maxtmum vocabulary of sufficient sze. The word matenal of a lang- uage constructed m accordance with thts prmcaple would be umver- sally, or well-mgh untversally» pronounceable and recogmmble wathout specaal tram.._n.g of ear or tongue It would offer none of the dicuItles wlth whlch the French nasal vowels, the Enghsh th and I sounds, or the German and Scots ch oenfront the begmner Agamst these ad- mttted ments we bave to weigh the fact that a language so desîgned from whole cloth would perpemate one of the geatest of all obstades to leammg a new language The begmner would bave to wrestIe wth the total unfamzharzty of ts word materuzl. Each tem of the vocabulary wottld be a fresh load wlth no muemomc associauons to gave it buoyancy Grammar and memorlzation of the word-hst are the two main daiti¢ultaes of learnmg a new language, and the only way of reducmg the second to neghgable dimensions is to make each word the foc'us of a cluster of farmar associations ltke the root tel common to telegraph, telescope, telepathy. We bave seen that soEenùfic chscovery s solvmg tins problem for mankind by chstnbutmg an mternataonal vocabulary of roots dënved from Laun and Greek Anythmg we can do to stmph the phonette structure of a satlsfactory Interlanguage has to get done wlnn that framework The framework xtself s exactmg because Aryan languages m general are nch in vanety of srnple consonants d of consonanta! combmataons--Greek more than most Thus the greatest concessmn we tan make to the phonetac deaI s to wegh the damas of equîvalent Latin and Greek roots, wath due regard to ease of pro- nuncaauon and recogmuon, when both enoy international currency Whale tt wuld be foohsh to deny the dffficulues of achaevmg a umversal standard of pronuncuauon for an Interlauguage based on Latin-Greek word matenal, and therefore on sounds and combmauons of sounds ahen to the speech habits of Afnca and the Far East, it ls possible to exaggerate thts chsabthty. People who indulge tu the wtdess luxury of laughmg at thê foretgner who says sleep mstead of shp con- done equally smllmg dafferences between the vowel values of London and I.aucashtre» Aberdeen (Scotland) and Aberdeen (South Dakota). /klthough obhteration of the chstmcuon between the p, t, k,f, and thê b, d g, sertes makes homophones of such couplets as pup--pub, wnte--
5o8 The Loom of Language rut, pluck--plug, proof--prove, the fact that very many Amercans chscard the volceless m favour of the voxced consonants does hot prevent Bnush auchences from flockmg to gangster sotmd-films. Most of us are aot tramed phoneuctans, and most peopIe wthout some phoneuc trammg are msensitave to comparatîvely crude chstmc- nom, ff mterested m what the speaker s saymg Fastachous folk who foresee fearful nsunderstandmgs because people of chfferent nataoas wfll mevltably gave shghtly, or even sometmaes crudeIy, OEerent values to the saine sound symbols may well reflect oa the followmg remarks of an Enghsh phoneucaan A recertt experment proved that the sounds s, f, th are often lnchsun- gtushable to hsteners when broadcast m Isolataon by wreless trans- rmssaon Neverreless» desplte ths fact, hsteîers understand perfecfly what ls sad It folIows» then, that up to a certain point, it ls qmte un- necessary to hear each and every sound that the speaker utters We krow that thas as so from our expenence m hstemng to speakers m la.tge halls» or theatres If we are at some chstance from the speaker, we rmss many of hs sounds, but proxuded we get a certain xumber, or a certain per- centage of the whole» then we understad what he ls saymg The point to remember ls that there s» or there would appear to be» m language an acousrac mammum necessary for mtelhgbty, and provadecl OEe hstener gets thas, t s all that he requtres The test as superfluous OEhe speaker may urter it» but as far as OEe hstener ls concerned» it ls qtute mamaterlal to hmx whether he hears It or hot The more famthar we are wth a language» the smaller s the fractaon of ts sounds, etc » that we requare to catch m order to understand what s sad Much of r_he acousuc matter that as graphacally represented m OEe wrtten language ls unnecessary for mtellbflaty» whfle, on the contrary» mtelhgabzllty requtres that certain acousuc features of the language must be present m speech whach bave no representauon whatever m the wrtten language Educated speech &fiers f.rom tmeducated speech mamly an provxdmg a greater acousuc (LLorD J,v Hstomca! Introducuon to French Phonetcs ) Although the Greek range of consonants» and mo, e especally tt consonantal combmauons, offers dzflàculues for most non-Aryan- speahng peoples and for some people who speak Aryan languages, the vowel range of a Lattu-Greek vocabulary s hot a senous drawback We need only rive smple vowels and thezr denvauve chphthongs As Jespersen nghfly remaxks" 'St as one of the beauues of an mtemauonal language that t needs only rive vowels, and therefore can allow a certain amount of hberty m pronouncmg these sounds wathout nus- tmdexstaudmg ansmg." Whether chfferent cauzens of a socaahst world-
Language Planning Jor a New Order 509 order pronounce a as m the Enghsh word father, as m the French la, OErman Vater, or Damsh far, s unmatenal to easy commumcauon In fact, the drfferences are not greater than between glass as people respecuvely pronounce t m Dundee and Dorchester, or between grl m Mayfaar and Old Kent Road, and far less than between tomato as people severally pronounce t m Boston and Bmmngham We nmy take t for granted that the dafculty whach the Greek sound presents to people o many nations, the preference of OErmans for voceIess and of Danes for voced consonants, the partiality of the Scot and the Spamard for a mlled r, and the reluctance of an Enghshman to pronounce r at al/, wfll hOt prevent people of OEerent speech com- mumues from usmg as an effacent and sausfactory me&um of com- mumcauon an Inteflanguage hable to get colour from local sound Indeed, we need not despatr of the possbihty of reachmg a standard m the course of tune More and more the infant chscuplmë of phoneucs, whach bas lately receved a new unpulse from the needs of radio trans- nnsson and long-&stance telephone conversauon, wl influence the pracuce of school ïnstrucuon. In an mternauonal commumty wth a single officml mechum of mtercommumcation the racho and the talkte wrll dmly tune the ear to a smgle speech pattem We bave no reason to fear that chscourse through a constructed Iuterlanguage wdl mvolve greater dculues than Enghsh conversauon between a Freneh Cana- chan and a South Afncan Boer, a Maorî and a New Zealander of Scots parentage, a Hmdu Congress member and a Bantu trade umon leader from Johannesburg, or Wmston Spencer Churchfli and Franklm Delano Roosevelt INTERLANGUAGE LEARlqIlqG WITHOUT We may now sure up the outstandmg features of a constructed language desgned wth due regard to crmcsms provoked by a suc- cession of earher prolects and to the efforts ofthose who ama at adaptmg Enghsh to mternauonal use. () It would be essenually an soIatng language The begmner would hot have to plod through a maze of useless and arregular flemons common to Aryaxt languages such as French or Sparush, German or Russan Wth the possible exception of a pIural termmal, t would bave no flexional mochficauons of word-form Apart from a few smaple rules for the use of operators hke out words make and get, formauon of compounds hke tooth brush, and mseruon of empty words hkc of to show up the lay-out of the sentence, lts rules of grnmmar would be
PART IV
LANGUAGE MUSEUM USE Of ROMANC] AND TUTONIC WORD LISTS The number of ttems tu the emumg word hsts exceeds the mnzmum requtrements of the b%aner m search of battery adequate for self- expression They corttaia assortents of commen noum to meet trldtvtdtgal rêqmremeats, such as thosê of the travêller or of the motorist, together wath many usefifl Enghsh words whtch share recogmzablë roots wth thetr foreaga eqtuvaleats The tems tu the Enghsh column of the Romance and Teutonzc word hsts do hot tally throughout One reason for dascrepancaes xs the adabflaty of learnïng Teutonîc words together wth Enghsh ords of Teutomc ongm and Romance words together wth Enghsh words of Latin ongm The verb hsts do hot fotlow th plan consistenfly. The reason for tlns is that the meanmg of an Enghsh verb of Latin ongm s usually more sharply de£med than that ofts Teutonïc twïn For mmy common Enghsh verbs less usuaI but more explct (see p 39) synonyms appear tu the cohnnn at the extreme left. Enghsh verb forms prmted m tahcs correspond to Romance or Teutomc verbs of the zntranstwe or reflexzve type In the Teutomc word hst German verbs prmted m talcs take the dave case For a reason explamed on p 3x, the verb hsts contam few teras whch sgn acqumng or confemng a quahty hsted as an adjectwê For instance, we do hot need a u'ansmve or m- transmve equlvalent for oîden To nden means to make mde (trans) or to become wcle (mtram.). We cm use French or Spanlsh, OErman or Swechsh equivalents of m&e and become wth an adecuve m the same way The reader who tums to these hsts for case matenal flhstraung famfly ltkeness or laws of sound sku should remêmber that the words hsted are nearly always the ones m common use By choosîng hïghbrow, pedantic, and somewhat archaic synonyms or near synonyms, t would be easy to construct lists gvmg a much more impressïve pcture of geneuc rehuonshp
The Loom of Language I TEUTONIC WORD LIST x NOUNS (a) CLIMA TE AND SCENER Y ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH ar luft Luft lucht bank (river) strand Bred oever bay vk Bugt baa beach strand Strand strand (n5 bush buske Busk strmk cloud moln (n) Sky wolk coast kust Kyst kust country (not land (n) Land (n) platteland (n) current strom Strom stroom darkness morker (n) Morke (n) dulsterms dew dagg Dug dauw dust damm (n) Stov (n) stof (n) earth lord Iord aarde east Oster Ost oosten (n) field falt Mark veld (n) foam skum (n) Skum (n) s chuma (n) fog dmama Taage mst forest skog Skov bosch frost frost Frost vorst grass gras (n) * Graes (n) gras (n) hafl hagel (n) Hagl hagêl hay ho (n) Ho (n) hom (n) heath hed Hede hmde tgh tde flod Flod vloed h.ùl kulle Bakke heuvel ce s Is ls (n) sland o 0 edand (n) lake s:lo Se meer (n) hght llus (n) Lys (n) hcht (n) hghtmng blx Lyn (n) bhksem low tde ebb Ebbe eb meadow ng Eng wede moon ratine Maane maan mountam berg (n) Bjerg (n) berg mud mudder (n) Dynd (n) shjk (n) nature natur Natur natuur north norr Nord noorden (n) penmsula halv6 Halve plain slat Slette pond damm Data rata regn (n) Regn rambow regnb ge Regnbue rayer flod Flod GERM_&N &e Luft das Ufer dxe Bucht der Strand das Gebùs ch dru Wolke de Kuste das Land dru Stromtmg de Dunkelhelt der Tau der Staub dru Erde der Osten das Feld der S chaum der Nebel der Wald der Frost das Gras der Hagel das Heu dxe Hede dru Flut der Higel das Ezs dru Insel der See das Lcht der Bhtz &e Ebbe dïe Wmse der Mond der Berg der S chlamm de Namr der Norden * Damsh oe s represented throughout by ag s cherefland(n) &e Halbmsel vlakte dru Ebene wlver der Teeh regcn der Regen regenboog der Regen- bogen nver der :Fluss
ENGLISH rock sand sea shadow, shade s show outh sprmg (water) star sorm sun thaw thunder valley VleW water fresh water sait water waterfai1 wave weather west wmd world arm back beard belly bladder blood body bone bram breath cheek chest chm cold cough ear dbow eye eyebrow eyehd face Language Museum 517 SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN k!ippa Khppe rots der Felsen sand Sand (n) zand (n) der Sand hav (n) Hav (n) zee de See das Meer skugga Skygge schaduw der S chatten hmmei Hmamel lucht der Hmamel sno Sne sneeuw der Schnee soder Syd zmden (n) der Sùden kalla KAde bron dle Quelle st/ana Sqerne ster der Stern storm Storm storm der Sturm back Baek beek der Bach sol Soi zon dru Sonne tovder (n) Tavejr (n) dom das Tauwetter ska Torden donder der Donner dal Dal dal çn) das Tal utsukt Udsgt uîtmcht (n) dle Ausscht vatten (n) Vand (n) water (n das Wasser sotvatten (n) Ferskvand (n) zoet water (n) das Sussasser saltvatten (n) Saltvand (n) zout water (n) das Salzwasser vatterffa11 (n) Vandfald (n) waterval bolla Bolge golf vader (n) Vejr (n) weer (n) vaster Vest westen vmd Vmd wmd vârld Verden wereld (b) HUMAN BOD Y Ryg rug Skaeg (n) baard Bug buk Blaere bIaas Blod (n) bloed (n) Legeme (n) hchaam (n) Knokkel been (n) -ljerIle Aande Laeg Kmd Bryst (n) Hage Forkle!se Hoste Ore (n) A/bue Oe (n) ogonbryn (n) jenbryn (n) wenkbrauw ogonlock (n) Ojenlaag (n) ooghd (n) ansfl<-te (n) Ansgt (n) gemcht (n) der Wasserfai1 dle Welle das Wetter der Westen der Wmd de Welt der Arm der Rb cken der Bart der Bauch dru Blase das Blut der Korper der Knochetî hersenen (pl) das Geham adem der Atem kmt de Wade wang d,.e Wange borst de Brust km das Kann verkouclhed de Erkaltung hoest der Husten oor (n) das Ohr elleboog der Ellbogen oog (n) das Auge de Augen- braue das Augenhd das OEslcht
The Loom of Language ENGLIeH SWEDISH lever feber linger finger (n) flesh kott (n) foot for forehead panna gums taaàkott (n) ha=r h$.r (n) hand hand head huvud (n) headache huvudva.rk heart hjarta (n) heel bal hlp hof intestines melvor (pi) DANISH DUTCI-I GERMAN Feber koorts das Fleber Flnger vmger der Fmger Kod (n) vleesch (n) das Flelsch Fod voet der Fuss Pande voorhoofd (n) dru Snrn Tanàkod (n) t.andvieesch (n) das Zahaflelsch Haar (n) haar (n) Haand hand Hoved (n) hoofd (n) Hovedpme hoofdplln Hjerte (n hart (n) Hael Hoffe heup Involde (pl) mgewanden (9!) jaw kafr Kaebe kaak ldney nlure Nyre mer knee kna (n) Knae (n) kme leg ben (n) Ben (n) been (n) hp lapp Laebe hp hver lever Lever lever lung Iunga Lunge long moustache musmscn Overskaeg (n) snor mouch man Mand mond mus c!c muskeI Muskel spmr nafl nagel Negl nage1 neck hais Hais nek nerve nerv Nerve zenuw nose nïsa Naese neus para smïlta Smerte pIn nb rcvben (n) Rbben (n) nb shoulder lvalara Skulder schouder skn skmn (n) Skznd (n) hmd sole fotsula Fodsaal voetzool spme ryggrad Rygrad ruggegraat stomach mage Mave maag tcar tr Taare traan thgh ltr (n) Laar (n) d r.hroat (mternal) strupe Strube keel thumb rumine Tommelfinger duu-n toe t Taa teen tongue mnga Tuage tong tooth rand Tand rand tooflmche tandvrk Tandpme kacsp1n wound s£r (n) Saar (n) wond das Haar d,e Hand der Kopf dru Kopf- schmerzen (pi) das Herz de Ferse dle Hue dru Emge- wede (pi) der Kmfer dru Nere das Kme das Bem dze Lppe dru Leber dxe Lunge der Scurr- bt der Md der Muskel der Nage1 der Hais der Nerv de Nase der Serz dru Rtpp dru S chulter de Hau dru Fusso¢ das Rackat der Magen oee Trie der Sel der dru Kee der Daen dle Zehe dîe Zge der Z de Z- s ern 1 ) dru Wde
ENGLISH Language Museum SWEDISH handled DA_NISH DUTCH Haandled (a) pols (c) ANIMALS ammal dlur (n) Dyr (n) dler (a , ant myra Myre mler badger gravlmg Graevmg das bat fldermt Flagermus vleermms beak nibb Naeb (n) savd bear blôrn Blorn beer bee b (n) B b beefie skaIbagge Bflle tor brd fgel Fugl voge! blackbrd koltrast Solort mereI bull tur Tyr mer butterfly fianl Sommerfugl vlmcer calf kalv Kalv kalf (n) carp karp Karpe karper car katt Kat kat caterpKlar larv Kaalorm rups claw klo Klo Idauw cock tupp Hane haan cod torsk Worsk kabelauw cow ko I<o koe crab l¢mbba Y, xabbe krab crayfish krafta I¢xebs kreeft crow krâka Krage kraa cuckoo gok Gog koekoek dog hund Hund bond donkey sna Aesel (n) ezel duck anka And eend eaglc 0rn Drn arend eel l Aal aa! feather fiadcr Fter veer fin fena Franc vin fish fisk Flsk wsch flea loppa Loppe vloo fly fluga Fluc vheg fox rav Raev vos £rog gmda Fro kvorsch fur pals Pels pels gril gïI Gaelle leuw gnat mygga Myg mug goat get Ged gelt goose gs Gaas gan grasshopper grashoppa Graeshoppe sprmkhaan hare hare Haze haas hen h6na Hone kap hen 59 GERMAN das Hand- gelenk das Ter de Amezse der Dachs &e Fledermaus der S chnabeI der Bât de Bene der Kïffer der Vogel de Amsel der Suer der Bulle der S chmette- lmg das Kalb der Karpfen de Katze de Raupe &e Klaue der Hahn der Kbeljau de Kuh de Krabbe der Krebs dle Krahe der Kucku ck der Hund der Esei dle Ente der Adder der de Feder dle Flosse der FIsch der Floh . dxe Fhege der Fuchs der Frosch der Pelz dle Kmme de Mcke de Zege &e Gans der Grashtpfer der Hase Eas Huhn de Henne
520 The Loom oj Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH heron hâger Helre reger herrlng sdl Sfld harmg hoof boy Hov hoef horn horn (n) Horn (n) hoorn horse hâst Hest paard (n) larnb lamm (n) Lam (n) larn (n) hon lelon (n) Love leeuw lobster hummcr H:ummer krceft louse lus Lus luis ma ckerel makrfll Makrel makreel mole mullvad /vfuldvarp mol monkey apa Abe aap moth nattfj d MI (n) mot mouse rAtta Mus mms owl uggla Ugle ull ox oxe Okse os oyster ostron (n) Osters oester parrot papegoIa Papegole papegaaz partndge rapphona Agerhone patnjs paw tass Pote poot pg svm (n) Svn (n) varken (n) pigeon dura Due duff pke gdda C-edde snoek place flundra Rodspaettê schol rabblt kanm Kanm komjn (n) rat rtta Rotte rat salmon lax Laks zalm se.aie flall (ni Skad (n) schub seaguH ms Maage meeuw seal sal Sael zeehond shark ha1 I-ia; haa sheep fr (n) Faar (n) schaap (n) snad stage1 Snegl slak snake orm Slange slang sole s6tunga Tunge tong sparrow sparv Spurv musch plder spmdel Edderkop spn ,tarlmg stare Staer spreeuw ,tork stork Stork oo mvaar ,wallow svala Svale zwaluw ad svans Hale staart oad padda Tudse paà rout forell Forel forel urkey kalkon Kalkun kalkoen asp getng I-]:reps wesp 'easel vcssla Vaesel wezel vhale valfisk .Hval walvtsch vmg vmge Vmge vleugel volf varg Ulv wolf vorm mask Orm worm GERM.AN der Rether der Hermg der Huf das Horn das Pferd das Lamm der L6we der Hummer de Laus de Makrele der'Maulwurf der Affe dru Motte de Maus &e Eule der Ochs dru Auster der Papage das Rebhuhn dru Pfote das S ehwem dru Taube der Hecht de S cholle das Kanmchen dru Ratte der Lachs dru S chuppe dru Mowe der Seehund der t-Ia das Schaf dru S chnecke dru S chlange dru Seezunge der Sperhng dm Spmne der Star der Storch dru S chwalbe der S chwanz dru Krtte dru Forelle der Truthatm dru Wespe das Wesel der Walfisch der Flt!gel der Wolf der Wurm
ENGLISH apple apple-tree aprlcot ash bark beech berry blrch blackberry braach cherry chesmut fruît gooseberry grapes hazelaut kernel larch leaf Iemon Imae-tree oak orange peaeh pme pme-apple plum poplar raspberry foot strawberry tree tree-tnmk vll2e walnut wKlow asparagus bazley Language Museum SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH (d) .FRUIT AND TPOEES apple (n) Aeble (n) appel appIetrad (n) Aebleoeae (n) appelboom apnkos Abnkos abrukoos schors beuk bes berk braam tak kers kastane albes olm rien vrucht krmsbes hazelnoot larks blad (n) Clloen 1mde ek smaasappel perzrk peer p]nboom pruma popuher framboos wortel aardbe boom stam wgnstok walnoot wdg ask bark bok bïr (n) biork b)6mbr (n) gren korsbaz kastane vmbar (n) fikon (n) krmb/ïr (n) vmdruva hasselnot kama larlad (n) blad (n) cxrxon lmd apelsm persm paron (n) Ask Bark Bg Baer (n) Brk Brombaer (n) Gren KJ.rsebaer (n) Kastame thbs (n) Ekn F:gen Gran Frugt Stddclsbaer Vmdrue ttasselaod Kaeme Laerk Blad (n) Coeon Lmd Appelsm Fersken Paere plommon (n) Blomme poppel Poppel ballon (n) Hmdbaer (n) rot Rod ordgubbe Jordbaer (n) trad (n) Trae (n) statu Stamme vmstock Vtttok vahaot Valnd pll pfl (e) CEREALS AND VEGBTABLBS spar s Aparges asperge kora (n) Byg gerst R* der Apfel der Apfelbaum che Apnkose che Esehe che Rmde dle Buche dle Beere che BJ.rke dru Brombeere der Ast dle Kche de Kastame de Iohanms- beere che Ulme de Fege de Tanne dle Frucht dle Stachel- beere de Traube che HaseInuss der Kem che Lïxche das Blatt che Z1trone dru Lmdc che Ezche che Orange che Apfelsme der Pfirsch dru BJzne dru Kaefer dle Ananas che Pflaume de Pappel dle Hmabeere de Wurzel che Erdbeere der Baum der Stature der Wemstock che Walauss dru Wed¢ der Spargel che Gerste
522 The Loom oj: Language ENGLISH SWEDISH bean bona brussels sprouts brysselk/d cabbage kl CS/TOt mOrOt caukflower blomkl cucumber =mzrka garhc vltlok horse-radtsh peppaxrot lentd hns lettuce sallad mmt mynta mushroom svamp oats havre omon lok parsley persll;a pea arta potato potatm radlsh radlsa nce ns (n) rye râg spmach spenat stalk st;alk tre-top rova wheat veto (n) DANISH DUTCH Bnne boon Rosenkaal Brusselsch sprmte Kaal kool Gulerod peen BlomkaaI bloemkool Agurk kornkommer Hvldlog (n) knoflook (n) Pebcrrod menkswore] Lmse lmze Salat sla Myntc krmzemunt Svamp paddestoel Havre haver Log (n> Persflle petersehe Aert erwt Kartoffel aardappel Radse radl;s Rs nlst Rug rogge Spmat spmame Stflk stengel steel Roe knol Hvede tarwe GERM.AN de Bol-me der Rosenkohl der Kohl dle Karotte der Blumen- kohl de Gurke der Kmoblauch der Mee ret- uch de Lmse der Kopfsalat de Minze der Pflz der Haler de Zw_ebeI dle Petersfle de Erbse de Kartoffel das Radms chen der Res der Roggen der Spmat der Stengel der Snel dle Rube der Wezen (f) &IATERIALS metal rubber alloy legermg Legermg brass massmg Messmg (n) brick mursten .Mursten cernent cernent (n) Cernent chalk knta Krldt (n) clay lera Ler (n) coal kol (n) Kul (n) con crete betong Beron copper koppar Kobber (n) glass glas (n) Glas gold guld (n) G uld (n) Iron -n (n) Jern (n) lead bly (n) Bly (n) leather lâder (n) Laeder (n) hme kalk Kalk mable marmot Marmot (n) mercury kvlcksflver (n) Kvksolv (n) memll Met (n) gumm (n) Gumm ailool (n) de Legerung geelkoper (n) das Messmg baksteen der Zlegelstem cernent (n) der Zement kn;t (n) de Krede kle der Lehm der Ton kool de Kohle beton der Beton koper (n) das Kupfer glas (n) das Glas goud (n) das Gold lzer (n) das E,sen lood (n) das leer (n) das Leder kalk der Kalk mariner (n) der Marrnor kwkzflver (n) das Que ck- sflber metaal (ff) das Metall rubber (n) der Gumm
Langue Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH sflver sflver (n) Solv (n) zfiver (n) steeI stl (n) Staai (n) staal (n) stone sten Sten steen tar tara Taere teer (n) tre tenn (n) Tre (n) tre (a) wood tra (n) Trae (n) hout (n) (g) BUILDINGS bam lada Lade barracks kasem Kaserne bridge bro Bro bufldmg byggnad Byg'amg casfle slott (n) Slot (n) cathedral katedral Katedxal cemetery kyrkogird Karkegaard church kyrka ICnrke OEema bog'raf Bograf consulate konsulat (n) Konstflat (n) factory fabrzk Fabrtk farm bondgrd Bondegaard fountam brunn Brond hosptal sjukhus (n) Hosptal (n) but hydda Hytte mn vrdshus (n) Kro lane (towa) grïmd Straede (n) legatma legatma Legauo hbrary bbhotek (n) Bbhotek market marknad Tory (n) monument mmnesv rd Monument path (country) stg pavemeat (sde- trottoar Fortov (n) walk poh ce-statmn pohsstauon Polmsmuon schuur kazeme brug gebouw slot (n) kasteei (n) kathedraal kerkhof (n) kerk bmsoeop consulaat (n) fabnek boerden fontem mekenhms (n) but herberg steeg legate bbhotheek markt gedenkteeken pad (n) trottoir port hamn Havn prison fïagelse (n) Faengsel pubhc conve- toflet Toflet (n) road (hghway) landsvg Landcve school skola Skolc square torg (n) Plads soeeet gara Gade suburb forstad Forstad theatre teater Teater (n) tower tom (n) Taarn (n) town stad By pohueburoEu haven gevangems toflet (n) landweg school plein (n) straat voorstad schouwburg stad 523 GERMAN das Sflber der Stahl der Stem der Teer das Zma das Holz de S cheune de Kaseme de Brdcke das Gebude das Schioss der Dom der Fnedhof de Kar che das K.mo das Konsulat che Fabnk der Bauernhof der Brunnen haus de Hhtte das Wn-tshaus de Gasse dxe Gesandt- schaft dte B,bhothek der Mark't das DenkmaI der Pfacl der Burgerstelg das Trottoir che Pohzel- wache der Hafen das G-efgals der Abort &e Landstrasse de Schu/e der Platz de Strasse de Vorstadt das Theate der Turm de Stad
524 ENGLISH town-hall umverslty vallage brth boy brocher brohers and sisters ch:ld barn (n) Chnstmn naine fornamn (n) COllSII:I The Loom of Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH rdhus (n) Raadhus (n) stadhms (n) umversltet (n) Unlversxtet (n) umversltelt by Landsby dorp (h) THE FAMIL Y fodelse Fdsel geboorte gosse Dreng jongen broder Broder broeder syskon (pl) Soskende (pl) broers en zoEsEer$ Barn (n) kmd Fornavn (n 1 voornaam kusm (m & f ) Faerter (maie) neef (mMe) daughter dotter death dod dlvorce skflsmâssa tamfiy famxl} father fader getleman herre girl flcka grandfather farfar (patern morfar (matera) grandmother husband Kusme (le- mcht (female) male) Darter dochter Dod dood Skdsmsse echtschedmg Famille famille Fader vader Herre heer Pige messie (n) Bedstefadet grootvadcr mormor (mat) Bedstemoder grootmoeder farmor (pat) man Mand man lady data Dame dame man man Mand man marnage aktenskap (n) Aegteskab (n) huwehk mother moder Moder moeder parents foraldrar Foraeldre ouders relanve slaktmg Slaegtmng bloedverwant S lster syster S o ster zuster SOn. SOil S On zoon surname tfilnamn (n) Eftemavn achternaam (n) twm tvfllmg Twlhng tweelmg wffe hustru Hustru vouw woman boot braces kvnna Kvmde vrouw (0 DPOESS AND TOILET bïlte (n) Baelte (n) cemmur knga Stevle la,s hànglen (pl) Seler (pl) bretels (pi) GERMAN das Rathaus dle Umvcrs- das Dorf de Geburt der Junge der Bruder dru Geschwls- ter (pl) das Kmd der Vorname der Vetter (mMe) dle Kusme (female) dle Tochter der Tod dxe S chmdung de Famille der Vater der Herr das Midchen der Gross- vater dru Gross- mutter der .vian der Gatte de Dame der Miann de Ehe dru Mutter de Eltern der Verwandte dru S chwester der Soku der Famflmn- naine der Zwfllmg de Frau dru Gattm dae Frau der Gttrtel der Snefel dle Hosen- trïger (pi)
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH brush borste Berste borstel button knapp Y, map knoop cap m6ssa Kaskct pet cgar cîgarr C!gar slgaar cgarette clgarrett Clgaret s 1garer clothes klader Klaeder tdeeren coat acka ]'akke as coIlar krage Fhp boord comb kam Kam kam cotton bomu/I BomuId (n) katoen (n) cotton wool bomull Var (n) watten dress kladmng Kjole jurk fashmn mod (n) Mode mode glove handske Handske handschoen handkerchlef nsduk Lommetor- zakdoek k/aede (n) hat hatt Hat hoed kruckers damkalsonger Dameben- dtrectore klaeder mat ch tandstlcka Taendstk lucifer needle nl Naal naald overcoat ôverrock Frakke ove3as pettcoat pm ppe pocket safety-pm shart shoe shoe-lace skart sleeve shpper soap sock spectacles spongc stck stockmg thread tooth-brush tooth-paste trousers kalsonger (pl) tmderlqol knappnl plpa ficka skefhetsn1 slqorta sko skoband (n) slke (n kqol arm toffel tvl strumpa glas6gonen (pi) svamp kapp strumpa trd halsduk tandborste tandpasta byxor (pl) Underbukser onderbroek ) Underlole onderurk Knappenaal speld Pbe plp Lomme zak S!kkerheds- veflaghetds- naal speld Slqorte overhemd (n) Sko schoen Skobaand (n) schoenveter S/ke zlde Nederdel rok Aerme (n) mouw Toffel pantoffel Saebe zeep Sok sok Briller (pi) brfl (sg) Svamp spons Stok stok Strompe kous Traad garen (n) Shps das Tandborste tandenborstel Tandpasta tandpasta Bukser (pl) broek 525 GERM.AN &e Brste der Knopf dle Mutze dle Zlgarre &e Zgarette &e K/eder der Rock der Kragen der Kamm dle Baumwolle e Watte das KIed de Mode der Handschuh das Taschen- tuch der Hut dru Schlupf- hose das Strech- holz de Nadel der trber - zmher dru Unterhose der Unterrock dru Steckmdel dru Pfeffe dru "las che dru Scher- hetsmdel das Hemd der Schuh das S chuhband de Sede der Rock der Armel der Parttoffel de Seffe dle Socke dru Brille (sg) der S chwamm der Stock der Strumpf der Faden der Schhps dru Zahnburste dru Zahnpasta dru Hosen (pl)
der Regen- $charm das Unterheand de Weste dru Uhr dru olle alarm dock arm-chaoe ash ash-tray balcony basket bath bed bedreem bell (door) blanket blmd (follet) box (chest) broom bucket candle carpet ceflmg cellar chair chamber-pot chmmey corner cpboard eurtam cuslnon door drawer tire flame fiat floor flower fummre garden ground-floor hearth O) Tæ HO,IE vackarklocka Vaekkeur (n) wekke lanstol Laerestol leunstoel aska Aske asch askkopp Askebaeger (n) aschbakje (n) baikong korg bad (n) sang $0V£ul (n) rmgkloca filt rullgardm ksm ambar (n) llus ( mata tak (n) kallare stol natrkarl (n) skorsten horn (n) skp (n) gardm kudde dor lda eld flamma vumg golv (n) blomma mobler (çl) r.rdgrd nedersta vmmg eldstad Balkon balkon (n) Kurv mand Bad (n) bad (n) Seng bed (n) Sovekammer slaapkamer (n) Klokke bel Taeppe (n) deken der Wecker oet Lehnstuhl die Asche der Aschen- becher der Balkon der Korb das Bad das Bett das S chlafzma- mer dru Imgel dru Decke Rullegardm(n) rolgordtjn (n) deRollgardme Klste Kost Spand Lys (n) Taeppe (n) Loft (n Kaelder Stol bIatpotte Skorsren Hlome (n) Skab (n) Gardm (n) Pude Dot Skuffe Ild Flamme Leflghed Gulv (n) Bloms Mobler (pl) Have Stueetage lst dru Kaste bezem der Besen emmer der Elmer kaars dte Kerze tapxlt (n) der Teppch plafond (n) dê Dcckc kelder der Keller stoel der Stuîfl kamerpot der Nachttopf schoorsteen der S chom- stem hoek de Ecke kast der Schrank gordien (n) der Vorhang dru Gardme kussen (n) das Kassen deur dru Tr lade dru Schublade vuur (n das Feuer vlam che Flamme etage-wonmg dru Wotmmag vloer der Fussboden bloem che Blume Arnested (n) haard meubelea (pl) dru Mobel (pl) tmn der Garten gehjkvloers (n) das Erdge- schoss der Hezd
Language Museum 527 ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH house bas (n) Hus (n) huis ron (flaO stryk-jâm (n) Strygeem (n) stn]kzer (n) key nyckel Ngle sleutel htchen kok (n) Kkken (n) keuken !amp lampa Lampe lamp lavatory W C (pron Totlet (n) W C, (pron vay-say) vay-say) lock ls (n) Laas slot (n) mattress madrass Madras mat.ras GERM_AN àas Haus das Bug¢l- der Schlussel che Kuche dle Lampe das Klos¢tt dae Toilette das Schloss dae Matraze methylated splrlt denaturerade Sprlt brand-spmms der Brenn- spn splntus mlrror spegel Spell (n) spegel der Spmgel oven ugn Ovn oven der Ofen pantry skaffen (n) Splsekammer provslekamer dle Spese- pru!lemand pezroleum schfidenj (n) oorkussen (n) (n) paper-basket papperskorg Paplrkurv paraffia fotogen (n) Petroleum pctre tavla Bdlede (n) pHlow huvudkudde Pude ppe (water etc , rot (n) Ror (n) pl]p roof tak (n) Tg (n) dak (n) room rum (n) Vaerelse (n) kamer s¢ales vg Vaegt weegschaal sheet lakan (n) Lagen (n) laken (n) shovel skyffel smoke rok stalrs trappa steam nga storey vïamg table bord (n) tap kran towel handduk Skovl schop Rog rook Trappe trap Damp stoom Etage verdepmg Bord (n) tafet Hane kraan Haandldaede handdoek ,¢llr muur Vaeg wand Vmdue (n) raam (n) Gaad bmneuplaats wall (structure) mur wall (mner) vagg wmdow fonster (n) yard grd kammer der Papêrkorb das Petroleum das Bfld das Kopf- hssen che Rohre das Dach das Zmamer che Wage das Bemach das Bettlaken de S chaufel der Rauch de Treppe der Dampf der Stock der Tsch der Hahn das Handmch dle Mauer de Wand das Fenster der Hof bacon beef beer bevemge brandy bread brcalffast butter (k) FOOD AND DRINK flk oxkOtt (n) m (n) konjak brod (n) frukost sm6r (n) Bacon rookspek (n) der Speek Oksekod (n) rundvleesch (n) das Rmd- fleseh O1 (n) ber (n) das Bmr Dnk dramk das Getrank Cognac cognac der Kognak Brod (n) brood (n) das Rrot Morgenmad ontb:lt (n) das Frùhstuck Smor (n) boter dru Buoeer
The Loom of Language ENGLISH ce cheese chcken cder ream SWEDISH D2kNISH DUTCH kaka Kage koek ost Ost kaas kyc/dmg Kyllmg kp ïppelvm (n) Aeblewn (n) appelwlln ka£fe (n) Kaffe koffie gradde Flode room whpped cream vaspadgradde Flodeskum (n)slagroom egg gg (n3 Aeg (n) el (n) bofled egg kokoE agg kogt Aeg gekookt el frled egg stekt agg Spejlaeg splegelel evenmg meal aftonm! A.ftensmad avondeten fa) fat fett (n) Fedt (n) flour mol (n) Mel (n) haro sklnka Skanke honey honmg Honnmg ce-cream glace Is jam sylt (n) Syltetoj (n) meat kott (n) Kod (n) midday-meal mlddag Mlddag mflk mlôlk Maelk mustard senap Sennop mutton frkot-t (n) off olja pepper peppar pork flàsk (n) roll bulle salad sallad salt salt (n sandwich smbrgs ver (n) meel ham honmg is (n) GERMAN der Kuchen der Kase das Huhn der Apfelwem der Kaffee der Rahm dru S chlag- sahne das Es gekochtes E Spegelel das Abend- essen das Fett das Mehl der S chmken der ttomg das Es lam dze Konfimre vleesch (n) das Flesch mlddagmaal (n) das Mttagessen melk de Mflch mosterd der Senf der Mosmch Faarekd schapenvleesch das Hammel- (n) (n flcsch Ohe ohe das O1 Peber (n) peper der Pfeffer Svmeked (n) varkensvleesch das Schwemeo (n) flesch Rundstykke kadetle (n) das Brotchen (n) dru Semmel Salat salade der Salat Salt (n) zout (n) das Salz Smorrebrod boerham das belegte (n) Brotchen Sauce saus de Sosse Polse worst dru Wurst Suppe soep dru Suppe Sukker (n), stoker der Zucker Te thee der Tee sauce ss sausage korv soup soppa sugar socker (n) tea te (n) veal kalvkott (n) vegetables gronsaker (pl) Gronsager (ri) vmegar àttlka Eddrke wme vin (n) Vin (n) Kalveked (n) kalfsvleesch (n) das Kalb- flesch groente das Gemuse azjn der Essg wljn der Wem basln bottle ., (1) EATING AND COOKING UTENSILS sk/tl Kumme kom (n) das Becken flaska Flaske flesch d,e Flasche
ENGLISH coEee-pot corkscrew cup dzsh fork frymg-pan glass ketfle kmfe bd mpkm plate saueepan SSucr spoon table=cloth teapot tm-opener axe board cartrdge chuel file gmlet gun hammer hoe hook (fishmg) Iadder hne (fishmg) nad pmcers plane plough rod (fishmg) SClSSO$ $ CTeW S crew-drn-er Language Museum 529 SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN kaffekanna Kaffekande koflîepot dle Kaffee kanne korkskruv Proptraek- kurkentrekker der Kork- kopp Kop fat (n) Fad (n) gaffel C_mffeI stekpanna Stegepande glas (n) Gias (n) kruka Kande klttel Kedel kmv Kmv lock (n) Laag serrer Servet tallr: Tallerken k«strull KasserolIe tefat (n) Underkop sked Ske bordduk Borddug kople (n) sehotel york braadpan glas (n) kan ketel mes deksel serrer (n) bord (n) stoofpan schotelt}e (n) Iepel tafellaken (n) tekanna Tepotte theepot burkoppnare Daaseopluk- bhkopener ker zleher dle Tasse de Schùssel dc Gabel dru Brarpfanne das Glas der K.mg der Kessel das Messer der Deckel dle Serviette der Teller der Kochtopf dle Unrertasse der L6ffel das Tlschtuch dle Teekanne der Btchsen- off.ner yxa brde (n) patron me)sel borr gev/r (n) hammare hacka metlok stege metrev spuk mit (n) mutter tg hyvel plog metspo (n) stg 8ax sk:ruv sk-mvmejsel he (m) TOOLS Okse bzl! Braet (n) plank Patron patroon Mesêl betel Fil vll Bor (n) boor Gevaer çn) geweer (n) Hammer hamer Hakke schoffI Medekxog wschhaak Stage Iadder Medesnore (n) vschhln Soin (n) spl/ker Net (n) net Momk moer Tang mjptang Hovl schaaf Plov ploég Medestang hengel Sav . zaag Saks schaar Skrue sckroef clic Axt das Brett dru Patrone der Melssel dle Fefle der Bohrer das Gewehr der Hammer de Hacke der Angel- haken de Leter de Angelleme der NageI das Netz dru Mutter de Zange der Hobel der Pflug dle Angelrute die Sage dru Schere de Schraube Skruetraekker schrocvedramer der Schrau- benmeher Le zes dlc Sense
530 ENGLISH spade spanner sprmg strmg tools wlre actor author baker bank bookseller boo1hop butcher ce chemlst (phar- maclst) chemlst's shop clergyman clerk confectmnery cook (female) customer dalry dentlst doctor The Loom of Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN spade Spade spade der Spaten skruvnyckel SMuenegle schroefsleutel der Schrauben- scblussel fder Fêder veer de Feder snore (n) Snor tow (ni de Schnur verktyg (n) Vaerktol (n) werkmlg (n) das Werkzeug trd Tïaad draad der Draht (n) VOCA TIONS AND SHOPS sktdespelme Skuespfller skrfftstaAare Forfatter bsare Bzger ban/< Bank bokaandlare Boghandler bo-ldida Boghznde' slaktare Slager cale (n Kafe apotekare Apoteker apotek (n) Apotek prst Praest kontorst Kontomst tooneelspeler der S chau- speler s chnlver der S chrfft- steller bakker der Backer bank de Bank boekhande!aar der Buch- handler boekwmkel de Buch- handlung slager der Flelscher der Metzger café (n) das Café das Kaffeehaus apotheker der Apotheker apotheek de Apotheke geestelke der Pfarrer der Gelsthche lderk der Angestellte kondltorl (n) Kondlton (n) banketbakkerlj dle Kondtorm kokerska Kokkeptge kund Kunde mjolkbod Melen (ni tandlakare Tandlaege lakare Laege engmeer mgenlor Ingemor gardener tradgrdsmas- Garmer tare hatrdressér hnsor Friser 1eweller juvelerare Juveler louma!mt joumahst Joumahst ?udge domare Dominer laundry tvtmnratmmg Vasken (n) lawycr advokat Sagforer keukenmexd de Kochm ldant der Kunde melkmnchtmg das Mflchge- schkft tandarts der Zahnarzt dokter der A.rzt der Doktor mgemeur der Ingemeur tumman der Gartner kapper der Fnsor der Haar- schneder luweher der Juweher loumahst der Journahst rechter der Rchter asscher dle Waschan- stah advocaat der Rechtsan- w<
ENGLISH mechamc merchant mlmer Language Museum SWEDISI-I DANSH DUTCH montor Mekamker mecammen kopman Ibmand koopman modast Modehandler- modiste mde muscmn mustker Musker muzt notary notarle Notar llotarlS nurse (hospltal) slul¢skoterska Sygeplelerske verpleegster officer officer Officer officmr offic.,al mbetsman Embedsmand ambtenaar pamter mlare Maler schùder peasant bonde Bonde boer photographer fomgraf Fotograf fotograaf pohceman pohskonstapel PohubetTent pohueagent postman brevbarare Postbud postbode pubhsher forlaggare Forlaegger mtgever servant tl anare Tener &enstbode shoemaker skomakare Skomager schoenmaker shop buttk ' But wmkel s nger smgare Sanger zanger smlth smed Smed smld soldîe soldat Soldat soldaat stazmner's shop pappershandel Paprhandel kantoorboek- handel surgeon lrurg Kmzrg charurg rat!or skraddare Skraedder zdeermaker tea cher lar are Laerer onderwlj zer traveHer resande Rejsende rmmger typîst (female) maskmskn- Maskmsi- rpste verska verske watchmaker armakare Urmager horIogemaker workman arbete Arbelder werkman (o) COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES Amenca Amernka Amertka Amerfla an Amertcan en ameran enAmertkaner een Amenan Argentine Argentma Argentma Argentmaë an Argentine en Argentmare enArgentmer een ArgentIln Asa Asen Asen Ame Ausma 6sterrake Ostrg Oostennlk Belgmm Bdgen Belgen BeIgte a Be]gmn en belger en Belgler een Belg Brazu Btasthen Brasthen Brazthe a Brazflian en Blasthaare en Brasllîmer een Bramhaan 53 GERMAN der Mecham- ker der Kaufmann de Mo&sm che Putz- macherm der Musker der Notar de Kranken- schwester der Offimer der Beamte der Maler der Bauer der Photograph der Schuz- der Polzast der Bneftrager der Verleger der Deastbote der Scauh- maoEer der Laden der Sanger der Schmaed der SoIdat dru Schreb- warenhandlung der Chmg der Schneder der Lehrer der Rmsende che Stenotypstm der Uhrmacher der Arbeter /kfrlka Ameraka em Amertkaner Argentmen em Argentmmr Asen O$errelch Belgen em Belger Bmsthen em Brasflan
532 ENGLISH China a Chmese Denmark a Dane EngIand an Enghshman Europe a European France a Fren chman Germany a German Great Bntam Greece a Greek Holland a Dutchman Hmagary Iadm Irdand an Irshman an Itahan Italy lap= a Japanese Norway a Norweglan Poland a Pole Portugal a Portuguese Russla a l.USSlan Scotland a Scotsman Spam a Spamard Sweden a Swede Swltzerland a Swss Turkey, Umted States The Loom oJ Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN Kma Kma China China en kmes en Kmeser een Chmees em Chmese Danmark Danmark Denemarken Dnemark en dansk en Dansker een Deen en Dane England England Engeland England en eagêlsma en Englaender eenEngelsch- em Englander man Europa Europa Europa Europa en europé en Europaeer een Europeaan cm Europer Franknke Frankng Franknk Frankrech en fransman en Fransk- een Fransch- em Franzose mand man Tyskland Tyskland Dmtschland Deutschland en tysk en Tysker een Dmtscher em Deutscher Storbntanmen Storbntanmen Groot- Grossbntan- Bnttamë men Greldand Graekenland Gnekenland Gnechenland en grek en Graeker een Grmk cm Gneche Hoiland Holland Holland Holland en holludare en Hollaender een Hollander em Hollauder een Nederlander Ungern Ungarn Hongane Ungarn Indmn Indmn Btsch Indue Indmn Irland Irland Ierland 111and en lrlandare en Iflaender een Ier cm Ire en ltalmnare en Imlzener een Itahaan cm Itahener Italmn Italien Itahè Italien Japan Japan J'apan Japan en lapanes en Japaner een Japanees em Japaner Norge Norge Noorwegen Norwegen en norrman en Nordmand een Noor em Nonveger Pole.n Polen Polen Polen ch polak » Ch Polak ccn Pool cm Pole Portugal Portugal Pormg Porrugal en portugm en Portugmer een Portugees em Portugmse Ryssland Ruslaztd Rusland Russland en ryss en Russer een Rus em Russe Skotfland Skotland Schotland Schottland en skotte en Skottê een Schot en Schotte Spamen Spamen Spane Spamen en spanlor en Spamer een Span]aard em Spamer Svenge Svemg Zweden S chweden en svensk en Svensker een Zwêed em S chwede Schwez Svelts Zwltserland che S chwmz en schwezare en Svetser een Zwtser en S chwelzer Turkmt Tyrkmt Turka]e dru Turkel Forenta Sta- de forenede de Vereemgde dru Veremg- tema Stater Staten ten Staaten
Language Musam ENGLISH SWEDISH DAISH DUTCH (p' R.EADING AND WRITING address adress Adresse adres (n) dle Adresse die Ans chrfft blottmg-paper laskpapper (n) Traekpapr (n) vloeipapler (n) das Losch- papier book bok Bog boek (n) das Buch eopy (ofbook, exemplar (n) Eksemplar (n) exemplaar (n) das Exemplar copy (of letter, kopm Kopl copra etc ) date datum (n) Datum dann dl ctonary ordbok Ordbog woordenboek edltmn upplaga Oplag (n) mtgave enveiope kuvert (n) Konvolut enveloppe fouatam-pen îndm-rubber let'ter le.er-box map newspaper novel page paper parcel pen peacfl penochcal postage post¢ard post-offi ce shorthand sgnature stamp type-wrtter bath bill 533 GERMAN &e Kopm Fyidepen walpenhouder das Damm das Worter- buch che Auflage das Kuvert der Bnefum- sch/ag de Ful!feder Vskeheder (n) vhkgom Blaek (-) mk--t Brev (n) bnef Brevkasse bnevenbus Landdort (n) landkaar Avis krant Roman roman Sade bladmjde Papr (a) papier (n) Pakke pak3e Pea pen Blyant potlood (n) Tldsskrff-t (n) tjdschrfft Porto (n) porto (n) Brevko (n) bnefka2zt Posthus (n postkantoor Stenoafi snels chrffï (n) Underskrff-t Fnmaerke (n) postzegel Sknvemaskme schnlf- machme der Rafler- gamml dru Tmte der Bnef der Brie "fkaten &e Karte dru Zeumg der Roman de SeÆte das Papier das Paket dxe Feder der Bleus:fit &e Zett- scbxfft ds Porto de Postgebhr che Postlrte das Postamt &e Kurzschafft handteekenmg dru Unter- schrfft dru Bnefmarke de Schreb- maschme (q) HOTEL AND RESTAURANT bad (n) Bad (n) bad (n) rkmng R¢gnmg rekenmg das Bad dle.Rechnttng
534 ENGLISH chambermald change cloak-room dlnmg-room hotel The Loom of Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH stademka Stuep,ge kamermelse smâpengar(pl ) Smapenge (pl) klemgeld (n) garderob Toflet garderobe matsal Spsesl eetzaal hotel (n) Hotel (n) hotel (n) hlss Fevaror hff manager MenU drektor Bestyrer directeur matsedel Spseseddel menu (n) ofice kontor (n) porter portier zecelpt kwtro (n) restaurant restaurant tlp drckspengar walter kypare arrxval ankomst bookmg-office bfljettkontor o cloak-room garderob coach vagn comparr.ment kupe I(ontor (n) kantoor (n) Poruer poruer Kvttermg k-wltantle Restaurant restaurant (n) Drdepenge fool (pi) OE jener ke!lner (r) TRAIN Ankomst aankomst Bllletkontor loket (n) (n) Garderobe bgag¢-depot (n) aggon wagon Kupe coupé GERMAN das Zmmer- madchen das KlemgeId de Garderobe der Spesesaal das Hotel der Lift der Fahrstuhl der Drektor de Spese- "lrte das Btlro der Poruer de Qmttung das Restaurant das Trmkgeld der Kellner commumcatton n6dbroms Nodbremse noodrem cord connemon forbmdelse Forbmdelse aanslumng der Anschluss customs tull Told douane das Zollamt departure awesa Afgang vertrek (n) de Abfahrt engme lokomouv (n) Lokomotv (n) locomotef de Lokomo- tve entrance ingng Indgang ngng der Emgang exlt utgmg Udgang mtgang der Ausgang fronter grans Graense grens de Grenze guazd konduktor Konduktor conducteur der S chafïner mqmry office upplysnmgs- Oplysmngs- mformatle- de Auskunffs- kontor (n) kontor (n) bureau (n) ste]le luggage bagage (n) Bagage bagage das Gepack luggage-va, bagagevaga Bagagevogn bagagewagen der Gepàck- wagen passeger passagerare Passager passager der Passagxer passport pass (n) Pas (n) paspoort (n) der Pass phfform perrong Perron pe.rron (n) der Bahnsteg porter bïrare Drager krmer der G-eptck- trger ratlway ] mvâg Jembane spoorweg de E1senbehn de Ankumft der Fahrkar- tenschalter de Gep/lckab- gabe der Wagen dasKupee das Abtefl de Notbremse
ENGLISH sat sleepmg-car smoker statzon station-toaster stop suit-case tetable am fast train siow ram VlS Languag : Museum 5 3 5 SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERM2kN plats Plads plaats der Platz sowagn Sovevogn slaapwagon der Schlat- wagen rokare Rygere reokcoupe das Raucherab- el statzon Station stauoa (n t der Bahnhof stat,onsm- Stauonsfor- stat,.omchef der Banhof- spektor stander vorsteher halt Holdeplads hahe &e Haltestet/e zappsack Haandknnert vahes (n) 'der Handkoffer bfllett Blet le (n) &e Fahrkarte retur retur retour retour tldtabell Koreptan spoorboekje (n der Fahrplan tâg n) Tog (n) trem der Zug snalhg Ihog sneltre:n der Eflzug Eksprestog eî D-zug persontfig Petsontog boame,tre!n der Person:n- zug koffert KoEe:t koffer der Koffer sa Vsum (n) vsum (n) das Vsum vantsal Venresal wachtkamer der Waroeaal anchor boat bow bridge cabm captam compass dock dod flag gangway hold keel hfe-belt 1fie-boat hghthouse mast oa propeller pmer tope (s) SHIP ankare 'çnj .ker (n) anker (n) der Anker bït Baad boot das Boot bog Boy boeg der Bug brygga Bro brug de Brude k.aluta Kahyt kalmt che Kabme kapten Kaptaln "lpltem der Kapxtaa kompass Kompas (n) kompas (n) der Kompass besatmmg Maadskab (n) bemaam.ng che Mamaschaft dack (n) Daek (n) dek (n) das Deck docka Dok dok (n) das Dock flagg Flag (n) vlag dru Flagge landgng Landgang Ioopplank de Laufplanke lastrtma (n) Lastnam (n) scheepsruma (n) der Laderaum kol t(l keI der Kal raddnmgs- Rednmgs- reddmgsgmdel der Remmgs- balte (n) baelte (n) gut el raddnmgsbt Rechamgsbaad reddmgsboot das Rettungs- boot fyrtorn (n) Fyrtaazn (n) vuurtoren der Leucht- mast Mast toast der Mast a Aare roemem dss Ruder skruv Skxue schroef de Schtaube mmndent Hovmeter hofmeester der Zahl- melster rep (n) Reb (n) touw (n) das Tau
536 The Loom of Laguage ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH rudder roder (n) Rot (n) roer (n) sad segel (ni Sej1 (n) zell (n) saflor soman Semand zeeman seaslckness s6sIuka Sosygc zeezmkte shlp skepp (n) Skzb (n) schlp (n) stera akter Agterende achtersteven mg bogserbt Bugserbaad sleepboot wharf kal Ka; kaa GERMN das Ruder das Segel der Seemarm dle Seekrank- helt das Schff der Hmter- stevei1 der Schlepper der Ka (t) MOTOR AND BICYCLE axle axel Aksel as bermg lager (n) Lele (n) drager bend çroad) kurva Svmg (n) hoek bcycle cykel Cylde fiers bonnet motorhuv Motorhjoelm motorkap brake broms Bremse rem bulb lampa Paere lamp bumper kofngare Kofanger schokbreker car b1 Bfl auto carburettor forgasare cham kedla clutch kopplmg cross-road korsvg dst.nbutor fordeiare drwng-hcenoe korkor (n) fine gear head-lamp hood hooter horse-power gmton lack level-crossmg iorry motor-cyde mudguard number-phte de Achse das Lager dru Kurve das Fahrrad dru Haube dru Bremse dru Btrne der Smssfanger das Auto der Wagen der Ve gasêr dru Kette dru Kupplung dru Strassen- kreummg der Vertefler der Fuhrer- schen de Geldstrafe der Gang der Schem- werfer das Verdeck de Hupe de Pferde- starke de Zùndung de Ver- scherung der Heber der Bahntber- gang das Lastauto das Motorrad der Kotflogel das Nummern- schfld
Language Museum 537 ENGLISH SWEDISH pedai pedal petrol bensm pson pstong plug tïndstff'r (n) pres.ure tryck (n) pump pump radmtor kylare saddle sadel spark gmsta speed fart speed-hmt hasnghets- g-tïns starter salvtartare startmg-handle startvv steermg-wheel ratt tank tank tube luftslang tyre ring valve ventzl wheel h}ul (n) DANISH DUTCH GERMAN Pedal pedaaI (n) das Pe3al Benmn benzine das Benmn Stempel (n) patron der Kotben Taendror (n) bougze dJe Kerze Tryk (n) druk der DruoE Pumpe pomp d.,e Pumpe K«ler ra&ator der KIer Sadel zde! (n der SarmI Gmst vortk der Funke Fart nelheïd de Geschwm- dgke:t Hastgheds- sneedsgrens de H6chtge- graense schwmdg- ket Selvstarter starter der Anlasser Ste_rtsvmg (n) shugr dru Hand- kurbel Rt (n) stuurd (n) das Stêuerrad Tank re, e mr (n) der BeMlter Slange bmnenband der Scb_tauch Daek (n) band der Reten Ventfl vennel ds Ventfl H:ml (n) wel (n) das Rad accident (mis- olyckshan- hap) delse accident (chance handelse event) accourir {eport> berattelse action handhng advantage fordel advertsement armons Ulykkestù- faelde (n) Tflfaelde (n) Beretnmg Handhng Fordel Annonce advme rd (n) Raad (n) age (length of lder Aider lffe) alluson hansmg Hentydmng amount belopp (n Beib (n) anger vrede Vrede ngle answer apology approval army vmkel svar (n) urskt bfU (n) armé art konst ongevaI (n) der Unfall toevd (n) der Zu£alI bencht (n) der Bencht hrmddmg dru Handlung voordeel (n) der Vortefl annonce de Annonce advertentie das Inserat raad der Rat lecfuld das Airer Vmkel Svar (n) Undskyld- nmg Bffald (n) Haer Kunst zmspelmg dru Anspdung bedrag (n) der Betrag toorn der .îkrger der Zom hoek der Wmkel antwoord (n) de Antwort verontschuldg- de Entsehul&- ng gung bl:lval der Beffali leger (n) dru Axmec das Heer kunst dae Kunst
538 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN attack anfall (n) Angreb (n) aanval der Anfall der Angnff Forsg (n) pogmg der Versuch Tfltraeknmgs- aantrekkmgs- &e Anzeh- kraft kracht ungskraff Gennemsmt gemddelde (n) der Durch- (n) schrutt Kugle kogel dru Kugel attempt attracUon average ball (rotmd thmg) battle beauty begmmng frsok dragnmgs- kraft gcnomsmtt boll slag (n) sk6nhet begynnelse behavour uppf6rande behef tro brth fodelse blmdness blmdhet blot ftick blow dag (n) bottom botten boundary, lmat gPans bow (arc) bîge breed, race ras cause (grounds) orsak caution (care) omsorg Slag (n) veldslag dle Schlacht Skenhed schoonheld dxe SchOnhet Begyndelse begm (n) der Beglrm aanvang der Axtfang Opforsel gedrag (n) das Benehmen das Betragen Tro geloof (n) der Glaube Fodsel geboorte dle Geburt Blmdhed blmàhed de Blmdhelt Plet vlek der Fleck Slag (n) dag der Sehlag Grund bodem der Grund der Boden Gaense grens dle Grenze Bue boog der Bogen Race ras (n) dru Rasse Aarsag oorzaak dle Ursache Forsgtghed voor2chughed de Vorsxcht dru Sorgfalt cent_re mtt Madte mdden (n) &e Matte change (altera- forandrmg Forandrmg verandermg dru Veran- tion) dertmg chapter kaptel (n) Kapltel (n) hoofdstuk (n) das Kaptêl choce val (n) Valg (n) keus de Wahl clrde clrkel Clrkel mrkel der Krms ctr¢umference omkrets Omfang (n) omtrek der Umfang oelleeeon samhng Samlmg verzamelmg de Sammlung oelour frg Barre kleur dru Farbe Kulor oembustlon f0rbrnnmg commaud (order) befallnmg commttee kommtt companson jim£6relse compenuon konkrens (busness Forbraendmg verbr.ndmg Befalmg bevel (n) Komt comtd (n) Sammenhgnmg vergehkmg Konkurrence concurrenue dru Verbren- nung der Befeh_l das Komtee der Ausschuss der Verglemh dle Konlmr- l'ellz der Wettbe- werb
Language Museum 539 DANISH Betmgelse Tgztand confidence (trust) connexion f6rtroende (n) Thd forbmdelse Forbmdelse consequence ffol]d Folgc gevolg consolation rrost Trost troost contempt fomkt (n) Foragt vemchtmg contents mnehàll (n) Indhold (n) mhoud contanuatlon foîtsattnmg Fortsaettelse voortzettmg country (nauon) 1and (n) I.and (n) courage mod (n) Mod (n) cowardIce feghet Felghed crmae orott (n) Forbrydclse cnumsm knt Kxmk cross kors (n) Kors (n) crowcl mmagd Maengde cry (coi1) top (n) tLaab (n) cube tammg Temmg custom sedvana Saedvane cul: (mclson) smtt (n) Smt (n) damagc skada Skade danger fara Fare death dod Dod debt skuld Gaeld decay fbrfali (n Forfald (n) decsmn beslut Beslummg defeat nederlag n) ddence forsvar (ni degree (scale) grad Grad depth dup (n) Dybde description beskmvmg Besknvelse DUTCH GERMAN voorwardc de Bedmgung toestand der Zustand de Lage vertrouwen (n) das Vertraucn verbmdng dle Vcrbm= dmï d,e Folge der Trost de Verachttmg der Imhalt dte Fortset- zung land (n) das Land moed der Mur lafhed d,e Feaghet msdaad das Ver- brechen lu:ltek de Kxltll krms (n das Kreuz menthe &e Menge roep der Ruf kubus der Wel gewoonte che Stte de Gewohn= het snede der Schmtt schade der Schaden gevaar (n , de Gefahr dood der Tod schuld dle Schuld verval (n) der VeffalI beslmt (n) der Beschluss Nederlag (n) nederlaag dle Nlederlage Forsvar (n) verdechgmg dle Verted- gtmg gr&ad der Grad depte dru Tefe beschnlvmg de Besche- bung des,re onskan Onske (n) wensch der Wunsch despmr f0rrvvla Fortvvlelse wazhoop dxe Verzweff- lung de Zestbrung de Vermch- ttmg detafl (n) de Em.zelhelt das Detafl ontwgr&elmg de Eatwtck- hmg destructmn f'6rdelse Oddaeggelse vermehng dctad detall Enkelthed devclopment utveeklmg Udvdmg
540 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANÆSH DUTCH dlameter dtameter Dlameter mlddeltjn dgestîon matsmaltmng Fordojelse dlrecton nktmng Remmg (course) dîscovery upptackt Opdagelse dsoesson dskllsslon Dreffelse dxsease slukdom Sygdom dlsgust ackel (n) Vaemmelse dsk (shce) sklva Skave &stance avstmd (n) Afstand spIsverterng mchtmg ontdekkmg besprekmg zekte walgmg schjf afstand dlstnbuton fordelnmg Fordehng verdeehng doubt tv:vet (n) Tvlvl twqfel dozen dussm (n) Dusm (n) domln (n) dr3mess torrhet Trhed droogte duty phkt Phgt edge (border) rand Rand educauon uppfostran Opdaagelse effect verkng V1rkntng effort anstrangmng Ansrrengelse phcht rand opvoedlng mtwerkmg mspannmg encounter (meet- m6te (n) G ERMAN der Durch- messer dru Verdauung de Rchtung de ]Ent- deckung dle Erorterung de Dskusmon me Krankhet der Ekel de Schebe de Enffernung der Abstand de Vertefiung der Zweffel das Dutzend de Troken- het de Pflcht der Rand de Erzehung de Wrkung de Anstren- gung &e Anspan- nung Mode (n) ontmoetmg de Begeg-nung end inde Ende emde (n) das Ende enemy fiende Fende vland der Femd enmlty fiendskap (n) Fendslb (n) vqandschap die Femdschaft entertamment underhllmg Under- vermaak (n) de Unter- (amusement) holdnmg haltung enwronment omguvmng Omgwelse omgevmg de Umgebung envy avund (n) Msundelse afgunt der Ned equflbrmm lamvkt Lgevaegt evenwcht (n) das Glech- gewcht event handelse Tldragelse gebeurtems das Eregms example exempel (n) Eksempel (n) voorbeeld (n) das Bespel exceptmn undantag (n) Undtagelse mtzondermg de Ausnahme extnbmon utstllnmg erastence tfllvaro expansmn utmdgnmg expenence erfarenhet explanauon forklm:lng Udstfllmg tentoonstellmg de Ausstellung Eksstens bestaan (n) das Vorhan- densem das Bestehen Udvdelse mtzettmg de Ausdeh- nung Erfarmg ondervmdmg de Erfahrung Forklanng verklarng de Erklârung
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH fact (wht s fakmm (n) true) fall (drop) fart (n) feelmg kksla flaght (mr) flykt fl.aght (escape) flykt fleet flotta fold (thmg f folded) food narmg force kraft fracture brott (n) freedom fnhet ead van fnends/:up vãnskap fuel bransle (n) future framud gaine (play) lek gathermg forsamlmg gff-t (preseat) gâva goverament regermg gratitude tacksamhet greetmg halsmng growth vaxt guflt skuld half haltt hardness Mrdhet baste st DA.NIStt DUTCH Kendsgernmg fe Fakmm Fald (n) val Frygt vrees Foldse gevoe! F/ugt vlucht Flugt vlucht :F/aade vloot Fold vouw Naenng voedseI (n Kraft kracht Brud (n) breuk Frthed vnjhed Ven vrend Venskab (n) vnendschap Braendsel (n) brandstof Fremud toekomst Spfl (n) spel (n) Forsamlmg vergadermg Gave geschenk (n) Regermg regeermg Taknemme- daakbaarhmd hghed Hflsen groet Vaekst groe Skyld schuld Halvdel heL Haardhed hardhed Hast haast Had (n) haat Stmdhed gezond.hed Hrelse (n) gehoor Varme warmte Hojde hooge Hlael p hu]p Hstorm geschaedems Hul (n) gat (n) Aere eer Haab (n) hoop Sult honger Ide ldee (n) hate bat (n) health sundhet hearmg(senseof) hSrsel heat (physcs) varme heght ho]d hdp hNp hastory hstorm hole M1 (n) honour heder hope hopp (n) htmger htmger dea :dé 54 GERMAN &e Tatsache der Fa11 der Srarz che Furcht de Angst das OEfahl der Flug dle Flucht die Flote dle Falte dle Nahrtmg che der Bruch dae Frezhet der Fretmd dru Fretmd- schaf-r das Brenn- matenal &e Zuku das SpM che Versamm- hmg das Geschenk dru Gabe de Regaerung che Dankbar- ket der Gruss das Wachsmm de SchuJd de Halfte de Harte &e Hast dae Efle der Hass &e Gesundhet das GehSr &e Warme che Hohe de HlIfe de Unter- stù'ung che Geschachte das Loch dru Ehre che Hoffnung der Hunger che Idee
542 The Locn of Lcmguage ENGLISH îmltaton mcome SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH efterhâr- Efterhgaxmg lmtaue mande (n) mkomst Inàkomst mkomen (n) tflltagande (n) Tfltagen (n) toename mdustry (apph- fl Fhd vht innocence osku!d Uskyld onschuld GERNL&N de Nachah- mung das Emkom- men dxe Zunahme dmVermehrung der Flexss dru Unschuld Instruction undervxsmng Undervisnmg onderwljs (n) der Unterrlcht (teachmg) intention avslkt Hensgt voornemen (n) de Abscht mtercst (atten- mtresse (n , Imeresse belangstdlmg das Interesse uon) mvenuon uppfinnmg Opndelse ultvlndmg dru Erfindung mvesuatmn undersoknmg Undersogelse onderzoek (n) dle Unter- suchung mvltanon b)udmng Indbydelse ulmoochgmg dru Emladung ealousy svarts)uka Skmsygc aloezm dru Efersucht ourney resa Re]se res de Relsc oy glad)e Glaede vreugde dle Freude udgrnent dom Dom oordeel (n) das Urtell mce saft Saî sap (n) der Saf ump sprïug (n) Sprmg (n) sprong der Sprung usuce raoEarchghet Retfaerdtghed gerechugheld dru Gerechtlg- kelt ktck spark Spark (n) schop der Fusstrtt trap tund (sort) art Art soort dze Art slag (n) dru Sorte knot knut Knude knoop der Knoten knowledge kunskap Kundskab kenms dru Kenntms das Wlssen language spr&k (n) Sprog (n) taal dru Sprache laughter skratt (n) Latter lach das Lachen gelach (n) das Gelachter law lag Lov we das Gesetz lawsmt process Proces proces (n) der Prozess lazmess latta Dovenskab lmhed dru Traghezt dru Faulhett lecture foredrag (n) Foredrag (n) voordracht der Vortrag le, sure lechghet Frtd vnle tqd de free Zet dru Musse length langd Laengde lengte dle Lge lesson laxa Lektm les de Lekon level mv Nveau (n) nïveau (n) das NvoEu ho Ibgn Logn leugcn dae Liage lffe hv (n) Lv (n) levcn (n) das Lcbcn line lm)e Lu-ne llln dle Lmm hqmd viitska Vaedske vloelstof de FltIssgket
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCII hst hsta Lste hjst load last Laes (n) last look blmk Blak (n) bhk loss forlust Tab (n) verbes (n) love karlek Kaerhghed hefde luck (chance) lycka Held (n) geluk (n) kaus luxury lyx Luksus luxe man (human manmska Menaeske (n) mensch bemg) manager ledare Leder leader mark, mgn tecken (n) Tega (n) teeken (n) mass massa Masse massa measure mitt (n) Maal (a) maat member medlem Medlem (a) hd memory mmne (n) Hukommelse geheugen (n) mastake msstag Fejl four maxture blaudnmg Blandmg mengsel (n) money pengar (pl) Penge (pl) geld (n) mood (retaper) lymae (a) Stemamg stemmmg Lune movement rorelse Bevaegelse bewegmg naine nam (n) Navn (n) naam necessty nodvtndghet Ndvendghed noodzakehk- hed news nyhet Nyhed tqdmg 121euws (/2,) aose (sotmd) 1jud (n) Stoj gelmd noise (dru) buller (n) Larm geraas number (No) nummer (n) Nummer (n) nummer (n) number (nu- tal (n) Tal (n) getal (n) meral) number atal (n) AntaI (n) aantal (n) (amouat) observatmn akttagelse Iagttagelse opmerkmg occasion OEalle (n) Lehghed gelegenhed occupation (pro- yrke (n) Stîllmg beroep (n) fessmn) openmg 6ppmng Aabnmg openmg opmaon menmg Memng meenmg order (arrange- odmng Ordmng orde orgm urspruag (n) owner agate Oprmdelse oorzprong Eer egeaam: para smarta part (of whole) del Smerte pln De1 deel 543 GEIM:AN das Verzetcs dru Lste dru Last der Bhck der Verlust de Lebe das Ghck de C2mnee der Luxus der Measch der Leter das Zechen &e Masse das Mass das Matgh:d das Gedachmas der Fehler de Mschung das Geid de Stmamung de Lauae dle Bewegung der Naine de Notwen- &gkelt dru Nachrcht dru Nemgket das Geràusch der Larm dru Nummer che Zahl d:e A.azaht dle Beobach- tung die Gelegen- het der Beruf de 'ffnung che/vlemung dru Anscht dru Orchaung der Ursprtmg der Egenm- mer der Schmerz der Tefl
544 The Loom oj Laguage ENGLISFI SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH part (in play, roll Rolle rol etc ) party (faction) paru (n) PartÆ (n part11 past det forflutna Fornd verleden (n) payment betalmug Betaimg betalmg peace fred Fred vrede people (coin- folk (n) Folk (n) volk (n) mtmlty) permtssmn tùlâtelse Ttlladelse vergunmng pIcture btld Btllede (n) beeld (n) pece (fragment) styd<e (n) Srykke (n) stuk (n) place (spot) stalle Sted (n) oord (n) Phads plaats plan (prolect) plan Plan pleasure noje (n) Fornolelse point (sharp end) spets Splds point (m space ptmkt Punl (n) or rime) pinson gfft (n) Gfft Pohteness hovhghet Hoflghed polmcs pohuk Pohttk practice ovnmg Ovelse prejudxce fordom Fordom press press Presse pressure tryck (n) Tryk (n) pretext f0revandnmg Paaskud (n) pince, pmze pr,s (n) Pris product produkt Produkt (n) progress framsteg (n) promise lofe (n) proof (evldence) bevls (n) property (quai- egenskap property (thmgs egendom owned) protecuon beskyld (n) pubhclty (ad- reklam vertlsmg pull drag (n) pumshment straff (n) purchase kop (n) purpose (atm) mïd (n) push stot question frga GER.MAN dru Rolle dze Parte de Vergangen- het dle Bezahlung der Fnede das Volk plan (n) vermaak (n) punt punt (n) de Erlaubms das Btld das Stùck der Ort dle Stelle der Plaoe der Plan das Vergnùgen de Splr.ze der Punkt vergff (n) das Gfft beleefdhed dle Hoflch- ket pohtek de Pohtk oefenmg dru Ubung vooroordeel (n das Vorurtml pers de Presse druk der Druck voorwendsel der Vorwand prs product (n) Fremskndt (n) vordermg Lefte (n) belofte Bevs (n) bewjs (n) Egenskab elgenschap Eendom etgendom (n) Beskyttelse beschermmg Reklame reclame Traek (n) l:rek Straf straf Keb (n) koop Hensgt doel (n) Stod (n) stoot Spergsmanl (n) vraag der Pres das Erzeugms das Produk-t der Fortschntt das Ver- sprechên der Bewms de Egen- schatt das Elgentum der Schutz d,e Reldame der Zug de Strafe der IKauf der Zweck das Zlel der Sross de Frage
Language Museum NGLISH SWEDISH DANISH ray strie Straalê reason (power of Fornuît Fornuft thought) recollecraon ermrmg Ermdrmg relatton f6rhllande (n) Forhold (n) remamder test Re.st remark anmàrknmg Bemaerknmg rent (of house, hym Lee etc ) repeuluon upprepmng Gentagelse reproach forebreIse Bebredelse resstance motstïud (n) Motstand respect akmg Agtelse test (repose) vfla Ro revenge hamnd Haevn reward belonmg Belotmmg rIght Oust dazm) mtt Ret nsk nsk Rastko rule (regulauon) regel Regel rumour ryktc (n) Rygte (n> safery sakerhet Sderhed sale forsaljnmg Salg (n) sample monster (n) Monster (n) science vetenskap Vdenskab scratch skrna Rdse DUTCH straal vernuft (n) hermnermg verhoudmg test opmerkng huur herhalmg verwt (n) tegenstand achtmg rust beloomng recht (n) rl$1CO regel geruct (n vethghe:d verkoop monster (n) wetenschap schram sereen skarm Skaerm seat sate (n) Saede (n) secret hemhghet Hemmehghed sensation (sttr) uppseende (n) Rre (n) sense (meanmg) betydelse Betydnmg sense (smell, smne Sans touch, etc ) sentence (group sats Saemmg of words) sex kon (n) Kon (n) shape form Form scherm (n) ztttmg gee (n) sensatle beteekems zmtmg volzm geslacht (n) vorl share andel sde sda srze storlek sleep somn smell lukt srmle sm/loe (n) Andel Sde Storrclse Sevn Lugt Sma (n) $ amdeel mlde grootte slaap glu'a!ach 545 GERMAN der Stmhl de Vemu-t dle Ertrmerung dle Bemehmag das Verhltrus der Rest de Bemerktmg de Mete dte Wleder- holung der Vorwurf dër Wder- stand d,e Achtung de Ruhe che Rache che Belohnung das Reckt das P, aso de Regel das Gemcht de Scherhext der Verkauf das Muster dIe Wssen- sch che Ratze de Schmmme der Schn'm der Stz der Platz das Gehemams das Aufsehen dle Sensation de Bedeutung der Sure mer das Geschlecht che Form dte Gestalt der Antefl dIe Selte de Grosse der SchIaf der Geruch das Lacheha
546 The Loom oj Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN socety sallskap (n) Selskab (n) maatschapp dru Gese11- schaft song sng Sang hed (n) das Lmd sotmd lud Lyd gelmd (n) der Laut space rum (n) Rum (n) rumate der Raum speech (address) tal Tale redevoermg dru Rede speed hasughet Fart snelheld dru Geschwm- dlgket square fyrkant Frkant vmrkant (n) das Quadrat state stat Stat staat der Staat stay (soourn) uppehïll (n) Ophold (n) verbhjf (n) der Aufenthalt step (pace) steg Skndt (n) stap der Sehntt story berattelse Fortaellmg verhaal (n) dle Erzahlung dru Geschachte strtke strejk Strejke stakmg der Strek struggle kamp Kamp strd der Kampf study studmm (n) Smdmm (n) studm das Studum substance stoff (n) Stof (n) stof der Stoff dru Substanz success framgg Success succes der Erfolg suggesuon (pro- f6rslag (n) Forslag (n) voorstel (n) der Vorschlag posa1) sure summa Sure soin de Summe surface yta Overflade oppervlakte dru Oberfliche surprise 6verrasknmg Overraskelse verrassmg de Uber- raschtmg suspcaon mtsstanke Mastanke achterdocht der Verdacht swndle (fraud) bedr/ïgem Bedrag (n) bedrog (n) der Betrug der Schwmdel sympathy (coin- medhdande passion) (n) task syssla taste smak tax skatt tendency tendens tenston spïnnmg test prov (n) thanks tack gheft stSld thmg tmg sak thst t6rst thought tanke tre (bond) band (n) tune ud top (summlt) topp touch (contmct) ber6rmg r.rade handel Medldenhed medehlden (n) das Mtled Opgave taak dle Aufgabe Smag smaak der Geschmack Skat belastmg de Steuer Tendens negmg dru Negtmg dle Tendenz Spaendmg spannmg dru Spannung Prove beproevmg dru Prlifung dru Probe Tak dank der Dank Tyven (n) defstal der Dlebstahl Tmg dmg (n) das Dmg Sag zaak dle Sache Torst dorst der Durst Tanke gedachte der Gedanke Baand (n) band das Band Td tid dru Zet Top top dru SpoEe der Gpfel Berormg aan.rakmg dru Benihrug t-Iandel handel der Handel
ENGLISH SWEDISH trade-mmn faremng Language Museum 547 DNISH DUTCH GERMAN Fagforenmg vakwereemgmg de Gewerk- sc.h translatmn 6vemt'mmg treatment behandlande triangle trekam trck knep (n) trouble (worry) sorg trur.h sannmg m.rn valldmng unemploymeat arbetsloshet umt enhet use (apphcnon) bruk vacauoa, hoh- fener (pl) days value varde (n) vamty fïfan vektde don vermm ohyra vessel (contamer) bêhlre Overaettelse vertdmg de Uberset- zung Behandhng bchandehng de Behandlung Trekant dzehoek das Dreeck Kneb (n) truc der Knfff Sorg zorg che Sorge Szudhed wazrhed dte Wahrhet Vendmg wendmg de Wendung &e Drehung Arbedslas- wetkelooshed dru Arbetts- hed losgket Enhed eenhed de Emhett Brug gebnuk (n) der Gebrauch de Anweudung Fene vacanue de Fenen (pl) Vaerd (n) Tomhed Url Behold¢r wmrde delhed voertmg (n) ongederte (n var (n) waat 0a) bnst war kng warmng vammg waste slsen (n) Mangel gebrek (n) Kng oorlog Advarsel waarschuwmg Odelaeggelse verkwstmg way vag Ve] weg wealth nkedom lhgdom nlkdom weapon vapen (n) Vaaben (n) wapen (n) weght vtkt Vaegt gewxcht (n) wïdth bredd Bredde breedte wgl villa Vle wfl wsh 5mkan Onske (n) wensch word ord (n) Ord (n) woord (n) work (labour) arbete (n) Arbede (n) werk (n) youth ungdom Ungdom eugd zeal ver Iver tFer der Wert de EteIket das Fahrzeug das Ungezaefer dër Behïlter der $eg der Besuch che Vste rite Summe der Lohn der Spamer- der Mangd der Knêg che Wamung de Verschwm- dung der Weg der Rechmm de Waffe das Gewcht &e Brete der Wtlie der Wtmsch das Wort d¢ Arbet de Jugend der Effet
548 The Loom of Language DIVISION OF TIME (a) GENERAL TERMS ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERM_&N aftemoon efterm|ddag Efrermddag namMdag der Nachmt- tag eent-ary rhundrade Asrhundrede eeuw ds Jahrhun- (n) (n) dert Chnstmas Jul Jul Kerstmm Wehnachten day dag Dag dag der Tag dawn daggrynmg Daggry (n) dageraad der Tagesan- bruch dusk skynmg Tusmrke (n) schemermg de Dîmmer- Easter psk Paaske Paschen Ostem evenmg afton Affen avond der Abend fortmght forton dagar fjorten Dage veernen dagen verzehn Tage hohday (pubhc) helgdag Festdag feestdag der Festtag half-m-hour tmame Tmae uur (n) en halvtmme en halv Tlme een hall uur a quarter of an en kraft et Kvarter(n) een kwarter hour an hour and a en och en halvanden half halv tmam¢ Tmae leap year skottr (n) Stmdaar (n) nndmght mdnatt Mdnat minute mmut Manut (n) month mmad Maaned mommg morgon Morgen mght natt Nat noon mddag Mddag sson îrstd Aarstzd second sekund Sekund (n) sunse soluppg/mg Solopgang sunset soledgmg Solnedgang tmae ud Td week v¢cka Uge ear r (n) Aaz (n) de Stuade eme halbe Stunde eme Vertel- stunde anderhalfuur anderthalb Srunden sc.b.rakelaar (n) das Schalt3ahr nnddernacht deMxtternacht mmuut de Minute maand der Monat morgen der Morgen nacht dru Nacht mddag der Mttag ]aargetde (n) dru ahreszet seconde dru Selomde zonsopgang der Sonnen- aufgang zonsondergang der Sonnen- untergang ud dru Zet week de Woche jaar (n) das Jahr sprmg (b) SEASONS, MONTHS AND DA YS v,hr Format (n) lente der Frahlmg somm af Sommer zomer der Sommer h6st Efteraar () herfst der Herbst vmter Vmter wmter der Wmter janury mnuan Ianuar Januan Januar February februarÆ Februar Febx'uara Februar Match mar Marts Maart Mrz Aprfl aprtl Aprfl Apral AprxJ
Language Museum 549 ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GE1LçLA2q May maj Maj Me Maz J'uly jul Juh juh Juh August august Aug-ast Augustus August S¢ptember september Septembe September September October oktober Oktober October Oktober November november Novemb¢r Novemb¢r November Deeember december December December Dezember Monday mmdag Mandag Mamadag Montag Tuesday tzsdag Tzrsdag Dmsdag Dmnstag Wednesday onsdag Onsdag Woensclag Mttwoch Thursday torsdag Torsdag Donderdag Donnerstag Frday fredag Fred ag Vrj dag Fre tag Saturday 16rdag Lordag Zaterdag Samstag Sonnabend Sunday sondag Sndag Zondag Sonntag one two four rive mght eleven elve rteen fotoen teen sl=¢en seventeen elte nmete twen en-one en-o fo nme fyra rem 11lo 1o elva tolv tretton fjorlon femton sex'on sutton aderton ltOt tjugo t3ugoen tugotv trettlO fyrtm femUo SoElO slumo ttm nlttlo en, et (n) o tre tire rem sek$ otte 121 ri el/eve tolv trctt¢n fjorten femten sejsten syt¢n a¢n en og tyve to og tyze tredve f'yrre halvtreds halvfjers halvfems dertig dremsg veertig wclzag vtftlg fOzffmg zesug sechsmg zeventg smbmg taoEtg achtzzg negentg neunmg
550 ENGLISH hundred thousand mflhon first second thlrd fourd seventh egh hall one-thlrd one-fourth one-fifh onc tWlCê three tunes The Loora oj Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH G]R_M.AN hundïa hundrede honderd hundert tusen tusmde dulzend tausend en mfihon en mxlhon een mflhoen eme Mflhon den forsta den ferste de eerste der erste andra auden tweede zwelte tredle trede derde dmtte fl de f)erde werde verte feinte femte vfde fnfte s latte sl ette zesde se chs te sl tmde syvende zevende s se bente âttonde ottende achtste achte en halv en halv een hall en Halb en trediedel en Tred/edel een derde cm Drlttel en flardedel en Flerdedel een werde em Vertel en femtedel en Femtedel een vlfde cm Ftmftel en g¢tng een Gang eenmaal emmal tv gnger to Gange tweemaal zwemaal tre gtnger tl e Gange drlemaal dremal 4. ADIECTIVES able (capable) dughg dygtlg bekwaam fahtg absent fr/mvarande fravaerende afwezzg abwesend acczdental tfilfallîg tflfaeldg toevalhg zufalhg agreeab!e behagltg behagehg aangenaam angnehm alxve levande levende levend lebend ambguous tvetydg wetydg dubbelzmmg doppelsmmg amusmg rohg morsom vcrmakehlk amusant unterhaltend angry vred vred toormg bose boos atffgebracht arttficml konstlad kunstg kunstmatzg ktmsflch attenuve uppmarksam opmaerksom aandachtzg aufnerksam avarcmus grog gerrg geng gezg awake vaken vaagen wakker wach bad dhg daarhg slecht schlccht beautffuI skon smuk more schon bcnt bb]d bect gebogen gebogcn bxtter bztter btter bztter bztter black svart sort zwart schwarz blmd olmd blmd blmd blmd blue bl blaa blauw blau blunt (not sharp)slo slev stomp smmpf brave tapper tapper dapper tapfer " modzg modg moedzg mutzg brght (fiflI of l]us lys helder bel1 hght broad (wde) bzed bred breed brczt brown brun brun brum braun careful (cautmus) fors£kug forsgtg voorzzchug vorszchug
ENGLISH charmmg cheap clean Language Museum SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH frqusande fortryllende bekoorh]k bflhg ' bg goedkoop ren ren schoon clear (not klar Idar ldaar clouded) cold kall kold koud comfortable bek-vm bekvem comfortabei contmual stttndlg bes/andg gestadg contlnuou8 oavbruten uafbrudt onafgebroken contrary motsatt modsat tegengesteld cool kyhg lhg koel cruel grym grusom wreed dady dagIg dag dageljksch dangerous farig farhg gevarhk dark mork mrk donker dead dbd dzd dood deaf dSv dv doof deaf and dumb dovstum dgvsmm doofstom dear (beloved) kir kaer hef dear (expenslve) dyr dyr duur deep dup dyb dlep dtfferent (dfffer- ohk forskelIg verschzlIend mg) dzfficult sv vanskelg moelh]k du-ty smutsg snavset vufl d,sagreeablé obehaghg ubehagehg onaangenaam dstmct (clear) tydhg tydehg dmdeh)k dometlc husllg hushg hmsehjk double dubbel dobbelt dubbel drunk drucken dnfl<ken drord<en dry tort tr droog dumb stum smm srom dusty dammtg stavet stoffig early tdg tdhg voeg eastern osthg sthg oostersch easy latt hem gemakkehjk edble atbar spsellg eetbaar empty tom tom leeg equal luka hge gehlk extreme yrterst yderst mterste fmthfifl trogen l:ro trouw false falsk falsk va!sch famous berbmd bermt beroemd fast (firm) fast fast vas fast (speedy) snabb hurug spoechg fat (of memt) fer fed ver
The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH favourable sam gunstg gunsng female fertde fiat foregn fragile free frendly full furous future generous genume GERMN good god great, large stor green gron grey gr guzlty skwldg happy ly¢kLg hard hrd harmfut skadhg healthy sund heavy rang hlgh hbg hoHow lhg honest arhg hot het hungry fil nporant god goed gut stor groot gross gron groen grîm graa grzls grau skyld g schuldg schuldlg lykdehg gelukkg gltckhcb haard hard hart skadehg schadehjk sehdhch sund gezond gesund tung zwaar schwer ho hoog hoeh bu1 bol hohl aerhg eerlgk ehrhch hed heet hetss mlnskhg menneskehg menschehjk menschlch hungrJg sulten hongerlg htmgmg sOE syg zlek krank vtktzg vzgtlg belangrzk wzchug Imposszble omolg umuhg onmogehk unm6ghch mdustrtous fltzg ffittzg vltzg flesslg mner rare mdre bmnenst mner mmocent osk3rldg uskyldg onschuldg unschuldg nqusttve nyfiken nysgerrg meuwsgerg neugnerlg msane vansmmg smdssyg krankzmmg gezstesgestort mtelhgent lrdok klog knp klug intelligent mtelhgent mtelhgent mtelhgent mterestmg mtressant mteressant mteressaut mteressant rttfàrdg rerfaerdg rechuraardg gerecht godhlLrtad godhjertet goedzg glltg freundhch last sst sdst laatst letzt late sen sert laat spat lazy lat doyen Ira trîge faul ean mager mager mager mager left vlnster venstre lmker Imk
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GER.M_&N hght (m welght) latt let hcht IeIcht hqmd flytande flydende vloelbaar fluss:g long lâng lang lang iang loose (slack) los los los 1ose loud hogludd ho lmd laut low lg lav laag medrig iukewarm llum lunken Iauw lau-arm maie manlg manoeg mz_nehJk mannhch marrled gfft guf gehuwd verhezratet mean (average) medel- gennemsmthg gemlddeld ntr.ler durchschmtt- hch medzzmsch m_Uaransch beweghch beschmden feucht gegensmtg scal nahch nOtt nomendg ny meuw heu naest naast nct norg noordehk lydg gehoorza gehors optagen bezef beseoEt gel oud eneste eemg etg aaben open offen saedvg gewoon geoch opmndehg oorsproeh}k urspghch yde bmtenst aser egen egen egen smeehg pqk seoe bleg bl blech forbgen verleden vergen taodg gedddg geddg persoxg pemooxjk persoch spds pg spm gg gg gg hfltg beleefd hoflmh fattxg a popaer popar popar mag mogehk moghch prsk praasoE prsch svger ger schwger naeaerede tegenwoordag gegenwag me&cal medacmsk mflxtary nulamrIsk mobile rorhg modest blygsn molst , tulIg mutuai omsesdg naked naken narrow smai natural nararhg necessary nodvandg new ny next nast northern nordhg obedzent lydlg occuped (of upptagen seat, etc ) old gammai oniy enda open oppen ordmary vanhg (current) original (first) u.rsprunghg outer yttre own (one's) egen pamfal sm/çx£ul pale blek past forgmgen panent tâhg personai personhg pomted spetsg potsonous gg pohte hovhg poor famg popular popuir poçsable mojbg practacal praktlsk pregnant havande present narvarande
554 1NGLISH SWEDISH pretty vackcr pnncpl huvudsakhg probable sannohk proud stolt pubhc offenflg qumt (calm) lugn rare sHsynt raw (hOt cooked) ready fardg real verMg reasonable tomufug (ranonal) red rod regular regdbunden responslble ansvang nch rnk rldlculous lojhg nght (correct) rtktg nght (hand) hoger ngd styv rlpe mogen rough (not skrov],g smooth) round rund rude ohovhg rusty rostzg sad bedrovad sausfied nojd scmnttfic vetenskaphg secret hemhg sensmvc kanshg separate sllld serlous Rllva_rsm] shal/ow grand slm stop short kort shut stangt shy skygg slrnllr lrartad smaple enkel sleepy sommg slma smart slow lângsam small, htde hten smooth slàt The Loom of Language DANISH DUTCH GERMN ken aarchg hubsch hovedsagehg hoofdzakehlk wlchtgst hauptsachhchst sandsynhg waarschjnhlk wahrschemhch stolt trotsch stolz offcnflg opênbaar offenthch rohg rusng ruhg slaelden zeldzaam selten raa rauw roh faerdg Idaar bercer ferug wrkehg werkeh!k wnkhch fornufug verstandag vemnfng rd food rot regelmaesslg regehnat.g regelmasszg ansvarhg verantwoor- verantworflch deh]k mg rk relch latterhg belachehk lacherhch rgtg lmsr mchtg hore rechter recht snv stllf steff moden rlp reff ru ruw rauh rund rond rund uflg onbeleefd unhoflch rusten roestg rostg bedrovet treung ttaung betrubt tfl£reds tevreden zufrleden vldenskabehg wetenschappe- wlssenscbaft- hjk hch henamehg gehem gehema folsom gevoehg empfindhch saerskfit afzonderh:lk getrennt alvorhg ernsng ernst lav on&ep unuef semht skaxp scherp scharf kort kort kn.trz lukket dcht geschlossen slw verlegen scheu hgnende soortgehlk ahnhch enkeIt eenvoudlg emfach sovmg « slapeng schlang slank slank schlank langsom langzaam langsam lflle klem Idem glat gIad glatt
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH sober nykter aedru nuchter sort muk bld zacht sohd (not hqmd) fast fast vast soir sur sur souoEem syoeg syoeg dehk specN sd saereg blzonder sque tag tet ert steep brut stell stefl 8t1 bbg Maebng eveng saght re hge recht strge @ecu- egendoMg ejeaoehg mgea&g har) vreemd song srk serk serk smpld d d dom sudd plotshg plug plotselmg scmnt tg tflsaehg voIdoende smtable (appro- psmde passade gesc phare se (certam ser s zer sweet sot sed zoet tuve prats snom spr re r t t tad teehg db OE (hOt m) tooE k (dense) tat taet &chi OEn d d rs mrmg tersg dorsug ught (dose- oeng taet uw fiumg) tred trott tet mo topmost ovemt evemt bovetc toug seg seg trpem genomslg geelg doorzug te s sd w oensclous medvelos dsfles bcsteloos pIoyed arbetslos be]s werkels gent brdde lndengende mgd usc nug nIg nug vain fg foffaengehg ]del vd ng ldg gclg vduabIe vde vaerdfl kostb visible sg hg mchtb g gemen gen or w v w w sv svag western vesterhg vsflg westk wet vt vd nat wtc wt hwd whe bd bel geel wùd vd vîld 555 GERMAN ntchtern we,.ch lest sauer sadhch besonder verechg stefl klebng gerade elgentumhch sonderbar stark dumm plotzhch genugend passend geegnet scher sfiss gespracg zahm daakbar &cht dun dursug eng mude oberst durchschug wahr hasshch bewusstlos arbetslos drmgencl nur.zhch etcl mlug wertvoll schtbar warm swach westhch ganz wlld
556 ENGLISH SWEDISH wrortg (mcorrect Orlkrag yearly ,rlg yeLlow gui youag ung be able to kurma absorb insuga accett mott,ga accompany fol:la accuse anklga a upon verka p add to tllfoga add up addera The Loom of Language DANISH DUTCH urigtlg verkeerd aarhg marljksch gui geel ung jong 5. VEPO3S kumae ktmnen mdsuge absorbeeren modtage aamaemen ledsage begeleden anklage aanklagen wrke paa werken op tfifle bllvoegen addere optellen admire beundra beundre bewonderen advemse amaoasera averrere adverteeren ad» se rilda raade raden be afrmd of vara rtdd for vaere bange for bang VOOr be in agreement hla mcd stemme over- overeen- wr.h take ama at skta p ahght from st,ça ur allow tfitta amuse (oneself) roa (sg) annoy pliga answer (reply) svara apologze urskta sg affinage arrest (take m custody) arlî/ve be ashamed of orckaa arrestera eens med seemmen met sgte paa mflr2en op stage ud ultstoppen tfllade veroorloven more (sxg) (zmh) ver- maken plage ergeren svare antwoorden tmdskylde slg zlch veront- schu/dlgen ordne regelen arrestere arresteeren ankomma ankomme skïmmas for skamme sg over ask (put a fzâga sporge question) ask (beg) bed;a bede aankomen mch schamen over vragen vragen verzoeken omg»an met verzekeren verbazen amavallen beproeven aantrekken GERMAN unrtchtg falsch lahrhch gelb jung absorbleren annehmen beglelten anklagen wrken auf hmzufOgen addleren zussnln2en- zahlen bewundern annoncleren raten slch farchten vor aberemst.m- men mit zlelen auf ausstelgen erlauben (slch) unter- halten argern antorZen slch entschul- digen regeha fesmehmen ankommen smh schamen (sert) ffagen bltten er«uchen umgehen mxt verschem txberraschea agreffen veruchea anzlehea
Laruage Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH avmd undwka bathe» take a bada bath beat {glve blows) sl become bhva begm boDa behave uppf6ra sig beheve fro belong to tMaora bend boa bend down (stoop) bb]a sIg bet sl vad blte bta blame (reproach) taoea blow blsa blow one's nose snvta slg DANISH DUTCH undgaa vermden bade baden slaa slaaa bhvc worden be.¢nde begmnen opfre slg zlch gedragen ro gelooven tflhre behooren boje bmgen boje sg zich bukken vaedde wedden bade ojten dadle laken blaese blazen pudse sm mjn neus aese snmten boast skr3.oEa pra/e pochen bofi } bml koka koge koken bore (dr111) borra bore boren bore (tire) uttrïka kede vervelen be born vara fodd vaere dt geboren zin borrow Iâna (av) laane (af) leenen (van) bother oneseP bry sg oto bryde sg om mch bekom- about meren om break } break bryta braekke breken breathe andas aande aàemen breed (rear) avla avle fokken uppfoda opdsage opvoeden avla yngle voortbrengen bree.d bnng ham brmge breugen broadcast utsanda udsende mtzenden brush borsta barste borstelen bmld bygga bygge bouwoE bure " branna braende branden burn burçt bnsta brste barsten bury (mter begrava begrave begraven be busy wtth sysseIsatta sg beskaeftge mcb bezg med sg med houden met buy kopa kobe koopen calculate berakna beregne berekenen cal1 (naine) kalla kalde noemen call (shout for) ropa raabe roepen bê called heta heddc heeten 557 GERMAN vermeden baden scF.lagen werden begmnen sch betragen sch benehmen g/aen geh0ren begen sch bucken bessea tadeln blasen slch de Nase putzêa sch schneuzen sch ruhmen kochen bohren langweùen geboreaa werden borgen (von) sch knammern zerbrechen atmen zuchten aufmehen smh vermeh- brmgen bursten bauea brermen plarn begraben s,ch beschafr- lgen mat kaufen berechnen hessen
558 The Loom oJ Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH carry bara baere dragen catch (capture) fânga fange vangen cease (stop) upphora ophre ophouden celebrate rira fe3re vleren change (alter) t6randra forandre veranderen chuge (money) vla veksle wtsselen change forândras forandre sg veranderen chew tugga tygge kauwen chokê kava kzaeie worgen hoke kvavas kvaeles stfl¢&en choose, eiect valla vaelge kaezen clean gora ren gore ren schoonmaken clunb klttra Idatre kJmmen collect samla samie verzmelen comb kamma kemme kammen corne komma komme komen compare jmfora smnmenhgne vergehken compel tvmga tvnge dwmgen compote konkurera konkmrrere mededmgen complam (about) klaga (over) Mage (over) ldagen (over) concern Omper- ang mgaa beoeeffen soin1) condemu doma domine veroordeelen confess erkanna bekende bekennen confuse forv-ra forvarrê verwarren congratutate gratulera gratulere gelukwenschen fehctteeren eonnect forbmda forbmde verbnden conquer (terri- erovra erobre veroveren tory) consent samzcka sznrykke toestemmen mwdhgen console (coin- tr6sta troste troosten fort) contam mnehlIa ndeholàe continue fortsatta fortsaettc contradact motsga modsxgc contnbute b,draga bdrage control kontrolera kontrolere converge 16pa samman lobe sammen convmce 6vertyga overtyde cook koka koge copy koptera koptere correct rtta tette bevatten voortzetten tcgenspreken bldragen controleeren sarnenloopen overmgen koken copeeren verbeteren GERMAN tragen tangen aufhSren feern andern wechseln slch verandern kauen wurgen erstcken wahlen remgen putzen klettern sammeln kmmen kommen verglechen zwmgen konkurm en Idagen (uber) bereffen angehen verurteflen gestehen ve£wiFren grcttulzeren begluckwun- schen verbmden erobern zustunmen elnwtlhgen trosten enthaltcn fortsemen fortîahren mtt zdersprechen betragen kontrolheren zusammen- Iaufen konvergeren bcrzeugcn kochen koperen verbessern kormgeren
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH correspond o mosara svare cost kost koste cough host hoste courir (final rakna taeLle number) cover tcka daekke creep krypa krybe CrltlC1S e i,Lr il sera lroE1El$ ere crush krossa knase cure bora helorede cut skara skaere cycle cylda kle damage skada beskad dance dansa danse date vga vove dazzle blanda blaende deceve bedraga bedrage decde besIuta beslutt decorate pryda smykke deduce (tarer) sluta slutte DUTCH beantwoorden aan kosten hoesten teIlen bedekken krmpen crliseeren veIetteren genezen smden fiersen beschadgen dansen durven verblmden bedrlegen beshssen toolen zflelden verslaan verdedagen mdagen verlangen ont_kennen vertrekken aflaangen van beschrl]ven verdmnen ontwerpen wanhopen verachten vermelen ophouden ontwkkelen zmh onwflkel- strven verecren verdwl]nen teleurstellen onts!aan ontdekken desm£ecteeren defeat besegra beseve defend forsvara forsvare defy uffordra udfordre demaad fordra fordre deny (say that forneka thmg ls untrue) benaegte depart avresa aïre]se depend upon bero ph afhaenge af descrbe beskrtva besknve deserve fort]ana fortjene design (plan) planlagga planlaegge despmr fort-vvla fort-lvle despse f6rakta foragte destroy forstora odelaegge detam (delay) uppehla opholde devclop utveclda udvddc devdop utveckla stg udvflde sg de d6 do dg grava grave dlgest smalta fordole dsappear forswnna forsvnde dsappomt swka sbaffe dscharge (ds- avskeda afskedge mlss) dmcover upptacka opdage dsmfect desmficera desmficere 559 GEN entsprechen kosten husten zahlen bedecken krmchen k.rmmren zerdcken beflen schneden radeha beschâdgen wagen blenden bet-gen beschhessen schmcken schhessen folgern bestegen schIagen vertechgen herausfordern fordern verlangen leugnen abremen abhangen von beschrebcn verdzenen enrwerfen verzeffeln verachten zerstoren entwxckeha smh ent- wckeln sterben graben verdauen verschwmden enttàuschen enfiassen entdecken desmfimeren
560 The Loom of Language ENGLISH dssolve &smgmsh between dstnbutc dzsturb dve dvde dvorce (get dvorced from) do doubt (of) draw (sketch) rira dream dromma dress oneself klada sg drmk dncka dnve (vehcle) kora drown d dry torka dye frga earn f6rqana SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN eat (of ananals) ara car (of man) ata educate (train) uppfotra embrace omfamna emphasze betona upplosa oplase oplossen auflosen ltslIlamellan skeine mellem onderschelden uaterschmden tusschen zwlschen f6rdela fordele verdeelcn vertellen oroa forstyre storen storen dyka dykke dmken tauchen dela dele deelen teùen sk.tlla sg skflle fra scheden slch schetden lassen gora gore docn tun tvvla (p) tvlvle (paa) tw)felen (aan) zweLfeIn (an) bezweffeln tegne teekenen zechnen dromme droomen traumen Maede sg mch aank.leeden sch antdeden kore drupe torre farve fortjene aede splse opdrage omfave empty tomma encourage uppmuntra endeavour bemda szg become engaged f6rlova to med enjoy njuta env3, mlsunna escape undvka estmaate uppskatta evaporate avdunsm exaggerate bverdnva examine (m- undersoka vesugate) excite uppegga exclude utestga excuse ursakta exhiber utstalla erast emstera expect vnta drmken trmken mlden fahren verdrmken ertrmken drogen trocknen verven farben verdenen verdmnen vreten fressen eten essen opvoeden erzmhen omarmen umarmen laegge Vaegt nadruk leggen betonen paa op Nachdruck legen auf tomme ledgen leeren opmuntre aanmoedlgen ermutlgen bestraebe slg streven sch bemfihen sch bestreben forlove sg mch verloven sch verloben med met nyde gemeten genlessen msunde benqden benexden undvge ontvluchten entkommen entwemhen vurdere schatten scht.zen fordampe ,erdampen verdunsten overdnve overdrtwen tlbertretben undersoge onderzoeken untersuchen p trre opwnden aufregen udelukke mtslmten ausschhessen undstryld¢ verontschul- entschuldtgen &gen udstflle tentoonstellen ausstellen eksstere bêstaan bestehen exlstleen forvente verwchten erwarten
ENGLIStt explam exploit express oneself extmgutsh famt (swoon) fall fall m love wnh fasten (riz) feed (ammals) feed (people) fed fetch fight fil1 fmd finlsh (conclude) fimsh (complete) fish fit (make to fit) flatter flee (run away from flow fly fold follow , forbid forecast (predlc0 foresee forger forglve freeze fnghten gather (pick) gather (corne together) get up (nse) gwe go Con foot) go (in vehlcle) govem greet grmd (crush) Language Museum SWEDISH fork!ara u'nyta uttrycka sg utslacka svlmma falla foralska sag rasta fodra nara karma s_,g hamta kampa fylla maa s!uta fuiIanda fiska passa smlckra fly flyta flyga ffla f61la forbluàa forutsaga forutse glomma forlta frysa frysa skramma p!ocka forsamla sg DANISH forldare udbytte udr.rykke sg udsiulakè besvtme falde forelske gore fast fodre (er) naere fole hente kaempe fylde nde slurte fuldende fiske tflpasse smgre flygte flyde flyve folde folge forbyde forudslge forudse glemme tflglve fryse fryse forskraekke plu!r&e forsamtes DUTCH mtteggen mtbmten mch mtdruk- ken mtdooven flauw valIen vallen verhefd wor- den op vastmaken voeden voeden zlch voelen ha/en vechen vullen vmden beslmten voltoolen vsschen aanpassen vleen vluchten vhegen vouwen volgen verbeden voorspelten voorzl¢n vergeten vergeven bevnezen vrlezen verschrd¢.ken plukken samenkomen opstaan geve gaan nlden regeeren groeten malen sttga upp gva gâ fara regera hlsa mala staa op gve gaa kre regere hllse male 56 GgRM_AN erklaren ausbeuten ch ausdru- cken ausloschen m Ohnmacht fallen fatlen sch verheben 113. befesugen futtem (er) nahren sch fuhlen holen kampfen fullen fmden schhessen vollenden femgmachen fischen anpassen schmchdn flaehen f]leSSel2 flaegen falten folgen verbmten voraussagen voraussehen vergessen verzeîhen zum Gefneren brmgen gefneren erschrecken pflucken sch versam- meln aufstehen geben gehen fahren regaeren grtssen mahlen
562 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DAISH groan stona stonne gro vxa vokse grumble brumma bnmame icaorra knurre guess gssa gaette hang hanga haenge hang happen (maper- handa ske sonal) harvest (reap) skorda b_este hate hata hade have hava have hear hora hore help ha!pa hlaelpe hestate tveka tove hde dola sklule htde (from) gorama sg skjule sg (for) (for) broder hmdra hmdre hre hyra hyre htt (strke) traffa rraeffe hold h!la holde hope hoppas haabe htmt jaga jage hurry skyada sg skyade sg hurt (tnure) skada saare 11urmnate (lght upplysa oplyse up) magme (form forestalla sxg forestfile pcture) mtate efferharma efterhgne mport mfora mdfore mchne boa be mclude mneslutta mdeslutte Infect smloEa smltte mficera m.ficme mflate uppbhsa opblaese mhent arva arve mqmre (about) frga (errer) sporge (errer) nsult forolampa fornaerme msure forsakxa forsre mterest ntressera anteressere mterfere (wtth) blanda sg On) blande sg (1) tntroduce (per- forestalla forestllle son) presentera rayent uppfinna opfmde nvate mbuda mdbyde jom (umte) f'orena forene DUTCH GERAN steunen stohnen gromen wachsen mopperen murren knorren brummen raden erraten fhangen hmagen /.hangen gebeuren geschehen sch eregnen oogsten ernten haten hassen hebben haben hooren horen helpen helfen aarzelen zogern verbergen verbergen mch verbergen sch vetbergen Coor) (vor) hmderen hmdern huren mteten treffen t effen houden halten hopen hoffen agen agen mch haasten smh beetlen eflen pn doen vefletzen verhchten Lcht machen mch voorste!len smh vorstellen nabootsen nachahmen mvoeren elnfilhren negen negen nslulten emschhessen besmetten anstecken mfecteeren mfizteren opblazen aufblasen erven erben vragen (naar) fragen (nach) beleechgen beschtmpfen verzekeren versmhern mteresseeren mteressmren mch bemoeen smh emm- (met) schen (m) voorsteilen vorstellen uttvnden erfmden mmoodgen emladen vereemgen verelmgen
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH loke 0est) skamta udge doma uxnp hoppa keep (preerve) bevara keep (retam) behlla hck sparka kll doda russ kyssa kneel knaboja lmock (al: door) knacka know karma veta 1and landa last vara laugh skratta laugh at utskratta lead fora lean on luta p learn lara sg leave behmd lamna errer lend lïna let (home, etc ) uthyra he (tell he) luga he (posmon) hgga he down lagga sg lift lyfta tght (cgarette, tanda etc ) hke tycka oto mp halta :sten fo lyssna tdl Ixve (be ahve) leva ve (dwe11) bo ook af-ter (take se efter care of) ook (have ap- se ut pearance of) ook at se p beslda ose tappa ove (person) alska ubncate smora nake gora aake a rmstake taga fel DANISH spage demme sprmge bevare behoIde sparke draebe x'ySS knaele banke kende wde lande rare le udle rare Iaene sg laere efterlade Iaane udtee lyre hgge laegge sg Igfte taende 563 DUTCH GER/IAN schertsea scherzen spassen beoordeeIen beurteflen sprmgen sprmgen hupfen bewaren (am¢)bewahren behouden behalten schoppen mt dem Fusse stos8en dooden toten kassen knassen kmelen kmen ktoppen kIopfen kennen kennen weten wlssen Ianden lmaden duren dauern wahren lachen lachen mdachen auslachen voeren fuhren letmen op sch leknen an Ieeren leraen achterlaten zurucldassen leenen lethen verhuxen vermleten hegen lugen hggen hegen gaan hggen sch meder- legen ttlIen heben aansteken anzunden anstecken gern haben mogen !unken mahoren leben woknen achten au aussehen ansehen betrachten verheren heben schmaeren machen een four maken emen Fehler machen synes om houden van halte hmken lytte tfl toehooren leve leven bo wonen se errer oppassen se ad moemn se paa aanz,en betragte aankken tabe vehezen elske houden van smre smeren gore maken rage Fel
564 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH D2NISH DUTCH mariage (drecr) skota tede besturen manufacture fabrlcera fabmkere fabrlceerea match maxschera marchere mm cheeren marry (get gff-ta sg med glfte slg med huwen marned) trouwen met mate para parre sg paren measure ç mata maale meten meet (encourt- mota mzde ontmoetên ter) rraffa traeffe melt "l. smalta smelte smelten melt mend repa era reparere repareeren mtlk mlolka malke melken mm blanda blande mengen mourn beldaga beldage betreuren more (shlft) rora rykke verschmvea raove (change flytta flytte verhmzen resdence) mov (budge) rora sg rote sg mch bewegen multtply muluphcera mulrphcere vermem- dJgen need behova behove noodg hebben neglêct forsumma forsomme veronachtza- merl nurse (slck) skora pIe]e verplegen obey lyda adlyde gehoorzamen offend forolampa fomaerme beleedlgen offer erbuda tllbyde aanbleden omlt (leave out) urelamna udelade weglaten open oppna aabne opendoen oppose (wth- motst modsaette slg weerstaan stand) oppress order (goods) organise owe pack palnr pay peel perform (carry out) persecute persuade pmk up forra3rcka undertrykke ondêrdrukken bestalla bestflle bestellen orgamsera orgamsere orgamseeren vara skyldg skylde schuldg packa pakke palen mla male schflderen betala betale betalen skala skraelle schfllen uff6ra udfore mtvoeren forfolja forfolge vervolgen overtala overtale overreden plocka upp rage op oprapen GERMAN leten fabnzmren marschmren heraten smh verhem- ten paaren messen begegnen treffen schmelzen reparleren melken mschen beklagen rucken verscheben urnmehen slch bewegen multphzeren brauchen notg haben vernach/assl- gen pflegen gehorchen beleMgen anbeten auslassen offaen aufmachen sch undersetzen materdrucken bestellen organlsleren schulden packen malen bezahlen schalen ausNhren verfolgen Iiberredeu auflesen
ENGLISH pty Language Museum SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH ômka ynke medehlden hebben met plan pianera planere plannen p!ant plantera plante planten play (gaine) leka lege spelen play ( ms tnmaent ) spela sp dle spelen please behaga behage behagen plough ploj a pij e ploegen plmader plundra plyndre plunderen pomon forgffta forgffte vergfftgen possess besltta besldde bemrten posrpone uppskj uta udsaette mtsteliea pour g3uta se gleten practxce (exer- prakusera ve oefeaen clse oneself) prmse beromma rose roemen pray bedla precede g forut prefer foredraga prepare forbereda press trycka pretead (fegn) foregwa prevent hmdra prmt trycka profit (from) draga fordel (av) promme lova pronounce uttala propose (suggest) f6reslâ protect beskydda protest protestera prove bevsa pubhsh (of pub- forlagga hsher) pull draga pump (water) pumpa pump (mflate) pampa upp pumsh straffa push st6m put(secp 257) satta stalla lagga quarrel gràla be qmet (sdeat) vara tyst quote citera rare regna reaet reagera rcad lasa bede bdden gaa foran voorafgaau foretraekke verkaezen forberede voorbereden trykke dnfl¢ken foregve voorgeven forhmdre verhmderen trykke drukken profitere (af) profiteerea (van love beloven udtale mtspreken foreslaa voorstellen beskBrtte beschermen protestere protesteeren bevse bewllzen udgve mtgeven traekke trekken pumpe pompen oppumpe oppompen straffe straffen stade stooten saette zetten siffle stellen laegge ieggen skaendes twsten t,e zw,]gen ctere cteerea regae regemen reagere reageercn hese lezen 565 GERMAN bemtleden Mtled haben mt planen pflanzen splelen spmlen gefallen pflugen pkmdern vergfften bestzen verscheben gmssen fiben sch uben lobea beten vorangehen vormehcn vorbere,ten drucken vorgeben verhmdem drucken profiueren (von) versprechen aussprechen vorschlagen beschùtzen protesneren bewesen herausgeben vedegen zmhen pumpen aufpumpen (be)strafen stossen setcn stellen legen zanken sehwegen Zltleren regnen reagleren lesen
566 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DA.NISH DUTCH recëve mottaga modtage ontvangen recte rectea recere recteeren recogmze karma gea genkende erkemaen recommend rekommen- anbefate aanbevelen dera recover (get ullfnsla komme sig herstellen better) reflect (lght) reflêktera kastê tflbage wemkaatsen refuse to vagra art naegte at wegeren te regret beklaga beklage splten reect forkasta afvse rejo:ce (be glad) gLadla sg glaeàe sg frojdas release flet go) slappa loslade rely on hta p/1 sto!e paa remam f'6rbhva forbhve bhjven remember komma hg mandes zch henn- errera slg hmke neren remmd pamna ermdre hermneren renew fomya torny vemeuwen repeat upprepa gentage herhalen report (news) meddela meddele benchten represent (stand forestalla forestRle voorstdlen for) resemble lflma hgne gehjken reserve (seat) reservera reser¢ere reserveeren respect akta agte achten restnct mskrnka andskraenke beperken test (take test) wla hvzle rusten reveal uppenbara aabenbare revenge oneself hamnas haevne stg revlew (books) recensera anmelde rewse revdera revldere revolt (nse) uppresa sg rejse reward bel6na belenne ride nda ride be nght hava rtt bave Pet rang rmga mmge nng rmga Nmge rsk (mcur nsk) nskem nstkere GERMAN empfangen erhten rezmeren vorlesen erkennen empfehlen sch erholen zurùckwerfen reflekoEieren sch wegern zu bedauem verwerpen zurckwelen zlch verheugen sch freuen loslaten loslassen vertrouwen op sich verlassen auf bleiben slch erlnnern ermnern erneuern wederholen benchten melden vorstellen openbaren mch wreken bespreken recenseeren herzmn opstaan beloonen njden gehjk hebben bellen lmden lmden gevaar loopen nskeeren glezchen reservleren achten emschranken ruhen smh amruhen enthtlen sch rachcn bespechcn rezensleren revachereu slch erheben bdohnen reltcn Recht haben ldmgeln làuten lautcn Gefahr lauîen nsldere
Language Museum ENGLIStt SWEDISH DANISH toast steka stege roll } roll ndla tulle rot (decay) rutma raadne row o fo tub gmda grade rum rmnera rmere run lopa lobe sml scgla sejle save (from) radda (frïn) redde (fra) save (money) spara spare saw sga save say, tell saga slge scatter (sprmkle stro stro scrape skrapa skrabe scratch rva kradse scream skruka sknge screw skruva skrue search ransaka ransage secrete avsondra afsondre seek (look for) soka soge seem ryckas synes seize (grasp) gnpa grlbe sell salla saelge sead sanda sende separate sei've serve (meals) scw shake share wtth shme shoot shoot dead show shut (close) shut m sde wth DUTCH braden rollen rooEen roelen wnjven rumeeren rennea loopen zeflen redden (van) sparen zagen zeggen sLroolen schrapen krabben gen schroeven doorzoeen afschelden zlen zoeken schjnen gîllpen verkoopen zenden schelden dleaen $erveeren naalen schudden deelen met mch scheren schnen scheten doodscheten tOOneA2 sImten dlchtcloen nslmten partlj lezen voor zuchten onderteekenen skflja skslle separera separere tjana tene serrera servere sy , sy skaka ryste dela med dele med raka stg barbere sg skma skmne skluta skyde skuta ha t thelskyde visa vise stanga lukke mst,mga ndelukke hlla med holde med sucka sukke tmderteckaa uadersknve sgnffy (mean) betyda betyde bedmden 567 GERMA_N braten rollen faulen rudern reben rumeren veçderben rennen lau£en segeln reuen sparen sagen sagen streue schaben k.raen schmen schrauben durchsuchen ausscheden sehen suchen schemen ergreffen packen verkaufen enden schmken oeennen dîenen servleren nahen schutem efie.n mit 81ch rasleen schemen sehaessen erschaessen schhessen zumachen emschhessen Partex nehmen se unterschrmben untezechnen bedeuten
568 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH sln synda synde szng s;u.ga synge smk sanka saenke smk sunka synke st sloEa sddc Slt down satta slg sacrée slg skate ïka skrdskor lbe paa Sllter baktala bagtale $ove ghde ud $i'12o'e lugte lugte af smtle ryge nyse snorke slloa sie blota bl«de snyfta hulke smutsa tllsole upplosa lose sï saa tala tale stava stave gve ud tflbrmge spotta spytte ldyva spahe utbreda sprede pressa trykkc ud sti staa bo hos bo stjala stjaele khbba ldaebe stnulera stmaulere stflr&e stmke stoppe slander sleep soya shp halka smear smoua smelI lukta smell of lukta av smfle smîle smoke smoke roka sneeze nysa more snarka qOW s k sob sofl solve sow speak speLl spend (moey) kasta ut spend (rime) tùlbrmga spat spht spread out squeeze out stand stay (resde wth) steal suck (glue) stmaulate stmg stzcka stmk sr.m stop (cause to stoppa stop) stop (makeahah) stanna struke (be on sr_ryka smke) stroke (caress) strelka DUTCII zondtgen zmgen doen zmken zmken zJoEeI1 gaan zltten s«haatsen rqden lateren slapen tutghjden smeren rmken rleken naar ghmlachen rooken nl«zen snorken $neeuwen weeken sn&en bezoedelen oplossen zaalen spreken spellen mtgeven besteden doorbrengen spuwen sphjten mtspreden mtpersen staala 1ogeêren stelên kleven aansporen steken stmken aanhouden standse stre]ke stoppen staken stryge streelen GERMAN sundlgen smgen versenken smken sltzen sch setzen Schllttschuh laufen vetleumden sclflafen ausglelten sctnmeren rechen rechen nach lacheln rauchll rllesen schnarchen schnemn emwemhen schluchzen beschrnutzen losen saen sprechen buchstabmren ausgeben verbrmgen zubrmgen spucken spetem spahen ausbreten auspressen stehen wolmen bex stehlen kleben maregen stlmuheren stechen stmken anhalten anhalten stretken strewheln
Language Museum tastt of teach tear tell (narrate) test thank thmk (beheve) thmk (ponder) threaten throw thunder uc/de tle Comd) tolerate (endure) 569 ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN struggle streta kaempe vechtea rmgen study studera studere studeeren smderen subrract avdraga fradrage aftrekkcn abzmhen subtrahera subtrahere subtrahaeren succeed (be suc- lyckas lykkes gelukken gehngen cessful m ghckea domg) suck suga suge zmgen saugen surfer (from hda (av) hde (af) hjden (aan) leden suit (be fittmg) passa passe passen passen support (back tmderstodja understgtte ondersteunen unterstoeen up) support (prop 8tiStta stette steunen stzen up) suppose (assume) antaga antage ammemen annehmen surpmsê (takê overraska overraske verrasseu lîberraschen by surpmse) surpass 5vertrâffa overgaa overtreffen ûbertreffen surrotmd omgtva omglve omrmgen umgeben sweaï (take oath) svàra svaerge zweren schw6ren swear (curse) svara bande vloeken fluchen swea: svettas svedc zweeten s chwlt:zen sweep sopa fele vegen fegea kehren swdl svul]na svulme opzweHen anschwellen swma smma swmme zwemmen schwunmen swing svgmga svmge schommelen schwmgen sympathze sympausera sympausere medevoelen mItflih]en take taga rage nemen nehmen take away (re- taga bort tage bort wegnemen wegnehmen more) talk (chat) prata snakke ptaten plaudern babbelen schwatzen tas te smaka s mage proevem ko sten schmecken smaka p smage af smaken naar schmecken nach l/ira undervIse onderwlzen lehren r,va sonder rive ltu scheuren zerrelssen ber/Itta fortaelle verte!len erzahlen prova prive beproeven prtffen tacka takke danken danken tanka taenke denken glauben tanka efer taenke efer nadenken nachdenken hota true bedretgen bedrohen kasta kaste goomn weffen ska tordne donderen donnera kdttla kLlde kctelen koEeln bmda brode bmden bmden ta taale dulden dulden leden
570 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DAISH DUTCH touch vdr6ra berore (aan)raken trade handla handle handelen translate ôvers[itta oversaette vertalen travel res a rejse remen tread on trda p traede paa treden op treat traktera behandle behandelen tremble darra ryste beven mm over vda vende omkeeren type mskmskrlva maskmskrxve tken underlme understryka understrege onderstreepen understand f6rsti forstaa verstaan (comprehend) begnjpen undertake f6retaga foretage ondernemen undress klada av slg k.laede slg af ontldeeden unpack packa upp pakke ud mtpakken upset stbta omkn stode oto omvergooen urmate kasta vatten lade Vandet urmeeren use (employ) bruka bruge gebruuken vaecmate vaecmera vaccunere menten pode vaccmeeren ws t besOka besoge bezoeken vomir krakas kaste op braken vote rosta stemme stemmen walt (for) vanta (pt) vente (paa) wachten (op) wake wtcka vaekke wekken wake vakna vaagne op ontwaken go for a walk promenera spadsere wandelen wander about fara omknng strejfe om rond dwa]en want to villa vdle wLLlen wam varna advare waarschuwen wash tvatta vaske wass chen wash tvatta slg vaske sg mch wasschen waste (food» slSsa spflde verkwxsten money, etc ) wave (hand) vmka vnke wmven wear (clothes) bara have paa dragen weave vava vaeve weven weep grâta graede hmlen wgh I wetgh J viga ve]e wegen whasper vska hvske flmsteren whstle vssla flalte flmten wm vmna vmde wm.uen wmd around vmda vmde wmden wmd up (sprmg) draga upp traekke op opwmden wmh 6nska onskc wcnschen GERMAN berhren handeln fibersetzen relsen treten auf behandeln zlttern wenden tlppen unterstrelchen verstehen begreffen untemehmen smh ausmehen auspacken umstoss¢n uralcrcn das Wasser abschlagen gebrauchen mpfen besuchen smh erbrechen tlmmen warten (auf) wecken erwachen spazeren ge- hen bummeha umherschwel- fen wollen warnen waschen smh waschen vergeuden verschwenden wmken tragen webea wemen wegen flOstern pfeffen gewmnen wmden aufmehen wlmschen
Language Museum 571 ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GER.M.A_N undre stg zich verwon- smh wundern deren arbede werken arbelten arbetàen dyrke vereeren verehren vaere vaerd waard mjn wert sera pakke md mpakken empacken sknvc schnven schreben bave Liret ongehjk Unrecht haben hebben gabe gapen gàhnen gve errer toegeven nachgeben wonder tmdra work arbeta worshap dyrka be worth vara vd wrap up mpacka vlt¢ 8Krlva be wrong hava oratt yawn gaspa yleld (gave way) gva errer for 6. ADVERBS (a) PLACE AND MO TION above, upstars ovanfor ovcnpaa boven obea away bort bort weg weg fort back ttllbaka tflbage terug zumick behmd bakom bagefter achter hmtea below» down- nedanfor nedentmder beneden tmtcn stalrs down (wards) ned nedad naar beneden hmab nach unten elsewhere annorstàdes andetstets elders anderswo everywhere bverallt overalt overal lberall far lmgt langt ver wet forward framt fremad voorwaarts vorw&rts hence " harlfrAn herfra van hler von haer here bar ber haer hier hther ht hd haerheen Inerher home (wards) hem hlem naar huis nach Hause at home hemma hemme thus zu Hause xnslde mnanfor mdenfor bmncn drmnen near nâra naeî dlchtb 1) nah nowhere mgenstades mtetsteds nergens mrgends out ut ud tut aus ours lde utantbr udenfor bulten draussen past forb forbl voorbz vorbel somewhere n/ïgonstadcs nogensteds ergens trgendwo thcncc doetfrïn dcrfra vandaar von dort there dr der daar dort thither dlt derhen daarhccn dorthïn through lgenom gennem door hmdarch to the left tl[[ vanster td venstre lmks lmks to the rlght tdl h6ger ttl hejre rechts rechts underneath mlmder dertmder daaronder darunter ards uppt opad op banauf naar boven nach oben
572 ENGLISH The Loom of Language SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GERMAN (b) TIME afterwards agam ago already effer/ft derefter naderhand lgen lgen weder for sedan for slden geleden redan allerede reeds always alltd as SOOla as s: slaa_rl: SOl at first f6rst at last antlgen at once geaast at present narvarade constantI} bes tand g altd alu/d saa snart soin zoodra als forsr vooreerst endehg emdelqk straks terstond opeens nu for Tden tegenwoordzg bestandlg voortdurend early ndgt tdhgt vroeg ever ngonsm nogensmde oolt formerly fordom forhen vroeger from tme to tid eften fra Tzd tl nu en dan tune amarre anden in future framdeles t Fremtden toekomstlg m flac cvemng afton oto Aftenen 's avonds m thc mormng pi morgoncn oto Motgêncn's morgcns m tune z td Tdc op tzjd last mght 1 g kvaI1 sdste Nat gsteravond last week forra veckan sdte Uge verleden week late sent sent laat meanwhtle uader tlden mtlertd mtusschea monthly mmathgen ne»er alclrzg next wcck nasta vecka not yet nowadays often onc r¢cently repeatedly seldom maancdhg maaaddoks aïdrtg nooit nacstc Ugc aanstaalade week endnu flr_kc laog met nu tfl dags tegcnwoordg offe dzlls en Gg eens nyhg onigs hcrddzk tmu zcke nu nu f6r tden ofta nyhgen gng pa gîng gentagne Gange stllan slaelden zelden nachher weder vor schon bcrets srets so bald als zucrst cndhch sofort oglelch zut Zet bestndg fortwahrend frùh zemg e frùher von Zet zu Zet k-unfxg abends ana Abend morgens ara Morgen rechtzemg betzeten gestem abend letzte Woche spat mzwaschen tmterdessen monathch nchste Woche noch mcht nun heutzutge oft emst emmal neuhcb kïrzhch wmderholt selten
Language Museum 573 ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH DUTCH GER2,AN sometmaes lbland untertlden soon stdl, yet the day belote yesterday the day af'ter to-morrow then (at that tlme thereafter thls afternoon thls evenlng thxs mommg to-day snt' snsr nnu endnu fOrg lforgaars soms manchmal zuweflen spoedzg bald nog noch eerglsteren vorgestern 15vermorgon :overmorgen overmorgen lbermorgen d da toen dann dtirp derpaa daarop eftermlddag 1 Eftermlddag vanmxddag afton aften vanavond morse imorges ldag dag morgon ïmoren 1 morgon af-ton : Morgen Aften darauf heure nach- mattag heure abend vanochtend heure morgen heden heure v,mdaag morgen morgen morgen avond morgen abend to-orltow to-morow evenmg o-morrow morgon Morgon morgen morgen fh mommg b tt-c uoe:tg ochtend to-mght t natt mat vannacht heure nacht weekly engmg t ugendg wekehlks wochenthch veckan yearly rhgen aarhg : aarh:l ks l ahrh ch yesterday gr ga gsteren gestem what s the vad af hvad er hoe laat s we spât st es tme klockan Klokken » het ? wevel Uhr st es » xt s fiveo'clock klockan af femKlokkenerfem hets wfuur es tstfunfUhr xt ts hlf past rive halv sex halv seks t s a quarter fo ldockan af en Klokken er et het xs kwart rive kraft, fera kvarter 1 voor w en fern it lS a quarter past rive tt ts twenty re_mutes to fivg it ts twenty minutes pst rive ldo -ckan ar Klokken er het s hal.f zes es tst halb klocka af en Klokken er et het xs lc'art kvart Over kvarter over over voven rem fera klockan ir Klokken er het s twmtg tlugo mmu- tyve minuter mmuten voor ter x fera fera wjven klockan r K.lolr&en er het ,s twntg qugo mmu- tyve mmu- mmuten over ter over fera ter over fera wven sechs Uhr es tst em Ver- tel vor ftmf Uhr (or drex Vxertel auf es xst em Ver- tel nach fuaf Wr for em Vertel auf sechs) es tst zwanmg Mmuten vor es st zwa22zlg Mmuten nach Uhr
574 The Loom of Language ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH D UTCH GERMAN (c MANNER, QUANTITY, AFFIRMATION .AND NEGATION about om!çrmg omtrct ongcvccr a httle en smula bdt cen beetje almost nastan naesten b also» too apparenfiy ocksï ogsaa ook synbarhgen ulsyneladende schjnb«ar as a marrer or fakuskt 1 Vlrkehghe- ferehlk fact den as much si mycket llgesaa meget zooveel ai least âtmmstone det mmdste ten mmste at most p d¢t hogsta det hojeste hoogstens badly dfligt daaxhgt slecht besdes dessutom desuden bovendlen by chance tîllfalhgtvs tAfaeldgvls toevalhg by heart utanull udenad van buten by no means mgalunda mgenlunde geenszms by rîte way l forbgende apropos a propos for Resten chefly completely ungefahr em werlg cm bsschen fast bemah auch schembar anschemend m Wrkhchket so viel wemgstens mmdesrens h6chstens schlecht tIberdes zudem zuflhg auswendg kemeswegs befitiu£ig sagt huvuds:'ddgen hovedsagehg voornaamehjk hauptsachhch fullstadg fu2staendg volkomen vollkommen dehberately avmkth forsaefllgt opzettelok drectly easùy enough everl exacfly ¢xcIusvely ext_raordmarfly extremely fortunately gradually graus mdeed dtrekt drekte dJ.rect latt le gemakkehk aog nok genoeg aven selv zeif precs akkurat precles umslutande udelukkende mtslutend utomordenthg overordenthg bmtengewoon ungewohnhch yrterst yde st mterst hochst less and less vollstanchg abschthch bewusst doeekt lecht genug seltst genau ausschhesshch
Language Museum ENGLISH SWEDISH DANISH loud hogt ïm:jt more and more mer och mer mer og mer no nej nej hot mie z, ke hot at all lnte ails slet flr&e hot even rote ens lkke engang obwously ptaghgen jensynhg DUTCH hard meer en me¢r neen met m't geheel nlet Met eens bhlkbaar of course naturhgtvts naturhgvs natuurhjk only bara kun slechts on the contrary tvartom tvaertunod mtegendeel partly delvls delws deels perhaps kanske preferably hellre probably sannohkt qmckly raskt fort qmetIy lugnt reaily verkhgen slowly lngsamt so, thus s so much the s mycket better bttre so fo speak sl at saga specmlly sarskflt suddenly pl6tshgt together ttllsammans too, too much for uadoubmdly utan tvvel unfortunately olyckhgen msschen hever warschnlIk gauw spoedlg rusg werkehk zoo des te beter usually vanllgtvas very mycket voE namhgen voluntardy fnvflhgt well bra wtlhngly gama yes ja jo Good mormng [ Good evemng 575 GERMAN la=t mmer mehr nell durchaus mcht mcht emmal offenslchthch augenschein- natrhch m Gegentefl teflwese tefls vellecht leber wahrschemhch schneLl rasch ru.hg wrkhch $o um so besse maaske hellere sandsynhgws humgt rohg vrkellg langsomt saa saa meget des bedre saa at sge oto zoo te so zu sagen zeggen saerskdt blzonder besonders pludsehgt plotselmg plomhch ttlsammen samen zusammen tegehlk for te zu uden Tvvl ongetwlfeld ohne Zweffel ulykkehgvs ongelukluger- zum UnNuck wls ungluckhcher- elSe saedvanLgvas gewoonhlk gewohch meget zeer sekr nemhg namehlk namhch te weten das hetsst frIvflhg vnjwflhg frewHg godt goed gut geme mme gem a }a a o 7 SOCIAL USAGE God morgon God Morgen Goeden mot- Guten Mor- gen ! gen God afton ! God Aften Goeden avond 1 Guten Abend r
576 The Loom oJ Language ENGLISH SWEDISH D.NISH DUTCH GERIN Good night ! God natt ! God Mat Goeden nacht ! Gute Nacht ! Good day ! God dag ! God Dag ! Goeden dag ! Guten Tag ! Good-bye [ Adi6 [ Farvel! Tot ziens ! Leben Sie wohl! Good health ! S -1-kâl! Skaal | Proost ! Prosit ! Thank youl (ac- Ja, TackI a, Takl AtstubHeft ! Bkte! eepting offer) Graag I Bitte sch6n! No, thank you ! Nei, Tack I Nej» Tak ! Dank U I Danke ! (refas/ng offer) Nee, dank U! Danke sch6n[ Thanks I (for Tack I Tak I Dank U 1 Danke ! favour done) I beg yoLtr pardon| Please, show me... Don't mention Ingen orsak! Aa jeg bedezi Niettedanken! Bitte! it [ B/rte sch6n ! Excuse mê I Urstikta I Undskyld mig [ Pardon ! Entschuldigen Sie[ F6rEit ! Omforladelse I Pardon ! Verzeihung ! How are you? Very weH, thank Tack, ut- you mrk Corne îa! Stig in! Var s, god Vaer saa god Wijs mij... Bitte, zeigen och visa at vise alstublieft ! Sic mit... ! mig.., l mig... I Hur stLr det Hvordan bar Hoe gaat het? Wie geht's tîll? De det? (Ihnen) ? Tak, ud- Goed, dank U Gut, danke maerket Kom tnd ! Binnen I Herein !
II. ROMANCE WORD LIST z. NOUNS (a) CLIMA TE AND SCENER Y ENGLISH IRENCH ar l'mr (m) bank (of nver la rive bay la bine beach la plage cape le cap cave la caverne chmate le clunat cloud le nuage coast la c6te PORTU- SPANISH GUE8E el aire o af la orflla a margem la baha a bma la playa a pram el cabo o cabo la cueva a caverna el clmaa o china la nube a nuvem Ia costa a costa el campo o campo la comente a corrente la obsctmdaà a escuno el des,erto o deserto el rodo o orvalho el polvo o po la tlerra a terra el este o leste el campo o campo la espuma a espuma el bosque a floresta la helada a geada la tnerba a erva el grano o ano el heno o feno la cohna a cohna country(nottown) la campagne current le courant darkness l'obseunte desert le desert dew Ia rosee dust la pousslere earth la terre east l'est (m) field le champ foam l'ecume (f) forest la forêt frost la gelee grass l'herbe (f) hall la grêle hay le fore hfll la colhne ITALIAN l'axla la nva la bain la spiaggm 11 capo la caverna 1 ciuna la nube ia costa la campagna la corrente l'oscunta (f) 11 deserto la ruglada la polvere la terra l'est (m) fl campo la schmma ù bosco xl gelo l'erba la grandme i fieno la collma horizon l'horizon (m) ,ce la glace lsland l'fie (f) lake le lac hght la ]umère hghtnmg l'edazr (m) meadow le pre toast le brouillard moon la lune f-ull moon la pleme lune mountam la montagne mouth (river) l'embouchure «) mud (river, etc.) la vase north le nord penmsula la penmsule plain la plaine pond l'etang (m) rare la plme rambow el honzonte el tnelo la sla el lago la luz eI relampago el prado la mena la luna la ltma l.lena la montaûa la desemboca- dura el barro el notre la penmsula el tlano el estanque la 11uwa l'a:c-en-cel (m) el arco ms o honzonte l'onzzonte (m) o gêlo 1 ghacclo a flha l'sola o lago I lago a luz la luce o relâmpago fl baleno o prado i prato a neblma la nebbm a lua la Iuna a lua chela I plendumo a montanha la montagna a foz l'unboccarura o lôdo fl fango o notre 1 nord a penmsula la pemsola a plam¢ïe fl pmno a lagôa lo stagno a chuva la pogga o ar¢o ms l'arcobaleao
ENGLISt-I river (large) rock sand sea shadow show ouh sprmg (water) staI $orm stratts stream thtmder t3de hagh tldê low rade town valley vlew village vïneyard water wateffaI1 wave weather wes The Loom of Langaage FRENCH SPANISlt le fleuve et no le rocher la roca le sable la arena la mer el mat l'ombre (f) la sombra le ciel el clelo la nmge la meve le sud eI sar la source la fuente l'etofle (f) la estrella la tempête la tormenta le détrot el estrecho le rmsseau el arroyo le sole11 el sol le tonnerre el trueno la mat ee la marea la maree hautz a plzamar la mal ce basse la balamar la vllle la cmdad la vaLlee el va/de la v-ne la vsta le vRtage la aldea le vlgnobIe la varia l'eau (f) el agua (f) la cascade la cascada la vague la ola le temps el tlempo l'ouest (m) e1 oeste PORTU- GUESE 0 110 a rocha a arela o mat a sornb, a 0 cell a neve o su/ a nascente a estrêla a tempestade o estrelto o rlacho o sol o trovâo a mare a preamar a batxamar a cidade o vale a vlsta a alde3a a vin.ha a agua a cascata a onda o tempo o oeste ITALIAN fiume lo scoglio la sabba mare l'ombra clelo la neve sud la sorgente la stella temporale lo stretto ruscello sole tuono ia marea l'aha maiea la bassa marea la cltta la valle wsta vllagglo la wgr.a l'acqua la cascata l'onàa tempo l'ovest (m) artery back beard belly bladder blood body bone Drain breast ealf check chest cold oemplexaon (b) HUMAN B OD Y la cheville el toblllo o tornozelo le bras eJ brazo o braço l'artere (f) la arterla a atterre le dos la espalda o dorso la barbe la barba a barba le ventre el vzentre 0 ventre la vessie la vej3ga a bexga !e sang la sangre o sangae le corps el cuerpo o corpo l'os (m) e1 hueso o ôsso la cervelle el cerebro o cérebro le sera el seno o smo le mollet la pantorrHIa a barnga la joue la meflla a face la poitrine el pecho o pmto Ie menton la bazba a barba le rhume ei resfnado a consnpaçâo le teint la tez a tez la cav3gha il braccm le braccla (pi) l'arterla Il dorso la barba fl ventre la vesclca 1 sangue 11 corpo l'OSSO le ossa (pl) fl cervello 11 seno 11 polpaccm la guancm fl petto fl mento 11 raffreddore la carnagione
ENGLISH coug chsese ear elbow eye cyebrow eyehd face fever finger fist flesh £oot forehead halr (of head) hand head health heart heel hlp lchaey knee leg hver lung moustache mouth muscle neck nerve nose pakn pulse nb shoulder skeleton skm skull sole spme stomach Language Msem PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE la toux la tos a rosse la maladie la enfermedad a eîgernmdacle l'oreille (f) la ore}a a orelha Ie coude el codo o cotovëo l'oeil (m) eI oo o 5Lho les yeux (pl) le sourcq la cela a sobrancelha la paupière e1 prpado a palpebra le wsage la c.ara a cara la fièvre la fiebre a febre le doigt el dedo o dedo le poing el pmïo o punho la chair la carne a carne le pied el pie o pe le front la frente a resta la gencive la en¢m a genglva les cheveux el cabeHo o cabelo la mare la mauo a mâo la tête ia cabeza a cabeça la saute la salud a salade le cur el corazon o calcanhar le talon el taIon o talo la hmche la cadera o quadrfl la mâchoire la qm}ada a quexada le rem el rnï6n o tan le genou la rodflla o oelho la lambe la levre la perna a pema el labm o labm le foie el hgado o flgado le poumon el pulmon o pnmïo la moustache eI bigote o bgode la bouche la boca a bôca le muscle el mus¢ulo o muscuio l'ongle (m) la mïa a unha le cou el cuello o pescoço le nerf el nervlo o nervo le nez la nanz o narre la paume la palma a palma le pouls el pulso o pulso la côte la costflla a costella l'epaule (f) el hombro o hombro le squelette el esqueleto o esqueleto la peau la pro1 a pele le crme el craueo o crâmo la plante la planta a planta l'pme dorsale la espma a espmha (f) dorsal dorsal l'estomac (m) el est6mago o est6mago 579 ITALIAN la rosse îa malatua l'orecchm fl gomo l'occhao gh occra (pl) fi sopracagho la paIpebra la faccm la febbre fl dto le dta (pi) :tl pugno la carne fl pede la fronte la genglva 1 cape[h la mano la tenta la salute fl cuore fl ta].lone la mascella fl rené fi gmocchm le ganocchaa(pl) la gamba fl labbro le labbra çpl) tl recto fl polmone x batfi Ia bocca fl muscolo l'ungha fl collo fl nervo fl naso la palma fl polso la costola la spath lo scheletro la pelle fl cramo la planta la spma dorsale lo stomaco
580 The Loom o.[ Language PORTU- ENGLISH 'RENCH SPANISI-I GUESE tear la larme la ligïmaa a lagrmaa temple la tempe la sen a fonte thlgh la cuisse el muslo a coxa throat (mternaI) la gorge la garganta a garganta thumb le pouce el pulgar o polegar toe le doigt du pied el dedo de1 pie o dedo do pe tongue la langue la iengua a îmgua tooth la dent el dlente o dente veto la veine la vena a vela wound la blessure la henda a ferlda wnst le poignet la mtuïeca o pulso ITALIAN la lagzmaa la tempm la coscla la gola 11 polhce 11 chto del pede la hngua 11 dente la vena la fenta 11 polso (c) ANIMALS ammal l'anmaal (m) el ammal o anmaal mat la fourm la hormga a formga beak le bec el plco o bco bear l'ours (m el oso o urso bee l'abedle (f) la abeja a abelha bzrd l'oseau (m) ei pjaro o passaro blackbird le merle el mirlo o melro bull le taureau el toro o touro butterfly le papillon la manposa a borboleta calf le veau el ternero a wtela car le chat el gato o gato caterpJ.llar la chemlIe la oruga a lagarta claw (cat, etc ) la griffe la garra a garra cock Ie coq e1 gallo o galo cockroach le cafard la cucaracha la barata cod Ia morue el bacalao o bacalhau cow la vache la vaca a vaca crayfish l'écrevlsse (f) el cangrelo o caranguelo crow le corbeau el cuervo o corvo dog le chien e1 perro o OEo donkey l'îne (m) el burzo o burro duck le canard el pato o pato eagle l'agle (m) el agulla (f) a agtua eel l'anguzlle (f) la anguzla a engum elephant l'elephant (m) el elefante o elefante feather la plume la pluma a pena fin la nageoire la Eleta a barbatana fish le poisson el pez o peoEe flea la puce la pulga a pulga fly la mouche la mosca a môsea fox le renard el zorro a raposa frog la grenou111e la fana a r g111 la branckue la branqtua o barranco goat la chèvre la cabra a cabra goose l'me (f) el ganso o ganso grasshopper la sauterelIe el saltamontes o gafaahoto hare le hee la hebze a lebre l'ammale (m) la formca 11 becco l'orso l'ape (f) l'uccello 1 merlo 11 toro la farfalla 11 ntello 11 gatto 11 bruco l'artgho 1 gallo lo scarafagglo 11 merluzzo la vacca 11 gambero 11 corvo 11 cane 11 cuco l'amtra l'aqulla l'anguflla l'elefaate (m) la penna la pmna I pesce la pulce la mosca la volpe 11 raaoccbao la branchaa la capra Foca la cavalerta la lepre
ENGLISH hen herriu hoof horn horde insect lamb lark hon lobste (spmy louse mackerel monkey mosqmto mouse mule mussel nghunga]e ocopus owl ox oyster parrot partndge pigeon pke rabblt rat sa]mon scale seal shark sheep slug snafl snake sole sparrow spider sqmrrel swallow tan tger toad trout tunny wasp Language Museum 581 PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN la poule la gallma a galhma la gallma le hareng el arenque o arenque l'armga le sabot la pezufia o casco lo zoccolo la corne el cuerno o corno fl corno le cheval el cabMlo o cavalo 11 cavalIo l'insecte (m) el msecto o xnsecto l'msetto l'agneau (m) el cordero o cordelro l'agnello l'alouette (f) la alondra a cotovm l'allodola Ie lion el leon o leâo fl leone la iangouste la langosta a lagosta l'aragosta le pou el pojo o piolho zl pldocchm le maquereau el escombro a cavala lo sgombro le smge el mono o macaco la samnna le mousuque el mosqmto o mosqmto la zanzara la souris el raton o rato fl sorcao le mulet el mulo a mtùa fl mule la moule La almea o mexalho la gongola le rossignol el rmsefior o roumnoi l'usIgnuolo la pieuvre ei palpo o pol»o fl polpo le habou e1 buho o mocho 11 gufo le buf el buey o bol fl bue l'hultre (f) la ostra a ostra l'ostrlca le perroquet el loto o papagazo fl pappagallo la perdrm la perdlz a perdzz la permce le cochon el cerdo o porco fi porco le pgeon el plchon o pombo fl pzcclone le brochet el sollo o 1clo fl luccm le lapin eI coneo o coelho fl comgho le rat la rata o rato fl topo le saumon el salmon o salmo fl salmone l'ecallle (f) la escama a escama la squama la mouette la gavmta a galvota fl gabblano le phoque la foca a foca la foca le requin el tburon o tubarào fl pescecane le mouton la ovela a ovelha la pecora la peau la pel a pele la pelle la lmaace la babosa a lesma la lumaca le hmaçon el caracol o caracol la cbaoccmla le serpent la serptente a serpente fl serpente la couleuvre la culebra a cobra la blscia la sole e1 lenguado o lmguado la soghola le moineau el gorn6n o pardal fl passero l'aragnee la aratïa a axanha 11 ragno l'écureml (m) la archlla o esqmlo lo scomtmlo l'hrondelle (f) la golondrma a andonnha la rondme la queue la cola a cauda la coda le tgre el tigre o tigre la ugre le crapaud el sapo o sapo fl rospo la trmte la trucha a truta la trota le thon el atun o atum 1 tonno la guêpe la awspa a vespa la vespa
The Loom qf Language PORTU- ,NGLISH !RENCI-I SP2kNISH GUESE ITALIAN whale la baleine la balleaa a balem la baleaa wmg l'aile (f) el a!a (f) a asa l'Ma wolf le !oup el lobo o Iobo A lupo worm le ver el gusano o bcho fi verrue almond apple apple-tree apncot ash bark becch berry blrch branch cherry cherry-tree chestnu chesmut-tree cypress date elm fig fig-tree tir frmt grapes hazehaut laurel leaf lemon hme-tree melon mulberry-tree oak ohve ohve-tree orange orange-tree peacà pear pear-tree pme pme-apple plum popIar raspberry roof strawberry (d) FRUIT AND TREES l'mande (f) la pomme le pommier i'abrlcox (m) le frêne l'écorce ( le hëtre la baie le bouleau la bran e la cerise le cersmr la chfitm-m le marron le châmgnmr el casmïo la grosedle la grosella le c3rès el captes !a dtte el daoE Forme (m) eI olmo la fimae el hgo le figuîer la hlguera le sapin el abeto le frmt la fruta le raxsm la u»a la noisette la avelIana le laurier el laurel la feuille la ho/a le mtron el ln-n6n le u11eu1 el trio le melon el me16n le mûmer la morera le chêne el roble l'ohve (f) la aceituna l'ohvxer (m) cl ohvo l'orange (f) la narana l'orangter (m) eI naranjo la pêche la poire le polrer le pro l'ananas (m) la prime le peupher Ia framboise la racine la fraise la almendra a amêndoa la mandotla la manzaa a ma ç la mela el maxlZmaO a macmra [ melo el albancoque o damasco l'Mbmocca el fresno o frexxo i1 frassmo la cortcza a casca 1 col teccla el haya (f) a fma 1 faggm la bax a a baga la bacca el abedul o wdomro la betulla in rama o ramo fl ramo la cereza a cerela la Cfilegm et cerezo a cerejmra i1 mhego la castafia a castaaha la castagna o castantaelrO fi castagno a oselha d nbês o mpreste fl clprcsso a tâmara fl datzero o olmo l'olmo o figo d fico a figuera 1 fico o abeto l'acte (m) a fruta la frutta a uva l'uva a avcl la noccmola o lourexro l'alloro a fôlha la fogha o hmâo fl hmone a uha fi ngho o melâo fl melone a amorera fl gelso o oervalho la quercla a azeltona l'ohva a ohvera l'ohvo a Iaxmala l'arancm a laranlera l'aranco eI melocot6n o pêssego la pesca la pera a pera la pera el peral a perera fi pero el pmo o pmhezro fl pmo la pfia o anamis l'ananasso la cIruela a amea la susma el alamo o alamo fi ploppo la frambuesa a fralnhoesa fl lampone la rmz a ra«z la rachce la fresa o morango la fragola
Langage luseum 583 PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SP&NISH GUESE ïTALIAN tree l'arbre (ml el rbol a xvore l'Mbero tree-runk le tronc el tronco o tronco tt tronco vme la vigne la parra a videlra la vite wahaut la nooE la huez a noz la noce wa!nut-tree le neyer ei loga! a noguea fl noce wfllow le saule ci sance o salguero d salco (e) GEREALS .IA"D VEGETABLES artlchoke l'aruchaat (m) la alcachofa asparagus l'asperge (ff} el esparrago barley forge (f) la cebada bean (broad) la fve el haba bean (kadaey) le haricot la udaa cabbage le chonx la col earrot la carotte !a zanahorm eaukflower le chou-fleur la colfflor celery Ie ceier: ci ap:o c/uves la ciboulette la cebollana cucumber le concombre el pep:no egg-plant l'aubergine (f) la berc%eaa garhc l'mi (m) el herb l'herbe (f) la bae.ba horse-radsh le raifort el rabano p,.cazîte lentil la IentAIe !a tentea a lentflha letmce la laitue la lechuga a al.face maze le maîs e., mmz o mflno mmt la menthe la menta a hortelà mushroom le champignon la seta o cogumelo oats l'avmne (f) la ax ena a avem omon l'owaon (m) Ia cebolla a cebola parsley le persil el perejd a scisa pea le pins el =masante a ervtma potato la pomme de la patata a batata telre pumpkan le pomron la calabaza a abobora rachsh le rachs el rabanc o rabano rlce le rlz el arroz o arroz rye le seigle el centeno o centem sage la sauge Ia salvm a salva seed la game la semz!c a semente spmach les épinards la espln«ca o esplnafre (m) tomato la tomate el tomate o tomate turmp le navet el nabo o nabo wheat le froment el tngo o tngo (f) MATER!ALS el Iat6n o latào el Iadnlto o ujolo le laiton la brique brass brick a alcachofa fl caîcofo o aspargo !'asparago a cevada l'orzo a fava la fava o fêào Il faguolo a couve H cavolo a cenoura la carota a oeuve flot fi oevo!fiore o apo fi sedano o oebohnho la mpollma o pepmo cemolo a bennge2a !a me!anzana o allao l'agho a kem, a l'erba o rabo de cavMo la barbaforte la Iennccbaa la latruga il granturco la menta fi flmgo l'avena la mpolla fl prezzemolo fi psello la patata fl ravanelto 11 nso la segale la salw.a fi seine gh spmacc fl pomodoro la rapa fl frumento l'ottone (m) fl matrone
584 ENGLISH chalk clay conctete copper cork glass gold lron lead leather lmae marne metal rubber sllver steel stolle tre (metal) tre (sheet) wood barn barracks bmdge butldmg castle cathedral cemetery church consulate corner (street) courtyard dock embassy factory farm fountain hospltal but lane (town) hbrary maxket mlmstry museum pce path (country) pavement plcr The Loom of Language FRENCH SPANISH la craze la greda l'argile (f) la arcllla le beton el hormlg6n le cmvre el cobre le hege el corcho le verre el vldno l'or (m) el oto le fer el baerro le plomb el plomo le cmr el cuero la chaux la cal le marbre el marmol le metal el metal le caoutchouc el caucho l'argent (m) la plata l'aczer (m) el acero In pmrre la pledra le goudron el aIqmtrLu l'etam (m) el estmâo le fer-blanc la hoalata le bras la madera PORTU- , GUESE ITALIAN a greda la creta a argfia l'argllla o formgo fi caicestruzzo o cobre d rame a cortlça fl s aghero o vdro 11 vetro o ouro l'oro o ferro fi ferro o chumbo fl pmmbo 0 couro 11 CllOIO a cal la calce o marmore 1 marmo o metal fl metallo a borracha la gomma a prata l'argento o aço l'accmm a pedra la petra o alcatro fl catrame o estanho Io stagno a fôlha de lata la latta a madmra fi legno (g) B UILDINGS la ange el granero o celmro la caserne el cuartel o quarteI le pont el puente a ponte le bâtmaent el edffico o edrffco le château el eastfllo o castelo la cathédrale la catedral a catedral le cmaeuère el cementêno o cemténo l'eghse (f) la xglesa a xgrela le consulat el consulado o constdado !e coin la esquma a esquma la cour e! pauo o p.uo le bassin la darsena a doca l'ambassade (f) la embaada a embaLxada l'usine (f) la fabrca a fabnca la ferme la grana a gran)a la fontaine la fuente a fonte l'hôpital (m) el hosptal o hospltal la hutte la cabafia a cabana l'auberge (f) la posada a estalagem la rueiIê la callea o beco la bbhothequeia bbhoteca a bbhoteca le marche el mercado o mercado le mamstère el mmîsterm o mlmsterm le musee el museo o museu le palms el palaco o palpera le senuer la senda a cammho le trottoir la acera o passera la etée el rouelle o molhe i] graamo la easerma fi ponte l'edfficm 11 castello fi duomo fl cumtero la chesa H consolato fl canto fl cortfle fl bacmo l'ambascmta la fabbmca la fattona la fontana l'ospedale (m) la eapanna l'ostena 11 vcolo la blbhoteca fl mercato 11 mmlstero xl museo 1 palazzo fl sentlero fl marcaapmde fl molo
Language Museum ENGLISH I'RENCH pohce-stauon I¢ comm_s- sarlat le poste port le port prison la prison road (tnghway) le chemin la route sehool l'ecole (f) square la place stable (cattle) l'etable (f) street la rue theatre le theâtre tower la tour town-halI 585 PORTU- SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN la comtsana a esquadra da la qusrura pohcm el puerto o porto fl porto la prm6n a pnso la pngtone Va carretera a estrada fl cammmo la vaa a wa la strada la escuela a escola la scuola la plaza a praça la pmzza la eudra o estabuio" la stalla la talle a rua la vin eI teatro o teatro i teatro la torre a torre la torre l'hôtel de ville eI ayunta- a c&mara fl mumclpm la marne rmento mumcpal aunt boy brother chald l'umversxté (f) la umversdad a umversdade l'umversxta (f) (h) THE FAMIL Y la tante la le garçon el muchacho o rapaz fl ragazzo le frre el hermano o rmo fl fratello l'enfant (m f ) el (la) auïo(a) o (a) menmo(a) fl (la) fanc- Chnsuan naine le prénom cousin daughter divorce famfly father gentleman grl grandfather grandmother husband el nombre de o home de pfla baptsmo le (la) cousin(e) el (la) prmao(a) o (a) prmao(a) la fille la haja a ri/ha le divorce el dtvorcîo o dlvorcm la famille la famalla a fam£1aa le pere el padre o pal Ie monsieur el sefior o senhor ia fille* la muchacha a rapazga la léune fille la cbaca le grand-pere el abuelo o avô la grand'mere la abuela a av6 le mare el mamdo o mando l'époux el esposo o espôso la dame la sefiora a senhora l'homme el hombre o homem uUo (a) fl home ck battesmao fi (la) cugmo(a) la figha fl dvormo la farmgha al padre d sgnore la ragazza fl noano la nonna 11 manto Io sposo la slgnora Fuomo marnage mother parents relauon slster le marmge el matrunomo o matrmaomo fl matrmaomo la mere la madre a rne la madre pere et mere padre y madre pro e me padre e madre les parents los padres os pas gemton le (la) parent(e) el (la) pareme o (a) parente fl (la) parente la sur la hermana a rm la sorella le ls el hllo o filho ti figho le nom el apelhdo o apehdo fl cognome * un fille (a gxrl)may only be used m contrast to un garçon (a boy) other sltuanons use une jeune fille Fdle wthout the adjecrave sgmfies a pros- utute T*
The Loom of Language PORTU- ENGLISH FtLENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN twms les jumeaux los gemeIos os gemeos i gemeth tmcle l'oncle el to o to lo zIo wffe la femme la mulet a mu2her la moghe l'epouse la esposa a espôsa woman la femme !a muer a mulher la doLna apron boot braces brush button cgm: cgarette cloth clothes collar comb (1) DPOESS AND TOILET le'tabher el delantat o avental tl grembmle la botte la bota a bota Io stvale 1es bretelles (f) los tirantes os suspen- le bretelle sorlos la brosse el cepltJo a esc6va la spazzola le bouton el boton o boto 1 bottoe le clgare el puro o charuto fl slgaro la cgarette el cgarfllo o cgarro la slgatetta l'êtoge (f) la teLa a fazenda la stoffa les vêtements la ropa as roupas gh abm le faux-col el cuello o cotarmho 11 colletto le peagne el peine o pente i1 pettme le coton el atgodon o algodao 1I cotone los calzon- as ceroulas le mutande cIos dress la robe el vemdo o vestdo l'abato fastuon la mode la moda a moda la moda glove le gant el guante a luva fl guanto handbag la sacoche el botso a bôlsa la borsa handkerchaef le mouchon: el patîuelo o lenço 1 fazzoletto hat le chapeau el sombrero o chapeu ai cappello jacket le veston la chaqueta a laquera la glacchetta match l'allumette (f) la cerRla o fosforo al fiammffero a agu/ha l'ago o sobretudo al soprabto o alfinête lo spfl/o o cachmabo la papa a algbera la tasca o po la capna drawers (men's) le caleçon needle l'agudle (f) la agum overcoat le pardessus e1 abrlgo pro l'epmgle (f) el aII51er pipe la ppe la papa pocket la poche el boIsfllo powder la poudre 1os polvos ram-coat l'maperme- el maperme- able (m) able razor-blade la lame la ho]a de shLrt la chemase la camasa shoe le souher el zapato shoe-Iace le lacet el cordon stlk la soe la seda skart la upe la falda sleeve la manche la maga soap le savon el ab6n sock la chasette el catcetîn o unpermeaveI l'Lmpermea- brie (m) a Iamma la lama a camaasa la camacîa o sapato la scarpa o atacador fl lacco a sëda la sera a saa la gonna a manga la mamca o sabâo ù sapone a pega tl calzetuno
ENGLISH spectacles sponge stick stockmg suit tle tooth-bruh trousers umbrella wastcoat watch wool Language Museum 587 PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE les lunettes (f) las gafas os oculos l'eponge (f) la esponja a esponla la came el bastoa a bengala le bas la me&a a mem le complet el trale o fato la cravate la corbata a gravata la brosse a el cepdlo de a escôva dos dents dlentes dentes le pantalon Ios paatalones as calças le parapluie el paraguas le galet el chaleco la montre el relol la lame la lana ITALIAN gh occtual la spugna fi bastone la calza l'abto com- pleto la cravatta la spazzolma da denu 1 pantalonî o guarda-chuva l'ombrello o colete d pancaotto o reloglo l'orologao a i la lana alarm-dock arm-chmr ash ash-tray balcony basement basket bath bed bedroom bell (door) blanket bhad box broom bueket candle carpet ceflmg chmr chamber-pot chmmey coal corner cupboard custnon door drawer, flanae fiat O) THE HOME le revefl eI despertador o despertador la svegha le fauteml el sfll6n a poltrona la cendre la cemza a cmza le eendxser el cênïcero o cmzmro le balcon el balc6n o balco le sous-soi el sotano a cave le pamer el cesto o cesto le bain el bafio o banho le ht la cama a cama la polr_rona Ia cenere H portacenere fl balcone fl sottosuolo sl pamere fl bagno fl letto la chambre a la alcoba o quarto de coucher dorm la sonnette la campamlla a campaiaha la couverture la manta o cobertor le store la persmua a perstana la boîte la caa a cmxa le balai la escoba a vassoura le seau el baldé o balde la bougie la vela a vela le tapis la alfombra le plafond el techo la chasse la sflla le vase de nmt el vaso de noche notte la cheminée la chamenea a chammé il eammo le charbon el earb6n o carvo d carbone le coin el rmcon o canto l'angolo l'armoire (f) el armarlo o armîrio l'armadlo le rideau la cortlna a cOrtma la cortma le coussin el cojia a almofada fl emcino la porte la puerta a porta la porta le tiroir el ca:16n a gavera fl eassetto la flamme la llama a châma la fiamma l'appartement el plso o aposeato l'appartamento (m) la camera da Ietto fl campaaello la coperta la perssana la scatola la scopa fl secc/mo la cadela o tapete fl tappeto o teto 11 soffitto a cadeara la sedm a bacta de cama fl vaso da
588 ENGLISH FRENCH floor le plancher flower la fleur furmture les meubIes garden le jardin ground-floor le rez-de- chaussée hook le crochet bouse la maison ron (fiat) le fer à repasser key la clef katchen la cmsme ladder l'echeIle (f) Iamp la Iampe lock la serrure mattress le mateIas The Loom oj Language PORTU- SPANISH GUESE el suelo o soalho la flor a flot 1os muebIes os m6vels el lardm o jardun la planta bala o res-do-cho el la la la la la la la el methylated sprat l'alcooI el denamré(m) maror le marolr el pantry l'office (f) la paraffm Ie petrole el plcture le tableau eI plow l'oreler (m) la pipe (water, etc ) le tuyau el poker le usonmer el record (gramo- le chsque el ITALIAN pavamento flore mobfll 11 glardmo 11 planterreno gancho o gancho l'uncmo casa a casa la casa plancha o ferro de fl ferro da engomar stlrare 1lave a chave la chïave cocma a cozmha la cucma escalera a escada la scala lampara o canchero la lampada cerradura a fechadura la serratura colch6n o colcho 11 materasso alcohol o alcool l'alcool metthco desnaturado denaturato espejo o espelho lo specchao despensa a despensa la dlspensa petroleo o petr61eo 11 petroho cuadro o quadro fl quadro almohada a almofada 11 guanclale mbo o cano 11 condotto anzador o atiçador l'attazzatolo dsco o dsco 11 dsco phone) roof le toit el techado o telhado room la chambre eI cuarto o quarto la pèoe la habltac16n a camara sheet le drap la sabana o lençol shovd la pelle la pala a p sde-board le buffet el aparador o aparador sttmg-room le salon la sala a sala smoke Ia fumee eI humo o fumo stmrs l'escaher (m) la escalera a escada storey l'etage (m) el plso o andar store le poêle la est-ufa a estufa swztch (elect:rlc) le commuta- el conmutador o comutador teur table la table la mesa a mesa la tavola tap le robinet el gro a tornetra fl rubmetto toflet (W C ) le cabinet el retrete o retrete fl gabmetto towel la serviette la toalla a toalha l'ascmgamano vacuum cleaner l'asprrateur el asprador o asplrador l'aspratore (m) (m) watl 0aouse) le mur êi muro o muro fl muro walI (room) la paroi la pared a parede la parete wmdow la fenêtre la ventana a anda la fmestra bacon le lard el tocmo o toucmho fl lardo 11 tetto la camera la stanza fi lenzuolo la pala la credenza 11 salotto fi fumo la scala 11 piano la stufa l'mterruttore
ENGLISH beef beer beverage bscmt bread breakfast brandy butter cake cheese chlcken chop coffee cream dessert dmner egg fned eggs soft-boded eggs fat flour ham honey lunch meal meat mflk mustard mutton o11 omelet pepper pork toast roll salad salt sauce sausage soda-water soup stew Language Museum (k) FOOD AND DRINK PORTU- FRENCtt SPANISH GUESE le buf la carne de a carne de vaca vaca la bière Ia cerveza a cerveja la bo, sson la bebxda a bebxda le bscmt el bxzcocho o blscoto le para el pan o pào le pent el desayu.no o pequeno de]euner almôço le cognac el cofiac a aguardente le beurre la manteqmlla a mantelga le gâteau el pastel o bolo le fromage eI queso o queajo le poulet el porto o frango la côtelette la chuleta a costeleta le cale el cale o cale la creme la crema a nata le dessert el postre a sobremesa le dîner la comlda o j antar l'oeuf (m) el huevo o Avo des ufs sur huevos fntos ovos assados le plat des ufs a la huevos pasa- oeque la grazsse la la farine la le jambon el amon le miel la mel la confiture la jalea le dejeuner el almuerzo le repas la comada la viande la carne le lait la leche la moutarde la mostaza le mouton la carne de camero l'huile (f) el acete l'omelette (f) la torla le poivre la pumenta Ie porc la carne de cerdo Ie rôt el asado le petit para el panectllo la salade la ensalada le sel la sal la sauce la salsa ia saucisse la salchacha l'eau de Seltz el agua de Seltz la soupe la sopa le ragoflt el gmsado ovos quentes dos pot agua grasa gordura harma a farmha o prezunto o mel a compota o almôço a refelço a carne o lelte a mostarda a carne de caFIlelro o azelte a omeleta a pmaenta a carne de porco o assado 0 pâozulho a salada o sa/ o môlho a salchacha a soda a sopa o gmsado 589 ITA_LIA2 d manzo la brra la bevanda I b,scotto fl pane la prmaa colamone xl cognac 11 burro la tora 1I formaggao ,1 pollo la costoletta 1 caffe la panna le frutta d pranzo l'uovo uova al patto uova sode 1 grasso la fanna 11 prosclutto 11 maele la marmeHata la colamone d pasto la carne 11 latte la mostarda la carne ch montone l'oho la fntxata 11 pepe d mmale l'arrosto 11 panmo l'msalata fl sale la salsa la salsmcaa l'acqua mmeraIe ia mmestra lo smfato
590 ENGLISH sugar supper vend vegetable vmegar wme basm botfle coæee-pot colarîder cork-screw cup dlsh fork frymg-pan gla$s jug kettIe kmfe hd napkm plate saucer saucepan spon tablecloth teapot The Loom of Language PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE le sucre eI azucar o açficar le souper ta cena a cela le the eI te o cha le veau la ternera a carne de wteia la legume la legumbre o legume le vmmgre el vlnagre o vmagre le vin el vmo o vmho ITALIAN lo zucchero la cena il tè la carne de vte!lo il legum¢ l'aceto fl vmo (1) BATING AND COOKING UT,NSILS le bol el taz6n a tejela la car.mella la boutee la boteLla a garrafa la bomglm la cafetière la cafetera a cafetelra la caffettiera La passoire el colador o passador 1 passmo le ttre- el sacacorchos o saca-rôlhas 11 cavatappl bouchon la tasse la taza a chvena le plat el plato o prato la fourchette el tenedor o garfo la pole la sarten a frlgsdelra le verre el vaso o copo la cruche la jarra o jarro la bomllozre la caldera a chalera le couteau eI cuchdlo a faca le couvercle la tapa a tampa la serviette la servslleta o guardanapo l'assiette (ff) el plato o prato la soucoupe el plar.lo o pzres la casserole la cacerola a caçarola la cuiller la cuchara a colher la nappe el mantel a toalha la thetere la tetera o bule fro) TOOLS axe /a hac el heha (f) board La plaache la tabla chtsel le ctscau el cmcd cord la corde la cuerda file la lune la luna gmalet la vrzl/e la barrena gun le fusl la esoepeta hammer le marteau el martùlo hoê la hoe la azada hook (fb.mg) le hameçon eI anzuelo 1me (fishmg) la ligne el cordel nazl le clou el c!avo net le filet la red nut l'ecrou (m) la ruerca la tazza d platto la forchetta la padella fl bzcchaere la brocea il calderotto fl coltello fl copercho ii tovagholo fl pmrto fl pmttmo la casseruola sl cuccbaam la tovaglm la refera o machado a tabua o cmzel a corda a lmaa a vernm:m a espmgazda o martel0 a enxada o anzol ofio o prego a rede a porto lasCla la tavol lo scalpe]lo la corda la lma zl succhaello il fucde sl martcllo la zappa la lenza fl chaodo la rete la madrevte
ENGLISH plncers plane phers plough rod (fishng) saw 12155or$ screw-dnver scyt_he spade spanner tool W1Ee Language Museum PORTU- FRENCH SPNISH GIYESIg les tenadles tf) las tenazas as tenazes le rabot el cepfllo a plema les pinces (f) los allcates o ahcate la charruë cl arado o arado la canne la cafia a cana la scie la slerra a serra les ciseaux (m) las tieras as tesouras la ws eI tomdlo o parafuso Ie tournevis el destorm- a chave de llador parafusos la faux la guadafia a fmce la bche la pala a p la clef la llave a chave l'outil (m) la herramienta a ferramenta le 1 de fer el alambre o arome (n) VOCATIONS AND SHOPS actor l'acteur el actor actress l'actrice la actr LZ author l'auteur el aurez baker le boulanger e! panadero baker's shop la boulangerie la panadena bank ia banque el banco boardlng-house la penmon la casa de huepedes la pension bookseller le hbmlre el hbrero bookshop la hbrame la hbrena 591 ITALIAN le tenaghe la pmlla le pmztte l'arar.ro la cazma la sega le forbtc la vte £I cacoEavte !a falce la pala la chmve l"amese (m) fl filo dz £erro o actor l'attore a actrzz l'attrlce o autor l'aurore o padmro fl fommo a padarm la panerterm o banco la banca penso la pensmne o hvrelro 11ïbram a hvraria la hbrerm business man cook (female) la cuismaere dau'y la crèmene denrast le denraste doctor le docteur le medecin employee l'employé engmeer l'îng&neur fisherman le peheut gardener le lardmler hmrdresser le coiffeur la cofleuse eweller le bijoutier ]ournahst le commerçant ci comercaante o comercaate fl commerm- allie butcher le boucher el carmcero o carmceiro fl macellmo butcher's shop la boucherm la carmcerfa o talho la macellena chemst (chem- le chamaste el qu/mlco o qmmieo fl chxmco istry) chemast (phar- le pharmacien el farmace- o farmacëu- il farmaclsta tlCO tloe la cocmera a cozmhmra la cuoca la lechena a lmtana la lattena el dentsta o dentsta fl dentîsta el doctor o doutor fi dottore el médico o medco fl mechco el èmpleado o empregado l'unplegato el îngemero o engenhelro l'ingegnere el pescador o pescador 11 pescatorê el lardlnero o lardme=o fl glardirnere el peluquero o cabelexrmto 11 parrucchxere la peluquera a cabeieretra la paxrucctnera el loyero o loalhetro fl gtolêlhere el (la) permd- o (a) omahsta fl (la) gtor- lsta nahsta le (la))our- nahse
592 The Loorn of Language ENGLISH FRENCH SP.&NISH ]udge le uge el luez laundry la blanchis- ei lavadero serte - lawyer l'avocat el abogado mechamc le mecamclen el mecamco mHlmer la modiste la modista muslclan Ie musicien el mslco notary le notaire el notano PORTU- GUESE o a lavandana o advogado o mecgmco a modtsta o muslco o notaflo nurse (hospltal) l'mfirmlere officml le fonction- la enfermera a enfermelra ei funclonano o funclonano servant ! shoemaker shop singer optlclan 1'opncmn el 6pdco o ocuhsta pamter le peintre el pmtor o pmtor peasant le paysan el labrador o lavrador photographer le photographe el fot6grafo o fot6grafo pohceman l'agent el pohcla o pohma post.man le facteur el cartero o cartelro pnest (parsh) le cure eI cura o cura pubhsher l'editeur el e&tor o e&tor soEenust l'homme de eI hombre de o sclenusta science clencla le (la) do- el (Ia) cri- mesuque ado(a) le cordonmer e1 zapatero le magasin la nenda le chanteur el cantor la chanteuse la cantora stanoner's shop la papeterie la papelena student l'émdaant el estudlante o estudante surgeon le chmarglen el clrulano o clrurgo tallor le taRleur el sastre o alfmate teacher l'msntuteur el maestro o mestre (m) la maestra a mestra l'mmmmce (f) typlst la (le) dac- Ia (el) meca- rylographe nografa (o) watchmaker l'horloger eI reloero workman l'ouvrier el obrero ITALIAN fl glu&ce la lavandena l'avvocato 1 meccamco la modlsta fl muacsta d notalo lhnfermaera l'uflïclale lOttlCO il plttore d contadmo 11 fotografo la guardm Il portalettere fl prete l'edltore lo scenzmm o (a) cnado(a) fl (la) domes- nco(a) o sapatero il calzolmo a loa 11 negomo o cantor il (la) cantante a cantora a papelana la cartolena lo studente 11 cbarurgo 11 sarto d maestro la maestra a (o) dacul6- la 01) damlo- grafa Co) grafa (o) o reloloero l'orologlmo o obrero l'opermo Afi:ica Amenca an Amencan Argentine an Argentine Asa Ausma Belgmm Btam! (o) COUNTRIES AND POPLES l'Afnque (f) el Af_nca (f) a Afnca l'Afnca l'Aménque (f) la Amenca a Amenca l'Amenca un Américain un amencano um amencano un Amencano l'Argentine (f) la Argentma a Argentma un A.rgentm un argentmo um argeatmo l'Asm (f) eI Asla (f) a sa l'Autnche (f) el Ausma (f) a Austna la Belgique la Belgma a Bé/gca un Belge un belga um belga le Brésfl el Brasfl o Brasl l'Argentma un Argentmo l'Asla l'Austna 11 Belglo un Belga il Brasflç
ENGLISH a Brazlhan Clna a Chmese a Dane Language Museum FRENCH un Bresfllen la Chine un Chinois un Danois Denmark le Danemark Egypt l'Egypte (f) el Eglpto empre l'empre (m) el mpeno England l'Ang!eterre (f) la Inglaterra an Enghshman un Anglais un ngles Europe l'Europe (f) la Europa a European un Europeen un europeo Fmland la FmIande la Fmlandm a Fmn un Fmnols ma firflandes a forelgaer un etranger un extranero Fraace la France la Fraecia a Frenchman un Fraaçals tre fraaces a Germa un Al!emand un aleman Germany l'Allemagne (f) la Alemama Great Brltam la Graade- la Gran Bretagne Bretatîa Greece la Grece la Grecm a Greek tre Grec tre griego Holland la Hollande la Holanda a Dutchman ma Hollandals ma holandes a Hungarlan un Hongrois un hngaro Hungary la Hongrle la Hungna Ireland l'Irlande (f) la Irlanda an Irlshman un Irlandais un lrlandes Italy l'Itahe (f) la Itaha an Itahan un Imhen un ltahano apan le Iapon el [ap6n a Japanese le aponals un japonés kmgdom le royaume el remo Norway la Norvege la Noruega a Norweglan un Norveglen un noruego Poland la Pologne la Poloma a Pole le Polonms un polaco Portugal le Portugal el Portugal a Portuguese le Portugais un portugues repubhc la repubhque la repubhca Russla la Russm la Rusm a lusslan un Russe un ruso Scotland l'Ecosse (f) la Escocla a Scotsman un tcossals un escoces Span l'Espagne (f) Espafia a Spamard un Espagnol un espafiol Sweden la Suède la Succin a Swede un Suédms un sueco a Swss un Smsse un smzo Swxtzerland la Smsse la Smza PORTU- SPA,NISH GUESE un brasflefio mn brasfleiro la China a China un chmo um chmês un dma- um dma- marques marquës la Dmamarca a Dmamarca Egpto o mperlo a Inglaterra um mglês a Europa um europeo a FmI£ndm um finJandês o estrangelro a França um francës um alemo a A!emanha Gr-Bretanha a Grecm um grego a Holanda um hoIandës um hungaro a Hungrm a Irlanda um irlandës a Itaha um ltallano O Japo um Iaponês o remo a Noruega um norueguês a Pol6ma um polaco Pormgal um pormguês a repfibhca a Russa a Esc6cla um escocês a Espanha um espanhol a Suécm SUeCO ttm smço a Smça 593 ITALIAN un Braszliano la Cma un Cmese un Danese la Dammarca l'Egltto l'rmpero l'Iaghflterra un Laglese l'Europa un Europeo la Fmlandm un Fmladese ma foresnere la Fraacm un Francese 11 Tedesco la OErmama la Gran- Bretagna la Grecla Il Greco l'Olaada tre Olaadese un Ungherêse l'Ungherm l'Irlanda un Irlandese l'Itaha un Itahano il Gmppone un Gxapponese il regno la Norvegla un Norvegese la Poloma un Polacco fl Portogallo un Portoghese la repubbhca la Russm un Russo la Scozm uno Scozzese la Spagaa uao Spagnuolo la Svema uao Svedese tmo Swzzero la Svazzera
594 ENGLISH a Tuk Turkey USA The Loom oj Language PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN un Turc un turco um mrco un Turco la Turqule la Turquin a Turqula la Turchla les États-Unis los Estados os Estados gh Stat Umtl Unidos Umdos (p) POEADING AND W'RITING address addressee blottmg-paper book date dlctlonary envelope fouatmn-pen letter 1errer-box mati map 12eWS newspaper novel page paper parcel pen pencfl perlochcal postage post-tard post-office 'ead3ng l'adresse (f) las sefias o enderëço l'mdnazzo le destinataire el destmatarlo o destmatfirlo il destmatano le papier el papel o mataborrâo la carta sugante buvard secante le hvre el hbro o hvro si hbro la date la fecha a data la data le &ctlonnare el dlcclonarm o &cxonrm 11 dmonarïo l'enveloppe (f) el sobre le stylo la pluma (graphe) esulografica l'encre (f) la tlnta la lettre la carta la boîte aux el buzon lettres le courrier el correo la carte el mapa les nouveLtes(f)las nouclas le ournal el perlodlco le roman la noveta la page la pgma le papier el pape1 le paquet el paquete la plume la pluma le crayon el lapez la rewae la revsta le port el franqueo la carte la taz3eta postale postal le bureau de la oficma de poste correos la lecture la lectura o envelope la busta a canera detmta la penna stllo- permanente grafica a tmta l'mchiostro a carta la lettera a caxxa do la buca da correlo lettere o correxo il corrlere o mapa la carta as nottctas le notlze o jornal 11 giornale a novela il romanzo a pagma la pagma o papel la carta o pacote il pacco a peaa la penna o lapis la mauta a revasta la rvlsta o porte l'affrancatura o bxlhete postal la cartohna postale o correm l'ufficlo postale a lelmra la lettura rubber (eraser) la gomme la goma o apagador la gomma sender l'expédlteur el rermtente o remetente 11 mtttente (m) signature la slgnamre la firma a assmatura la firma stamp le cambre- e! sello o sëlo 11 francobollo poste typewrlter !a machine la mquma de a mquma de la macchma da a écrire escrlblr eserever scrlvere bath-room (q) HOTEL AND RESTAURANT salle de el cuarto de o quarto de brun bmîo banho la sala da bagno
Language Museum ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH bill l'addmon la cuenta (restaurant) la note (hotel) chambermald la femme de In crlada mell office restaurant stoeff walter chambre change la monnme el camblo chef le chef el jefe cloak-room le vesraatre el vestuarao dmng-room la salle a e1 comedor manger hotel l'h6tel (m) el hotel hft l'ascenseur (m) el ascensor manager le dtrecteur el d!re¢xor le gerant el gerente la carte la hsta le bureau las oficmas le estaurant el restaurant le persomîel el personaI le pourboire la propma le garçon el camarero 595 PORTU- GUESE ITALIAN a conta i cono a crlada Ia camerlera o tr6co gh splccaoh o chefe 11 capocuoco o guarda-roupa in guardaroba a sala de lantar la saJa da pral3o o hotel l'albergo o ascen8or l'ascensore o dlreoeor 1i chrettore o gerene 11 gerente a lsta la hsta o escrt6ro l'uffico o restaurante fi rzstorante o pessoat fi personale a gorgera la mancla o cnado fi camemere (r) TRAIN arnvaI l'arrwee (f) la llegada a chegada l'arrvo bookmg.oîce le gmchet la taqmLla a bfihetelra lo sportello cloak-room la conmgne Ia sala de a sala de fl depos:to eqmpaes bagagem coach la voiture el coche a carruagem In vettura le wagon el vag6n o vagâo 1 vagone compartment le comparu- el departa- o compare- lo scomparu- ment mento mento memo connecuon la correspon- el empalme a hgaçho la comcdenza danee customs la douane la aduana delay le retard el retraso deparmxe le départ la parttda dmmg-car le wagon- el coche restaurant comedor engme entrance exlt guard mqmry office lavatory luggage luggage-,van passenger a alfândega la doana o atrzo fi rtardo a partda la partenza o vago-res- fi vagone taurmate rlstorante la locomotva la locomorave la lo¢omotora a locomoUva la machine l'entree (f) la eatrada la some la sahda le conducteur el guarda le bureau de la oficma de retselgae- lrfforglaclola ment le cabinet el etrete a retrete les baggages el eqmpale a bagagem (m) le fourgon el furg6n o furgào le voyageur el paaero o passagero a entrada l'car.rata a smda l'uscata o condutor fl capo'reno o escnt6ro de l'ufficto m- m.formaçoes formazmn la rltlrflta fl bagagho fi bagagham fl passegaere
596 ENGLISH passport platform porter rarlway sent sleepmg-car smoking station stauon-master stop suit-case tmket return ueket The Loom o] Language FRENCH le passeport le quax le porteur le chemin de fer la place le wagon-ht rumeurs la gare le chef de gare l'arrêt (m) la vahse le billet le billet d'aller et retour PORTU- SPANISH GUESE el pasaporte o passaporte eI andén a plataforma el mozo o portelro el ferrocarnl o oernmho de ferro el asmnto o lugar e1 coche cama o vago lelto fumadores fumadores la estac16n a estaçâo el jefe de o chefe da estaclon estaçâo la parada a paragem la maleta a mala de mào el bdlete o bHhete el blllete de o bflhete de 1da y vuelta 1da e volta ucket=collector le contr61eu.r el revlsor o revlsor tmae-table l'indicateur el horano o horno (m) train le train el tren o comb6o fast train le rapide el rapdo o rapldo l'express (m) el expreso o expresso slow train le train el mlxto o maxto ommbus tnmk la malle el bal o ba wmtmg-room la salle la sala de a sala de d'attente espera espera ITALIAN 11 passaporto la pmttaforma 11 facchmo la ferrovla 11 posto la vert-ara letto fumaton la stamone ,1 capo- stazlone la fermata la valgla 11 bghetto xl bghetto d'andata e rltomo 11 controllore l'orano 11 treno 11 treno rapldo 11 treno ommbus 11 baule la sala d'aspetto anchor boa (small) boHer bows bridge cabre cptam compass crew deck flag funnel hold hull keel hghthouse toast oar propeller l%ncre le bateau la chaudière l'avant (m) la passerelle la cabine le capitaine la boussole l'eqmpage (m) le pont le pawllon la chemmée la cale la coque la qmlle le phare le mt la rame la hehce (s) SHIP el ancla (f) la barca la caldera la proa el puente el el la la la el la la el la el el el la camarote capltm bruula tnpulacmn cublerta pabellon chamenea cala ca$co qmlla faro masul hehce a âncora 6 barco a caldera a prôa a ponte o c8_rllarote o capto a bssola a eqmpagem a coberta a bandelra a chamme o porto 0 oeSCO a qmlha o farol o mastro o remo a héhce l'ancora la barca la caldala la prua d ponte ch comando la cabma 11 capltano la bussola l'eqmpaggao il ponte la banchera 11 fummolo la suva lo scafo la chlgha 11 faro l'albero fl remo l'ehce (f)
ENGLISH purser rudder sad seam sea-sckness stern Language Museum PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE le commassare el contador o cormssano le gouvernail el umon o leme la voile la vela a vela le marre el marmo o marm.hero le mal de mer el mareo o enjôo le bateau el barco o navao l'arrlere (m) la popa a pôpa le remorqueur eI remolcador o rebocador 597 aeroplane axle bearmg bend (road] blcycle brake bulb bumper cham damage engme fme geflrs head-lamp hood hooter horse-power gmUon lack level-crossmg lever lorry motor-car motor-cycle mudguard one way petrol pump puncture (t) MOTOR AND BICYCLE l'avaon (m) el ava6a o avâo l'essieu (m) el ele o etxo le coussinet el colmete a chumacetra le ratage la curva a curva la bcyclette la blctcleta a blclcleta le frein el freno o travo l'ampoule (f) la ampolIeta a lâmpada le pare-chocs el tope o para- choques la chaîne la cadena a cadela l'embrayage el embrague (m) le dommage el dafio le moteur el motor l'amende (f) la malta l'engrenage el engranale (m) le phare el faro a lantema la capote la capota a capota le claxon Ia bocma a buzma le cheval el cabalIo de a força de vapeur fuerza cavalo l'allumage (m) el encenchdo a Igmçào le erre el cric o macaco l'aeroplano l'asse (f) d cuscmetto la svoha la blcacletta 11 freno l'ampolla fl parauxtl la catena a embramgem la fnmone o chno fl danno 0 motor 11 motore a multa la contrawen- mone a engrenagem l'mgzauaggm fl faro la cappotta la tromba fl cavallo vapore l'accensmne (f) fl cncco le passage a el paso a nlvel a passagem de fl passaggo a mveau n/vel hvello le lewer la palanca a alavanca la leva le camion el camaon o camào l'autocarro l'auto(mobde) el auto(moral) o auto(movel) l'auto(mobile) la moto- eyclette l'aùe (f) sens umque l'essence (f) la pompe la crevalson la motocxcleta a motocadeta la motocldetta ci guardabarro o guarda-Iama fl parafaugo dlrecc16n chreco obn- senso umco umca gat6na la gasolma a gasolma ia benmna la bomba a bomba la pompa el pmchazo o furo a bucatu.ra
598 ENGLISH spark sparkang-plug sprmg starter steermg-wheel train tube The Loom of Language FRENCH SPANISH l'etmcelle (f) la chmpa la bougre la bulm le ressort eI mue!le !e démarreur el arranque le volant êl volante ie tramway el tranvla la chambre a la cnara de a cara le boyau tyre le pneu el neumatlco o pneumatlco la gomma valve la soupape la vAvula a valvula la valvola wheel la roue la rueda a roda la ruota PORTU- GUESE IOEALIAN a fmsca la scmtdla a vela la candela a mola la moIla o arranque l'awmmcnto o volante tl volante O carro elecmco 11 tf,royal la camera d'ana (u) GIN!RAL accdent (chance l'accdent (m) el acaso o acaso fl caso evertt) acc:dent (mshaç)l'accideat (m) la des.acre o adente la dlsgr,a accot (b) le compïe la oee=a a coma 1 conto aon l'aeemn ( la acc6n a acço l'amone e oerrespondence Enghsh-tzon, French -tzon, Splsh -czon, Poese -ço» I -zzo also ocs m OEe Romce equwNents to ambzn» socatzon, atzon, coMztz, dzrectzb zmztauon, natzon, relanon, etc, advantage l'avantage (m) la veata/a adverusemeat l'annonce(f) el anunczo advlce (counsel) le conseil el conselo l'âge (m) la edad a vantagem 11 vantaggo o antmco l'annunmo o conselho 1 consgho a dade l'età ff) age (length of lffe) amusement l'amusement la diversion o dlvertmaeato I1dlverumento (m) anger la colre la c61era o en£ado la collera angle l'angle (m) el angulo o ângulo l'angolo answer la reponse la respuesta a resposta la nsposta apology l'excuse (f) la dssculpa a sausfaço la scusa apparams l'appareù (m) el aparato o aparelho l'apparecchm appeute l'appeut (mi el apeuto o apeute l'appeuto army l'armee (f) el ejercto o exercto l'eserc:to art l'art (m) el arte (m) a arte l'arte (f) assistance l'mde (f) la ayuda a ajuda 1' amto attack l'attaque (f) el ataque o ataque l'attacco authonty l'automté la autondad a automdade l'autonta (f) The correspondence Enghsh-ty, French -te, Spamsh -dad, Portuguese -dade, Itahan -ta, also occurs In the Romance eqmvalents to dzjjTculty, hberty» quahty, socety, rrartudhty , etc average la moyenne el térmmo o têrmo médo la media medm bag le sac el saco o saco 1 sacco ball la boule la bola a bola la palla battle la bataille îa batalla a batalha la battaglia beauty la beauté la belleza a beleza la belle2za
ENGLIStt begmnmg Language Museum PORTU- FRENCH SFziNISH GUESE le commence- el prmctplo o prmpm la naxssce el acl¢[o 0 p.asceno la tache el boçr o boro le coup e! golpe o le fond el fondo o fdo 599 lo sgorbm xl colpo fi fondo bnth biot blow bottom burn la brûaîe business (trade) !es OEalres (f) los negocios care le soin e! caldado case (instance) le cas el caso cause (grounds) la cause la oeasa change (altera. te changement el ca.m,o tion) chem, stry la chnnae la qmmma choIce le chom la elecc!6n clrcle le cercle el c, rcuio cleanlmess la proprete Ia hmpieza colour la couleur el color commattee le comate es corroie company la compagme !a compazîa compeuuon (commercial) la qumadu, a a qae_mdara la oruc, atura os negomos I1 aîïarl o caIdado la cura o caso 11 oeso a causa la csasa a madança fl cambia- mento a qmmlca la chm-aca a escolha la scelta o carcu!o fi crco!o a lampeza la puhzla a côr fl colore o ce.rote 'I com:to a companbaa la compagma la conccrrence la compezencîa a concorrênCla la concoîrenza competUon le concours el concu.8o o concm'so il concorso (sport, etc ) compromme conchlsaon (end) la n conduct la cendulte confidence la confiance (trust) conquest la conquëtc contact le contact contempt le mepms contents le contenu couatry (nation) le pays le compromis cl compromîso o comprom,sso ù compromesso el fro o m la fine la conducta a conduta la condotta la confian a confiança la fiduma courage le courage cowardtce la 1oEchete crack (fissure) la fente crmae te crmae cnsls la crise ermcsm la crmque cross la crom crowd la fouie cruelry la eruaute cry le cr cube le cube curve la courbe custom (habit) la coutume cut la coupure damage le dommage dance la danse la conqulsta a ¢onqulZa el contacl:o 0 contacto el despremo o desprêzo el contemdo o conteudo el pas o pins el vaIor a coragem la cobardaa a cobardm la hendedma a fenda ci crtmen o crma¢ "la crises a Cl lSe la crut a cruz la muchoe a muludîo dumbre la crueldad a crueldade eI gnto o gnto el cubo o cubo la car» a a warva la costnzmbîe o costume el cotte o cotte eI dafio o dano el baffe o baffe la conqmsta il contato lo sprezzo fl contenuto Il paese fi coraggio !a codardm la fessura fi dehtto la cns la crltica la croce la folla la crudetta Il gndo tl cubo la curva 1 cosm_me fl tagho 11 danno fl ballo
600 The Loom o/ Language PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN danger le danger el pelgo o perlgo ù pencolo death la mort la muerte a morte la morte debt la dette la deuda a chvlda 11 deblto defeat la defatte la derrota a derrota la chsfarta de/ect le defaut el defecto o defeto fl dffetto defence la défense la defensa a defesa la dffesa degree le degré el grado o au 11 grado depth la profondeur la profundldad a profundldade la profondtà tl dasegno il desldeno 11 dettagho lo svfluppo design (sketch) le dessin el &seho desrre le deslr el deseo detafl le detafl el detalle development le developpe- el desarrollo &saster le désastre el desastre dlscovery la decouverte el descubn- o desenho o desejo o detalhe ô desenvolvl- mento o desastre o descobn- mlento mento dlsgust le dégoût la repugnanma o desgôsto lo schffo dstance la distance la dlstancla a dlstâncla la dlstanza doubt le doute la dada a dflwda d dubblo dream le rêve el suefio o sonho 1 sogno drop (water, etc ) la goutte la gota a gota la goccla durauon la duree la duram6n a duraço la durata duty le devint el deber o dever 11 dovere edge (border) le bord el borde a borda 1'orlo effort l'effort (m) êl esfuerzo o esfôrço 1o sforzo d dlsastro la scoperta eleemcity employment l'emploi (m) eneounter la rencontre (meeting) end (extremlty) le bout enemy o lmmxgo il nemlco enterpnse a emprêsa l'mpresa entrance l'entrée (f) la entrada a entrada l'entrata enwromnent le milieu el amblente o amblente l'ambmnte (m) envy l'enve (f) la envldla a mvela l'mvldm equahty l'égalité (f) la lgualdad a lgualdade l'eguaghanza error l'erreur (f) el error o êrro l'errore (m) event l'evénement el aconteca- o aconteca- l'awennnento (m) rmento mento exammatmn l'examen (m) el examen o exame l'esame (m) example l'exemple (m) el ejemplo o exemplo l'esempm exchange l'échange (m) el camblo a troca il cambo exhtbmon l'exposltmn (f) la exposlc16n a exposlçâo l'espostzmne exastence l'exastence (f) la emstencIa a exastêcm l'eslstenza l'electncte (f) la electrlcldad a elecmcdade l'eletmctà el empleo o emprêgo l'lmpego el encuentro o encontro l'lnContro el extremo l'ennem (m) el enemgo l'entreprise (f) la empresa a extrermdade l'estrematà The correspondence Enghsh -ente» French -ence, Spamsh -enaa, Portuguese -énaa» Itahan-enza also oceurs m the Romance eqmvalents to expenenc«, mpudence, m&fference, patene» etc expense les frais (m) los gastos os gastos le spese explanauon l'exphcanon la exphcac16n a exphcaço la spleganoae
Language Museum 6Ol ENGLIStt fact fall (of prxce» tcmpcraturc» etc ) fcar fold food force fnend frmndshxp front frontcr fuel future gaine (play) gesture gland government grautude group growth half happlness baste hate health PORTU- RENCH SPANISH GUESE ITA_LIAN le fret eI hecho o facto fl fao la baisse la ba]a a banm la caduta la peur el temor o rcceo la crainte el nuedo o medo le vol el vuelo o vôo le ph el phegue a dobra la nournture el alunento o ahmento la force la fuerza a ïôrça l'mm (e) el(la) amgo(a) o(a) azmgo(a) l'amltle (f) la amastad a amzade le front el frente a frente la frontière la frontera a frontexra le combustible el combustible o combustvel l'avemr (m) el porvemr o porvr le jeu el luego o 6go el gesto o gesto la glanduia a glândula el gobierno o govêrno le la le la la grautad a gratîdo heap Ie tas hearmg (sense of)l'ome (f) heat helght hastory hole honour hope hunger xdea lmprovement lmpulse mhabxtant instrument geste glande gouverne- ment recoflls- le rope el gpo o grupo la croissance el creclmlento o cresclmento la moté la mltad a metade le bonheur la fehctdad a fehcdade la hâte la pnsa a pressa la haine el odlo o 6dio la santé la salud a saude el mont6n o monto el mdo o ouwdo la chaleur el calot o caIor la hauteur la altura a altura l'tnstolre (f) la hstorm a tnst6ma le trou el agu]ero o buraco l'honneur (m) el honor a honra l'espmr (m) la esperanza a esperança la fama el hambre a fome lhdée (f) la ldea a xdem l'amehoratmn el meora- o melhora- (f) mlento mento l'Impulsion (f) el lmpuiso o mapulso l'habxtant (m) el habitante o habitante l'instrument el mstrumento o mstrumento (m) la paura fl volo la pmga 11 clbo la forza l'amaco(a) l'amc,zm fl fronte la frontmra d combusubHe 1'awemre (m) H guoco H gesto la glandola 11 governo la grautudme tl gruçpo tl cresctmento la metà la fehcta la fretta l'odlo la salute fl mucco l'udlto 11 calore l'almra la storla 11 buco l'onore (m) la speranza la faine l'ldea I mghora- mento lhmpulso l'abltate Io stxumento The correspondence Enghsh-ment, French-ment, Spamsh-merto» Portuguese -menro» itahan -mento also occurs m the Romance eqmvalents to argument» document, element, fragment, monument, etc msurance l'assurance (f) el seguro o seguro 1'assmura- zlone
602 The Loom o L«nguage ENGLISH FRENCH mterest (atten- l'roter& tmn) mterest (return) l'mtérêt (m) jealousy la jalousie joke (lest) la plalsanterm journey le voyage oy la judgment le ugement jump le saut kmd (pecaes) l'espece le genre kss le baiser knot le nud knowledge la connais- language (tongue la langue of a commumty) language (style of expressmn) laughter lazmess law lecture length (space) lesson level he 1fie 1me hqtud hst load look (glance) loss love luxury machine majonty manager manner mark materml marrer meall$ le langage le rire la paresse 1a la conîerence Ia longueur la leçon le mveau le mensonge la ve la hgne le hqtude la hste la charge le regard la perte l'amour (m) le luxe la machine la majorlte le drecteur la manière la façon la marque !a masse le matériel la matlere le moyen meaure la mesure meeting (assem- la réunion bly) member le membre memory la memoxre PORTU- SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN el mterês o mterêsse l'mteresse (m) el redlto o uro los celos o cmme la broma o gracejo el vlae a wagem la alegrfa a alegrla el mcm o u/zo el salto o salto la espece a espeîe él genero o genero el beso o be]o el nudo o n6 el conoc- o conhec- mlento mento la lengua a l£ngua el tdoma o choma ei lenguaje a lmguagem [a rlsa o i-lSO la pereza a pregmça la ley a let la coafereacm a co=ferercla la longîtud o comprmacnto la lecc6n a h çîo el mvel o mveI la mentira a menura la wda a vida la lmea a hnha el liqmdo o hqmdo la hsta a hsta la carga a carga la mazada a olhadela la pérdlda a perda el amor o amor el luo o luxo la maquma a mquma la mayona a maorm el dlrector o drector la manera a manelra el modo o modo la marca a marca la masa a massa el materml o materml la matena a materm el medm o meo la me&da a medda el matin a reumâo el mxembro o membro la memorla a mem6rla 11 rso la pgrza la legge Ia conîeenza 1 lunghezza la lezmne il hvello la bugla la wta la hnea fl hqmdo la hsta 11 caco io sguardo la perdta l'amore (m) 11 lusso la macchma la maggoranza fl drettore la marnera 11 modo la marca la massa il materlale la materm 11 mezzo la msura la rmmone fl membro la memoua
Lan, guage Museum ENGLISH FRENCH method la methode mlddle le centre le milieu mmomty la mmomte mzxmre le me!ange money l'argent (m) mood (retaper) l'humeur (f) movement le mouvement natlve land la patrie nature la nature navy la marine noise le brmt nonce (warnmg) l'avis (m) number le nombre (amont) number (No) le numero ob)ect l'oh)et (m) offer l'offre (f) order (arange- l'ordre (m) ment) order(commaad) l'ordre (m) order (goods) la commande ongm l'origine (f) owner le propnetare para (suffermg) la dou/eur pamtmg !a peinture part (of whole) la parne party (factmn) le partl past le passe peace la paix people (persons) les gens people (com- le peuple mumty) person la personne plece (fragment) le morceau place (spot) l'endroit (m) plant la plante pmasure le plmsr poetry la poésm point (dot) Ie point point (sharp end)la pointe poison le pomon pohteness la pohtesse polmcs la polmque poplauon la populauon poverty la pauvreté power le pouvoir pracuce (exer- l'exercuce (f) preludce le preluge present (gft) le cademu SPANISH el metodo el centro el medm la mmona la mêzcla el dmezo el humor e1 movumento la patrîa la namraleza la manna el rtudo eI aw.so eI nmero eI nmero el ob)eto la oferta el orden la orden el pedado el ongen el propetarzo e1 dolor la pmmra la parte el parudo el pasado la paz lâ genre el pueblo la persona el pedazo el lugax la planta el placer la poesia el punto la punta el veneno la cortema la pohnca la poblacî6n la pobreza el poder el e)ercacto el perlmcm el relo POR.TU- GUESE meodo celltro melo menondade n3.lsru.ra dmhcro humor movnnento patrm natu.reza marmha rmdo îvtso ndmero nmero oblecto oferta ordem ordem encomenda orlgem propretaro dot pmmra parte parudo passado paz gente povo pessoa peça lugar planta praze poesla ponto ponta veleïl0 cortesia pohuca populaçâo pobreza poder exerdoEo preluîzo prescrite 603 ITALIAN d metodo H centro d mezzo la mmonta la nnstura i denm o l'umore Cm) fl movunento la patrla la narura la marma fl rumore l'aVVlSO H numero fl numero l'oggetto l'offerta l'ordme tm l'ordme (m) l'ordmamone(t) t'omgme f) zl propnetano 1 dolore la pm=a la parte 11 partto d passato Ia pace la genre tl popo!o la persona ml pezzo il luogo la panta ml piacere la poem d punto la punta xl veleno la cortesm la pohtaca la popotamone la poverta d potere l'eserczao 11 pregudmm fl regalo
604 The Loom of Language ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH present (glft) le présent ei obseqmo pressure la pression la presl6n prlce le proE el preclo prme le prix e! prémao problem le problème el problema product le produtt el producto profit Ie profit el provecho progress le progrès el progreso proof la preuve la prueba property la proprleté la propledad protest la protestauon la protesta pumshment la pumraon el casngo purchase l'achat (m) la compta purpose le but e1 obeto question la questmn la pregunta race (breed) la race la raza ray le rayon el rayo reason la raison la raz6n recept (paper) le reçu el recbo recollecaon le souvemr el recuerdo reftmal le refus la negatlva remamder le reste el resto PORTU- GUESE a dchva a presso o preço o prêmlo o problema o produto o lucro o progresso a prova a propnedade o protesto o castgo a compra o prop6sxto a pergunta a raça o ralo a razâo o reclbo a lembrança a recusa o resto o remédto a relaço a peuvïo o respelto o descanso o restdtado a vmgança a lecompensa o dlrelto o rlSoe a regra a trlsteza a segurança a venda a s/llostra remedy le remède el report (account) le rapport el request la demande la respect le respect el test (repose) le repos resuh le résaltat el revenge la vengeance la reward in recompense la rlght Oust da=n) le droit el ruk le risque el rule (regulaton) la règle la sadness la tristesse la safety la surete la sale la vente la sample l'echanullon la seale (measure) l'échelle (f) la scaence la scaence la sense (meanmg) le sens el sentence (group la phrase la of words) sex le sexe el shame la honte la side le c6té el slght (sense of la vue la slg le signe la mze la andeur eI sleep le sommed el smell l'odeur (f) el remedlo reforme peucon respeto descanso restfltado venganza recompensa derecho rlesgo :regla trlsteza segundad venta muestra eseala clencla sentldo frase sexo verguenza lado vlsta sefial tmîo suefio olor a escala a sçaêncla o sentido a frase 0 sexo a vergonha o/ado a vlsta o smal o tamanho 0 sono o chero ITALIAN la pressmne 11 prezzo fl premao 1 problema I prodotto il profitto 1 progresso la prova la proprmta la protesta la pumzlone la eompera 11 proposlto la domanda la mzza 11 ragglo la raglone la ncewata 1 ncordo 11 rrfiuto 1 resto 11 remedlo fl rapporto la ncchaesta 11 rlspetto il nposo d resu/tato la vendetta la rcompensa d dmtto 11 nschxo la regola la mstezza la slcurezza la vendta fl camplone la scala la scmnza 11 senso la frase 11 sesso la vergogna fl lato la vsta Il segno la grandezza 11 sormo l'odore (m)
Language Museum ENGLISI-I FRENCH SPA.NISH smale le sourit la sonsa song la duamon la canc6n sound Ic son el somdo space l'espace (m) el espacm speech (power of) la parole el habla (f) speech (dis- le discours el dlsettrso course) speed la wtesse la velomdad sport le sport el deporte square (geo- le carre el cuadrado metncal state (govera- l'etat (m) el estado ment) step le pas el paso strnke la grève la huelga struggle la lutte la lucha study l'cmde (f) el estudo success le succès el émto suggesnon la suggcstmn la sugestz6n sure la somme la suma summary le resume el resumen summ!t le sommet la cumbre surface la surface la superficae surprise la surprise la sorpresa suspzcon le soupçon la sospecha swmdlc (fmud) 1'cscroqucrle la estafa system le systcmc el s lstema task la ttche la tarea taste le goût el gusto tax l'mapôt (m) el mapuesto test l'epreuve (f) la prueba thanks les remercm- las graclas ments (m) theft le vol ci robo thmg la chose In cosa thrst la soif la sed tonê le ton e1 tono touch (seine of) le toucher el tacto toy le louer el luguete trade le commerce el comermo translatton la traduction la traduccmn transport le transport el transporte treatment le traîtement el tratamtento treaty le traite eI tratado trlaI (law) le procès el proceso truth la verlté la verdad use (employ- l'emplot (m) el uso ment) value la valeur el valor PORTU- GUESE soFrlso ca ço som espaço fala dscurso velodade desporte quadrado estado passo greve Iuta estudo êxtto sugestâo soma su.mario ctlzlie superficie surpresa suspeta burla slstema tarefa g6sto lmposto prova as graças furto col$a sêde tom toque brmquedo comcrclo traduço transporte tratamento o tratado o processo a verdade 0 llSO o valor 605 ITALIAN I sorrso la canzone fl suono lo spamo la parola d dlscorso la vcloctà lo sport zl quadrato lo stato d passo Io scaopero la lotta lo studio 11 successo d suggert- mento la somma d sommano la ctma Ia superficae la sorpresa fl sospetto Io scroccone d szstema fl compxto tl gusto la tassa la prova le grazm fl furto la cosa la sete fl tono d tatto fl uocattolo fl commercto la tradu.zxone d trasporto fl tttamento Il trattato fl processo la vemta l'uso fl valore
606 The Loorn of Laguage ENGLISH FRENCH vessel le vmsseau (receptacle) vory la vctore vome la vooE wages le salaire walk (stroll) la promenade waa (lack) le meaque war la guerre weahh la richesse weapon l'arme (f) weght le poids wldth la Largeur wfll la volonte word le mot work çactneve- l'oeuvre (f) ment) PORTU- SPANISH GUESE la vasïla o vaso la wctorm a vlt6rla la voz a voz el salarm o salano el paseo o passelo la falta a falta la guerra a guerra la nqueza a nqueza el arma (f) a arma el peso o pêso la anchura a largura la voluntad a vontade la palabra a palavra la obra a obîa work (exeruon) le travml el world le monde el youth çearly lffe) la jeunesse la zeal te zele el ITALIAN fl vaso la vlttOrlt la voce 11 salaro la passeggmta la mancanza la erra la rlcchezza l'arma 11 peso la larghezza la volontì la parola l'opera trabalo o trabalho fi lavoro mundo o mundo fl mondo luventud a )uventude la gmventu celo o zëlo lo zelo mmqmty century Chrisas day daybreak dmk Easter evenmg fortmght hour hall an hour a quarter of an hour an hour and a hall leap-year 2 DIVISION OF TIME (a) GENERAL TERMS l'aprs-mld l'anuqmté (f) le sècle Noel (m) le jour le point du lotir la tombée de la nuit Pâques (m.pl) le soir qmnze jours la qum.zame l'heure (f) une heure un quart d'heure une heure et demae l'annee sexttle la tarde a tarde 11 pomenggm la anufftiedad a anugmdade l'anuchta (f) el sglo o seculo 11 secolo Navldad (f) Natal (m) fl Natale el cha o da d gorno el amauecer a madrugada lo spumar gorno el anochecer o anoltecer fl far della hotte Pascua Pascoa la Pasqua la tarde a tarde la sera qumce chas quinze dlas qulndlc gloria la qumcena a qulazena la qmnchcina la hora a hora l'ora media hora mem hora una mezz' ora tre cuarto de hora hora y media el mîo bx- 81esto Madoee Ages le moyen âge la edad media a ldade média midmght le mmmt medmnoche mem noute minute la minute el mmuto o mmuto um quarto de un quarto hora d'ora uma hora e un' ora e mela mezzo o ano blssexto l'mmo b- sesnle 11 mecho evo la mezzanotte fl manu:o
ENGLISH moath mormng nlght noon season sêcond New Yea SUDT1Se sunset week year sprlng summer wtnter Lazguage Museum PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE le mois el mes o mîs le matin la mafiana a manh la nuit la hoche a noute le mtdl medIocha o melo dla la saison la estac16n a es:aço la seconde el segundo o sexudo le nouvel an el mSo nuevo o ano novo le lever du la sahda de1 o nascer do soleil sol sol ie coucàer du la puesta de1 o pst do sot soleA sol le temps el uempo o tempo la semaine la semana a semana huit ours ocho chas mto chas 1 an (m) el afio o ano (b) SEASONS, MONTHS= AND DA YS le printemps la prImavera a pnmavera l'ete (m) el verano o verâo l'automne (m) el otofio o outono l'tnver (m) el mvlemo o mvemo 607 ITALIAN fi mese la mattma la notre mezzodi la stagmne 11 secondo 11 capo d'enno fi levar del sole fl tramonto fl tempo la semmana otto gorna l'ano la pnmavera l'estate (f) l'autuno l'lnverno J an aary ) anvler enero I aneiro Gennalo February fevrter febrero fevereïo Febbra,o Match mars marzo março Marzo Aprzt avril abnl abrfl Aprfle May mal mayo malo Magglo Jmae uln umo unho G,ugno July ufilet luho ulho Lugllo August août agosto agôsto Agosto September septembre septlembre setembro Scttembre O ctober octob re octubre outubro Ooeobre Novembe novembre no» mmhre novembo Novembre December decembre dlclembre dezembro Dlcembre Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Fnday Saturday Sunday on two tkree roux rive six sevell lund el 1unes segunda-fera Lunedi mardi el marres terça-fmra Martectl mercred el rmercoles quarta-fezra Mercoleda I eudl el 3ueves qumta-feam Govedi vendred el vmmes sexta-felra Venerch samedi sabado el sabado Sabato dnnanche domngo el donnngo Domemca deux dos dos, du trois tres três quatre oeatro quarto mnq ¢mco cmco sept stete sete due tre quararo croque sel serte
6o8 The Loom of Language PORTU- ENGLISH 'IENCI-I SPANISH GUESE ITALI2kN eght huit ocho oto otto ame neuf nueve nove nove ten d dmz dez dzcc eleven onze once onze und Ic 1 twelve douze doce doze dodc thrtecn treoEe trece treze tredicl fourteen quatorze oetorce eatorze quattordlc fifteen quinze qumce quinze qumdc sixtcen seize diez y sms dezasses sedlcl seventeen doE-sept dez y slete dezassete dmlassette cghteen dtx-hult dlez y ocho dez&to dicotto mneteen dtx-neuf dlez y nueve dezanove dlcmrmove twenty vingt vemte vmte vent î twenty-one vm et un vemte y uno vmte e um venruno twenty-two vingt-deux vemte y dos wnte e drus venudue thlrty trente oeemta trmta trenta forty quarante cuarenta quarenta quaranta fifty croquante cmoeenta cmquenta cmquanta stxty soixante sesenta sessenta sessanta sevenry somante-doE setenta setenta settanta eghty quatre-vingts ochenta ottenta ottanta mnety quatre- noventa noventa novanta vingt-dru hundxed cent cento, cen cem cento thousand mille mil mil mille malhon un mflhon un md16n um mdho un mahone first premier prmero prunero second second segtmdo segundo deuraeme thrd troxsleme tercero terceîo fourth quatreme cuarto quarto fth cmqmeme qumto qumto sJa szxieme soEo sexto seventh septxeme septmao setzmo eghth huaueme octavo otavo hall un den un medao um meo one-thrd un tzers un tezco um têrço one-fouth un quart un cuarto um quarto one-fffth tre cmquîeme un quinto um qumto primo secondo terzo quarto qumto sesto seoEl.to otTavo un mezzo un terzo ma quarto un qumto once une l'ms ma vez uma vez una volta twce deux foîs dos veces duas vezes due volte three mes trols fos tres veces três vezes tre volte able (capable) absent capable absent»e acxde 4 ADJECTIVES ausente ausente acdo acdo capace assente acdo
Language Museum 609 PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPA/qlSH GUESE ITALIAN The correspondeace Enghsh-zd, French-de, Spamsh, Portuguese, Imhan -do» also occozs m the Romance eqmvalents to fiqud» rapd sohd» mzd» etc admirable admarable ad.mrable admirvel ammtrabfle aenal aerien,ne aereo aéreo aereo agreeable agreable agradable agradveI gradevole alone seu.l,e solo s6 solo ambiguous ambigu, e ambguo ambiguo ambtguo amusmg amusant,e dlvertdo dvemdo eevertente ancrent acen» ne anttgao aHgo attco angry fche, e enfadado eafadado adlrato armual amauel, le anual anual amauale The correspondence Enghsh-» French-el» Spamsh-al» Portuguese-a/, Itahan-a/e» also occurs m the Romance eqmva/eats to artzfiaal, graduaI» matenal, natural» umversaI, sual, sexual» etc astomshed étomaé, e atomto surpreendîdo sorpreso avarl clous avare avaro avaro avaro bad mauvas,e maio mau catuvo beautfful beau, belle beLlo belo bello hetmoso formoso bent (curved) courbe, e curvo curvo curvo bltter (m taste) amer, ere amargo amargo amaro black nor,e negro prêto nero blmd aveugle clego cego cîeco blue bleu, e azu2 azul azzurro bkmt (hOt sharp) emousse, e embotado desafiado smussato boimg bouflIat,e tariente fervente bollente bnght (shmmg) bnllan%e brillante brfihante brillante browa brma, e moreno moreno matrone busy occupé, e ocupado ocupado occupato cauuous prudcnt, e cauto cauto cauto cheap bon-marche barato barato a buon meroeto poco caro cheerful ga,e alegre alegre allegro chemacal chimique qmrmco qmmlco chamaco ctrcular crculaLre crcular crcu/ar ctrcolare The correspondence Enghsh -ular» French -ulawe, Spash, Porruguese -ular» Italma -olare also occurs m the Romaace eqmvalents to molecular» muscular» perpendzcular, popular» secular, etc clean propre lmplo hmpo puhto clcar dar»e claro claro cluaro closed ferme»e cerrado fechado chauso cold froxd, e fn'o frio freddo comfortable confortabIe c6modo c6modo comodo comm comique c6mco c6mco comtco The correspondence Enghsh -m, French -zque» Spamsh, Portuguese» Itahaa -mo also occurs m OEe Romance eqmvents to domestzc eItm, electmc, egetc, stfic, etc oeerc coercal»e comerc comerc oeerce oeon co,e com oem oeme U
6IO The Loom oj Lcïnguage PORTU- ENGLISI-I FRENCH SPA.NISH GUESE ITALIAN complete complet, ère completo completo completo comphcated comphque, e oemphcado comphcado comphcato content content, e contento contente contento conunuoua contmu, e contmuo conunuo contmuo cooked cuat»e cocado cozmhado cotto cool frats,fraiche fresco fresco fresco correct correct, c correcto correcto corretto covered couvert, e cublerto coberto coperto cruel cruel, le cruel cruel crudele cunnmg ruse» e astuto asruto astuto ¢uraou (requise- curieux, se curloso curoso cunoso uvc) The correspondence Enghsh-ous, French-eux, Spamsh-oso, Portuguese-oso, Itahm -oso» also occurs m the Romance eqmvalents to dehcwus, famous, furzous, g¢r«rol, rtdustrTous» etc dafly quotdlen, ne daarlo chro qaottchano damp humtde humedo hurmdo urmdo dangerous dangereux, se pehgroso perlgoso perlcoloso dark obscur»e obscuro escuro oscuro de.ad mort»e muerto morto morto deag sourd, e sordo surdo sordo de (beloved) cher»ere querldo quemdo caro deep profond, e profundo proftmdo profondo dehcate (easdy dehcat, e dehcado dehcado dehcato damaged) dense (thack) cpals»se denso denso denso dï'ercnt dfferent»e dfferente dfferente dzfferente The correspondence Enghsh -en% French -ent, Spamsh, Portuguese and Itahan-nre also occurs m the Romance eqmvalents to excellent, frequent, innocent, zntelhgent, patient» permanent transparent» urgent etc dlflicuIt dtflïctle dtficll dcH dflîcde dtrect du:cct»e drecto dlrecto dtretto du'ty sale suco su]o sporco chsagreeable desagreable desagradable desagradavel sgradevole chscreet dscre%te dscreto dscreto dscreto chshonest malhonnëte deshonesto deshonesto chsonesto chstat lomtam»e le]a.no chstante lontano chstmct chstmct, e dstmto dlstmto dstlnto double double doble dobre dopplo doubtzl douteuxse dudoso duvdoso dubbmso drunk lyre borracho embnagado ubbnaco so&l»e ebno ebno brùlo dry sec, seche seco sêco secco dumb muet, te mudo mudo muto easy facde facfl fftctl facile echble comesuble comesuble comesuvel commesubfle educated msr_rmt»e mstrmdo msrado struto elegant e.légant, e elegante elegante elegante employed employe, e empleado empregado tmpxegato
Language Museum 611 PORTU- ENGLIStt FINCH SPA-NISH GUESE ITA.LIAN empty vde vaso vo oto energetc energquc energco enérgoe energoe cnoous enormc enoc enoe enoe eXe entleraère eeo lateo tlero equ d,e x ele OE exa,e exaoEo eoEo esatt o ensve cher, ère o o o ee eeme OEcmo eemo temo eeme erme eo mo esoeemo f (blond) blond# bxo loo bondo fal fidèle fiel fiel fele fse fa»sse fdso fo fat fceble (we) faible debd debd debole femme (sex) femce hembra fëm fe fede fecond, e fedo fedo fecondo m (ed) ferme e e feo fiat plat»e Ho plo po foog smvt,e sente sete seente foohsh sot»te tonto tolo s cto bête espdo esmpdo smptdo stupide forbzdden defendu»e prohzbdo probdo vzetato forel dtrger, ere e)cro esoegezro soeero fr frc, che frco oe co free lbre hbre he hbero fresh (new) frais, fre fresco fresoe fresco frmd fnt, e fnto to frzendly able gable gvel chevole plem, e eno cheo p mre mr, e mro o o general génér,e gener ger genere good bon, ne bueno bore buono ate recos- agradedo agradecxdo nconoscente st»e ato grave ave grac ave avc ccn vc,c verde verde vcrde cy pdo pdo bzo fl coupable pable pavel oelpevole f de,e meeeo meto me ppy hee,se fel fel fehoe hd dur, e duro duro do nmsxble nooEvo nooEvo noovo heflthy (whole- s,e so sâo so hea lomd, c pcsado pesado peste hgh ut, c Mto to to gh up dleve, e elevado devado elevato stonoet stonque hst6nco stonco stormo hoow cre,se hueco 5co OEvo
The Loom o.[ Lcmguage PORTU- ENGLISH FRINCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN honest honnête honrado honesto onesto human or hn,e ho ho o hble hble hdde hflde made eermo eeo ato pot mpot»e portte poante pote possble mpossxble posble mpossivel possble med (ds- dspose,e dzspuesto dsposto dsposto posed) mconvement mcoode mc6modo mc6modo mcomodo moeedble moEoyable moEexble mxvel medbde ermr ere»e ermr ermr ermre mgenuous mgenu»e mgenuo mgênuo mgenuo intact mtact, e mtao mtao mtatto mterestmg mteresst,e mteresante mteresste mteressante mtemal interne mtemo mterno mtemo jt (fmr) uste usto usto gxto d bon, ne bondadoso bondoso buono aable able bevolo able o cou,e conocdo coecdo conoscmto lge d,e grade de grade os»se last dernier, ère to tmo to 1are (tardy) taroE, ve to tardm tardo 1 pesse»se perezoso mdno pgro le ge mao mao magro le gauche zqmerdo esquerdo smxstro hght (m weght) leger, ère hgero hgeo leggero hght (m coloui) clar,e c1o daro chmro hvmg vvt»e vxvo wvo wvo long long, ue largo compmdo lgo loose (sla) loEe floo froo scmlto lost perdu,e perddo perddo perduto low bas,se bao bao basso mari fou, foe loco louco pzo me (sex) me macho macho maschm med mar6,e oesado oesado sposato m m,e mo mo asslmo me (average) moyen»ne medo m6oeo medm d do»ce suave suave te mmm mmm»e o o o ed mêlé»e mezdado sado sto mobile mobile m6vl m6el mobde mony meuel»le memu mem mensfle ned nu, e desnudo nu nudo ow eote esoeeo esoeeto seo nao naon,e nacmn nacmn nmne n prooEe oero pr6xo prosso necs néoessae neoesm neoessrm neoessm preo preoEso nelghboug voxsm,e veto o
race of people} Ill/lerous obstanate officlal only (sole) open opposite (con- oer ow Cones) pamful pale parailel past perfect personal physcal pmk pomted polsonous pohte pohtcal poor posslble pregnan presen (o urne) present (of place) pretty prevlous Language Museum F1LENCH SPA/WISH nouveau nou- nuevo velle gentil, le amable sympathaque sunpatlco nombreux, se numeroso obsune, e obsunato officml, le oficlal vieux» wele vlejo seul, e mco umque solo ouvert, e ablerto oppose, e opuesto conoeslre contrarlO autre otro propre prop,o douloureux, se doloroso ple pahdo paralIele paralelo passe, e pasado parfmt, e perfecto personel, le personal physique flslco rose rosado pomtu, e punuagudo venéneux venenoso poh»e cortes pohuque pohuco pauvre pobre possible posble enceinte encmta actuel, le acmal present»e presente PORTU- GUESE IIOVO amivel sLmpUco nUllleroso obstmado oficml ve/ho unlco aberto oposto conLrano ouro proprio doloroso pa1do paralelo passado perfmto pessoal szco côr de rosa ponteagudo verlenoso cortês pohtzco pobre possvel gravda actual oh, e hndo gentil, le bomto precedent»e prewo prealable precedente pnvate (not paructther»ere parracular pubhc) pnve»e pnvado probable probable probable proud fier, ere orgulloso pubhc pubhc, que pubhco pure pur»e puro qmet (cakn) tranqule tranqmlo rare rare raro raw cru, e crudo ready prêt»e hsto real reelle real reasonabIe rmsonnable razonable recent recent»e reclente prcsen[e lmdo bomto prcvm precedente parucul pnvado provavel orgu]hoso pubhco puro tranqùdo raro cru pronto real razovel recente 613 ITALIAN nuovo gentfie smapUco nu.illeroo ostmao ufficmle vecckno solo aperto opposto OEontrarlO alr.ro propno doloroso palhdo parallelo passato perfetto persoaale fislco rosa appuntato velenoso cortese pohuco povero possbfle mcmta attuale presente gramoso bellmo prevo precedente parucolare pnvao probabde orgoghoso pubbhco pu.fo tranquallo alîo crudo pzonto reale ragonevole
The Loom o2f Languagë PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUES] red rouge ro)o vermelho regular réguher, ere regular regular respons lble responsable responsable respons.vel rlch :riche rlCO rlco ndlculous ridicule noEculo rKhculo rgid raide rlgldo rgldo nght (hot lefr) drot,e derecho dreto ripe mûr,e maduro maduro rough (hOt raboteux»se spero fispero round rond,e redondo redondo rude grosser,re grosero grossero mpoh»e desoertes descortês rusty roudlé, e oxdado ferrugento sad triste tf ste triste sale (secure) saufve seguro seguro salt (salty) salé, e salado salgado sam¢ même msmo mesmo saufied sausfat»e satsecho sausfmto seated asss»e sentado senado secret seet»ète secreto secreto sensible sense»e scnsao sensato sensitive sensible sensible sensvel sepaxate sépé»e scparado separado senos (earnest) serveur, se sero seno severe sévere severo severo shallow peu profond»¢ somero balxo sharp (keen tranchan»e afilado afiado edge) short court»e corto curto szlent (mute) slecucux, s¢ sîlenczoso sflencoso smml semblable semejante semelhante snnple smaple senclo sunples smcere sncere smcero sm¢¢ro slow lent»e lento vagaroso small» httle peut, e pequefio pequeno smooth hsse hso hso sober sobre sobrzo s6brzo sooEs] soctal, e socml soczal sort (hot hrd) mou,mo//e blando brmdo sottr azgre agzo azêdo speoEal spécml, e especml especml square carré, e cuadrado quad_rado steep escarpe, e esoerpado escarpado stzcky collant»e pega]oso pegajoso drozt»e derecho dzrezto étrng¢ extrafio raro fort»e luette forte soudam»e repentmo repentmo strght strange (peeu- hr soeong sudden ITALIAN rosso regoloee 1 esponsabfle rzcco rzdcolo rzgzdo dcstro maturo ruvdo rotondo I'OZZO scortese arruggmto SZCUTO sahto stesso sodchsfatto seduto segreto SeIISO sensbHe separato serlo severo basso affdato colo sflenmoso semphce smcero lento plccolo hsczo sobrzo sociale molle agTo specmle quadro mpdo appzccca- tlCClO chrztto sr..rano forte subzteo
Languag Museum 615 PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIA2q snfficet suflâsaat»e suficete suficaente sufficze=te smtable (appro- convenable aproprmdo apropnado convemente prxate) superlor superIeur»e superlor superior superlore supreme suprême supremo supremo supremo sure (certain) sûr»e clerto certo certo sweet doux, ce dulce doce dolce teader tendre terno tenro tenero tepld tedê nb10 tepldo uep,do terrible ternble ternble terrzvel terrb fie ttck (hOt thm) épas»se espeso espêsso spesso gos»se greso gTOSSO gOSSO thm mince delgado delgado sottlle tght (close serre, e cerrado apertado stretto fittmg) tred fatgaé»e camado cansado stanco true vral, e verdadero verdadelro vero ugly lmd, e feo fezo brutto uneasy mqmet, ète mqmeto mqmeto mqmeto unequal megal, e deslgual deslgual meguale unfal lafidele mfiel mfiel m£edele unfortunate mforttme, e desgracado desgraçado sforrunato tmgratefuI mgrat, e mgrato mgrato mgrato unhappy malheureux, se mfehz mfeIz mfehce tmj us t m) ust e m us t o mi usto mgms to unknown mcomau, e desconocado descotdaecdo sconoscmto useful utile ural uti utie useless mutile mutd mutfl murale usual usuel»le usual usual usuale vain (persons) vamteux»se vamdoso vadoso vammso volent vzolent»e vzolento vzolento vaolento vu.lgar vulgaire vulgar vulgar volgare warm chaud»e cahente quente caldo wet (of persons moutllé,e mojado molhado bagnato and objects) whte blanc»che blanco braneo bzanco wzcked mechant» e malo malvado cattlvo wde (broad) large ancho Iargo largo wfld (not do- sauvage salvaje selvagem selvaggo mestcated) wase sage sabre sabo saggao wrong faux, sse falso errado falso yellow jaune amarillo amareto gzallo young j eune ] oven novo govane be able to pouvolr absorb absorber abuse (rewle) mjurzer 5 VERBS poder absorber potier absorver t3tere assorblre lnglurlare
The Loom of Language PORTU- ]NGLISH FIENCH SPANISH GUESE accept accepter aceptar acetar accompany accompa=ner acompafiar acompanhar accuse (of) accuser (de) acusar (de) acusar (de) get accustorned s'accoutumer acosturnbrarse acostumar-se (to) (a) (a) (a) add (to) ajouter (a) aîïadlr (a) juntar (a) add up addmonner sumar somar admare admirer admlar admrar advance avancer adelantar achantar advertse (goods) annoncer anuncar anuncmr advlse (counsel) conseiller aconsejar aconselhar be afiald (of) avoir peur tener medo ter mëdo (de) (de) (de) craindre temer temer be m agreement être d'accord concordat concordat (mth) (avec) (con) (coin) ahght (from) descendre (de) apearse (de) apear-se (de) allow (to) permettre (de) permmr permmr anause daverur dvertr dvemr amuse oneself s'amuser dvertrse dvertr-se apologLze s'excuser dlseulparse desculpar-se appear apparaître aparecer aparecer approach s'approcher acercaxse (a) aproxmaar-se (de) (de) arm armer armar armar arrest (store) arrêter arrestar prender arnve arriver llegar chegar ascend (go up) monter subtr sublr be ashamed (of) avoir honte avergonzarse envêrgonhar- (de) (de) se (de) ask (a questmn) demander preguntar perguntar ask for demander pedr pedr astomsh (amaze) etonner asombrar assombrar be astomshed s'étonner asombrarse assombrar-se attack attaquer atacar atacar artempt (to) essayer (de) tratar (de) tentar (de) attract amrer atraêr atrar avod éviter ewtar ewtar barbe baigner bmïar banhar bar, he, take bath se baigner bmïarse bunbr-se beat (thrash) battre golpear bater become devemr hacerse fazer-se begm commencer empezar começar begtn (to) commencer (à) ponerse (a) p6r-se (a) se mettre à behave se condmre conducirse conduzr-se belteve crmre creer crer belong to appartemr a pertenecer a pertenecer a bend courber curvar curvar bnd se courber encorvase eurvar-se ber paner apostat apostax ITALIAN accettare accompagnare accusae avvezzars (a) aggmngere (a) sommare ammrare avec conslghare zver paura temêre essere d'accor- do (con) scendere (da) permettere (d) &vertre dvertrs scus/s1 appanre awcmars (a) armare arrestare arrIvare sa/tre aver vergogna domandare chaedere sbalordre stuprs attaccare tentare attarare evltare bagnare bagnars battere dvemre commmare mettersl (a) condurs credere appartenere a curvarê scommettere
ENGLISH blte blame blossom blow blow one's nose boast (of) boll bod bore (tire) be born borrow brake break break breathe breed or brmg up breed brmg broadcast Language Museum brush brosser bmld bâttr burn brûler burn brfiIer burst crever bury (roter) enterrer busy oneselfwioE s'occuper de buy calculate call (gve naine) be called catl (cry to) earess OEtch (ammal) catch cold cease (to) celebrate change (alter) change chase away chew choke (suffocate) ehoose PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE mordre morder morder blâmer culpar culpar fleunx florecer florescer souer soplar soprar se moucher sonarse assoar-se se vamer (de) jactarse (de) gabar-se (de) faire boualhr hacer herv fazer ferrer bomll hervar ferver ennuyer aburrr enfasraar nattre nacer nascer emprunter pedtr prestado peàtr empres- tado freiner eafrenar travar briser romper romper casser quebrar quebroe rompre se casser romperse romper-se respirer resprar resprar elever crlar crlar se mulrapher muluphcarse muluphcar-se apporter traer trazer daffuser da_6dar dafichr cepdlar eseovar edficar edcar quemar que ardcr ardcr reventar rebentar enterrar enterrar ocuparse de ocupar-se de acheter comprar comprar calculer calctùar calculaz appeler llamar chama nom.ler s'appeler Ilamarse chamar-se appeler llamar chamar caresser acanclar acanclar porter llevar levar attraper coger apanhar s'enrhumer resfrarse consupar-se calser cal.lsal7 cala cesser (de) cesar (de) cessar célebrer celebrar celebrar changer camblar alterar changer mudar mudar chasser ech enxotar mcher masucar masugar suffoquer sofocar sufocar chostr escoger eseolher ITA_LIAN mordere mcolpare fiore soffiare sotiarsl vatars (dl) far boe boe ole prendeçe preso rompere spear¢ rompers respire eve moluphoers poe raoeo dere spole cosse bcle dere soeppoee soee ocoEps dt comptée core e aceoee poe prdere redda oesse oelebre be bxs soecclare mfie soffoe soeghere
618 The Loom oj Language EN GLISH FRENCH SPANISH clean nettoyer lmplar close or shut fermer cerrar collect (gather) rassembler recoger comb pmgner pemar comb se pmgner pemarse corne venlr venlr corne back revemr volver compg.re (wth) comparer (a) comparal (a) compel (to) obhger (a) obhgar forcer (a) forzaz (a) complam (about) seplamdre(de) quelarse (de) concern (be lm- regarder concelmr portant to) condemn (to) condamner (a) condenar (a) confess avouer com¢esar confuse confondre coafunchr congratulate fehmter fehctar conquer (take by conquérr conqmstar force) console consoler consolar contam contenir contener conunue (to) continuer (a) contmuar contradlct contre&re contradeclr convmce convaincre convencer cook faire cdzre cocmar copy copier copmr correct cornger correglr correspond to correspondre corresponder cost cofiter costar cough tousser toser count compter contar cover (wth) couvrir (de) cubnr (con) oeltlClZe oeltlquer crltlcar cross (str«et, traverser atravesar etc ) crush ecraser quebrantar cure (heal) guénr curar cut couper cortar dmace danser batlar date (venture) oser atreverse (a) deceve tromper engmSax deczde (to) se decder (a) decdlrse (a) decorate decorer decorar deduce (tarer) dedmre dedumr defend defendre defender defiae defimr defmr demand (msst exager exiger upon) PORTU- GUESE ITAI,IAN hmpar puhre fechar chmdere colher raccogllere pentear pettmare pentear-se pettmarsl Vlr venlre voltar rlvemre comparar (coin) confrontare (con) obngar (a) obbhgare (a) forçat (a) forzare (a) quexar-se (de) lagnarsl concernar nguardare condenar(a) condannare (a confessar confessare conflmdr confondere fehctar fehcltare conqu star conqmstg.re consolar consolare conter contenere contmuar (9.) contmuare (a) contradtzer contraddre convencer conwncere cozmhar cucmare copmr copare corngr correggere corresponder cornspondere a a eustar costare rosser tossre con:af contare cobnr (de) copnre (con) cntlcar cr,tcme atravessar attraversare esmagar schaaccmre curar guarlre cortar taghare dançar ballare atrever-se (a) osare enganar mgannare decdr-se (a) decders (aJ decorar decorare dedumr dedurre defender dffendêre defimr defimre exiger esgere
Language Museum depart (leave) partzr partir partzr depend upon dependre de depender de depender de deprzve of pi tvez de prxvaz de prlvar de descend descendre descender descer descmbe decrre descnbr descrever desert abaudozmer abandonax abandonar deserve merte merecer merecer des,re desrer deseax desel af despmr (of) dcsesperer(de) desespera (de) desesperar (de) desptse mepr,ser desprecIar desprezar destoy dét.rulrc destzmr destrur determme alCerminer determmar detezTnmar detest détester detestar detesmr deveIop (grow) se développer desarrollarse desenvolver-se dle (ïrom) mourir (de) morr (de) morrer (de) dgest dgerer dgerlr dlgerar drramsh dttmtuer dismmmr dammmr drue OEer corner jantar dap (plmage) plonger sumerglr mergulhar dzsappear dasparattre desaparecer desaperecer dlscover deeouvanr descubrr descobmr dscuss dscuter dscutr ds curer dlsguxse oneself se de.mer dxsfrazarse dlsfarçar-se dzsmfect desmfecter desmfectar desmfetar dlsmlss (sack) congéder despedr despedlr saquer (fana) dlsplease deplatre desagradar desagradar dssolve dssoudre dsolver dxssolver dxstmgmsh dstmguer dstmgmr dstmgmr chstnbute (deal chstnbuer chstxbmr dlsmbmr out) dasturb derangcr mcomodar encomodar dve plonger zambulhrse mergulhar diverge (fmm) dverger (de) dverg (de) dvergr (de) dvtde (mto) dvaser (en) chvdr (en) dvdtr (em) do or make fmre hacer fazer do wthout se passer de pasarse sm passer sera doubt douter duda= duwdar draw (sketch) dessiner dbuar debuxar deam rêver sofiar sonhar dxcss habler vestr vestr dress s'habiller vesttrse vestar-se dzmk botte beber beber dmve (vehacle) condmre conducr gmar drop (let fall) laisser tomber delar caer dcaxar catr drown se noyer ahogars afogar-se dry sécher secar secar dye teindre tefi_r t mgzr
ENGLISH ealrl educare(mstruct) elec embrace emphasze employ (labour) empty enter envy erase (tance1) evaporat exaggemte examAzte (mves- tgate) exclude emst expect ex'plain exploit ex,end extmgmsh famt fall fa11 asleep fa11111 fa11 m love Cwth) fasten(flx) feed fiel (well» etc ) fill (wth) fmd fmsh fish fit (adust) flatter flee (rua away) flow (of hqmd) y fold follow forbd forecast (predtct) préchre foresee prévotr forger oubher forglve pardonner round (estabhsh)ffonder The Loom of Language PORTU- PRENCH SPANIStt GUESE ITALIAN gagner ganar gan.har guadagnare manger comer comer manglare mstrmre mstmu: mstrmr tstrmre ellre eleglr eleger eleggere embrasser abrazar abraçar abbraccmre souhgner recalcar aeenmar accentuare employer emplear empregar mapegare vtder vacmr despear votare entrer dans entrar en entrar em entrare m envmr envdlar mvejar mvtdmre brffer borrar cancelar cancellare s'évaporer evaporarse evaporar-se svaporarsl exaggérer exagerar exagerar esagerare examiner exa_ar exammar esammare ex dure ex clutr exclulr es dudere exposer exbabr embr esporre exaster emstr emstr eslstere attendre êsperar esp.erar aspettare exphquer exphcar exphcar splegare exploiter explotar explorar sfruttare s'étendre extenderse esteader-se stenders etemdre apagar apagar spegnere s'evanomr desmayarse desmamr svemrsl tomber caer car cadere s'endormir dormarse adormecer addormentars tomber malade caer enîermo calr enfermo ammalars tomber enamorarse enamorar-se mnamorarsl amoureux (de) (de) (dl) (de) fixer filar fechar fissare nour= ahrnentar ahmentar ahmentare se sentLr senttrse sentir-se sentzrst remphr (de) llenar (de) encher (de) rtempre (dl) trouver hallar achat trovare fimr acabar acabar fimre pê cher pes car pes car pes care a) uster a:l ustar a ustar agglustare flatter adular hsonear lusmgare s'e hmr fugar fuggre couler correr correr colare voler volar voar volare pher doblar dobrar pegare suv-re segmr segmr segulre défendre prohtbtr protbr vletare probre predecr predtzer predre prever prever prevedere olvldar esquecer drnenucare perdonar perdoar perdonare ftmdar ftmdar fondare
Language Museum 621 ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH freeze' fi eeze J geler helar frtghten effrayer asustar furmsh meubler amueblar gather (plck) cueflhr recoger get rld of se debarrasser hbrarse de de glve donner go aller go away s'en aller go out sortir go to bed se coucher govern gouverner greet saluer grmd (reduce moudre to powder) groan gémir grow culuver grow (of plants» crokre etc ) guess deviner guide gmder handle (tool, etc ) marner hang (persorr) pendre bang up suspendre hang down pendre happen arriver haie hmr bave (own» hold) avoir hear entendre PORTU- GUESE ITA.LIAN gelar gelare assustar spaventare mobflar ammobghare colher coghere desembaraçar- sbarazzarsi dl heat chauffer help aider hesttate heslter hlde cacher hz& se cacher hmder empêcher hxre louer kit (smke) frapper hold tenir hope espérer hunt chasser hurry se dépêcher hurt (mure) blesser hurt (ache) faire mal maagme (figure) se figurer lmltate imiter mcrease augmenter mchcate indiquer Infect infecter se de dar dar date lr lr andare andar andar xrse r-se andar va salir salr usclre acostarse deltar-se COrlCîtrSl gobernar governa govemare saludar saudar salutare moler moer macmare gem:tr gemer gemcre cultvar cultxvar colttvare crecer crescer crescere adlvmar ahorcar colgar colgar a conte odar tener et ad vac ot ot=se pe rend acert tener esper apresurse herxr doler firoese aeat mdi advmhar lndovmare gmar guldare manear maneggmre enforcar mplccare pendurar sospendere colgar penzolare aoentecer avvemre odar odmre er avere omnr udlre seîltlre aquecer rIscaldare aludar amtare vaetlar esltare esconder nascondere esconder-se nasconders mapechr mapedare alugar prender a nolo acertar colptre esperar sperare caçar ca¢ctare apressar-se aff.rettarsî fertr retire doer far male maagmar figurarsl tmlar maltRre aumentar aumentare mdcar mdtcare mfectar mfettare
622 The Loom o/ Languagê PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN tnflat¢ gonfler mflar encher gonfiare laform mfomaer mformar mformar mformare . mhablt habiter habltar habitat abltare mhent henter heredar herdar eredatare nqulre (ask s'reformer mformarse lrfformar-se mformarsl about) msult insulter msultar msultar msultare msure assurer asegaîrar assegurar assl curare lnterest mteresser mteresar xnteressar mteressare mterfere with se mêler de meterse en meter-se em lmmlschtarsl in mterrupt interrompre mternampr lnterromper mterrompere mtroduce (per- presenter presentar apresentar presentare sola) lnVent lnvezlter mvent Inveltar lnveitre Invlte inviter lnv] tar conrldflr lnvltare lX-rltat irriter irlta.r lrrlta- lrrltare loin (put joindre ]untar untar gmngere together) oke Oes) plaisanter bromear gracear scherzare ]udge luger juzgar ulgar gmdxcare ump sauter saltar saltar saltare keep çretam) garder guardar gusrdar guardare keep (mamtam) mamxemr mantener mantêr mantenere klck (ofhumans) donner des dar puntapxes dar pontapes dar dex calcl coups de pied If, fil tuer matar matar u ccldere kiss embrasser besar belar baclare krîeel s'agenouiller arrochllarse ajoelhar mgmocchmrsl knock (ai door) frapper llamar tocar toccare know coiluaître cono cet conhe cet conos ceïe savoir saber saber sapere last dure durar durar durare laugh rre rer rit mdere laugh at se moquer de mofarse de mofar-se de burlarsl d se rire de rerse de tir-se de rider dz lean (agamst) s'appuyer apoyarse apolar-se (em) appoggmrsl (contre) (contra) (contro) learn (to) apprendre (à) aprender (a) aprender (a) lmparare (a) leave (behmd or lmsser delar demar Iascmre 111 certain tate» allow) lend prêter prestar emprestar prestare let (house) louer alqutlar alugar aflîttare he (te11 untruth) mentr mentir mentr mennre hght (set tire to) allumer encender acender accendere hght (fllummate) eclairer alumbrar flmmnar lltmamare hke or love aimer gustar* gostar de pmcere* Imap boîter coear coxear zoppxcare * Wth change of sublect, e g Sp me gustan los pastdes (I hke pies)
Language Museum PORTU- ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUESE llsten ecouter escuchar escutar hve (be ahve) wvre wvlr virer hve (dwell) demeurer morar morar habiter hab ltar hab tar load (put on charger cargar carregar vehlcle, etc ) lock fermer a clef cerrar con feehar a 1lave chave look (appear) avoir l'air parecer parecer look af-ter (take s'occuper de cmdar de culdar de oere of) look at regarder mrar olhar para look for chercher buscar buscar 1ose perdre perder perder love (person) aimer amar amar querer querer bem Iower bmss er bajar bamar make a mastake se tromper eqmvocarse enganar-se make sure (of s'assurer (de) asegurarse assegurar-se (de) (de) mariage (direct) drger dmgir dlrlgir manufacture fabriquer fabn car fabrxcar marry (take m epouser easarse con easar-se coin marrmge) get marrled se marner casarse casar-se measure mesmer meet renconoeer meer (assemble) se reumr melt fondre mel se fondre mend reparer menuon menuonner mx mêler more (shfft) remuer more (budge) bouger more (mto new demenager place) muluply mulupher need avoir besoin de medlr medr encontrar encontrar reumrse reumr-se derretr derreter derreurse derreter-se reparar reparar mencmnar menconar mezclar mastuxar mover mover moverse mover-se mudarse de mudar de casa muluphcar muluphcar necesltar necessltar neglect neghger descmda descmdar nurse (sck) soigner cmdar cmdar obey obelr a obedecer a obedecer a obect (to) s'opposer (a) oponerse (a) opôr-se (a) observe (watch) observer observ observar obtam obtenïr obtener obter offend offenser ofender ofender ITALIAN ascohare vlvere abttare d_morare carlcre serra.re a chmve parere attendere guardare cercare perdere amare abbassare sbaglmrm accertarsl (d) dmgere fabbrcare sposare aI]3_l]2ogLlLrS 1 (of man) mamtarsa (of woman) lncontrare rlllrllrSl fondere fonders rlparare roenzlorare mescolare movere 1Tlovers 1 cambar d casa moluphcare aver bsogao d abbsognare l:ras curai'e ctJxare ubbdare a opporsx (a) osseare offendere
ENGLISH offer omlt open oppose stand) opprcss order (oods) owe pam pardon pss (close to) paw pay perforate permit persecute plck up plan plan play (gaine) The Loom o/ Language PORTU- FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITALI& offrir ofrecer oferecer offerlre omettre omltlr omztlr ommettere ouvrir abmr abmr aprre reslster (a) reslsur (a) reslstlr (a) resistere opprmaer commander devoir peindre pardonner passer (a côté de) engager payer perforer permettre persécuter ramasser pzojctcr planter jouer (a) play (mstrtmaent) louer (de) poison empoisonner possess posseder pour out verser pralse Iouer pray prier precede preceder prefer preferer prepare preprer press (hold serrer tght) pretend (felgn) feindre prevent (from) empêcher (de) prmt xmprmaer produce prodmre profit (from) profiter (de) promme promettre pronounce prononcer propose proposer (suggest) protect proteger protest protester prove (glve prouver proof of) pubhsh pubher pull txrer pull out arracher pump (water, pomper oprumr oprmmr pechr ordenar deber dever pmtar plntar perdonar perdoar pasar (al passar (ao 1ado de) 1ado de) empezïar empeahar pagar pagar perforar perforar permtlr permltr persegur persegmr recoger apanhar proyectar projectar plantar plantar ugar (a) ogar (a) tocar tocar enven enar env¢nena r poseer possulr derramar derramar alabar louvar rezar rezar preceder preceder prefemr preferlr preparar preparar apretar apertar fingr fmgr mpedr mpedr (de) nnprunr lmprunLr produclr produmr aprovecharse urar proveto (de) prometer prometer pronunclar pronunclar proponer propÔr oppmmere ordlnare dovere dlpîngere perdonare passar (da- vaxltl a) lmpegnare pagare perforare permettere persegmtare raccoghere progettare pmntare gmcare (a) suonare avvelenare possedere versare lodare pregare precedere prefenre preparare serrare strmgcre fmgere nnpedlre (dl) stampare produrre approfittare (di) promettere pronunmare proporre proteger proteger proteggere protestar protestar protestare probar provar provare pubhcar pubhcar pubbhcare trar puxar trare arrancar arrancar strappare dar a la dar a bomba pompare bomba
Language Museum ENGLISH FRENCH pumsh pumr pursue poursmvre push pousser put (place) mettre poser quarrel se quereller se disputer be quiet (say se taire nothmg) quote citer rare plcuvotr ralse (lift) lever react réagar read hre receve recevoir - reclte reclter recogmze re connaître recornmend recommander reconcfie (make se reconcflter ltup) recover (get se remettre better) reduce rédmre reflect (hght) réfléchar refuse (to) refuser (de) regret (be sorry) regretter rely upon compter sur remaln (be leff rester over) remember se souvemr de remmd rappeler repeat repéter replace (subsu- rempIacer tute) reply répondre represent (stand représenter for) reprmaand réprmaander repulse repousser resemble ressembler (a) PORTU- OePANIStt GUESE ITALIAN casugar casugar pumre persegmr persegmr persegmtare empujar empurrar spmgere poner pst porte colocar colocar mettere chsputar dlsputa altercare refiar renhtr bsucctars callarse calar-se tacerê cltar llover levantar reacclonar lcer rectbr rccltar reconocer recomendar reconcdmrse recobrar reclucr reflejar rehusar (+ rotin) sentir confiar en restar acordarse de recordar repeur reemplazar contestar representar reprobar repulsar parecerse (a) rcserve (sea% réserver reservar etc ) respect respecter respetar test (repose) se reposer descansar restrtct restreindre restrmgar retam reteint retener retire (wathdraw) se reurer reurarse return (gave rendre devoIver baek) cltar cltare choyer povere levantar ahare reagr reagre ler leggere receber ncevere recitar rectare reconhecer rlconoscere re comendar fa ccomandare recoriclhar-se rlconclllarSi restabelecer-se rmnetters reduzrr ndurre reflectr rfflettere recusar rffiutare sentir rmcrescerst contar coin contare SU restar restare rïmanere lembrar-se de ncordars d lembrar ncordare repetr npetere subsutmr rmapazzare responder rupondere representar rappresentae repreender nprendere repulsar respmgere parecer-se(com) rassomglmre reservar rlservare respeltar nspettare descansar nposars restrmglr restrmgere reter ntenere retlrar-se rltlrarsl devolver resutmr¢
626 The Loom of Language ENGLISH FRENCH return (go baek) retourner revlse 'VlVe (restore to lffe) revoIe reward ring (bel1) rse rlsk roll rollJ row tub save (from danger) save up say scatter scrape scratch see seem seize (grasp) sell send send baek separate (from) serve (meNs o7 persons) shake (agltate) share (hand part over) shave revlscr ressusciter PORTU- SPANISH GUESE ITA.LIAN volver voltar rltornare revis er revêr nvedere resucttar ressusctmr nsuscitare Iourner glrar récompenser recompensar sonner tocar se levez levantarse risquer arnesgar rotùer roder ramer remet frotter frotar ruiner artumar courir correr sauver salvar glrar recompensar tocsr levantar-se arrlscar rolar remar esfregar arrulnar correr salvar girafe rlcompensare suonare alzarsl arrlschlare rotolare remflre fregare rovlnare correre salvare epargner ahorrar poupar nsparmmre dire declr dzer dire eparplller esparclr espalhar spargere gratter ras car raspar ras chaare egrat,gner arafiar arranhar graflîare VOlt ver ver vedere sembler parecer parecer parere paraître salslr agarrar agarrar OEerrare vendre vender vender vendere envoyer envier envlar mandate renvoyer devolver devolver rlnvmre separer (de) separar (de) separar (de) separare (dz) servir servir serrer servlre coudre coser secouer sacudlr partager comparur afeltar coser choealhar reparur afiar fazer a barbe fazer a barbe bnlhar lunr atIrar a fuzztar gntar mostrar encerrar tomar a parte de sUSplrar aiguiser raser fmre la barbe se raser afeltarse se faire la barbe stune briller briller lmre lucr shoot et tirer sus urar a shoot (execute) fuseler fusllar shout erler grltar show. montrer mostrar shut m ezzfermer encerrar sde wth prendre le ponerse de paru de parte de s,gh soupirer susplrar cuclre scuotere spartlre affï.lare far la barbe farsz la barbe brfllare nsplendere tzraxe a fucflare gndare mostrare rmch,udere prender le paru d sosplrar
ENGLISH slgn sgnffy slng smkm st Coe sttmg) st down slcep smell smell (of) snule smoke (tobacco) smoke snore ShOW sob soll solve (problem, etc ) sow speak spell spend (money) spend (tune) spot spht stand (be on one's feet) stand on stay (resde tem- poranly) steal sumulate stmg stop (oeusc to stop) stop strke (go on smke) struggle (wxth) study succeed (be suc- cessful) suck surfer (from) suffice smt (be fittmg) support (prop up, back up) suppose Language Museum FRENCH signer sgmfier chanter s'ellfOllcer être assis s'asseoir dornnr ghsser sentir setlr sourlr fumer fumer roafler neiger sangloter souffler résoudre semer parler épeler depenser passer cracher rendre être debout se tenir sur SPANISH firmar sxgmficax hundrse estar sentado sentarse dormir resbalar oler oler (a) sonrelr fumar humear nevar sollozar manchar resoIver sembrar hablar deletrear gastar pasar escuplr hender estar de pe cstar sobre PORTU- GUESE flssmar sgmficar cantar afimdar-se estar sentado flssentar-se dorm escorregar chmrar chelrar (a) sortir detar fumo ressonar nevar soluçar manchar resolver rester .. voler sumuler piquer arrêter s'arrêter se mettre en grève lutter (avec) etudmr réussir sucer souffrir (de) suffit aller bxen soutenir supposer quedarse robar estunular pcar parar paroese declarse en huelga luchar (con) estudar tener émto chupar sufmr (de) bastar sentar ben sostener suponer semear falar soletrar gastar passar cuspr fonder estar de pe estar colo- cado s6bre ficar roubar estunular plcar parar parar declar-se em greve lutar (coin) estudar ter êmto chupar sofrer (de) bastax assetar bem suportar supôr 627 semmare parlaxe compltare spendere passare spumre fendere stare n pIed stare su rubare sumolare pungere fermare fermaxs far sclopero lottare (con) studmre rlus C ire succhmre soffnre (d) bastare star bene sostenere supporre
628 The Loom o] Language ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH surprise (take by surprendre sorprender surprise) surround (wth) entourer (de) rodear (de) suspect soupçonner sospechar swallow avaler tragar swear (curse) luter mrar swear (take oath) pr&er serment tomar lura- mento sweat suer sudar transpirer transprar sweep (floor) balayer barrer swma nager nadar sympathlse sympathiser slmpatlzar (wlth) (avec) (con) take prendre tomar take away enlever qmtar taste goûter probar teach ensegmer ensefiar tear (rend) dechtrer rasgar tell (say) dxre dectr teI1 (relate) raconter contar test mettre a probar l'epremre thank remercier agradecer thmk (about) penser (a) pensar (de) flareaten (wth) menacer (de) amenazar (con) throw eter echar lancer lanzar thunder tonner tronar tre (bmd to- her har together) tolerate tolerer tolerar toueh toucher tocar translate tradmre traducr transport transporter transportar travel voyager walar treat trmter tratar , tremble trembler temblar mm (twst) tordre torcer type taper (a la escnbr a machine) maquma uncover decouvnr descubnr mîderlme souher subrayar understand(com- comprendre comprender prehend) undress se deshabJlter demudarse un£asten detacher desatar upset renverser trastornar ttrmate uriner ormar psser mear PORTU- GUESE surpreender rodear Ccom) suspeltar enguln" blasfemar tomar jura- mento suar transplrar varrer nadar smapanzar (coin) tomar retlrar provar ensmar rasgar &zer contar provar agradecer pensar (de) arneaçar (coin) detar lançar trovejar hgar tolerar to ¢2.r traduzlr transportar vmlar tratar tremer torcer dactAografar descobnr sublmhar compreender despzr-se desatar ITALIAN sorprendere crcondare (dl sospettare mghaottlre bestemmlare gmrare sudare trasprare spazzare nuotare smpauzzare (con) prendere rlttrae gustare msegnare lacerare dre raccontare provare rmgramare pensare (a) mmaccmre gettare lancmre tuonare legare toilerare toccare tradurre trasportare vmgglare trattare tremare torcere sc£1ver a macchma scopnre sottohneare comprendere svestlrsl staccare fores cla.re orlnafe plscmre
Language Museum 629 PORTU- EN GLISH FRENCH SPANISH GUESE ITA_LIAN use (employ) employer emplear empregar adoperare se servir de servrse de servJx-se de servrsl dl wsit vster wstar vstar vstare votant vomir vomltar vomitar vonntare rendre vote voter votar votar roture wmt for attendre esperar esperar aspertaxe waken éveiller despertar acordar sveghare wake up s'evetller despertarse acordar sveghars walk marcher aadar andar oemmmare walk (go for a se promener pasearse passeur-se far un gtro walk) wander about errer errar errar errate vaguer vagar vaguear vagare want (rush) voulmr querer querer volere desrer desear desejar destderare wam averur avsar ansar awerure wash laver lavar lavar Iavare wash se laver lavarse lavar-se lavars watch (keep au surveiller wgflar wguar sorveghare eye on) wave (hat, etc) agiter agtar agxtax agltare wear (clothes) porter llevar usar portare weep pleurer llorar chorar pmngere w«gh\ wgh J peser pesar pesar pesare whasper chuchoter euchxchear cochchar sussurrare wtusfle srffter sflbar assobtar rischare wn gagter ganar ganhar guadagnare wmd (cod) enrouler earollar enrolar arrotolare wnd up (watch) remonter dur cuerda dur corda cancare be wont to avmr coutume soler soer solere de work travatller trabalar trabalhar lavorare worshp adorer adorar adorar adorare be worth valmr valer valet valere wrap up envelopper envolver embrulhar aw¢olgere wnte ecnre escnblr escrever scnvere yawn batller bostezar bocelar sbachghare yMd (to) ceder (a) ceder (a) ceder (a) cedere (a) above» upstars abroad anywhere wherever around (a) PLACL z AND MOTION en haut arnba cm cuna a l'etranger en cl extran- no estrangetro lero n'nnporte où donde qmera onde quer atttour alrededor a roda d sopra all'estero dovuaque mtorno
630 The Loom oj Language ENGLISH FRENCH backwards en arrlerc belote (m font) devant behmd derrière below, down- en bas StalrS beyond au-dela downwards en bas elsewhere adleurs autre part everywhere partout far 1oto forwards en avant hence d'Ici here Ici here and there ça et la hther Ici par ici home (home- a la malson wads) ai home a la maison ms,de en dedans near pres nowhere nulle part on the left a gauche on the right a droite on top dessus PORTU- SPANISH GUESE atras para tras delaate dlante detras atras abao em balxo mas alla alem hacla aba)o abalxo en otra parte noutra parte en todas em tôda a partes parte le)os longe adelante adlante de aqm daqm aqm aquî aca y alhi ca e la aqm aqm qui a casa a casa en casa em casa dentro dentro cerca perto en nmgtma cm nemhuna parte parte a la izqmerda a esquerda a la derecha a dlrelta enclma cm ctma acola defronte fora cm algum lugar dah acola la para ah para la atraves debahxo para cmaa over there (yon) la-bas alh, alla oppomte (facmg) vls-a-vls enfrente outslde dehors ruera somewhere quelque part en alguna parte thence de la desde al1/ there la y alh alla thther la aih y alla though, a cross a travers a traves underneath dessous debalo upwards en haut hacaa arnba ITALI&N mdmtro davantl dletro gu abbasso oltre n glu altrove dappertutto lontano avantl da qua qua qua e la qui qua a casa in casa dentro vIE1no in nessun luogo a Slnlsra a desoea sopra colla, lagglu dlrlmpêtto fuor in qualche luogo d la la 1t la attraverso dlsotto lnsù (b) TIME after, af-ter après despues depols dopo wards ensuite luego em segtuda in seguato agam de nouveau de nuevo de novo d nuovo encore otra vez outra vez ancora already deja ya la gla
Language Museum 631 ENGLISH always as sooll as possible a first FRENCH toujours le plus tôt possible d'abord al prmclplo au commence- ment at last engin at once tout de suite a l'restant at present a present maintenant at the latest au plus tard at the saine tmae en mme temps at tlmes quelquefois parfols before avant PORTU- SPANISH GUESE ITALIAN slempre sempre sempre cuanto mates quaato antes quanto prmaa lo mas pronto o mats pronto fl pro presto posslbale ao prmcuplo dappnma por fin em fim nalmente al fin pot m alla fine en segmda la subto al mstaate no lastmate mammatmente al presente presentemente adesso ahora agora ora a mas taràar o mas tardar al plu tard1 en mlsmo ao mesmo allo stesso tlempo tempo tempo a veces as vezes qualche voka talvolta antes mates prmaa chanamente ogre gorno cedo dl buon' ora sempre sempre )amals ma nalmente fmalmeate aatlgamente altre volte dafly tous les jours dmnamente journellement early tôt temprao de bozme heure ever (at atltmaes) toujours slempre ever (at any tune) jamais ;amas finally finalement finalmeate formerly autrefois antes jachs antguamente from ttme to de temps en -rime temps de temps a fmmthat rime on des lors henceforth desormals hltherto jusquhcl m future a l'avemr m the evemng le soir m the mornmg le matin in rime a temps last mght haer soir last week la semaine dermere late tard lately meanwhfle monthly never de cuando en de quando em d quando m cuando quando quando de vez en vez desde entonces desde ento sm d'allora en adelante de hole em d'ora mnanm dlalte hasta ahora até agora laora en lo vemdero para o futuro per l'awemrê pot la raide de tarde d sera pot la mafiaaa de manl d mattma a tlempo a tempo m tempo moche a noire passada en sera la semana a semmaa la semmaaa pasada passada passata tarde tarde tard dermerement ultmaamente ultunamênte reccntemente en attendant entretanto entretanto frattanto par mos mensualmente measalmente al mese mensuellement lainais nunca» lames nunea; lamats mm ne jamals no . nunca no . . . nunea non . . mal
The Loom o/ Language ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH no longer ne plus ya no nO . Illas next week la semaine la semana prochaine pr6xuna not yet pas encore todavm no now maintenant ahora nowadays now md then often per day prevlously recendy repeatedly seldom soon (shordy) soon aer Stdl yet then (after that) then (at that the other day thls evemng ths mornmg to-day to-morrow to-morlîow evenmg to-morrow mornmg three weeks ago weekly yearly yesterday the day belote yesterday the day after to-morfow PORTU- GUESE ITALIAN a no non plu nào mals a semana pro- la settmaana xlma alnda no agora de nos jours hoy cha hoje em da parfois de vez en de vez em cuando quando souvent a menudo mmtas vezes par our al cha pot dla auparavant antenor- antes mente reeemment re clentemente recentemente plusleurs fos repeuda- repeudamente mente ventua 11011 ancora oa adesso ogggaorno d quando n quando spesso al gmrno 1Elnanzl a plusmurs reprises rarelilerlt depuis lors bientôt peu de temps apres encore toujours ensuite alors re centementc a p,u volte raramente ràramente raramente desde entonces desde ento d'allora luego cedo fra poco pronto logo poco despues pouco depots poco dopo aun amda anche todavl a todawa tuttora luego logo pol entonces ento allora l'autre our el otro dia ce solr esta tarde ce matin esta mafiana aujourd'hm hoy demain mazîaaa demain soir mazïana pot la farde demain matin mafiana pot la matïana trois hace tres semaines semanas o outro da esta tarde esta maà hoje amanh de tarde amanhà de manhâ ha tres se- 1anas chaque se- semanalmente semaaalmente mame hebdomadaire- hebdoma- ment danamente amauellement anualmente anuahente baer ayer ontem avant-haer attteayer ante-ontem l'ahro g,orno stasera stamattma oggl domam domanl sera domattma tre settlmane fa settmamaal- mente annualmente lerl avantlerl apres-demam pasado depots de mafiana amanh posdomanl
Language Museum ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH to-day a week d'auiourd'hm de boy en en huit ocho drus What ls the quelle heure que hora es? tmae » est-J2 at as one o'dock fl est une heure es la una it as rive o'clock il est cinq son las ¢nnco heures half-past rive cinq heures et las canco y 633 PORTU- GUESE ITALIAN de hoje a olto oggl a otto chas que horas so che ora è e uma è la una so cmco sono le croque cmco e mem le croque e demi media mezzo quarter to rive cinq heures las cmco cmco menos le croque meno motos un menos eu- um quarto un quarto quart arto quarter past rive cinq heures las cmco y cmco e um le croque e un un quart quarto quarto quarto twenty to rive cinq heures las cmco me- cmco menos venu mmuu motos vm nos vernie vmte aile croque twenty past rive cinq heures las etnco y ctnco e wnte le croque e wngt vemte ventl " (C) MANNER. QUANTITY, AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION about environ cerca cêr ca cr ca à peu près verso above all surtout sobre todo sobretudo soprarutto a ctually en fret en reahdad na reahdade mfatt en reallté a lttle un peu un poco um pouco un poco alrnost prêsque casa quasa quas aloud a haute voix en alta voz em voz a!ta ad alta voce also, too aussl tambaen tambem anche as (hke) comme como como corne as t were pour alas dire por declrlo as1 pot assma dzer per cosi dire as much autant tanto tanto tanto at least au motos a lo menos pelo menos akneno at most tout au plus pot lo mas ao mas mtt' al pau badly mal mal mal male besdes (more- d'ailleurs ademas de maxs moltre over) en outre by al1 means a toute force sm falta a todo o custo ad ogre modo by no means en aucune de nmgun de nenhum m nessun manlere modo modo modo by chance par hasard por suette por acaso a caso by heart par cur de memorm de cor a memorm by the way en passant de paso a prop6sto a volo a propos a prop6sato a proposltO eertamly certainement cxertamente certamente certamente chaefly prmcapale- prmcapal- prmcupalmente prmcupal- ment mente mente completely complètement completa- completa- completa- mente mente mente dtrectly drectement darectamente dlrectamente drettamente
634 The Loom o/ Language ENGLISH enough even evldently exacfly Oust so) }ustement }ustamente ustamente extremely extrêmement extremamente extremamente m general in ValEt less and less PORTU- FRENCH SPA_NISH GUESE ITA.LIAN assez bastante bastante abbastanz mëme aun amda perfino wdemment evldentemente evldentemente evldentemente gmsto estremamente prlma in primo luogo per esemplo per fort-ana appena m fretta first (m the first d'abord pruneramente pnmelro place) en premler en pruner em prunelro heu lugar lugar for instance par example pot eemplo pot exemplo fortunately heureusement pot fortuna fehzmente hardly (scarcely) a peine apenas apenas hastdy a la hte precapltada- prempltada- mente mente mdeed vraunent verdadera- verdadera- mente de veras generalmente en vano menos y menos poco poco a po co of course dawero probably qmckly rather (prefer- ably) slowly only naturellement naturalmente naruralmente sans doute sm duda sera dfiwda seulement solamente s6mente ne que no m,s nâo , mms que que on purpose exprès de proposlto de prop6slto apposta parfly en partie en parte em parte m parte perhap,s peut-&re tal vez talvez forse pot venrura de plus en plus rns y mas mais e mms dl plù n ptù plus ou moins mas o menos mms ou menos pu o meno probablement probablementeprovàvehnente probabdmente vte de prisa depressa presto plut6t mas brun mms pluttosto lentement lentamente lentarnente lentamente tout douce- despacm devagar pmn piano ment httle httle by httle more and more more or less mostly pourla ptupart en su mayor pela mmor per lo parte parte much beauoeup mucho mmto moho bien fort no non no no no hot ne pas no nào non not at all pas du tout de mngn de nen_hum mente affatto modo modo not even pas m:me nl atm nem mesmo nëanche neppure naturahnente sl oeps ce soltanto non che mente en v6rlté de-» êras en general geralmente generalrnente en vain cm vâo mvano de moins en menos e raenos dl meno In motos meno peu pouco poco peu a peu pouco a pouco poco a poco
Language Museum EN GLISH FRENCH SPANISH so (so much) tant tanto tellement so (thus) ams as somewhat quelque peu algo suddcnly soudainement de repcnte tout a coup de sopet6n togethcr ensemble luntamente too, too much trop demaslado unfortunately malheureuse- desgraclada- ment very très vlz c'est a dlre well ben wllhngly volontmrs yes OUl good mornmg ) good day bonlour good evemng bonsoir good mght bonsoir bonne nmt good-bye adzeu au reVOll7 good spccd bon voyage your health à votre santé many thanks merci bzen thanks merci* don't mention it xI n'y a pas de quo ce n'est rxcn I beg your )e vous de- pardon mande par- don excuse me excusez-mox I ana sorry le suzs désold pleasc s'il vous plaît wzth pleasure avec plaisir good bon how are you comment e/- lez-vous so so comme comme ça come In entrez mente muy a saber bien voluntarla- mente de bucna gana $1 PORTU- GUESE tanto assnn subltamente de repente :luntamentc demms desgraçada- mente multo a saber bem voluntàna- mente 635 ITALIAN tanto cos aIquato unprowîsa- mente d'un tratto mslemc troppo per sfortuna molto cloe bene volenuerl de boa vontade SLn 81 7 SOCIAL USAGE buenos d/as bore da buon gaorno buenas tardes boa tarde buona sera buenas no ches boa noire buona notre adl6s adeus addlo hasta luego até a v,sta arrvedercl buena suette boa vlagem buon vlaglO a su salud a sua saflde salure muchas gracms mtuto obngado tante grazle graclas obngado grazxe no hay de que nïo ha de quê non e'c ch che prego de nada perdone usted perdoe-me le domando 8cusa dlspénseme des culpe permesso I0 slento lamento multO ml rmcresce pot fayot se faz fayot per plaeere con mucho coin mmto con pacere gusto gôsto bueno bore buono c6mo est como esui corne sta usted que tal que tal est as asl assun» assma cosi cos] adelante entre avantl * When acceptmg an offer say s'ri vous plaît» or avec plaisir, or volonuers, when refusng say merc or merc bzen
&PPENDIX THE GREEK LEGACY WuT foltows arc Greek worcls wth roots which surwve m words of out own Ianguage and m scienufic terres wkch are lntemauonal. The latter mclude especmlly mechcal words and names of classes or genera of ammals and plants, many of whch wdl be famar to the reader who has an mtêrest m natural hutory Greek abounded m compounds and words th ,denvauve affxês Loan words often come trectly from a combmauon of elements inchcated separately by the reference number of êach tem The most unportant Greek aff whch does hot occur as a separate word s a- (wthout) OEnenc and dass mmes hsted below bave an mtnal capital let-ter, as do proper names Use of a Greek chctonary m order to fmd the ongm of a techmcal terre mvolves knowledge of the convenuons of romamzed spellmg» and the order of the sgns of the Greek alphabet, a, ç, ,» S, «, , ç, O, , , ),/, v, , o, zr, p, «(r), , v, ç, X, % co The Greek asprate s the transposed apostrophe ' wntten before an matal letter Thus 'e = ha, "p = rb. Dcttonanes do hot separate words wth asprated f, tom words wth unasprated mmal vowel The transcnpuon of the peculmr Greek consonants s as follows = ps, X = ch, = z, q = ph, = x If , cornes before a guttural (),, :, X) t s eqtuvalent to n. Thus ),), = ng. The Laun transcription of « s C, but some modem words rentier t as K. The eqtuvalents ofthe smaple vowels are « = e, r/= ê or a, OE = a, = ,, o or o = o and = y. The conven- uons for the double vowels are ou = u, « = ,, = ae, and o = oe or e. The final a of many Greek substantïves becomes y m Enghsh. When the stem of other case-forms of a noun or adlectave s longer than, or derent from, the nommatlve the followmg mie holds good The nommauve form occuzs m a final syllable, elsëwhete the stem. Thus from (233) OEcrr; (aspu--nommauve) and a«zr8oç (aspdos--gemuve) we get the zoologcal name Hemaspu and Astn- docotyIe From the nommauve Op e (thnx,) and gemuve rpXor (trwhos) we get the genera Ophwthnx and Tnchzna Where confusion mlght anse» the nommauve and genmve forms of a noun appear below. An astensk () marks the gemuve» ff gïven alone. Th¢ number of verbs listed :s small, because the root whach tums
Language Museum 637 uep m techmcal words ls more transparent m the correspondmg abstract notre. Greek preposmons have wdely OEerent values dependmg on the case-forms wluch go vth t.hem. The ones glven are ose whach they usually have m techmcal terres. Many Greek words transcnbed m accordance wth the foregoîag convenuons have corne mto use wth httle or no change These mclude: (a) Myttncal persons such as Medusa, Hydra, Gorgon, Tztan, Andro- meda, Morpheus, Nemens, and nectar (the dxmk of the gods) , The myths have fiarmshed many technîcal terres for zoologtcal or botamcal genera, constellanons, etc (b) Me&cal terres of wch the followmg are samples (c) A few non-techmcal words such as the followiag" atvtTlza emgma (nddle) ea 2dea axlu 7 a«me (top, pmacle) rpmTptov (mterwn) aafleaoç asbestos (unquenchable) v6o¢kudos (glory) flaatç bass dptÇoev horizon at#oe daemon 7rarat¢îa panacea &afloAoç &abolos (slanderer) 7rpaç praxîs doT#a , dogma actylza stzgma (brandmg) 6pa#a & ama ' av'catç synmx (arrangement) O elua thema (theme) ¢ev hyphen etxoev zkon (Image) 9arvaata phantas, a etzçaatç emphass zapax'rlp character TZoe echo zaoç chaos (2) aToeTrl (agoge) (3) acrta (aeza) (4) ataOrlatç (aestheszs) (5) apZrl (arche) (6) avo¢ (auws) (a) GENERAL NOUNS contest -- protagomst trammg -- pedagogue (220), galacw- gogue (I27) cause -- aeuology (36) perceptaon -- anaesthesa, azsthetw begmmng 1- archc» archetype ongra archenteron (30 ), archegomum (II), Archaeopuryx (348) self --autoIyns (37), autarchy (20), autonomy (217)
638 (7) (8) (9) (zo) (r:) 7or] (r3) yvpo¢ (I4) ,vogatç (15) o,a (I6) 6polzoç The Loom o/ Language (ge'nos) (goma) (gyroO (gnoszs) (doxa) (dromos) (24) epoeç (OE5) Oava'roç (26) Oavlza (27) Oepateta (28) Oea,¢ (29) Oezopm (30) (3x) (32) (33) (34) (35) (37) avoE (eros) (thanatos) (thauma) (therapa) (heona) lffe -- tnology (36), symtnos2s (668) toss hyperbole (669), anabohsm (653), catabohsm (663) origm --oogenests (387), ectogeneszs (658), elngeneus (661) kmd»race» -- antzgen (654), mtrogen offsprmg (r93), genealogy (36), pho- togemc (:!:I9) generanon, -- gonad» opzsthogoneate (580) womb angle --polygon (593), tngono- metry (OE67, 629) ring» clrcle --- gyrate» Gyrocotyle (240) kowledge --- agnosuc, &agnostm (656) opmaon --- orthodoxy (58z), hetero- doxy (545) race, --- anadromous (653), katadro rumamg mous (663) power -- dynamm» dynamo gfft "-- Dorothea (252) lainent --- elegy, elegac -- eleemosynary -- epmemology (36) ---erg, synergic (668), energy (659) love --- e otG autoerotm (6) death euthanana (546) marvel -- thaumasre, thaumaturgy (23) attendance, --- rherapy» herapeuuc arrangement,--- anuthess (654)» parentheszs order (665) (659) (lyses) reflectaon, contempla- tlOll narratave» research stmg cube cylmder crcle revel» comedy dJ.scolse» reasonmg, word release -- rheory, theoretzcal --- h2sory» story -- loganthm (264), eulogy (546), analogy (653), apo- Iogy (655), prologue (667), dza/ogue (656) --haemolyss (282), analys, s (653), catalysts (663)
(,38) (39) (4o) Language Museum (mathema) learnmg (methodos) process (meros) part (4I) /u/zr/«ç (mzmeszs) lmatauon (42) m&ç (mzx,s) maxmg (43) ,uo'oç (mzsos) hatred (44) (45) (46) (47) (mmss) memory (monas) a umt (musce) art of the Muses (morphe) form (ooma 017 onyma) (orgza) (pathos) naIile (62) (63) aZllua (64) ao¢a (65) (66) epaç (67) (68) (69) (sphaera) sphere, globe (schema) plan (sophza) wlsdom (telos) end, purpose (tas) omen (techne) art (tonos) srxetchmg (topos) place (trope) chrecuon, (70) 639 -- mathematcs -- mehod (lO7), (664) --memmeum (664), mero- blasnc (484), pentameroas (269) -- mzmetzG mzmcry -- amphzmxzs (526) -- msogyms (2o6), msan- hrope (2Ol) -- monad» Ochromonas (612), Tnchomonas (37o) --morphology (36), amor- phous, metamorphoszs (664), Myomorpha (4-2,5) -- onomatopoeza (63OE), anony- -- orgy -- sympathy (668), apahy -- pragmatG pragmattsm proposmon -- problem, problematzc --- pyramzdcd -- rhythnuc» eu yrhmcs (546) --- sarcoEm» sarcasfz¢ --- semamzcs -- asthemc, nurazthema (3z5) -- candalous -- eputatzc (66I), ecstasy(657), apostasy (655), statohth (188), statoeyst (315) -- stzgmata -- apostrophe (655), Strophan- thus (483) --- sphercal, stratosphere -- scheme, schematzc phdosophy (648), sophasm entelechy (659), rdeology (36), telosynapszs (668, r24) -- amphoterzc (526) echmcd, pyroechnzc (III) --opography (619) ectopc (657), opcal hehoropz (95), entropy (659), geotropz (9)
640 (7I) (73) (77) (78) Zpovoç (79) çvzr/ (80) e,ul The Loom of Language (typos) model, lmpressloI1 (phobos) fear (phrases) phrase (.phren) under- standing (physzs) nat-u_re (phone) sotmd, VOlCe (chroma) colour (chronos) tnne (psyche) mmd (osme) thrust --rypcal» typography (6r9) , ypewrtter -- hydrophobm (I 14), xeno- phobm (575) .-- perphraszs (666), para- phrase (665) --ohgophrema (577), schzzo- phrema (64I) -- physwal» physwgraphy (619) -- phonetzcs» phonograph (6r9) , gramophone (z49), antz- phony (654), cacophony (555) --panchromatw (584), chrome (593), chromosome (367) -- chronometer (629), synchro- mze (668), chronology (36) -- psychzc» psychology (36) (b) NATURE--OUTDOOR THINGS (agros) field -- agronomy (217) (aer) art --aenaI, aerob,c (7), aero- plane, a¢rotropzsm (70) (actzs, sunbeam ----actmzc» Hexactmm (270), acnnos) Actznozoa (399), actmo- morphzc (47) (aether) sky -- eth, er, ethereal (anernos) wmd -- anemophdous (648), anemo- meter (629) (aster) star --asrrology (36), astral, as- terozd» Aster, Astero,dea (atmos) vapour -- atmosphere (62) (aulos) pipe -- hydrauhc (114) (borhros) plt -- Stenobothrzum (597), Borhnocephalus (3 o) (bronte) thunder -- Bromosaurus (434) (ge) earth -- geography (6x9), geology (36), geometry (629) (drosos) dew -- Drosera, Drosophda (648) (eos) dawn --Eoh,ppus (4oi), Eoanthro- (zephyros) west wmd -- zephyr (hehos) sun --hehum, per, hehon (666), hehograph (619), hehocen- roc (3I) (hemera) day -- ¢phemeral (660 (thalassa) sea -- Thalassemma, Thalasso- planera ,r,s) rambow --
Language Museum (99) oc#oç (cosmos) (zoo) :pvr'raAAoç (crystaEos) (IOZ) :vlua (cyma) wave (fo2) qzvr 2 (hmne) lake (1:o3) re¢eAr/ (nephele) cloud (fo4) rr2croç (nesos) sland (mS) v8, (nux, nycws) mght vv'roç (Io6) ovpaoç (uranos) (o7) 6oç (hodos) (xo8) rrAav W (planes) (lO9) 7rozalzoç (potamos) river (zS) aa'tç (ydaus) (ri6) çAo e, (phlox, ¢Aoyoç phlogos) (I7) ¢paIzoç (phragmos) (II8) Cpeap, (phrear, Cpea'ro;" phreatos) (12o) ¢alu#oç (psammos) (I21) oeîavoç (oceanos) 641 world cosmogony (zz), cosmw ce, crystal ---- crystalhne, crystallography (69) Cumacea, kymograph (6r9) hmnology (36), Lzmnanthe- mure (483) -- nephelometer (6OE9) --Polynesa (593), Mzcrone- sza (569)» Melanesza (6fo) ---Nyctzphanes (646), nyctz- sty, nyctotropzsm (70) heaven uramum, uraman way, ]ourney penod (666), anode (653)» cathode (663) waderer --- planer hzppopotamus (401)» Pota- mogeton cleff -- Ptychodera, Amph2ptyches (526), Aptychus tire --- pyrex, pyrexa» empy ean (659), Pyronema (r48) moon selemum» selenodont (328) spark -- spmthanscope (639) water hydrogen (fo), anhydrous» hydram, hydrostatzcs (59) drop -- hydatd flame -- phlogston fence Phragmatobza (7), Phrag- mzte$ clstern -- Phreatokus hght --photzc» pholograph (619)» photon sand -- Psammoclema, Psamma ocean oceamc, oceanography (619) (c) DOMESTIC THINGS (Bulldmg, Clothes, Fu.rmture, Tools) (z22) actov (angeon) (z23) arcoç (ascos) (I24) aCtç (apss) box, chest -- Angzosperm (51I), Angtop- tens (507) bottle, bag -- Ascomycetes (5o4) , Asa&an knot -- synapss (668), parasynapsu (665) axle, shaft -- ams, amal, tnaxon (267) butter -- butyrw rmlk -- galactzc» galaxy net -- Dctyota, Palaeodzcyoptera (348, 583)
642 (zo) (I3I) The Loom oJ Language (&scos) dash, quot (ecclesza) church (zygon) yoke (132) Çoe/ (zoI,e) belt (133) OaAa#oç (thalamos) bedchamber (134) Oeczvpov (theatron) theatre (135) 0 r/ter/ (theke) box (r36) laçoç (hzstoO web (137) havcov (canon) ruler, rod (I38) raOedpa (cathedra) chalr (I39) rAr/ (chnê) bed I4o) rorvA 9 (cotyle) smali cup (sucker) @rater) rruxmg vessel, bowl (cternon) comb (z48) vrltza , (nema, vrllza'oç nematos) (i49) o«o' (oecos) (rSO) ¢ou (opson) (I5i) opTavov (organon) 053) rAtOog (phnthos) (r54) rva @yle) (r55) da¢ç (rhaphzs) 7rAaxoç placos) (z57) raAm:e, (sa//nnx, aaAmTToç sallnngos) (r58) «tCoev (hon) thread hou$c food tool» Instrument figure, tmage raie gare nccdle tomDstonc» slab trtunpct siphon (159) crxv¢oç (scyphos) cup --- dzsc» Cephalo&scus (3fo), Dzscoglossa (292) --- ecclestastzcal -- zygote» azygos» zygoma» zy- gomorphc (47), homozygote (579) -- thatamus, hypothalamus (670), thalamencephalon (297) theatncal --gonotheca (ii), blastotheca (484), thecophore (649) -- hsology (36), hstogeness (9) --- canomcal -- cathedral -- chnw chmcaI ----hypocotyl (670), Hetero- cotylea (545)» Monocotyle- don (570) --- craer --Ctenophora (649), ctem- dzum, ctenozd amoebocyte, phagocyte (645) -- lyrwal --- Marspobranchn (e7) maoss, maochondra (384) -- mtre» Haplommum (5e8), Gyromtra (13) --- 2Vmatoda» nematocyst(3 z S), Nemahelmmthes (396) -- ecology (36), doecous ç(9.66) op$o organ» orgamc protoplasm (-65), toplasm (I43) phnth rmcropyle (569), apopyle (65s) raphde, Raphdae placod, Placophora (649), Placodontea (3OE8) Sallnngoeca (I49) -- Szphonophora (649), srpho- noglyph (618), Szphorïo- cladus (495) -- Scyphozoa (399)» Seyphs. oma (363)
(6o) (T64) rvpyoe, Language Museum (solen) pipe (stege) roof, tent (strie) (stephanos) syrmgos) (stylos) 643 --sole'wd solenocytë (I43), Solenogaser (290) --&egocephah (3IO), Stego- saurus (434), Stegosroma (363) plar -- stelar, monostdy (57o), po- lystely (593) wreath -- Stephanoceros (3o9), Ste- phanops (338), Stephano- trochus (172) shepherd's --- synnge, synnx pxpe ptllar (sphen) wedge (schoIe) school (mphos) grave (apes) carpet (trapeza) table (trophe) food (trochos) wheel (trypanon) glmlet (tyros) cheese (chaton) ttmlc (chlamys cloak (chorde) cord (chymos) lmce -- endostyl (66o), heterosryly (»4») -- sphenmd, Sphenodon (328), zygasphene (131), Sphenop- rs (507) -- scholnc, scholar m epztaph (66x) tapesry --- trapezozd --arophy, auoophw (6), trophoblast (484) trockophore (649), Troch- hetmmthes (396) Tryçanosoma (367) m Tyroglyph (6x8) --- chzwn, Chaton --- Chlamydomonas (45), mo- nochlamydeous (57o) --- Ctwrdam, noochord (327), Henncorda parenchymamus (665, 659), mesenchyme (568, 659) (d) MATERIALS arm SUBSTANOES (anthrax) coal (argyros) stlver (bals) sait (electron) amber (erwn) wool (thwn) sulphur (ceramos) day (cmnaban) vermïhon (colla) glue (hhos) stone (magnes) lodestone (margantes) pearl -- anthracze -- Argyrodes , -- halogen (IO), hMometer (629), halophyte (5z8) -- elecmcty --- 2nocaulon (494), Erwphyes (65o), Enobotrya (486) -- thzosulphate, thwurea (335 -- ceramzc$ --- collozd, collencyte (659,z43), coIlenchyma (659, 78) -- monohth (57o), eohth (93), hthograph (6z9) .-- Margare
644 The Loom of Language (I9 r) ttzî'ra,bo (merallon) mne (I92) tuo2vfioç (molybdos) lead (r93) v'rpov (mtron) sah-petre (z94) epa ea) rooE (95) vpzçç ynreD t (96) «xeap (stear) tow, fat (97) ZPv«o; (chrysos) gold (98) ¢ç¢oç sephos) pebble -- metal, metalhc molybdenum -- mtrzc, mtrogen (o) -- perrology (36) -- pyrms -- stearate, stearzc, stearzn --- Chrysopa, Chrysosmonas (45), Ctzrysochlons (6r4) -- Psephurus (334) (ê) HUMAN SOCIETY--LAW AND FAMILY, OCCUPATIONS (r99) aeA¢o; (adelphos) (oo) avpoç* (an& o (2oi) avOpTroç (anthropos) (202) apxoev (archon) (o7) ryzo¢ (demos) (2o8) eatzoç (desmos) (209) 5tatcovoç (&aconos) (2Io) Svvao'cTç (dynastes) (2II) (212) (2X9) oucovotzoç (nymçhe) (oekonomos) steward brothei --Phz!adelphza (648), mona- delphous (57o), polyadel- phous (593) male -- polyandry (593), andro- gynous (2o6), androeczum (149) human -- phzlanthropy (648), anthro- bemg pocenmc (3I), Pthecan- thropus (43r), lycanthropy . (422) ru/er --pamarch (222), heptarchy (271), monarch (570), oh- garch (577) herdsman --- bucohc bxrth -- genetcs, eugemcs (546) fariner -- georgc, George woman -- gynaecology (36), epzgynous (66r), pengynous (666), polygyny (593), gynandro- morph (zoo, 47) people --democracy (65), demo- gra;hy (69), endemc (659), epzdernc (66I) fetter -- Polydesmus (593), desmds, desmognathous (OE 93) servant -- deacon, archdeacon (202) ruler -- dynasty thlef -- kleptomama (321) ludge --crmG crtsm, hypercrz- tcal (669) people -- lay, lazty nmgacmn -- mag mother -- mamarchy (202) smlor -- nautzcaI, aeronauucs (82) law, custom- astronomy (86), autonomy (6), antmoman (654) bride -- nymphomama (32r) -- economcal, economcs (149, 2r7)
Language Museum (pcndos) chald (zz7) rrpo@rlz W (prophetes) mterpreter (228) ze«xco,, (tecton) baflder (z29) xvpavvoç (tyrannos) dlctator (230) (nroxprcTç (hypocrztes) actor (23:1:) çvAr/ (phyle) tnbe, clan 645 --pederasty (24), pedmtncs (551), orthopaedzc (582) -- parhenogeness (9) --- patrarchy (202) --- plumcracy (625) --- poZzcy, cosmopohs %9) .-- pohtzcs presbyopza (338), presby- -- prophet m archzzect (eo2) tyant, tyranmcal --- hypocrite --- phy[um, phylenc» phylogeny (f) AKMY Arm NAVY (238) t¢opvv7 (coryne) (239) roer (cope) (240) eçoç (xzphos) (24I) axa¢rl (scaphe) (24) aZoç (stzchos) (243) roAe#oç (polemos) round shaeld dema-god» warrlor breast-plate sheld sheath helmet club oar sword boat row line» verse commaader barde array, order (244) a-cpazTyoç (strategos) (245) "atç (taxes) --Aspzdocoyle (I4o), Hem2. aspzs, Pterasps (348), Anaspdacea -- herozc» hero --- thoraczc, metaehorax (664) --- tkyr(nd» çarahy md (665) --- Coleochaete (378), Goleop- era (348) --- Corymorpha (47), Coryden- drzum (488), Gorylophzdae ---Syncoryne (668), Podo- coryne (346) -- Copepoda (346) --- Xphosura (334), Xphms ---scaphognathzte (93), Sca- phopoda (346) --- Polyszchum (593), Stzcho- pus (346), Snchaser (86) --- polemzc -- szrazegy, nrazegic photomms (119)» rheotaxs (635)» ph>lloaxzs (5r7) (g) LITERATURE aND RELIGION (246) a,),eAo¢ (angelos) messenger (247) aavAov (asylon) sanctuary (248) flflÀoç (lnblos) book (249) 7palzlUa (gramma) let-ter (25o) ÆtoAov (,dolon) mage --- angeI» evangehcat asylum --hbhophde (648), bzbho- graphy (619) --epzgram (66z), telegram (6o x), phonogram (76) -- ,dol, tdohze
846 (251 ) (252) Oeo The Loom of Language (epzscoços) blshop (theos) god (62) Zptr'tog (chmstos) (263) CaA/xoç (psalmos) --- epzscopal -- theosophy (64), polythezsm (593), pamhesm (584), theocracy (625) -- hzeratzc, hzerarchy --- zdolatry (250), Mamolatry -- mythwaI, mythology (36) -- mystery» mystzc daace, chorus--- chorzc, chorus, terpszcho- re attomted -- Christ, chmstan psalm, song -- (h) NUMBERS 2CD TIME (Numbers glven as they occur in demvatlves ) (264) aptOl_zoç (arzthmos) number -- arzthmeuc (265) rperoç (protos) first -- Protozoa (399), Protzsta, Protococcus (5ox)» protan- drous (zoo)» protogynous (.06) (266) &ç (&s) twme -- Dzbranchzata (z87) (,67) vpta (trza) 3 -- trdogy (36), Trarthrus (284), trzmerous (40) (268) "erpa (tetra) 4 -- tetramerous (40) (269) 7terre (pente) 5 -- pentadactyl (294) (270) goe (hex) 6 --hexagon (12), Hexapoda (346) (271) Tr'ra (hepta) 7 -- heptameter (629) (72) O&'Z'0 (OCtO) 8 -- Octobothrzum (89), octopus (346) ,273) 6et¢a (deca) zo --decalogue (36), Decapoda (346) (274) 6coea (dodeca) 2 --- dodecahedron (275) ét¢azov (hecaton) zoo -- hectogram, hectameter (629) (276) Zttot (chzho2) I, OOO --kzlogram, kdometer (629), Cdopoda (346) (277) fl6o#aç (hebdomas) week --- hebdomadal (278) [:rTrepa (hespera) evemng -- Hesperorms (427) (279) oepa (hora) hour --- horoscope (639) O) ANATOMICAL A.m) MEDICAL TERMS (280) aôriv (aden) #an.du.le --- adeno;d, adenuma (28I) aitza (haema) blood -- haemal, haemoglobtn, haemo¢yamn (6o7) (282) oA,o (algos) para -- analgesc
(287) [3payzta (z88) flpazm Language Museum (aorte) aorta -- (arthron) ont --- (artma) artery (blepharon) eyehd (branchza) gflls (brachon) armpt (bronchos) throat (gasrer) belly (9I) yarxpotcltZrl (gastrocneme) calf of leg (z9z) ?Aoeacra (glossa) tongue (95) depla (z96) &aza (297) ey,e¢aAoç (98) (a99) elflpvov 647 (30o) (3oi) (314) pavto (35) (316) (gnathos) jaw (dacylos) finger (derma) skm (dzaeta) regamen (encephalos) bram (ectome) cuttmg out, -- castratlon (embryon) embryo -- (emetos) votant (enteron) gut (hepar, hepatos) (thele) (,schzon) (carcmos) (canthos) (cardm) (carpos) (cephaIe) (condyIos) (coe) (creas) hvr (¢ramon) (tethos) aort2c Arthropoda (346), Xenar- thra (575) arsenal -- Monoblephars (57o), Poly- blhars (593), Blephan- poda (346) -- branchzal, Branchzopoda (346), Branchzura (334) --- brachzal -- bronchb bronchzns -- gastrzc» epgastrzc (66I), Gasteromycetes (504) --- gasrocnemzus -- hypoglossal (670), epzglottzs (66I), glossopharygeaI (376), Ophwglossum (4z9) -- gnathte, prognathous (667), Gnthobdella (392) -- hexadactyl (270), polydac- tyly (593), Pterodactyl (348), Syndatyly (668) elnderms (66), mesoderm (568), dermauus --- &et, dzetencs --mesêncephalon (568), en- cep hah tzs, anencep haly thyreode¢tomy (235), hypo- physectomy (75» 67o) embryomG potyembryony (593) --- enterts» coelenterate (56o)» mesentery (568) helmuc teat --- thehn thagh -- zschml crab -- ¢aranom« corner of ee--- eïtncanthal hrt -- cardzac wnst carpal hom kann» Rhmocos 55) head achahc» CephMopoda 46) uce ndyle, Coylarhra (84) rl» pup corea (of eye) flesh eaune» «eatzm, pan- s amal» Cramam, choro- amum (384) bladder, bag-- cysntzs, nematocyst (I48) yolk -- Iearhm, alearhal
648 (37) Àapvy e, Aapvyyo (38) Aemç, (323) (3:5) evpov (325) The Loom o] Language gul/et --- laryngêal scale (larynx» Iaryngos) lepzdos (myxa) (narce) (nausza) (neuron) (nephros) (noton) (328) oSovç, (odou,, tooth o6ovzoç odomos) (329) otro¢ayo (oesophagos) oesophagus (330) opztç (orchs) testcle (33I) or'ceov (osteon) bone (332) (333) ovv, ovv7oç (334) ovpa (335) ovpov (337) (338) (343) vAsvpa (344) 7rrevtza (ostracon) shell (onyx, onychos) (ura) --LeIndopea (348), Lepz- doste (33), Osteolepzs (330, Lepzdonotus (327), Lepdodendron (488) (lophos) comb, crest --lophodont (328), Lophopu (346), Lophogaster (29o) (mys, myos) mouse, muscle- myomere (4o), myotome (manza) freazy ---mamac, hypomama (670) (643) phlegm -- Myxomycetes (504), Myxococcus (5oi), Myxospondza (5IOE) numbness -- narcoszs, narcouc seasmkness --- nauseatmg nerve» tendon --- neural, neuroszs kachaey -- nephndzum, mesonephros (568), nephrztzs back -- no tochord (r77), no topodum (346), Norostraca (332,) --Odomophme (649), theco- dont (35), Odontocet (4Io) oesophageal -- cryporchd (626) --- osteology (36)» Pertosteal (666) "-- Ostracoda, Conchostraca (4), Entomostraca (398) nafl, claw "---Onychophora (649), Ony- chomonas (45) tatl -- urostyle (165), Ophura (429), Anura -- urzc, urea, hppunc (4or) "-" ophthaImzc, ophthalmoscope (639), exophthalmos (657) "-- Actznophrys (83)» Ophryo- cystzs (315), Ophrytrocha (I72) appearance, --- auopsy (6), Bryopss (487), eyesght Sauropsda (434), Ichthyop. .nda (4o2) cheek "-- pareztal sole "-" Pelmatzoa (399) &gestmn -- pepsm, eupeptw (546) wool --" Pdochrota (386), Pdocarpus (492), Pdobolus (8) sade, rb -- pleural, pleurocentrum (3I), pleurz lungs, -- pneumoma, pneumatw, breath pneumatophore (649)» pneu- mococcus (50 z') (ophthatmos) eye (ophrys) eyebrow (opszs) (pelma) @.ss) (pleura)
(345) (346) (347) (348) (349) rrçepv7tov Language Museum 649 (proctos) anus --- p octodeum, aproctou» Ec- (pous, foot podos) (pterna) heel (pteron) wmg (p/erugwn) fin (350) rrxtaov (pulon) feather (35I) rv?r 1 (pyge) buttocks (352) 7rvperoç @retos) lever (353) zrvoç (pyos) dascharge (354) Oaztç (rhaahu) backbone (355) tç, (rhzs, nose Otvoç rhznos) (356) dvT/tov (rhynchzon) snout (357) «ap$, (sarx, sarcos) flesh (358) aTraa/zoç (spasmos) spasm (359) aTr,taT7,va (splanchna) bowels (360) aTrr/v (splen) spleen (36I) aTrovwloç (spondylos) vertebra (362) azepvov (sternon) breast (363) aro#a (stona) mouth (364) a'ozaZOç (stomachos) opemng of stomach (365) avtzTrrwl.za (sympmma) symptom (366) aCvTltoç (sphygmos) puise (367) aoe#a (soma) body (368) "rpayeta (tracheza) wmdppe (369) "rpav#a (trauma) wound (370) Op, (thnx, hazr ptZoç tnchos) (37) @teta (hygua) health (372) Jlrlv (hymen) membrane toprocta (658) Amphzpoda (526), PIatypus (588), isopoda (553), Che- nopo&um (453), Lycopo- dmm L, topterna ( Aro; -- smooth) -- Aptera. Hymenopura (372). Neuroptera (325) -- archzpterygmm (5)» cunop- terygzcd (83) -- coleopule (36), Tnchop- t, lum (37o) -- pygostyle (65) -- amzpyreuc (654). -- pus. Iryogenzc (o) --rachus» rachztomous» and Rachaom (643) --rhzn:tzs. Rkmocero« (3o9). Anurrhmum (654) --- Rhynchoa. 2hyndwcepha- h (3IO). _:ynchobddhda @9) --- persarc (6)» sa coma --- spasmo&c --- splanchmc» splanchnopleure (343) splenetzc --- &plospondylous (54o sternal --- stomata, Gnattwstomata (293), Bdellosoma (392) stomach .-- symptomatzc -- sphygnund, spnygmomano- meter (566, -- somatzc» centrosome (3), Pyrosoma (r r), Sphaero- soma (6) -- tracheat, tracheate, trachoede -- trauma, traumanasty Polymchum (593), Trî- china, Ophwthnx (429), Tnchomastzx (628) -- hygene» hygzemc ---ymenoptera (348), menomyoetes (504), Hy- menop hy l laceae (5r7)
650 (373) 9aaa (374) (375) çap/.ta,ov (376) (377) (378) The Loom of Language (phalanx) :lomt of toe or finger @hall.os) peins (pharmakon) drug (pharynx» pharyngos) phlebos) (chazte) (chalaza) (che[e) (ctnlos) (chzr) (chole) (chondros) (chonon) (chros» chrows) (oo) (ous, otos) veto -- phalanges, phalangeal -- phalhc --- pharmacst, pharmacology (36) -- glossopharyngeal (292), Pharyngobranchu (287) -- phlebms mbercle, punple talon hvs -- Polychaeta (593), Chaetog- natha (9.93), Chaetocladmm (495) --- chalaza, chalazogam,c (617) -- chela, &date, chehcera(3og) -- Chlognatha (293), Chzlo- don (3z8) hand -- Chzroprera, chzropo&st(346) bile --glycocholate (536), melan- choha cartIage --- Chrondrzal, Chondrostez (33:), Chondrwhthyes (4oz) skan, Ieather -- chorzon, cho omc» chorozd skm -- Chrotella egg -- oogeneszs (9), oogomum (rI)» oocpore (5r2) -- perzotzc (666), otohth (88), otocyst (3r5) () ANIMALS (ara&ne) (arctos) (astacos) (bawachos) (bombyx) (glaux) (elephas) (hehms, helmntkos) (echmos) (ento,na) (zoon) (ther) 6chthys) (cametos) (campe) candos) spider bear lobster grog leech sdkworm owl elephant wol'l hedgehog beast horse camel caterpàlar crab shnmp
(4o) (408) (4o) (4-o) (42) (413) (46) (4?) (48) (49) (420) (42) (42) (427) (429) (43o) (431 ) (4) (44) (436) (4:37) (438) (439) (440) (44) (44=) (443) (444) (445) (446) (447) (448) (449) (4»o) (45) (452) (453) (454) (455) Language Museum t¢aaoep (castor) beaver tcaOapo¢ (canrharos) beetle tceptcomOrl xOç (cercopzthecos)monkey xrlToç (ceros) whale «oyzo¢ (conchos) shellfish xoxxvoe (coccyx) cuckoo t¢opa (corax) crow tcozAtaç (cochhas) snafl t¢opç (corps) bug t¢poxo«Aoç (crocodalos) crocodile xvxvoç (cycnos) swan «vo, (cyon, cunos) dog «vvoç Aayoe¢ (Iagos) hare AatzTrovpoç (lampuros) glowwom Aecov (Zeon) lion AvKoç (lycos) wolf luAaaa (mehssa) bec # vptzrl e, (myrmex, aat bevp#rlxo myrmekos) # vç (mys) mouse vxept¢ (nyktens) bat opv, (ornzs, brd opmOoç ormthos) oapsov (ostreon) oyster o¢tç (ophzs) shake wep (perdx) partrtdge "trtOrlKOç (pzthecos) ape voAvTrovç (polypos) octopus aaa#ar6pa (salamandra) salamander aavpa (saura) hzard asAazoç (selachos) shark alma (sepza) curtlefish aKtovpoç (scuros) sqmrrel atcoluflpoç (scombros) mackerel at¢opmoç (scorpzos) Scorplon aTro?yta (sponga) sponge o-rpovOoç (struthos) ostnch "c a vpo¢ ( tauros) bull eprl&oV ( teredon) tmaberworm T,pt (tgrzs) rager payoç (tragos) goat aTp (hystrzx) porcuplne Caaavo; (phaanos) pheasant ¢pvrl (phryne) toad ¢oexava (phocana) porpolse ¢cox @hoce) seal ZeACovr 1 (chetone) tortolse Zv (chèn) goose t'r' axr 1 (pstmce) parrot b v2Ga (psylla) flea bvxr 1 (psyche) butterfly 65 r
652 (456) (457) (458) (459) (460) (46x) (463) (464) (466) (467) (4683 (469) (47o) (47x) (472) (473) (474) (475) (476) (477) (478) (479) (480) ,'482) arOoç, avOe#ov (485) (486) (487) (488) (489) (490) (49x) (492) ,xapTroç (493) rapvo, (494) avao The Loom oj Language (l) PLANTS 3 TIR PARTS (agrostzs) (ampelos) (anernone) (asparagos) (helleboros) (erezce) (thymos) (ms) (cardamon) (cedos) (cmara) (carabe) (croco) (cul)arssos) (mzntha) (morea) (narczssos) (orchs) (platanos) (rhaphams) (sme'3 (sycon) (hyacmthos) (hysso1os) (acantha) (anthos or amhemon) (blaste) (botane) (bryone) (dendron) (hehx) (zyme) (calamos) (campos) (caryon) (caulos) vme anemone asparagnas hellebore heather thyme 11"18 watercress cedar aruchoke cabbage safon cypress mulberry daffo&l orcktd pepper pea plane tree radash mustard fig hyacmth hyssop spme Acanthocephah (3 fo), hexa- camh (ZTO) flower Hehanthus (95)» Anthozoa (399), peramh (666) bud --- blastoderm (295), meroblas- tzc (4o), hypoblast (67o), blastcoele (560), holoblasu¢ (578), eInblast herb --- botamcal bunch -- Botryllus, Botry&um moss m Bryophyta (5x8), Bryopm (338), Dznobryon (539) tree» branch m dendnte Dendrocoehum tendrfl, .-- hehcod» hehcopter (348) spiral yeast --- enzyme» zymotc» zymase reed --- Calamozchhyes (4oz) frmt -- carpal, pencarp (666), syn- carpous (668) Caryophyllacea Caryopns (338) -- cauhne stalk
[495) (496) tIcov (497) tortC/ (498) pvo (499) xcoveor (500) ccoroç (5OI) KO«KO" (502) (5o3) ttvo (504) #vxr/ç» (5o5) vo (506) rezaov (507) (58) (512) G'r/'OpOç (5r3) (5x4) (5r5) (516) (5r7) Language Musem ,.r, lados) bough (don) (mnon) (connon) (conos) (cocco9 (corymbos) (brion) (mycas) (xylon) (petalon) (rhzza) (rhodon) (sperma) (staphya) (strychnos) (hyle) (phykos) @hyllon) (phytan) 653 -- GIadophora (649), phyllo- clade (5]:7)» Tncla&da (.67), Gladothnx (37) shoot ---- clone nettle --- cnzdoaI, cmdobtast (484) hly ---- Cnnmdea herrdock -- comme cone -- comfe% Comdzospoes (5rZ) berry, gra--Pleurococcus (343), Dzplo- coccus (540) eluster of -- corymb, Corymbocnnus flowers fiax -- hnen» hneîc mushroom --- Oomycetes (387), mycemzoa (399) wood -- xylem» xylonre, xylophone (76) petal --- polypealous (593), sym- petalous (668) fera -- Pte, zdophyta (5z8), Ptens stxck --- rhabdzt% Rhabdocoehda (560) foot rhzome» mycorhzza (504), Rhzzopus and Rmzopoda (346) rose --- rododendron (488), Rho- dttes seed --- Spermaphya (5z8), sper- matozoa (399), polyspermy (593), Batrachospernum (39Ia) seed --- sporocyst (3:5), Sporozoa (399), ascospme (z23), zy- gOSffO (I 3 I) btmch of smphylococcus (o) grapes mghtshade --- strychmne tmaber -- Hyla seaweed -- Phycomycezes (504), Rhodo. phyceae (SrO), Chlorophy- ceae (64) leag -- mesophyll (568), phyllode plant -- holophyzzc (578), phyto!ogy (m) ADJECTIVES* (agathos) good -- Agatha (hagws) holy -- hagzoIatry (2549 * Normnauve smgular masculine forms
654 (522) (5z3) azpo¢ The Loom oj Language (aglaos) bnght (acousms) audible (acros) gh (524) aAAo (allos) other (525) a#flAvç (amblys) blunt (ampho) both (527) aOrlpo (amheros) flowermg (528) drrlooç (haploos) smple (529) aptawoç (azstos) best (530) aprtoç (artzos) perfect (53I) avarpoç (austeros) austere (532) flaOv¢ (bathys) deep (533) flapvç (barys) heavy (534) flpaïv¢ (b, achys) short (535) ?t?avrtt¢oç (ggantkos) gagantlc (536) 7àv vç (glycys) sweêt (537) ?v#voff (gymnos) naked (538) (539) (540) (542) (543) (544) e«Zaoç (545) (546) er (547) evpvç (ddos) manffest (&nos) wonderfuI (&ploos) double (dohchos) long (deutheros) free (enantzos) opposte (eschatos) remote (heteros) dafferent (eu--adv) well (eurys) broad (548) evOvç (euthys) strmght (549) çvç (hedys) sweet (550) Opt*o (thermos) hot (551:) ta'cpt«oç (zatrTcos) medcal -- Aglaophema -- t'ZCOVSZC --Akrogyne (2o6), acropetal (5o6), acomegaly (567), acrodont (328) ---allotropzc (70), allogamy (67), aIIopathy (5o)»allergy (23) ---Amblypoda (346), Ambly- stoma (363) --- Amphzbza (7), Amphmeura (325), Amphzcoelous (560) --- anthen&um, anther --- haplozd» l-Iaplospon&a (52), Haplo&scus (129) aTzstocracy (65) -- A todactyl (294) austerzty bathymetw (629), Bathy- crmus, B athynectes barometer (629), zsobar(553) brachydactyly (294),brachy- cephahc (3o) Gzgantosauus (434), gmnt -- glycogen (IO), glycolyss(37), lucose gymnasncs, Gymnoblastea (484), Gymnosperm (51I) --- Uzodda (334) Dmosaur (434), Dmorms (427), Dznopss (338), Dmo- phyceae (5I 6) --dçlococcus (5o), &plo- blastzc (484) ---dohchocephahc (31o), Do- hchoglossus (292) -- Eleuthena» Eleuthe oblastea (484) --- enantzomorph (47) --- eschatIogy (36) ---heterogenêous (IO), heteo- dyne (I7), heterozygote(131) eulogy (36), euphony (76) Euryale, Euryptenda (348), Eurylepta (563), Eurynotva (327) Euthyneura (325) hedomsm -- thermal, themometer (629), zsotherm (553) --- pae&atrzcs (220)
Laguage Mus«m (55) &oç (dos) proper, pnvate (553) w'o;' (sos) equal (554) rzvoç (schnos) lean (555) t¢atcoç (cacos) bad (556) xaOoAtcoç (cahohcos) (557) ¢arvo (caznos) (558) «ooç (calos) (559) t¢Etrv,oç (campylos) (559a) xoç (cenos) (56o t¢otoç (coelos) (56:) xovo¢ (coenos (56:2) t¢o/.,oç (compsos) (562.a) tcpvoff (cryos) (563) herrroç (leptos) (564) #««poç (macros) (565) tz«aa,¢oç (malacos) (566) IoEvo¢ (manos) (567) /eTag' (megas) (568) #eaoç (mesos) (569) #por (mzcros) (570) #o,oç (monos) (57) lVptoç (myrzos) (572.) ktoopo (motos) (573) vetpoç (necros) (574) veoç (neos) (575) 8eroç (xenos) (576) çpoç (xeros) (577) oo (ohgoO (578) hoç (holos) (579) 6#oç (homos) 655 -- &osyncrasy (668), dzot ---zsosceles isomsm (4o), Isoptera (348) -- Iscnochtwn (r75) ---cacodyl» cacophony G«ops (338) general -- cahohc new -- cazrwzoze (399), Ohgocene (577), Eocene (93) beautiful ---- calhsthen2cs (57) curved campylotropous (70) empty --- enotaph, Kenoczs hollow ---- acoelous, coeIon,, Goelen- terata (30 I) common --- coenocyt (43), OEoeno- nymphz (ErS), Coenurns elegant OEompsognathus (293) frozen, cold --- cryohydr, c (r4) thm --- Leptosrrca (33z, Lepto- cephalus (3o), Leptothrx (370) long macroscoFtc (639), tacro- cysns (35), macronucteus soft -- Malacost aca (332), cocotylea (r4o) scanty manometer (6z9) big -- megahthc (I88)» megaphone (76), megaspore (Sri), Megaheum (400) rmddle -- Msozoz¢ (399) small mcroscope (639), mcro- meter (6z9) alorte --- monosyllable (z59), monohth (r88), Monocystzs (35) mnumerable Myrtapoda (346), Mynads foohh --- moron dead --- necrotzc» necromancy, necro- phha new neohthzc (88), neoogmn (36) forelg ---xenophoba (TZ), Xenopus (346) dry xerophdous (648), xophyte few -- Ohgocarpous» Ohgochaet whole .--holoblastc (484), Holoe. phah (3to), holozozc (399) Slrmlar homoIogy (36), Homoptera (348)
656 (580) omcrO (58r) ov¢ (583) (584) r;av (heur) (585) 7ra/v; (orthos) stralght (palazos) old, aged (pari) ail @achys) thick (586) z,ayoç (pIagos) crooked (587) z,avo; (plastos) modelled (588) r,a:v¢ (589) (590) (59X) (592) (593) 7ro,vç (594) (595) o'azpoç (596) (platys) ' fiat lestos) most Oleos) full (plesws) near (poealos) vanous (polys) much (pycnos) compact (sapros) pumd (sderos) hard (597) trzevoç (stmos) aarrow (598) crçepeoç (stereos) sohd, stfff (599) crzpoyVvio (strongylos) round ç6oo) crzpsrxoç (streptos) twlsted (6ox) zTAî (t5o2) (60:3) zvCAoç (604) ypoç (605) Cavepoç (Me--Mv) afar (trachys) rough (typhlos) bh"nd (hygros) wet (phaneroç) vuble (526), Oxyurus (334) --orthogenesu (9), orthodoxy (5), ortkotropous (7o), Orthoptera (348) palaeozow (399), palaeo- graphy (69), pataeohtht« -- pangeness (9), panmzma(4z) ---pa«hydcrmtous (95), chymeter (629) -- Plagzostom (363) -- plastgane» plastw, ¢hloro- plast (6r4), kucoçlast (6o9) -- amphpIatyan (5e6), Platy- hdmmthes (396) -- Plswcene (559a) -- pleopod (346) Pleswsatma (434), Plsan- thus (483) -- poe¢dorherme --polygon (x2), polygamy (6z7) -- pycm¢» Pycnogomda -- saprophyte (518), Sapro- legma --- sclerte, scierons, megasclere (567), Scleranthus (483), Sderoderma (295) --Stenodzctya (]:28), steno- graphy (619) sereoscotnc (639), sureo- " somsm (553, 40) -- Strongylus Strongylocen- trotus (3 r) --sr¢ptoco«us (5o), strep- sptera (.348) --tdescope (639), telegram (249), tdepathy (5o) -- Trachymedusae, Trachy- soma (367), Trachyperus (348) -- typhlosole, Typhlop -- hygroscopc (639), hygro- met« (629) -- Phanerogam (6x7), Phane- rocephala (3 m)
Language Museum () COLOURS (606) epvOpoç (erythros) (607) xvavoç (cyanos) (608) toet6r/ç (oedes) (609) tevt¢o¢ (leucos) (610) tze,ao; (gen.) (melanos) (6r r) aOoç (xandws) (6) oeZpo;' (ochros) (6r3) ço¢ @haeos) 657 (6r4) Z,toepo;' (chloros) red -- erythrocyte Ct43), erythema, erythrophore (649) azure --- cyanons, Cyanophycêae v_olet --- odzne, wdoform whte --leucocyte (x43), Leucoso- lenza black -- melamc, melanophore (649), Melampyrum (r x ) yellow -- xanthza, xanthoderma(95), xandwphyll f3rT) sallow» pale ochre» ochreous dusky, gray --- Phaeophyceae (5x6), Phaeo- sporales green chlonne, chlorophyll (5r7), Chlorophyceae (56) (o) wsf ç6:tS) Ça,Aw (baIlo) throw --- balhmcs (616) ÇaTr;oe (bapto) dap '-- baptzsm, baptzze, Baptzst (6r7) ya#eoe (gameo) marry game¢» monogamy (570) (68) y,v¢w (glypho) tunnel -- Tyroglyphe (r74), sphono- glyph (r58) (69) ypaçco (grapho) wnte ---phonograph (76)» phow- graph (9) (6.o) 8atw (daeo) &smbute -- geodesy (9:t) (6zr) ca,vTroe (calypw) cover -- Calyptobtasea (484) (6z2) meco (cmeo) more -- kmes, cmema, lnnetc (623) «Atvco (chno) bend khnostat (59% synchne(668)» annchne (654) (6z4) xot#aw (coemao) sleep --- cemetery (625) t¢pa7;eco (crateo) govern ---plutocratw (223)» derno- cratc (207), echnocracy (67) (626) tcpvTrzo (crypto) hade --cyptogram (249), crypto- zone (399), Cryptocephala (627) ,a#rwo (lampo) shme -- lamp (628) tzactg:ow (mamgoo) whp -- Mastgophora (649)» Mas- tzgamoeba, Polymasngnae (593) (6z9) tzezpeco (metreo) measure metnc, meter (630) rZw (necho) swma --Notonecta (327), Necturus (334), nectocalyx (630 6p#aw (hormao) rouse -- hormone af Ail forms gven are first person smgular» present mdacatave, unless other- wse stated
Ttze Loom q[ Language (63) ztot (.poeeo) create, compose (633) rooe (poleo) sell (634) 7rpm @no) saw (635) çeo (rheo) flow (636) ç77vlz (rhegnymO burst (637) demço (rhInzo) fin (638) «rlco* (sepso) putrefy (639) o'«o (scopeo) look (640) «poeoe (strobeo) spm (64z) «/Çoe (schzo) spht (64z) ¢epavvltt (cerannymO mm (643) ze#m (temno) cut (644) roevoe (oxeuo) to shoot arrows (645) ¢a?etVF (phagem) devour (646) ¢atvm (ptw,no) (647) ¢oeoe (phobeo) (648) Ct;em (phdeo) show frlghten love carry grow decelve (649) ¢opez (phoreo) (650) Cvo (phyo) (65I) ¢evc3oe (pseudo) -- poetry, poem, pharmaco- poeza (375) -- monopoly (7o) -- pnsm, przsmatzc rheostar (59), rheotropzsm (70) --- haemorrhage (8) --- Rh;pzdoglossa (9), Rhzpz- dzum sepszs» anuseptzc (654) gyroscope (3), telescope (6or), perscope (666), laryngoscope (3 r 7) stroboscope (639) schzocarpous (49z), Schzzo- mycetes (504) --- &osyncrasy ---Temnocephah (3TO), ana- tomy (653)° atom --- l;oxzc» --phagocyte (143), entomo- phagous (398), Myrmeco- phaga (424) -- phenotype (71), phenomenon -- phoba» hydrophobm -- phdology (36)» phdanderer, entomophdous (398), phdo- progemtzve (667, IO) --chromatophore (77), xan- thophore (61:1) --symphyss (668), hypo- physzs (670) -- pseudopo&um (346) CP) PARTICLES (652) a/J¢ (amph3 alound (653) ara (ana) (a) up (b) agam (654) avr (antO opposed to (655) arro (apo) away from (656) &a (dru) among, through (657) ¢, e (ec or ex) out of (658) eio:o (ectos) outsldc oppos to entos -- lnslde (659) (en) m (660) 6ov (endort) wlthm * Future --- amph,theatre (I34) -- (a) anabohsm (8) (b) anabapust (66) amseptzc (638) --- apocarpous (49z) &apedesu (346) -- ecstasy (59) .-- ectoplasm -- edemE (207) -- endosperm (5:r), endogenous (IO) Infmltlve
(66I) (663) (66) (665) apa (666) (667) 'po (668) avv (669) 5e,o (670) 5vo Language Museum (epï) on (eso) within (cata) down, by (meta) after (para) besîde (peri) around (pro) (syn) (hyper) (hypo) 659 before together» with -- epblast (484) -- esoteric -- catastrophe (6r), caabolism -- Memheria (4oo) -- parabiosis (7) --perianth (483), perimeter (629) -- prologue (36) -- syndrome ( i 6) above, over -- hyperaesthesia (4) and beyond under -- hypogastric (290)
INDEX ablau» 2o Academm pro Interhngua, 467-8 Accachan, 4z-z accents, 2.59 accents, crmamflex, 225, 245-6, accents» Portugues% 345 acc, dence» 93, r84 accusauve» I£7, z6z, 3£4, addrcss, formml and mtunate» z46, z63 n, 369-7£ addrcss, pohte, m Romance, 369-7£ address, pronouns of, German, 263 n Adelung, r79 adjecttve» z£o-zr, i24» 268-7o, see also companson adjecttve» attnbutve» z56 adjecttve, Dutch, 284-5 adjecttve, German» 269, 293--6 adjecttve, Latin, 3r8 ff, 327 adjecttve» Old Teutomc» 69 adlecttve, prechcauve» r56 adlecrave» Romance, postuon, 355-8 adlecuve» Scandmavla» 279--80 adverb, 32, r z I advcrb, Germ» 296--7 adverb, Romance, 336 adverb» Scandmawan, 9.80 adverblal expresslons» posmon» 257 -8 adverblal parncles, r43 advernsements, language of, a£firmanve parncles, Romance, 399 affres» 53-5, 67, 93, 196 ff » 272 affixes, borroed, i84-5 afftxes» m Esperant% 464--6 afftxes, m mterlanguage» 49o-r afftxes0 m Novaal, 472 affines» m Volapuk, 457-8 affixes» Romance, 4oo-z affines» Teutomc, zz7 Afncan Ianguages, r93 ASakaam, 285 agglutmatmg !angalages, 67, £96 ff agglutmauon, 53, 93 agglutmanoa, ta Celuc Ianguages, 4r8 Albaman, i93, r 94, 406 alphabet, 47 ff, 43 alphabet, ongms, 69-70 amalgamatmg languages, I97, 200 ff Amermdlan languages, I94, 2£5 Amhanc, 4z4 analogacal extension, 53-5, 93, 68, r88, 203-4 aalogîsts, 2o4 analyracaI langaages, £07 Aglo-Amerlcan, 95» 4o5 Anglo-Amencan, advantages, r 6, 22 I Anglo-Amencan, as auxflaary lan- guage, 470-80, 483 Anglo-Amencan, future of, 44 Anglo-Amencan, Latin and Teutomc elemeats, 2zz Annamese, 425 anomahsts, 9.04 Arabm, r93 , 94, 42 ff Arablc script, 73-4, 75 Arabm words m Europe, 4z3-4 Arabc words m Spamsh, 344 A.rammc, I93, 4a- Armeman, I93, r94, 4o6 arnde, r5% 72» I84, see also delta,te arttde, mdemte arucle arnde, agglutmataon wtth preposl- raons, £ I9, 36o-I amcle, Dutch, 9.84 arnde, German, 293 arnde» parnnve, 36- amde, Portuguese, 345 amde, Romance, 3.9-3o, 358-62 amde, Rumaman, 348 amcle, Scaadmavmn, -79, 28o Aryan langnaages, r89, 2r4, 406 aspect, Io 3 assocaanve &rectves, I47 Assyro-Babyloman, r93 , 4-z- Atatuxk, Kemal, 75, 436 atmbunve adlect,ves, I56 Austrahan languages, r94 aumhary language, 443 ff aumhary language, need of, I7 aumhary verbs, see helper verbs Avestan, 407 Aztêc scnpt, 5 Bacon, F, 33, 470 Balnc languages, I94, 406, 412-13
Index Butu languages, z93, z95, 200, 209- 2II, 320 Bc F_,nhsh» 3o-» 4» 474 ff» o3-4 Basque, 93, 94» 95, 342-3 Beach la-Mat, Benh 407, 4xx-2 Berber lages, 93» x94» o n Bible triaUon% 78 Bopal» 49 Bopp» F » 79-8o» x88 borrowmg, 5x Brae oede» 78, 86 Breton, 93, 94» 346» 47 Bnght Tothy, 87 Brom% 47 Bg» 93, 94, 43» 44 Bg, Old, 4x4 Burmese» x93, 94 Bus lage x93 C, m Romance languages. 59 Canaamte chalects, 4z ff Canachan French, 346 Cape Dutch, see Afnkaans capital letters, m German, 9_35 cse» xzS-r9» 26I, 267, 488 case-forms, m Lama, 3r4-xS, 32z cases, m O1d French, 327 cases» m Romance, 327 cases, Latin» decay of» 325 ff Casuhaa, 343 Catalan, r94 , 343, 346 causauve verb% x5o, 206 Celnc language% x93, x94, 406, 416 ff Celtlc languages, person m, Ioo charactensrac meanmg of paru cles, Chaucer, zz4, 264 chermcal termmology, 459.-3 Clunese, x93, r94, z95, 4-5-4z Chmese, and Enghsh, compared, xz2, I24-5, x32» 4z8» 44 Chmese characters, 426» 427, 435, 436 Chmese, romamzauon of, 436-7 Chmese wntmg, 57, 63 ff, 444 Chnsuamty, and language, :t77-8 Chnsuamty» and Laun, 3 r [ Church Slavomc, 44 Cxd, 3 [2, 343 carcumflex accent, 225, 245-6, 256 classfficaraon, bains of, :t82 ff. 66I dassficataon of languages, 4 r, 76 ff ctasstficatory Ianguage% x95, 2o9-x3 classtfiers, 65 classrfiers, Chmese, 436 chcks, 209 clog almanacs, 76 comparautve method, rSz companson, I[o-[i companson, m Teutomc languages, r87 companson» =regular, Romance, 336, 337 companson» Latin» 39_0 companson, Scandmavan, I9o, 280 companson» Teutomc, x go complex sentences, z69. f, compound tenses» fo4 compound word% 53-5» 93 compound words, Romance, 400-[ coIcold, Il2 concord, ru/es of I66 conchuonal clauses, German, 307 condmonal, Romance, 395 ff congresses, mternauonal, 482 conjugauons, 36, 20I coajugaaon% French» 37 n » 378-9 conjugauons, Itahan, 38-- conjugauons» Latin, fo7 conugatton% Porruguese, 38o-I conjugaraons, Romance 378 conjugatons» Spanash» 38o-r conjunctlons, 34, z6x ff con]unctlons, coordmate, 161-2 conjuncraons, Romance and Teutom% conunctaons, subordmae 16r ff consonant cluster% zxa, 506 consonant symbol% phonetc 83 consonants, 56, 6% 70 ff comonants, Enghsh, z26 ff. contact vernaculars, 44r-2 conoeacted words, 50o coordmaze con}unctons» [6[-2 copula, [5 r, 69 Cormsh, 4[7 correspondence between words, 134 Creole paols, 44z Cretan wnr.mg, 59, 77 culture-contacts» 83-4 cunêfform» 2z» 36» 48» cursive scnprs, 74 Cushate, r94, 42o n Cypnot wntmg» 48, (4, 79. Czech» 193, 194, 413
The Loom o/ Language Dalgarno, G, 87» 444 ff » 494 Damsh» 276 ff »see cdo Scandlnavlan Damsh spellmg» 237-8 dauve, z7-zS, 262, 3 4, 326 dauve, Ge:man, 29o declenmons, 36, z5» xzS, zoz, 267, 326 declenslons» Latin, 3x6-7, 319 demte arucle, r84, see also arucle defimte arucle, Fzench» 352» defimte mucle» Romance, 284, 36 demonstraraves, 90» x45, x57, demonstraraves» Latin, 329--32 demonstratave% Romance, 37x demonstrauves, Teutomc, Descartes» R, 444 chalect, z2z dacuonary, use of, 34, 92 dxfficultles, m natural Ianguages, 485 459 dmamumves» 4or dtrect method, 37-8 chrect ob}ect» I8, x53- 4 chrectrves, 3I, 39, r9, 234, see atso preposmons darecraves» assocmuve, I47 d.trecuves, classlficaraon of, I43 dJxecuves, m mterlanguage, 504-5 chrectrves, mstrumental, 245 darecraves, of motion, x44 darecuves, of place, dlrecraves, of mme, x46 doublets, Latm-French, m Enghsh, dual, m8-9, z6z, 425 duratîve construction, x39-4o, 35o, 387 Dutch, 294, 23, 283 ff Dutch, Cape, see Afrrkaans Dutch grammar, 284--6 Dutch spellmg, 236 edatorshp, self-» I7-3 educauon, aumhary language and» 48I Egypuan» anoEent, 93» 42o n Egypuan wnrmg, 6I Eneycloped% 453 Enghsh» x94, se Anglo-Amencan Enghsh» pecuhanues of, z6x Enghsh speaker% why bad Imgmst% x5-x6 Erse, x93, x94, 4x7 Esperanudo» 467 Esperanto, 443, 453, 460-7 Esqmmaux» language of, 195, 215 Esthoman, 193, r94 zoo Ethmpan» 94, 4z r, 424 Etruscan, 34o Etruscan- script, 77 evolut,on of languages» 23 Fmguet, 453 fames of languages, x9z ff famflaes of languages, charactenstcs» 95 ff Filian, :94 Fmmsh» i6I» :93» I94» :97-$» 4o8 Fmno-Ugnan languages, :93» :94, I97 F1emlsh» z$4, 346 flemonal langage% :95, r96-2o5 f!exaons, agglutinative character of» 88 flexaon% decay of, flexaons» m mter]anguage» 487 ff flexaons, ongms of, zo3 ff flexaons, Sansknt, 4o8--9 form and funcuon, reiauon of, Frank% 31o French, r94, v.o;, 2o3» e38 ff » 3o9 ff, 346-7» 349 ff, see also Romance French, Canachan» 346 French» early» French, German elements m» 3o French elements m Enghsh, .38 French, Latin book-words m modem» 238» 24o French pronuncaauon» 254--9, 357 French vowels, 256 future, Io6, 84 future» French and Sparush, 39 future, German, 297-8 future, Latin and Romance 338-9 future perfect, 3z2, 338 future» Rumaman, 339 m Romance languages, 259 sounds, .29-3o Gaehc, Scots, x93, x94o 417 GahoEan, 343 Gaul, Latin m, 3o9-0 C.-e'ez, 4z4 gender, 2-5, 46, 84» 209, 268 gender» G-erman, 29I-3 gender, Latin, 38-o, 327-8
gender, Romance» 3z8, 352"-6 gender» Scandmavmn» z8 I gender, Sermtac, 4z5 genenc words, 5o2 gentttve, IfS» 26, 267, 34, 325 gemmve, Durch, 85 geindre, Germ, gemuve, Latin, 5-6 gemttve» oblecmve» 36 gemttv% parnnv% 316 gemnve» qutatve» 3 6 gemnve» Teutomc, 87 Geor, 94 rm, I94» 2oz, zo6-9, 23off, 263 ff » 283 ff rm, oepta m, 235 OErm dtes, z84, z89o OErm, Low d gh, 232-4, 84 G¢rm, reasom for conservave OEaer, 288 Ger speng» 234-5 Germ, sress m, gerd, I39, 387-9 Gessner, Coad, 3 geste, 85 dehc, 4x7 Goc, oz, xo5 OEc verb, 265 a, compauve, 92 gr» essence, ]4 grar, of ahary lage» 486 ff ophone records, OE8 Greek, 9]» 94, 25, zS, ]o9, 4o6, 4o9, 636 ff Greek, contnbutmn to nghsh, 25o ff Greek letters, 72» 334» 340 Greek, modern, 53-4, 4o6 Groek roots, and teccs, 496, 656 ff Greeanoec, t94, z5 Gnerson, Str G, Gn, 3,2oo, 454 G's law, 88 gro of words, 93 Guarau, 4o7, 4 II Gwoyeu Romatzyh, 437 Gsy lage, 4o7 h, Fench, z58 Harmtuc languages, r93, x94, 420 n Hawmmn, x4 headlme language, ,9, 3 Hebrew, I93, 94, 42 ff lndex 663 Hebrew character% early, 96 helper verb% xo4, xz3» r5o-r heiper verbs, and word order, x55 helper verbs, German» 299-302 helper verbs, Romance, 384 ff, 393-4 heiper verbs, Teutom% Hervas, L » 79 Hmch» Eastern» 407 Hmd4 restern 407, Hmdustam, I99» 4z I-Iaragana syLlabary, 438» 439 hlstory of language study» r76 t-Ltttate wntmg, 36, 56 , holophrastac languages, 2z5 homophones, 5I, 63, 65 homophones, Chmese, 43z-3 Hottentot language, Htmgaman, see Magyar Ibenan chalects, 34 Icelandac, r9o , z6z» 76, z78 deograms, 54» 58 d.tom, 27 Ichom Neutral, 460 lchomarac use of partacles, r39 Ido, 466-7 nnperauve» rEEo» nnperauve, Romance, 393-4 nnperfect» Io3, 3zr» 338, 39-z nnpersonaI construcraons, I3o nnpersonal pronouns, Romance, 37xff mapersoaal verbs, r69» I7 r mcorporatmg language% zr5 Inchc chalects» modern, r94 Indac languages, 4o6-z Indac, Old, z go mdenlte arUcle, 33-3, 36I mchcauve, r 9 mdarect objec% xxS, i53-4 indirect oblecr, posmon of, r 54-6 indirect quest.tons, German» 3o7 Indo-Chmese language% x93» x94, 4-5 Indo-European languages» I89, r93, 194 Inflo-Iraman languages, mmrrve, Izo, 63 mfimuve, agglutmauve, Portuguese, 394 mfimuve, Dutch and German, OE84 mfimuye» of request, 398 mfimuve, Romance, 393-4 martal mutataons, CeIuc, 4o mstrumental, r x8
664 The Loom oj Language mstrumental case, 3I$ mstmmeatal daxectaves, !45 mterdactaonary, 494 ff mterlanguage, esseatlal features, 509- 5Io Iaterlmgua, 450, 467-70 mtemaraonal language, 88 mterphoaeucs, 506-9 mterrogataon, x58 , I6I, I69 mterrogaraon, Rommace, 399-400 mterrogarave parudes, x58» I6I mterrogaraves» 45 mterrogatves» Romance» 37I ff, 375 mterrogatves, Teutom¢, 276 mtranslnve, r49 306 inversion» I58 Iraman, Old, 407 Insh, sec Erse lrregular verbs, French» 380 lrregular verbs, Latin, 323 lsolatmg languages, x95--6 Itahan, x94, zoe, 9.03, 2x4, 242 ff, 3o9ff» 347, 349ff, see a!so Romance Itahan artd Latin, compared, 3 5 Itahan, eazly, 3xz Itahc daalects, 309 James, Lloyd, 508 Japanese, 293, I94, ,.oo, zz5 Japanese wntmg, 63, 66 ff, 435, 438-9 Iespersen, O, 7» 2r3-24, 466, 47o-2, 485-6, 488, 509 Jones, Srr W, ISo--I Joyce, J, 324 Kafir-Sotho Ianguages, 209 Kana, 48, 67-8, 438 Katakaa syllabary, 435, 438, 440 Karghaz, 93, z94 K&rlwlDla.12» kome, e53 Koran, 423 Korean, x93, I94 Kyn.llc alphabet» 44» 46 Language study, uses of, x6 ff Langue Bleue, 459 Lappsh, I93, I94, zoo Latin, zoo--r, 309 ff Latin» and Interlmgua, 468-9 Latin and Itahan, compared, 325 Latra, as mterlanguage, 313 Laun, classcal, 314 fl Latin, &use as language of culture 443 Latin, m Gaul, 3o9-o Latin mscnpuon, early, 3 r Latin languages, sound changes, 238ff Latin lettels, 72 Latin, "logcahty" of, 315-I8 Latin, popular, 3ro-xr Latin, pronuncmtlon» 254 Latin roots m Enghsh, 238» 3r4 Latin» vulgar, Romance words from 34x- Latmesce, 472 Latîmzatmn of Enghsh» 2OE3-4 Latmo sine flexone» see Interlmgua Latvaan» r93 » 406» 4x3 League of Nauons, 462 learnmg a lmaguage, and flexmns, r5 ff learnmg a language» three shlls re- qmred, OE5 learnmg a language, what t mvolve:, 4 ff Lebrnz, r79 , 444, 449 ff, 468 Lenm, V I, 88 Lemsh, see Latvaan hmson, 257 hnk-words, 32, see atso comuncuons Lmnaeus, 452 hteary and non-htezary languages» 425 Lxthuanîan, x88, r93 , x94, 406, 4r3 locauve, 3x5, 3x8 Lockhart, Mss L W, 499 logograrns, 57 ff logographc wntmg» 48, 57 Luther, M, OE89 Magyar, x93, t94, 9% oo Malay, x 94, t96 Malayo-Polyneman languages, x94 Malmowsh, B, r69, "r7o, 2xz, 45x Maltese, x94, 424 Manchu, r 93, 94 Manuuus, Aldus, 50 Manx, 4x7
Index Maorl» I94 Marath» 407, 411 Maya wntmg, 54 meanmg, changes of, 239 metaphor, 502-3 metaphoncal extension, 65 masslonanes and script systems, 203 Moabmc, 42I Mongohan, 193 monosyllabc languages, 46 ff, 441 monosyllables, 63, 122 mood, 1 I9-2I mood, Latin, 3zz mood, Romance, 394-9 Morse code, 76, 78 mouon, chrectîves of, I44 mouon, expressmn of, m German. .62, 304 Mtmdolmgue, 460 Museums, language, 23 Muslums m Spam, 343 nasals, French, 257-8 negauon» 159-6I negatlon, double, 399 neganon, Latin and Romance, 339- 34I neganon, Romance, 399-4oo neganon, Scandmawan» 28I Nestonan stone» 422 neuter, Latin, dzsappearance of, 328 Nobdtbus, Robertus de, I8o nominative, II5, II7, 26I» 314 Norwegan, :76 ff, sec also ScancLt- Norwegtan spelhng, 237 Novaal, 47o-z, 495 noun, Dutch, 285 noun, Fmmsh, I98 noun, German, 266-8, 290-3 noun» Latin, 314 ff nbuno Old Enghsh, 266-8 noun, Romance, 350-8 noun, Scandmavlan, nmaber, 96» Io8-m, 489 number, m Romance, 35o-z number, Latin, 3I 6 number of languages, 405 number symbols, 58-9 numerals, numerals, Russlan» 4I 5 numeranves, 2I I numeranves, Chmese, 435-6 665 " oblect» 217, I49, 17o object, indirect» i28, I53-6 obleccve, I25-I6, z6z oblemve, gemnve» 326 Ocmdent, 468 Og script, 75» 4x7 Ogdea, C K, zo, 3o, 39» 473ff, 494» 499 operators» 5o3 orN reconon of lage, ty m, ons of lage» Os wng» 325 Pah, 407 Pallas, x79 Parera, 408 Pan]ab, 407, 4II Papuan, 194, 212, pamaple, Io4, Io, 139, pamaple, past, OE64 pamcple, past, Dutch and German, 84 parncuple, present, Romance, 387-9 partades, 32-3, I34 ff parncles, mterroganve, I58, parunve arnde, 361-2 parrarave gemrave, 316 parts of speech» 129 Pasllmgua, 221, 442 passive» 117, 120-1» I50 , 171 pass,ve, French, 386 passive, German, 298 msslve, Latm 322 passive, Latin and Romance, 337-8 passive, Scandmaxnan, I2o, 278 ast demte» 292-3, 392 past» marne&are, m French and Spamsh» 39 patois, French, 44I-z Peano» G., 45% 467-7o Pehlem 407 peîffect» Io3 perfect axtd mperfect» 32I--2, 338 perfect, symhenc» chsuse of» 338 Persmn, I88 19o, 294, 406, 407, 408, 4o-I Perslan, Old, 407 person, 95 ff person, m Celnc languages» Ioo personal pronouns, sec pronQuns, per- sonal
666 The Loom o) Language Phoemcaan» r93, 4zr» 4z3 Phoemcaan letters» 72 phonetac patterns» 2 3-x 5 phoneuc sbols» 83» 84 phonec g, 48 phonec% 28 phonogs» 6x» 65 pogrs» 36, 57 pe g, 48, 52, 56 ff Pad Enghsh, Px, S Isc, 87 place, eoeves of, Pladeutsch, 84 plupeffe, 3oE, 338 pls, Romce» 35o- pomter-wor» $88 demonstrauves pomter-word% mdete, Rotor.ce, 377 pomtez-word% mdete» Teutom% z83 Pob» 4x3 Pohsh, 93» 94» 4x3 Pormese» 94» ff, 309 , 343» 349 ff, +e also Romce Poese, speg d pronuncm- uon, 345 possessive, x z5, sec also gemnve possesmve guve, 3 6 possessive pronouns, Romce» 36- 369 possessves, reemve, Scaman, possessves, Teutom% I27 preoEnve adjeves» x56 prees, 53, sec o es prees» dssoeto, pree% Greek, pree% vb, , 3o7 preposldons, preposxuons, ez uve, 394 preposatons, aggluuon preposmons, Celc, smn th pro- nos, 48-x9 preposmom, OE, d case-rotin% =6z preposmons, La, preposmons, Romoe, x37 preposmo» Teutomc» x36 puve spee pro» OE 305 prono objeoEs» posmon, Romce, pronouns» 34, sec also personal pro- iouns pronouns, as lmk-words, 6x pronoun% empnatlc, I47 pronouns» French» r99 pronoun% fused, Romance, 365-6 pronouns» ampersonal, Romance, 37 x ff pronouns, mdefimte, Romance» 378 pronouns, petsonal» 96-9, Io9, I46-7, i66-8 pronouns, personal, changes m use» pronoun% personal» Icelandlc, I67 pronouns» personal, Latin» 320-I pzonouns, personal» Old Enghsh, x67 pronouns» personal» Persmn, 4fo plonouns» pezsonal» Romance, 33r, 33z-3» 36z-8 pronouns» persona/» Teutomc 126 o pronoun% reflemve» r47-8 » 333, 37 r pronouns» relarave, r44 » 37 pronoun% stzessed, 363-4 pronunclaraon changes» and spelhng, 8o-r pzonuncmtaon» French, OE54-9» 357 pzonuncaaraon» Itahan, z54-5 pîonunclaraon, Latin, z54 pronuncmtlon, Portuguese, 345 pronuncmraon, Spamsh, 9.54- 5 pïoto-Aryan, x9o-z Provençal, 343, 346 Puc, 4z3 punctuaraon, 50 quesraons 58-9» sec also mter»o- gataves questaon% mdarect» an German» 307 questaons» negarave» I6o Rask, R K, x88 readmg, skUl needed for, 27 reflerave» reflemve construction, German, 3o6 reflexa%e pronouns, I47-8, 333 reflemve pronouns, Romance, 37x related languages, correspondences» 38-9 related ianguages, learnmg» relative pronouns, 44 relanve pronouns» Romance» 37x reported speech, German, 3o7 request, mfimtve of, 398
Index ILtchards, I A » 473 ff lg-Veda» 407 lvarol, 346 Romanal, 468 Romance langage% 93, 94, 309 ff, 349 ff Romce lanages» coon features, Romce lanages, La and, xSt Romce speers, number, 406 roamon, des=abty of vers, 88 Romansch, 347 root-ected langage% 95, foot% 53, 69-7o foot% Gçeek, d tecoe, roots, mternanon» 494 ff roots, Sec 7, 4-5 Rose stone» 77-8 Roy SoyeZ, 3, 7 res m lage-learg, R, 94, 347-8 Rc script» 75, 265 Russ» 193, 194, 4o6, 415-16 Russ, Great, 413, 416 Rusm, Lttle, 43, 46 Russ, te, 413, 46 Samoyede, I98 Sans-l,t, I8o-I, 406, 4o7-1o Saptr, E » 493 Sassetra, I8o Scahger, ]" I, I78 Scandmavlan languages, I94, 276 ff Schlegel, F, I8r Schleyer, J M, 455 ff sclentfic termanology, 251 Scots» 213 Scots Gaehc, see Gaehc script forms, crcumstances m_fluen- cmg, 74 script forms, rmss,onanes and» 9.03 self-express,on, skfl/needed for, 17 semaphore code, 78 Sermtc languages» 7o-I» I93, I 41o-5 sentence, complex» I62 ff» 172 separable verbs» 3oz-3 Septuagmt» 153 Serbo-Croanan» I93» I94» 413 sermo urbantzs and sermo rust:cus» 31 sex and gender» 114 short senteaces» advantages, I64-5 667 shorthaad» 86» 87 Smmese» 93» I94, 425 slgnallmg, 85 slgnposrs of Latin origan, 24o-I slgnposts of Teutomc ongm, 227 Smd2, Slavomc languages, 193, 194, 413-I6 Slavomc speakers, number, 406 Slovak, 193, 194» 413 Slovene, 194 , 413 Somah, 193, 194, 420 n Sorbmn, 413 sound changes» 47-8 sound changes, m Latin languages, 238 ff, 241ff sound changes» Lar.m, 326 solmd-replacernent» 185-6 , 187» 188 sound-shffts» 224 ff » 23I, 235, 284 sotmds and symbols, 228 Spanh» 194» 242 ff» 309 ff, 343-6» 349 ff »see also Romance Spamsh, &zablc elemen m, 3r3, 344 Spamsh pronu.caatlon, 254-5 Spantsh speilmg, 383- 4 speech commumues» small» 15 Spehn, 459 spelhng changes» Enghsh» 82-3 spellmg, comparative, 47-8 spelkng, Damsh, 237-8 spellmg, Dutch, 236 spellmg, German» 234-5 spelhng of aumhary language, 486 spellmg» raraonal, 78 ff spelImg reform» 88 spellmg, Scandmanan, 137-8 spellmg, Spamsh» 383-4 Stîssbourg, Oaths of» stress» in Geman, 235 stress, m Romance languages, 259 stressed pronouns, French» 363-4 strong verbs, lO7 subect» 116--17 subect-object chstmcraon, words and, 17o, 488 subect-predoete relauon, I3o subluncuve, 12o subtunctlve» German, 3o7-8 sublunctlve» Romance, 394-5 subordmate cIause, 162 suborclmate contmctons, 161 ff substanraves» 90» 125 Suetomus, 318 sufftxes, 53, see also affaxes
668 The Loom o) Langgage Sumenans» superlauv¢» IIO $wahlh» I93» 1o9 Sw¢chsh» 1o6» 76 ff » se also Sweh» htera» 28I--2 Sweh speg» z37-8 syHable wng» 48» 6I syables» 53» 69» 214 sos» eoessy» 500 St» I22» I29 ff» I84 sl» d good wHg» II st» Gel» 3oz ff soEeuc 1ges» IO7 Tahman» I94 Tamll» I95 Tarte» I93» I94 Tascoman, 53 techmcal tels, 24» 496 ff telegapc codes 85 TaluS, 195 tee, o3, xo5-8, 32, 489 tenses, compod, tenses» Ronce, 337» 390-3 Teutomc lage, poeem» 8, 186- 187 Teutomc lages, I94, Teutomc lages d nghsh, eroes, 173 Teutomc spers, nmber, 406 Tbet, 93, I94, I Tbeto-Bese goup, 5 T» 4 345 de, e, oEves ot, 46 To» 89 tone» mt«rove» 159 tones» 63» 5» 433-4 Tooke» Home» 79-8o oec s 49» 7 uinve» I49 trmve d mtrsmve, m rn, 306 tncks of age-learmg, o, 24 tesm, 70, 4 Tco-T lages» 194 Thsh, 93, I94, oo» 489 Tsh script, 416» 436 Ukragnan, 416 Ullas, Io2, I78, 265 Umlaut» lo6 Umversal-Sprache, 459 Urdu, 412 Vandals, 343 Vechc, 407, 408 Vechc hymns, 19o Veltpar 459 verb, 31, ti9-2I» 148ff, sec also lrregular verbs verb, causauve, 15o, 206 verb, Celnc, 418-I9 verb, Dutch, 285 verb economy, 474-5, 477 verb, sh, I98 verb flemons, Dutch and German, 283-4 verb flextons» Enghsh, 261-5 verb flexaons, Gottnc, 265 verb flexaons, Scandmavlan» 177 verb» French» 378-8o verb» German, 297 ff verb, Gottnc, 265 verb, Greek and Sansturxt» 409 verb, nnpersonal, I69, 171 verb, m Basm Enghsh, 503- 4 verb, m Interlmgua, 469-70 verb, Itahan, 382 . verb» Latm, 32I ff verb» Perman, 4fo verb, Portuguese, 38o- 4 verb pretixes» OErman, 302 verb, Romance, 378 ff verb» Russlan, 415-r6 verb, separable, 3o2-3 verb» Spamsh, 38o-4 vêrb, strong and weak, xo4, xo7, 17o verb, Teutomc, I87, I91, 2o6-9,z7o ff verb, vagueness of meanmg, x48 verb noun, I9 , vernaculazs, nse of, 443 vestiges, grammaucal» 35-6 vocabulary, baslco 19 ff vocabulary, bamc, number of words needed, 14, 3o vocabulary, conversauonal and wnt- ten, 27 vocabulary, for atuxfllary language, 494 ff vocauve case, 314, 318 vocattves, 9 °
Index 669 volte, II9-2I voced and vocêless consonants» 27I, 506-8 Volap» 454, 455 .40 vowel change, German, o7 vowel chge, Sermc, 44-5 vowel sbols, phonenc» g4 vowels, 56, 62, 7o ff, vowels, Enghsh, 233 ff vowels, French, 256 vowels, m mterlana, 5o8 vowels, Rommce, 56 Vulgate, 3II, Bi4, 362 Wade, Sr T, 437 war, and mterlanguage, 5Ii weak verbs, io4 Welsh, IO-3, I93, I94, 417 Wfls, BIshop, 87, 444 ff, 494 word-economy, 499-506 word-hsts, how to learn, 219 ff word-hsts, mahng, 33 ff word-order, 40, I53 ff, 273, 492 ff word-order, Anglo-Amencan, 49>3 word-order, Chmese, 43o-I word-order, conlmmons and, I62-6 word-order, Gemm-I)utch, 634, 86ff word-order, Latin» 3z3-4 word.order, Scaadmavm» 6» z77 word-smlantT, 82-4 wntmg md speech» x74-5 Wrltg, good, I7O ff wntmg, hnds of, 48 wnttng, sepmtaon of words m, 50 Yddsh, 406 Zamenhof, L L, 460 ff Zend, 407 Zoologlcal Nomenclature, Interna. ttonal Comaussm on, 484 Zdu, I93, I95
The Gift of Tongues by MARGAIT SCHLAUCH Demy 8o zs 6d net An mtroducnon for the layman to the who!e broad sublect ofhnusucs, the scmnce of language Cunously enough, only one smatl, speclahzed, and far fromwell-developed branch of tNs sublect bas of late been recelv- mg much popular treatment--namely, "semanhcs," or the scïence of meamng k ls now round that forelgn ianguages are more easfly leamed by students who bave had some elementary msu-ucnon m language m general Professor Schlauch has, however, aunêd her book hot only at the prospective st-adent of French or Chmese, but also at the general reader who uses language only to speak it or to do cross-word puzzles, and who would enloy answers to such quemons as What s grammar, and Why How &d the Enghsh language evolve Why can'[ most foreîgners pronounce Enghsh colrectly How are alphabets made What language famlhes are there» Do languages evolve accordmg to natural laws» Why have certain ords corne to have t_hetr present meamng, often the opposlte of ther ongmaI onê? The author has, moreover, glven fresh, modern vtahty to the sublect by mcIudmg chapters on the Ianguage of modem poetry and the socml and pohtcal aspects of language An appendzx supplements the fllustrauons gnven m the text and supphes entertammg exercses for remembenng better what has been learned Language" Its Nature, Development and Origan by OTTO JESPERSEN &xth Imtrresson Demy 8o 6 net "A dehghtf and fascmatmg book Professor Jespersen's Enghsh s the Enghsh of a gentleman--only rather better Not many nauve dons could mm out four hundred pages of Enghsh as humorous, lucd, and as correct as these "--Daly Herald "No pares bave been spared and nothmg seems to bave been ontted. The work wfll be an eye-opener to the student A book for every school hbrary "--The Schoolmaster "Chef among Professor Jespersen's many quahues we would place hot hs eruchuon, vast as t s, but the hvely maagmmon mth wlch he plays upon the most unpromsmg of sublects and extracts from t maramum of human mterest "--The S2ectator
The Philosophy of Grammar by OTTO IESPERSEN Fourth Impresswn Demy 8vo 2s 6d net "Ths ls certamly one of the welghnest conmbuuons to lmsuc smdy that bave appeared for many a da; and no language smdent wfll be able to chspense wlth It "--Aberdeen Press "Indïspensable to alI senous students of language and mvaluable to every teacher of grammar "---Educatzon "In lts ongmahty, lts erucktlon, and 1fs breadth, thm s qmte the best book on grammar we have seen."--Bzrmmgham Gazette "As a study by an expert it wfll take an mportant place in the lm- gulsnc field "--Yorkshzre Post How to Teach a Foreign Language by OTTO JESPERSEN Seventh Impression Crown 8vo 4s 6d net "We recommend thm very lucd, readable and pracncal book to all language teachers and leamers "--Schoolmaster "We are glad to possess thm translauon of Professor Jespersen's excellent book It gves a lucad exposmon of the reform method The book should be purchased and most carefully smched by every modern langnage teacher "--SchooI World Novial Lexike INTERNATIONAL DICTIONAR¥ by OTTO JESPERSEN La Cr 8vo 3s 6d net "... NovaI surpasses the other mtemataonal languages m ail respects " --C. C UI-ILEAOE (Presdent of the first Internatzonal Congress of Lngustcs) "Novaal ls really good . ."--GEoRGE BElmAm SI-IAW "A large and very interestmg dlctaonary of Professor Iespersen's language, Nowal It confirms the wew expressed m our revew of the author's earher work, namely, that Novlal m an advance on ail other languages of the 'nataonahstlc' school "--Internatwnal Language LONDON: GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD