EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES
THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of
LANTS
Spadix
(fleshy axis
carrying male
and female flowers)
Spathe
(large bract)
Peduncle
(inflorescence stalk)
PAINTER’S PALETTE
(Anthurium andreanum)
Lid
Lamina (blade)
Midrib
Emarginate apex
. Terminal
pinna
(leaflet)
Point of
attachment
to pedicel
(flower stalk)
If ’
Pinna
(leaflet)
Petiolule
(leaflet
stalk)
Rachis
(main axis of
pinnate leaf)
Endocarp
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Remains
of stigma
and style
Groove
Testa
(seed
coat)
Mesocarp
MONKEY CUP
(Nepenthes mirabilis)
FALSE ACACIA
(Robinia pseudoacacia)
DATE
(Phoenix dactylifera)
Heartwood
(inactive
secondary
Sapwood
(active
secondary
xylem)
Pith
Branch
trace
Phloem
Periderm
(outer layer
of bark)
CROSS SECTION THROUGH
MATURE STEM OF BISHOP PINE
(Pinus muricata)
“Stem
_Bark
ring
EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES
THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of
PLANTS
Stamen _
Filament
(flower stalk)
Ovary-
Inner tepal
(monocotyledonous petal)
Outer tepal
(monocotyledonous sepal)
GLORY LILY
(Gloriosa superba)
DORLING KINDERSLEY, INC.
GRAND FORKS PUBLIC LIBRARY
NEW YORK
A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK
Project Art Editor Bryn Walls
Designer Andrew Nash
Project Editor Mary Lindsay
Consultant Editor Dr. Richard Walker
U.S. Editor Charles Wills
Series Art Editor Stephen Knowlden
Series Editor Martyn Page
Art Director Chez Picthall
Managing Editor Ruth Midgley
Photography Peter Chadwick, Geoff Dann, Natural History Museum, Spike Walker
Illustrations Simone End, John Woodcock
Production Hilary Stephens
Botanical Models Supplied By Somso Modelle, Coburg, Germany
Pore
Reticulated
surface
Exine
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
MICROGRAPH OF POLLEN GRAIN
First American Edition, 1992
10 98765452 1
Dorling Kindersley, Inc., 252 Madison Avenue
New York, New York 10016
Copyright © 1992 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published in the United States by Dorling Kindersley, Inc., New York, New York.
Distributed by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited, London.
No PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED, STORED IN A RETRIEVAL SYSTEM,
OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC, MECHANICAL, PHOTOCOPYING, RECORDING
OR OTHERWISE, WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Eyewitness visual dictionary of plants. — 1st American ed.
p. cm. — (The Eyewitness visual dictionaries)
Includes index.
Summary: Text and labeled illustrations depict a variety of plants
AND THEIR PARTS, INCLUDING WOODY, FLOWERING, DESERT, AND TROPICAL PLANTS.
ISBN 1-56458-016-4 — ISBN 1-56458-017-2
1. Plants—Terminology—Juvenile literature. 2. Plants—Pictorial works—Juvenile literature.
5. Picture dictionaries, English—Juvenile literature. [1. Plants] I. Dorling Kindersley, Inc.
II. Series.
QK49.E94 1992
581—dc20
Reproduced by Colourscan, Singapore
Printed and bound by Arnoldo Mondadori, Verona, Italy
91-58208
CIP
AC
Remains
of sepal
Exocarp
(outer
layer of
pericarp)
—Drupelet
Remains
of style
Remains of
stamen
- Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
BLACKBERRY
(Rubus fruticosus)
Tree bark
Lobe
Foliose
(leafy) thallus
LICHEN
(Hypogymnia physodes')
Contents
Plant Varieties 6
Fungi and Lichens 8
Algae and Seaweed io
Liverworts and Mosses 12
Vein
Midrib
Petiole
(leaf stalk)
Horsetails, Club mosses, and Ferns 14
Gymnosperms 16
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons 20
Herbaceous Flowering Plants 22
Woody Flowering Plants 24
Roots 26
Stems 28
Leaves so

CHECKERBLOOM
(Sidalcea malviflora)
Soredia
(vegetative
fragments)
produced
at end
of lobe
Photosynthesis 32
Flowers 34
Pollination 38
Fertilization 40
Succulent Fruits 42
Dry Fruits 44
Germination 46
Vegetative Reproduction 48
Fissure
Mottled
surface
of leaf
Unified
leaf pair
Dead
flowers in old fissure

LIVING STONE
(Lithops bromfieldii)
Dead,
withered
leaf
Dryland Plants 50
Wetland Plants 52
Carnivorous Plants 54
Epiphytic and Parasitic Plants 56
Plant Classification 58
Index 59
Acknowledgments 64
Woody
ovuliferous
scale_______
Female
cone
BHUTAN PINE
(Pinus wallichiana)
Capsule
Immature
capsule
Seta
(stalk)
Rhizoid
MOSS
(Rryum Sp.)
Plant varieties
FLOWERING PLANT
Bromeliad
(Acanthostachys strobilacea)
Leaf
There are more than 300,000 species of plants. They
show a wide diversity of forms, ranging from delicate liverworts, adapted for life
in a damp habitat, to cacti, capable of surviving in the desert. The plant kingdom includes
herbaceous plants, such as corn, which completes its life cycle in one year, to the giant redwood tree, which
can live for thousands of years. This diversity reflects the adaptations of plants to survive in a wide range of
habitats. This is seen most clearly in the flowering plants (phylum Angiospermophyta), which are the most
numerous, with over 250,000 species. They are also the most widespread, being found from the tropics to the
arctic. Despite their diversity, plants share certain characteristics. Typically, plants are green, and make their
food by photosynthesis. Most plants live in or on a substrate, such as soil, and do not actively move. Algae
(kingdom Protista) and fungi (kingdom Fungi) have some plantlike characteristics and are
often studied alongside plants, although they are not true plants.
Chloroplast
Ramentum
(brown scale)
Base of dead
frond (leaf)
Pyrenoid
(small protein
body)
Adventitious
root
FERN
Tree fern
(Dicksonia antarctica)
_ Trunk
 ?
Rachis
(main axis
of pinnate leaf)
Capsule
(site of spore
production)
__Gametophyte
(gamete-producing
plant)
GREEN ALGA
Micrograph of desmid
(Micrasterias sp.)
Cell wall
Sinus
(division between
two halves of cell)
BRYOPHYTE
Moss
(Bryum sp.)

Petiole
(leaf stalk)
Immature capsule
‘Leaf
Seta
(stalk)
Sporophyte _
(spore-
producing
plant)
Epiphytic
fern growing
at base
6
.Leaf
Inflorescence
Stem
Xylem
Stem
Phloem
Root
Sepal
Rachis
Frond (leaf)
Hood
Node
Wing
Sheathing
leaf base
Caryopsis
(type of
dry fruit)
Midrib of
pinna (leaflet)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Hinge cells
(cause curling of leaf to
reduce water loss) -
(main axis of
grass inflorescence)
Mesophyll
(photosynthetic
tissue)
Pitcher (leaf
modified to trap
insects)
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening
tissue)
Downward-pointing
hair (enco urages
insect prey into
pitcher)	|
Pinna
(leaflet)
Lamina
(blade)
Umbrella/
of style
Interlocked
trichomes (hairs)
Caudex
(swollen
stem
base)
Round, hollow
stem
FLOWERING PLANT
Micrograph of cross section
through leaf of marram grass
(Ammophila arenaria)
Immature
pitcher
Cuticle_____
(waterproof
covering)
Petiole
(leafstalk)
FLOWERING PLANT
Pitcher plant
(Sarracenia purpurea)
Rract
(leaf-like structure)
FLOWERING PLANT
Succulent
(Kedrostis africana)
Fruit
surrounded
by floral parts
FLOWERING PLANT
Couch grass
(Agropyron repens}
Stiff trichome
(hair)
Vascular
tissue
Spine Flower
Adventitious
root________
Pedicel,
(flower
stalk)
7
Fungi and lichens
EXAMPLES OF FUNGI
Fungi were once thought of as plants but are now classified as
a separate kingdom. This kingdom includes not only the familiar
mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, and molds, but also yeasts,
smuts, rusts, and lichens. Most fungi are multicellular, consisting
of a mass of thread-like hyphae that together form a mycelium.
However, the simpler fungi, like yeasts, are microscopic,
single-celled organisms. Typically, fungi reproduce by means of
spores. Most fungi feed on dead or decaying matter or on living
organisms. A few fungi obtain their food from plants or algae,
with which they have a symbiotic (mutually advantageous)
relationship. Lichens are a symbiotic partnership between
algae and fungi. Of the six types of lichens the three most
common are crustose (flat and crusty), foliose (leafy), and
fruticose (shrub-like). Some lichens (such as Cladonia
floerkeana) are a combination of types.
Lichens reproduce by means of spores
or soredia (powdery vegetative
fragments).
EXAMPLES
OF LICHENS
thallus
Branched, hollow stem
Apothecium
(spore-producing body)
FRUTICOSE
Cladonia portentosa
Soredia (powdery vegetative
fragments) produced at
end of lobe
Sporophore_____
(spore-bearing
structure)
Emerging
sporophore
(spore-bearing
Pileus (cap) Bark
continuous with of dead
stipe (stalk)
beech tree
(stalk)
(fungal
filaments)
Inrolled
margin
of pileus
(cap) Gill
(site of spore (spore-bearing
production)
structure)
OYSTER FUNGUS
(Pleurotus pulmonarius)
Tree bark
Foliose
thallus
FOLIOSE
Hypogymnia physodes
Soredia (powdery vegetative
fragments) released onto
surface of squamulose
thallus
Apothecium
(spore-producing
body)
Moss
SQUAMULOSE (SCALY)
AND FRUTICOSE THALLUS
Cladonia floerkeana
Toothed
branchlet
Porous stipe
(stalk)
STINKHORN
Sporophore
(spore-bearing
structure)
Gleba
(spore-producing
tissue found in
this type of fungus)
Volva
(remains of
universal
veil)
Stipe (stalk)
RAMARIA FORMOSA
(Phallus impudicus)
SECTION THROUGH FOLIOSE LICHEN
SHOWING REPRODUCTION „
RY SOREDIA	®
Fungal hypha
Algal
Basal scale layer
of primary
squamulose Medulla of
thallus fungal hyphae
(mycelium)
Podetium
(granular stalk)	Lowe?'
of secondary	cortex
fruticose thallus
Upper
cortex
t Soredium (powdery vegetative
fragment involved in propagation)
released from lichen
Rhizine
(bundle of
upper surface
Upper surface
absorptive hyphae)
of thallus)
of thallus
,Exoperidium П Peridium (wall surrounding
^spore-producing tissue)
Endoperidium
LIFE CYCLE OF A MUSHROOM
Gleba
(spore-producing
tissue found in
this type of fungus)
Scale on
exoperidium
(outer part of
V* peridium)
Velar scale
(remains of
universal veil)

Stipe
(stalk)
Underground mycelium
Substratum of woodland
soil and leaf litter
Pileus (cap)
Underground__
mycelium
Gill
(site of spore
production)
Annulus
(ring)
Stipe
(stalk)
MATURE SPOROPHORE
„Sporophore (spore-bearing structure)
(spore-bearing
structure)
Basidium
(spore-producing
structure)
Discharged spore
SECTION OF GILL
Primary
mycelium
develops
from spore _
Spore
Hypha
Fan-shaped (mass of hyphae)
pileus
COMMON EARTHBALL
(Scleroderma citrinum)
FRINGED CRUMBLE CAP
(Psathyrella candolleana)
Primary
mycelia fuse
to produce
secondary
mycelium___
L ® Septum
(cross wall)
SPORES GERMINATE AND
PRODUCE MYCELIUM
Immature
sporophore
"Л Nucleus ZvW
Substratum
of woodland
soil and leaf
litter
_ Sporophore
(spore-bearing
structure)
Stipe
(stalk)
HOHENBUEHELIA PETALOIDES
_ Pileus
(cap)
Hyphae
(fungal filaments)
Stipe
(stalk)
Universal veil
(membrane
enclosing developing
sporophore)
Expanding
pileus (cap)
Mycelium _
MYCELIUM FORMS SPOROPHORE
Gill (site of
spore production)
Sporophore____
(spore-bearing
structure)
Underground
Pileus
(cap)
Gill
Stipe
(stalk)
SPOROPHORE GROWS
Annulus (ring)
being formed as
partial veil breaks
Underground
mycelium___
ABOVE GROUND
Partial veil
J (joins pileus
to stipe)
Stipe
(stalk)
Volva
(remains
of
universal
veil)
UNIVERSAL VEIL
BREAKS
9
Algae and seaweed
Algae are not true plants. They form a diverse group of
plantlike organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista
(see p. 58). Like plants, algae possess the green pigment
chlorophyll and make their own food by photosynthesis
(see pp. 32-33). Many algae also possess other pigments by
which they can be classified. For example, the brown pigment
fucoxanthin is found in brown algae. Some of the ten phyla of algae
are exclusively unicellular (single-celled); others also
contain aggregates of cells in filaments or colonies. Three
phyla—the Chlorophyta (green algae), Rhodophyta (red algae),
and Phaeophyta (brown algae)—contain larger, multicellular,
thalloid (flat), marine organisms commonly known as seaweed.
Most algae can reproduce sexually. For
example, in brown seaweed
Fucus vesiculosus, gametes
(sex cells) are produced in
conceptacles (chambers) in
the receptacles (fertile tips
of fronds); after their release
into the sea, antherozoids
(male gametes) and oospheres
(female gametes) fuse. The
resulting zygote settles on a rock
and develops into a new seaweed.
Coenobium
(colony of cells)
BROWN SEAWEED
Channeled wrack
(Pelvetia canaliculata)
Thallus -
(plant
body)
Hapteron (holdfast)
Apical
notch
Receptacle
(fertile tip
offrond)
EXAMPLES OF ALGAE
Reproductive
chamber
Cap-
Stalk -
Sterile whorl
Cell wall
Rhizoid
GREEN ALGA
Acetabularia sp.
Flagellum
Eyespot
Receptacle
(fertile tip
offrond)
Margin of
lamina (blade)
rolled inwards
to form channel
Lamina
(blade)
BROWN SEAWEED
Spiral wrack
(Fucus spiralis~)
Apical notch
Conceptacle
(chamber)
Smooth margin
Midrib
Hapteron (holdfast)
-Thallus
(plant
body)
Cell
wall
Pyrenoid
(small protein
body)
'.Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Starch
grain
GREEN ALGA
Chlamydomonas sp.
Contractile
vacuole
GREEN ALGA
Volvox sp.

Daughter
coenobium
Spine
Girdle-
Gelatinous
sheath
Nucleus
T Biflagellate cell
Cytoplasm
Vacuole
Plastid
(photosynthetic
organelle)
DIATOM
Thalassiosira sp.
Apical notch
Midrib
Lamina
(blade)
Conceptacle
(chamber)
containing
reproductive
structures
-Receptacle
(fertile tip
offrond)
BROWN SEAWEED
Oarweed
(Laminaria digitata)
Thallus (plant body)
RECEPTACLE
Spiral wrack
(Fucus spiralis)
RED SEAWEED
Corallina officinalis
Branch
Flexible stipe
(stalk)
Hapteron
(holdfast)
End wall of conjugation
tube still in place
LIFE CYCLE OF BROWN SEAWEED
Bladder wrack
(Fucus vesiculosus)
Branched,
hard thallus _
(plant body)
GREEN SEAWEED
Enteromorpha linza
Male
receptacle &
Crinkled margin
*
Air bladder
Male
Thallus
(plant
body)
Hapteron
(holdfast)
Small hapteron
(holdfast) attaching
seaweed to mussel
Hapteron
(holdfast)
. Unbranched,
spirally twisted
frond
Mam
stem
MALE AND FEMALE SEAWEEDS
Female
receptacle
Female
receptacle
Lamina
(blade)
Stipe
(stalk)
RED SEAWEED
Dilsea carnosa
Thallus__
(plant
body)
• !
Hapteron
(holdfast)
Lamina
(blade)
GREEN ALGA
Spirogyra sp.
End wall
of cell
recep taele
Conceptacle
Ostiole
(opening to
conceptacle) ’fce
MALE AND FEMALE RECEPTACLES
Paraphysis
(sterile hair)
Antheridium
(male sex
organ)
Ostiole
(opening to
conceptacle)
Oogonium
(female sex organ)
SECTIONS THROUGH MALE AND FEMALE
CONCEPTACLES
^Oogonium
Antherozoid
(male gamete)
Antheridium____
(male sex organ)
Oosphere^
(female
gamete)
PRODUCTION OF GAMETES
Antherozoid (male
gamete) swims
toward oosphere
Oosphere
(female
gamete) is
fertilized by
antherozoid
to produce
a zygote
Flagellum
Two filaments^
linked for
conjugation
(sexual
reproduction)
Filament___
(strand of
linked cells)
Cytoplasm
Cell (cylindrical)^
Cell wall
к Id
‘ I
Spirally
wound
chloroplast
Conjugation
tube
FERTILIZATION
__Young thallus
(plant body)
Hapteron
(holdfast)
ZYGOTE DEVELOPS INTO
A YOUNG SEAWEED
11
Liverworts and mosses
Liverworts and mosses are small, low-growing plants that belong to the phylum
Bryophyta. Bryophytes do not have true stems, leaves, or roots (they are anchored to
the ground by rhizoids), nor do they have the vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
that transport water and nutrients in higher plants. With no outer, waterproof
cuticle, bryophytes are susceptible to dehydration, and most grow in moist habitats.
The bryophyte life cycle has two stages. In stage one, the green plant (gametophyte)
produces male and female gametes (sex cells), which fuse to form a zygote. In stage
two, the zygote develops into a sporophyte that remains attached to the gametophyte
The sporophyte produces spores, which are released and germinate into new green
plants. Liverworts (class Hepaticae) grow horizontally and may be thalloid (flat and
A leafy liverwort
Scapania undulata
ribbon-like) or “leafy.” Mosses (class Musci) typically have an upright “stem” with
spirally arranged “leaves.”
Disk
Disk
Lobe
Lobe
Lobe
Stalk
Stalk
Disk
Gemma cup
Stalk
Rhizoid
DETAIL OF GEMMA CUP
Pore
Gemma cup
Midrib
MICROGRAPH OF LOBE
Rhizoid
Pore for
exchange
of gases
Ray (radial
groove)
Ray (radial
groove)
Apical
notch
Upper/
surface
Position
of air
chamber
A THALLOID LIVERWORT Archegoniophore------------
Marchantia polymorpha (stalked structure
carrying archegonia)
Thallus
(plant body)
Thallus
(plant body)
Toothed margin
of cup
ARCHEGONIOPHORE
FROM BELOW
FEMALE
GAMETOPHYTE
Archegoniophore
(stalked structure
carrying archegonia)
|	MICROGRAPH OF THALLUS
Conocephalum conicum
SIDE VIEW OF
ARCHEGONIOPHORE
Gemma (detachable
tissue that produces
new plants)
Thallus
(plant body)
' A- ’&
12
A COMMON MOSS
Polytrichum commune
MICROGRAPH OF MOSS SPORE LIFE CYCLE OF MOSS
Funaria hygrometrica	Funaria sp.
‘Stem
Main “stem
Rhizoid
Cortex
GAMETOPHYTE
Epidermis
‘Leaf
Midrib
Capsule
Neck
Venter
Beak
FERTILIZATION
Capsule
‘Leaf
‘Leaf
Gametophyte
‘Stem
‘Stem
Bud
Spore
Rhizoid
Columella (central
tissue of capsule)
Oosphere (female
gamete fertilized
by antherozoid)
SECTION THROUGH
MATURE FEMALE APEX
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH CAPSULE
Seta___
(stalk)
Seta
(stalk)
Young
aerial
“stem”.
Peristome
tooth opens
Columella
(central tissue
of capsule)
Calyptra
(hood
covering
capsule)
.Sporophyte grows
from fertilized
oosphere
Young
gametophyte
Male apex__
(“leaves”
surrounding
antheridia)
Operculum
(lid)
Protonema (branched
green filament)___
Male rosette______
(“leaves ” around
antheridia)
SECTION THROUGH
MATURE MALE APEX
' DEVELOPING
GAMETOPHYTE
Lateral
branch
of “stem”
Archegoniwn
(female sex
organ)
Apophysis (swollen
area between seta
and capsule)
Operculum
(lid)
Female rosette
(“leaves”
around
archegonia)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH STEM AND LEAF
Spore-containing
space
EXTERNAL VIEW OF
MOSS
Antherozoid (male
gamete swims
to oosphere)
Branch of conducting
tissue to “leaf”
Antherozoids (male
gametes) released
Epidermis from antheridium
of capsule
_Seta
(stalk)
Air space
Spores
dispersed
RIPE CAPSULE
Central strand
of conducting
tissue
SPOROPHYTE
Capsule_____Apophysis
Antheridium
(male sex organ)
Remains of
spore-forming
tissue
Flagellum
13
Horsetails, club mosses
and ferns
FROND
Male fern
(Dryopteris
filix-mas')
Horsetails, club mosses, and ferns are primitive land
plants, which, like higher plants, have steins, roots, leaves,
and vascular systems that transport water, minerals, and food.
Unlike higher plants, however, they do not produce seeds
when reproducing. Their life cycles involve two stages. In stage
one, the sporophyte (green plant) produces spores in sporangia.
In stage two, the spores germinate, developing into small,
short-lived gametophyte plants that produce male and female
gametes (sex cells). The gametes fuse to form a zygote from
which a new sporophyte plant develops. Horsetails (phylum
Sphenophyta) have erect green stems with branches
arranged in whorls. Some stems are fertile and have a single
spore-producing strobilus (group of sporangia) at the tip. Club
mosses (phylum Lycopodophyta) typically have small leaves arranged
spirally around the stem, with spore-producing strobili at the tip of some
stems. Ferns (phylum Filicinophyta) usually
have large, pinnate leaves called fronds.
Sporangia, grouped together in sori,
develop on the underside
of fertile fronds.
CLUB MOSS
Lycopodium sp.
Branch
Strobilus
(group of sporangia)
Cortex (layer
between epidermis
and vascular tissue)
HOBSETAIL
Common horsetail
(Equisetum arvense~)
Stem with
spirally
arranged
leaves
Vascular tissue
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening tissue)
Epidermis ~
(outer layer
of cells)
CLUB MOSS
Selaginella sp.
Root
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH CLUB MOSS STEM
Branch
Rhizophore
(leafless
branch)
Shoot
apex
Creeping stem with
spirally arranged
leaves
Vascular -
tissue J
Phloem
Xyle
Node

Collar of small
brown leaves__
Apex of
sterile shoot
Non-photosynthetic
fertile stem
Sporangiophore
(structure
carrying
sporangia)
Strobilus__
(group of
sporangia)
Node
_ Internode
Tuber
Rhizome
Adventitious root
Lacuna
(air space)
Photosynthetic
sterile stem
Lateral
branch
Epidermis _
(outer layer
of cells)
Endodermis
(inner layer of
cortex)
Parenchyma
(packing
tissue)
Chlorenchyma
(photosynthetic
tissue)
Hollow pith
cavity
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Vallecular canal
(longitudinal channel)
Carinal canal
(longitudinal
channel)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH HORSETAIL STEM
14
LIFE CYCLE OF FERN
pinna)
Rhizome
Apex of frond (leaf)
Spore
Rhizoid
Rhizoid
Rhizome
Phloem
Xylem
Adventitious root
Vascular
bundle
Primary leaf
of growing
sporophyte
Oosphere
(female
gamete)
Remains of
gametophyte
Midrib of
pinnule
Pinnule
(leaflet
Pinna
(leaflet)
Frond
(leaf)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Young frond
(leaf) rolled
and covered
by ramenta
Annulus
ruptures
at weak
point
Frond
(leaf)
Vascular
tissue
Ramentum
(brown scale)
Antheridium
(male sex
organ)_____
Rolled
immature
Sporangium
splits and
releases spores
Midrib of
pinna
(leaflet)
Spore inside
dehisced
(split open)
sporangium
RELEASE OF SPORES
FROM SPORANGIUM
Young frond
(leaf)
Sorus
(group of
sporangia)
FERN
Male fern
(Dryopteris filix-mas)
Antherozoid
(male gamete)
swims to
oosphere
Pinnule /
(leaflet of
pinna)
Rase of
Sclerenchyma	old dead
(strengthening tissue) frond (leaf)
Abaxial__
(lower)
surface of
pinnule
Sorus
(group of
sporangia)
FERTILIZED OOSPHERE GROWS INTO NEW
SPOROPHYTE PLANT
Archego nium\
(female sex organ)
FERTILIZATION
Midrib of pinnule I
MICROGRAPH OF SPORANGIA ON
LOWER SURFACE OF FERTILE PINNULE
MICROGRAPH OF LOWER SURFACE OF
FERTILE PINNULE
Pinnule
(leaflet
of pinna)
j Indusium
(flap
protecting
sorus)______
Sporangium
(spore-producing structure)
SECTION THROUGH MATURE PINNULE
Parenchyma
(packing tissue)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FERN RACHIS
SPORE PRODUCTION IN FERN
Bracken
(Pteridium
aquilinum)
Sporangium
(spore-producing
Apex of	structure)
pinnule
Spore.
^Sporangium	\
(spore-producing
structure)
Spore
Annulus
(ring of cells
around sporangium) Pinna (leaflet)
Pinnule (leaflet
of pinna )	-—
Filament
develops
into
prothallus
GERMINATION OF SPORE
Antheridium	Archegonium
(male sex organ)	(f
°	f organ)
Prothallus
(free-living
gametophyte)
GAMETOPHYTE PRODUCES GAMETES
SPOROPHYTE
Placenta
Rachis_______
(main axis of
pinnate leaf)
15
Gymnosperms 1
LIFE CYCLE OF SCOTS PINE
(Pinus sylvestris)
The GYMNOSPERMS ARE FOUR RELATED PHYLA of seed-producing
plants: Their seeds, however, lack the protective outer covering
which surrounds the seeds of flowering plants. Typically,
gymnosperms are woody, perennial shrubs or trees, with stems,
leaves, roots, and a well-developed vascular (transport) system.
The reproductive structures in most gymnosperms are cones. Male
cones produce microspores in which male gametes (sex cells) develop;
female cones produce megaspores in which female gametes develop.
Microspores are blown by the wind to female cones, male and female
gametes fuse during fertilization, and a seed develops. The four
gymnosperm phyla are the conifers (phylum Coniferophyta), mostly
tall trees; cycads (phylum Cycadophyta), small palm-like
trees; the ginkgo or maidenhair tree
(phylum Ginkgophyta), a tall tree with
bilobed leaves; and gnetophytes
(phylum Gnetophyta) a diverse
group of plants, mainly shrubs,
but also including the
horizontally growing
welwitschia.
SCALE AND SEEDS
Pine
(Pinus sp.)
Ovuliferous scale
(ovule-/seed-bearing
structure)
Needle^
(foliage
leaf)
Cone
Д’Ж Ovuliferous
9® ovule-/seed-
bearing structure)
MALE CONES	YOUNG FEMALE CONE
Pollen grain in micropyle Ovuliferous
scale
(entrance to ovule)
Pollen
Nucleus /
Air sac
(contains
female
gamete)
Microsporangium
(structure in which
pollen grains are
formed)
Seed
Wing
scar
derivedfrom
ovuliferous scale
Seed
Seed scar
Point of attachment
to axis of cone
OVULIFEROUS SCALE FROM
THIRD-YEAR FEMALE CONE
Pollen tube
(carries male
gamete from
pollen grain
to ovum)
POLLINATION
Integument
(outer part
of ovule)
FERTILIZATION
(containing
female
gamete)
Ovuliferous
scale (ovule-/
seed-bearing
structure)
Seed
Seed
MATURE FEMALE CONE AND
WINGED SEED
Axis
of cone
Micro sporophyll
(modified leaf
carrying
microsporangia)
Scale leaf
Ovuliferous scale
(ovule-/seed-
bearing structure)
Ovule
(contains
female
gametes)
Bract
scale
Axis
of cone
Plumule
(embryonic
shoot)____
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Root
GERMINATION OF
PINE SEEDLING
WELWITSCHIA
(Welwitschia mirabilis')
MICROGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL
SECTION THROUGH YOUNG
MALE CONE
MICROGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL
SECTION THROUGH SECOND-YEAR
FEMALE CONE
Frayed end of leaf
16
Seed
Scale
Seed
Female “cone
Scale
Scale
Stem
DISCARDED CONE
CYCAD
Woody
scale
Ovuliferous scale _
(ovule-Zseed-
bearing structure)
Ovuliferous
scale __
Developing
seed____
Immature
male cone
Needle
(foliage
leaf)
Scalelike
leaf
Aril
(fleshy
outgrowth
from seed)
SMOOTH CYPRESS
(Cupressus glabra)
YEW
(Taxus baccata)
Opening between
woody scales
through which
seeds are
released
Immature
female
cone
Mature
female
cone
FEMALE “CONES” AT
VARIOUS STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
Ovuliferous scale	'—"ч
(ovule-Zseed-
bearing structure)
Single ovule
(contains female
gamete)
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH MATURE
CONE
'—-—|	_j___Ovule
<	;	(contains female
gamete)
CROSS SECTION THROUGH
IMMATURE CONE
Sago palm
(Cycas revoluta)
Girdle scar
Stem
Pinnate leaf ,
Scale
Old leaf base
Bilobed leaf
Frayed end of leaf
Woody stem
Continuously
growing leaf.
Adaxial (upper)
surface of leaf
Abaxial (lower)
surface of leaf
Site of cone
growth
Pinna
(leaflet)
GINKGO TREE
(Ginkgo biloba)
Stalk
scar
Petiole_____
(leafstalk)
Stem covered
by scale leaves
Immature
cone
17
Gymnosperms 2
Second-year female cone
Cone
Apical bud
Cone stalk
Stem
Dwarf shoot
Scale leaf scar
FEMALE CONE (FIRST YEAR)
Stem
Male cone
Needle (foliage leaf)
Dwarf shoot
Apical bud
Dwarf shoot
Stem
TERMINAL ZONE OF BRANCH
Cascular tissue.
Margin
of needle
(foliage leaf)
Scar of
dwarf shoot
Moody ovuliferous
scale (ovule-/seed-
bearing structure)
Epidermis
(outer
layer of
cells)
Upper surface
of needle
(foliage leaf)
Ovuliferous scale
(ovule-/seed-bearing
structure)
Ovuliferous scale
(ovule-/seed-bearing
structure) , 'I
Bud
scale
Stoma
(pore)
Endodermis
(inner layer
Stoma
(pore)
Phloem Xylem
Mesophyll
(photosynthetic tissue)
Needle
(foliage leaf)
Needle
(foliage leaf)
BRANCH OF BISHOP PINE
(Pinus muricata)
^-—Cuticle
p**®3 (waterproof
\Resin canal covering)
Female
cone__
FEMALE CONE (THIRD YEAR)
of cortex)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
MICROGRAPH OF NEEDLE
(FOLIAGE LEAF) OF PINE
THROUGH NEEDLE (FOLIAGE LEAF)
(Pinus sp.)
18
Apical bud scale
Apical bud
Annual ring
Bud scale
Scale leaf.
Base of dwarf shoot
Pith
Phloem
Phloem
Bark
Besin canal
Cortex
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
Primary
xylem
Medullary ray
(extension of pith)
Secondary.
xylem
Sapwood
(active secondary
xylem)
Needle
(foliage
leaf) bud
Immature needle
(foliage leaf)
Periderm___
(outer layer
of bark)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
CROSS SECTION THROUGH
MATURE STEM OF RISHOP PINE
(Pinus muricata)
Heartwood.
(supportive,
inactive
secondary
xylem)
Vascular,
tissue
Shoot
apex
-Dwarf shoot trace
(vascular bundle
supplying dwarf
shoot)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
MICROGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH SHOOT APEX OF PINE
(Pinus sp)
Pith
Branch trace____-
(vascular bundle
supplying branch)
Hypodermis
(cell layer below
epidermis)
THROUGH YOUNG STEM OF PINE
(layer between
(Pinus sp.)
Cortex
(layer between
phellem and
vascular tissue)
Resin canal
phellem and
vascular tissue)
Secondary
xylem
Primary
xylem
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Phellem
(protective
outer layer)
Phloem
Secondary
xylem
Phellem
(protective
outer layer)
Primary
xylem
Phloem
Resin canal
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH YOUNG ROOT OF PINE
(Pinus sp.)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH MATURE ROOT OF PINE
(Pinus sp.)
19
Monocotyledons
and dicotyledons
Vein______
(parallel
venation)
Petiole_____
(leafstalk)
Leaflet
Leaf base
Emerging
leaf
Adventitious
root
COMPARISONS BETWEEN
MONOCOTYLEDONS AND
DICOTYLEDONS
Flowering plants (phylum angiospermophyta) are divided into two classes:
monocotyledons (class Monocotyledoneae) and dicotyledons (class
Dicotyledoneae). Typically, monocotyledons have seeds with one
cotyledon (seed leaf); their foliage leaves are narrow with
parallel veins; the flower components occur in multiples of three;
sepals and petals are indistinguishable and are known as tepals;
vascular (transport) tissues are scattered in random
bundles throughout the stem; and, because they lack stem
cambium (actively dividing cells that produce wood),
most monocotyledons are herbaceous (see pp. 22-23).
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS
LEAF BASES
Dicotyledons have seeds with two cotyledons; leaves are broad with a central
midrib and branched veins; flower parts occur in multiples of four or five;
sepals are generally small and green; petals are large and colorful; vascular
bundles are arranged in a ring around the edge of the stem; and, because many
dicotyledons possess wood-producing stem cambium, there are woody forms
(see pp. 24-25) as well as herbaceous ones.
Xylem
Water-absorbing
parenchyma
(packing
tissue)
Phloem
Vein
Sunken
stoma
(pore)
Cuticle ____
(waterproof
covering)
Mesophyll
(photosynthetic
tissue)
A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS LEAF
_ Vascular tissue
Palisade mesophyll
(tightly packed
photosynthetic tissue)
Spongy
mesophyll
(loosely packed
photosynthetic
tissue)
Epidermis (outer
layer of cells)
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening tissue)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
A MONOCOTYLEDON
Paradise palm
(Howea forsteriana)
Collenchyma
(supporting
tissue)
Vascular
tissue___

Xylem
Phloem
Vein
Outer tepal______
(monocotyledonous
sepal)
Yucca (Yucca sp)
Lateral, inner tepal
(monocotyledonous
petal)
Guide hair
Column____'
(stamens
and style)
Labellum (lip)
A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWER
Orchid
Filament
Stamen-
Anther
Epidermis
(outer layer of
cells)
Parenchyma
Midrib	(packing tissue)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
A DICOTYLEDONOUS LEAF
Crab apple (Matus sp)
Pollen on
anther_____
Funnel guide for
bird pollinators’ beak
Stigma
Petal
A DICOTYLEDONOUS FLOWER
Hibiscus

(Phalaenopsis sp)
forming landing area
for pollinator
(Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
20
Stigma
Petal
Flower bud
Sepal
Anther
Stamen
Filament
Receptacle
Node
Leaf.
Stem
Leaf base
Branch
Midrib
Pith
Main root
Lateral root
Leaf base
Protoxylem
Xylem
Xylem
Metaxylem
Phloem
Pith
Phloem
Vascular supply
to axillary bud
Plicate (folded)
lamina (blade)
of young leaf
Vascular tissue of stem
(xylem and phloem)
Pericycle
(outer layer
of stele)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Epidermis _
(outer layer
of cells)
Axillary bud
(bud developing
between leaf and stem)
Lamina
(blade)
Lateral
bud
Petiole
(leaf
stalk)
. Immature
foliage leaf
Pericycle
(outer layer
of stele)
Lora
(strip of
dead cells)
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Petiole /
(leaf stalk)
Bud scale
leaf
Cortex /	4
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Phellem
(protective cork layer)
Cortex________
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Vein
(branched venation)
Leaf trace/ 111 w 8
(vascular bundle supplying leaf)
Stele
(vascular cylinder)
' -y s '"0- Exodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
A DICOTYLEDON
Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
___Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Bract
(leaf-like structure)
Stele
(vascular cylinder)
Metaxylem
/Protoxylem
MICROGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH
A WOODY DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
Maple (Acersp.)
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS LEAF BASES FORMING STEM
Chusan palm
(Trachycarpus fortunei)
Stem,
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS ROOT
Corn (Zea mays')
A DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOT
Buttercup (Ranunculus sp.)
21
Herbaceous flowering plants
Herbaceous flowering plants typically have green non-woody stems, and tend to be relatively
short-lived. Many herbaceous plants live for only one or two years. Annuals (such as sweet peas) grow from
seed, produce flowers and then seeds, and die within a single year. Biennials
(like carrots) have a two-year life cycle. In the first year, seeds grow into
plants, which produce leaves and store food in underground storage organs;
.Young plant
forming
the stems and foliage then die in winter. In the second year, new stems grow
Trifoliate
Node
Stem
Rib
Lateral root
root
Stem
Stem
tuber
Slender
rhizome.
Root
nodule
Petiole (stalk)
of young leaf
Petiole
(leaf
stalk)
Simple
deltoid
leaf
Stipule
(structure at
base of leaf).
Simple
ovate
leaflet ✓
Lateral
root scar
Main
root
Remains
of leaves
ROCK STONECROP
(Sedum rupestre)
Lateral
root
Leaf
scar
Narrow,
succulent leaf
Adventitious
root
Leaf
scar.
CARROT
(Daucus carota)
Runner (creeping
stem)
STRAWBERRY
(Fragaria x ananassa)
from the storage organs, produce leaves, flowers, and seeds, and then die. Some
herbaceous plants (such as potatoes) are perennial. They grow back year after
year, producing shoots and flowers in spring,
storing food in underground tubers or	~A?
rhizomes during summer,
dying in autumn,
and surviving
underground
during winter.
Leaf base
Spine
(modified
leaf)
POTATO
(Solatium tuberosum)
SWEET PEA
(Lathyrus odoratus)
Adventitious
root

PARTS OF HERBACEOUS FLOWERING PLANTS
Bracteole
Bract	(small bract)
Midrib
Flower bud
Node
Leaf.
.Internode
Stem
Leaf base
Prickle
"endril
Tepal
Petal
CEREOID
CACTUS
(leaf-like
structure)
Stem
branch
.Sheath formed
from leaf base
Capitulum (type
of inflorescence)
Baceme (type
of inflorescence)
Toothed
notch
Dentate
margin
Cyme (type of
inflorescence)
Lateral
bud
Flower
bud
Pinna
(leaflet)
Hollow
stem
Inner, tubular
disk floret___
. Unwinged rachis
(main axis of
pinnate leaf) %
Petiole
(leaf
stalk)
Stem
segment
Margin of
cladode _
Linear
leaf__
Outer, ligulate
ray floret
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Succulent,
simple ovate
leaf л _
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Simple lobed
leaf--------
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Capitulum (type
of inflorescence)
Peduncle______
(inflorescence
stalk)
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Flower bud
Winged
stem
Cladode
(flattened stem)
Peduncle
(inflorescence stalk)
Leaf
scar
BEGONIA
(Begonia x
tuberhybrida)
TOADFLAX
(Linaria sp.)
Dentate
margin
FLORISTS’ CHRYSANTHEMUM
(Chrysanthemum morifolium)
Bract_____—
(leaf-like
structure)
Spinose-dentate\
margin
SLENDER THISTLE
(Carduus tenuiflorus)
ICE PLANT
(Sedum spectabile)
Succulent
stem
CRAR CACTUS
(Schlumbergera truncata)
Bachis (main
axis of pinnate
leaf)
Stipule
(structure at
base oflgafL,
EVERLASTING PEA
Sepal (Lathyrus latifolius)
Bract
(leaflike
structure)
PERUVIAN LILY
(Alstroemeria aurea)
Winged	'
rachis dtSoK-
(main	Й-
axis of J ? ' • W
pinnate '
leaf)	HOGWEED
(Heracleum sphondylium)
23
Woody flowering plants
Woody flowering plants are perennial: They continue to grow and reproduce for many years. They have
one or more permanent stems above ground and numerous smaller branches. The stems and branches have
a strong woody core that supports the plant and contains vascular tissue for transporting water and nutrients.
Outside the woody core is a layer of tough, protective bark, which has lenticels (tiny pores) to allow gases to
pass through. Woody flowering plants may be shrubs, which have several stems rising from the soil; bushes,
which are shrubs with dense branching and foliage; or trees, which typically have a single upright stem (the
(succulent fruit)
Tendril
Rachis
Prickle
Leaflet
Lenticel (pore).
Stem
Ring scar
Leaf scar.
Leaflet
Tendril
Dentate
margin
Lora (strip
of dead cells)
Main
root.
Stipule (structure
at base of leaf)
Lateral
bud
Petiole
(leaf
stalk)
Lateral
root
Dormant
bud
Simple
palmate leaf.
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Pinnate
compound
leaf /
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Adaxial (upper)
surface of
lamina
Trifoliate
compound
leaf 
Simple
entire
COMMON HORSE CHESTNUT
(Aesculus hippo castanum)
CLEMATIS
(Clematis
montana)
Palmate
compound leaf.
COMMON HORSE
CHESTNUT
(Aesculus
hippocastanum)
PASSION FLOWER
(Passiflora caerulea)
Petiole
(leafstalk)
CHUSAN PALM
(Trachycarpus fortunei)
CHUSAN PALM Node/ Node
(Trachycarpus fortunei)
ROSE % Leaf scar/ elder
(Rosa sp^ \	(Sambucus
\ _____ nigra) \
„	. , Triple spine/
(modified leaf)
ROWAN
(Sorbus aucuparia)
trunk) that bears branches. Deciduous woody plants
(like roses) shed all their leaves once a year
and remain leafless during winter. Evergreen
woody plants (such as ivy) shed their leaves
gradually, so they retain full
leaf cover throughout
the year.	<
bramble
(Rubus fruticosus) i
COMMON MULBERRY
(Morus nigra)
Prickle
Internode
24
PARTS OF WOODY FLOWERING PLANTS
DURMAST OAK
(Quercus petraea)
Midrib
Stamen,
Petal
Bract
Spine
Sepal
Ovary
Leaflet
Stem
Petal
Ring scar
Node
Stem
Vein
Wing/
SYCAMORE
Flower
bud
Compound/
inflorescence
(panicle)
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Remains
of bracts
Drupe
(succulent
fruit)
Pinna
(leaflet)
Pericarp (fruit wall)
enclosing seed
Adaxial (upper)
surface of	л
lamina	-'=&
(blade)	|
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Variegated
lamina
(blade)
Pinnate
compound
leaf
Simple
lobed
obovate
leaf___
Axillary
bud
^Double samara
(winged dry
fruit)
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Stipule______
(structure at
base of leaf)
Pome
(succulent
fruit)_____
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Culm
(jointed stem)
Nut
(dry fruit)
RARRERRY
(Berberis sp.)
ROWAN
(Sorbus
aucuparia)
Remains
of style
COMMON ENGLISH IVY
(Hedera helix ‘Goldheart’)
ROSE
(Rosa sp.)
Adventitious
root
Immature
acorn
ROWAN
(Sorbus aucuparia)
RAMBOO
(Arundinaria nitida)
Triple spine
(modified (Acer pseudoplatanus)
leaf)
Sepal.
Receptacle
TREE MALLOW
(Lavatera arborea)
Pedicel,
(flower
stalk)
CLEMATIS
(Clematis sp.)
Peduncle
(inflorescence stalk)
' Leaf.
Stem
Pedicel (flower
stalk)
Peduncle
(inflorescence stalk)
PEACH
(Prunus persica)
Flower bud^
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Simple
lanceolate leaf
MAHONIA
(Mahonia lomariifolia)
ROSE
(Rosa sp.)
Lateral
bud, /)
RUSSIAN VINE
(Polygonum baldschuanicum)
25
Roots
MICROGRAPH OF PRIMARY ROOT DEVELOPMENT
Cabbage (Rrassica sp.)
Split in testa
as seed
germinates
Roots are the underground parts of plants. They have
three main functions. First, they anchor the plant in the soil.
Second, they absorb water and minerals from the spaces
between soil particles. The roots’ absorptive properties are
increased by root hairs, which grow behind the root tip,
allowing maximum absorption of vital substances. Third, the
root is part of the plant’s transport system. Xylem carries
water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves,
and phloem carries nutrients from the leaves to all parts of
the root system. In addition, some roots (like carrots) are food
stores. Roots have an outer epidermis covering a cortex of parenchyma
(packing tissue), and a central cylinder of vascular tissue. This arrangement
helps the roots resist the forces of compression as they grow through the soil.
CARROT
(Daucus carota)
FEATURES OF A TYPICAL ROOT
Buttercup
(Ranunculus sp)
Stele
Primary root
hair
Root tip
(region of
cell division)
Phloem sieve tube
(through which
nutrients are
Testa
(seed coat)
transported)
Companion cell
(cell associated
with phloem
sieve tube)
(vascular cylinder)
Pericycle
(outer layer
of stele)
Root hair
Air space
(allowing gas
diffusion in
the root)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Root hair

Cell wall
Epidermis I
(outer layer
of cells)
Xylem vessel
(through which water
and minerals are transported
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Nucleus \-Parenchyma
(packing) cell
Cytoplasm
26
PRIMARY ROOT AND MICROGRAPHS OF SECTIONS THROUGH ROOTS
Lateral root
Primary root
Elongating region
(Ranunculus sp.)
Lateral root
CROSS SECTION THROUGH ROOT OF BROAD BEAN
(Vicia faba)
Phloem
Metaxylem
Epidermis
Elongating region
К if
Starch grain
CROSS SECTION THROUGH ROOT OF ORCHID IN
Root tip
(region of
cell division)
Apical meristem
(region of actively
dividing cells)
Apical meristem
(region of actively
dividing cells)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Root cap
(protects
dividing
cells)___y
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Hyphae of fungus s' f
in mycorrhizal
(symbiotic) association
with orchid
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Stele_____
(vascular
cylinder)
Stele
(vascular
cylinder)
Stele
(vascular
cylinder) _
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Root cap-------------
(protects
dividing cells)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Stele
(vascular
cylinder)
PRIMARY ROOT OF BROAD BEAN
(Vicia faba)
CROSS SECTION THROUGH ROOT OF LILY
(Lilium sp.)
Stele_____
(vascular
cylinder)
Protoxylem „
Pericycle
(outer layer)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
CROSS SECTION THROUGH ROOT OF BUTTERCUP
THROUGH ROOT TIP OF BROAD BEAN
(Vida faba)
MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATION WITH FUNGUS

27
Stems
MICROGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL
SECTION THROUGH APEX OF STEM
Coleus sp.
Pith
The stem is the main supportive part of a plant that grows above
ground. Stems bear leaves (organs of photosynthesis), which grow
at nodes; buds (shoots covered by protective scales), which grow at
the stem tip (apical or terminal buds) and in the angle between a leaf
and the stem (axillary or lateral buds); and flowers (reproductive
structures). The stem forms part of the plant’s transport system. Xylem
tissue in the stem transports water and minerals from the roots to the
aerial parts of the plant, and phloem tissue transports nutrients
manufactured in the leaves to other parts of the plant. Stem tissues bud
are also used for storing water and food. Herbaceous (nonwoody)
stems have an outer protective epidermis covering a cortex that
consists mainly of parenchyma (packing tissue) but also has some
collenchyma (supporting tissue). The vascular tissue of such stems is
arranged in bundles, each of which consists of xylem, phloem, and
sclerenchyma (strengthening tissue). Woody stems have an outer
protective layer of tough bark, which is perforated with lenticels (pores)
Apical
meristem
(region of
actively
dividing
cells)
Procambial
strand (cells
that produce
vascular tissue)
Leaf primordium
(developing leaf)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue
Vascular
tissue
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
to allow gas exchange. Inside the bark is a ring of secondary phloem,
which surrounds an inner core of secondary xylem.
Young
leaves
emerging
YOUNG WOODY STEM
Lime
(Tilia sp.)
Cortex
(layer between phellem
and vascular tissue)
Secondary
phloem
Pith
Phellem
(protective
cork layer)
Xylem vessel____
(through which
water and
minerals are
transported)
Xylem fiber,
(supporting
tissue)
Ray^—^
(parenchyma
cells)
Phloem sieve tube
(through which
nutrients are
transported)
Phloem fiber,
(supporting
tissue)
Lenticel
(pore)
Outer
bud scale
Internode
Woody
stem
Node
Lenticel
(pore)
ill
EMERGENT RUDS
London plane
(Platanus x acerifolia)
Terminal bud
Lateral bud___
Vascular cambium
(actively dividing cells
that produce xylem
and phloem)
Autumn
wood
^Spring
wood
Inner
bud scale
Secondary
xylem
Companion cell
(cell associated
with phloem
sieve tube)
28
MICROGRAPHS OF CROSS SECTIONS THROUGH VARIOUS STEMS
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Collenchyma
(supporting
tissue)
Pith
Vascular-
bundle
CHERVIL
Pith
cavity
Phloem
(Anthriscus sp.)
Secondary
Collenchyma
(supporting
tissue)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Cortex
Pith
cavity
Secondary
xylem
Primary
xylem
Pith
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Epidermis
Phloem
Xylem
(outer layer of cells)
Lacuna
(air space)
MARE’S TAIL
(Hippuris vulgaris)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Secondary
phloem
Secondary
xylem
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Prickle
Vascular cambium
(actively dividing
cells that produce
xylem and phloem)
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening
tissue)
(outgrowth of epidermis)
.Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Primary
xylem
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells) with thick cuticle
(waterproof covering)	rose
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening
tissue)
Pith with stellate
parenchyma
(star-shaped
packing
tissue)
(Rosa sp.)
Xylem
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening
tissue)
RUSH
(Juncus sp.)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells) with thick
cuticle (waterproof
covering)
DEADNETTLE
(Lamium sp.)
Parenchyma
(packing tissue) with
-Vascular
tissue
bundles of sclerenchyma
(strengthening tissue)
Epidermis__
(outer layer
of cells)
Май
Mesophyll I
(layer of
photosynthetic
tissue)
Mesophyll
(layer of
photosynthetic
tissue)
Vascular
bundle
Vascular bundle
COCONUT PALM
(Cocos nucifera)
(xylem, phloem,
and sclerenchyma
fibres)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
29
Leaves
Subacute apex
SIMPLE LEAF SHAPES
Acuminate
apex
Jk Leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis (see
\ 7/1: ' pp. 32-33) and transpiration (water loss by evaporation)
in plants. A typical leaf consists of a thin, flat lamina
	< (blade) supported by a network of veins; a petiole (leaf
J V. stalk); and a leaf base, where the petiole joins the
stem. Leaves can be classified as simple, in which
checkerbloom the lamina is a single unit, or compound, in
(Sidalcea malviflord)	|amjna is divided into separate
leaflets. Compound leaves may be pinnate, with pinnae (leaflets)
on both sides of a rachis (main axis), or palmate, with leaflets
arising from a single point at the tip of the petiole. Leaves can be
classified further by the overall shape of the lamina, and by
the shape of the lamina’s
apex, margin, and base.
Lamina
(blade)___
Apex
GENERAL LEAF
FEATURES
Midrib
Lamina base
Petiole (leaf stalk)
Leaf base
Margin
Lateral
vein
Spanish chestnut
(Castanea saliva)
Cuneate
base
Entire
margin
Cordate
base
Entire
margin
LANCEOLATE
Sea buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides')
PANDURIFORM
Croton
(Codiaeum variegatum)
COMPOUND LEAF SHAPES
Terminal
pinna
(leaflet) _
Emarginate
apex______
Rachis
(main axis of
pinnate leaf)-
Petiole_____
(leafstalk)
Pinna _
(leaflet)
Petiolule
(leaflet
stalk)
ODD PINNATE
False acacia
(Robinia pseudoacacia)
30
Cuneate base
Cordate base
Entire
margin
Entire
margin
Entire
margin
Entire
margin
Cuneate
base.__
Subacute
apex____
Subacute
apex____
Truncate
base
Acuminate
apex_____
Mucronate
apex_____
Acuminate
apex_____
Variegated
lamina
(blade)
Entire
margin
Serrulate
margin
ORBICULAR
Camellia
(Camellia japonica)
___Cuspidate apex
j \Cuneate base
ELLIPTIC
A species of fig
(Ficus sp.)
Acute apex
OBOVATE
Tupelo
(Nyssa sylvatica)
RHOMBOID
Persian ivy
(Hedera colchica
‘Sulphur Heart’)
PALMATELY LOBED
Common ivy
(Hedera helix)
DELTOID
Persian ivy
(Hedera colchica)
_ Entire
margin
LINEAR
Iris
(Iris lazica)
EVEN PINNATE
Black walnut
DIGITATE
BIPINNATE
pinnate leaf)
Horse chestnut
Honey locust
(Juglans nigra)
Clematis
(Clematis sp.)
(Aesculus parviflora)
Leaflet
Petiole
(leafstalk)
TRIFOLIATE

Laburnum
(Laburnum x watereri)
(Gleditsia triacanthos)
Pinnule
(leaflet of
pinna)
Petiolule
(leaflet stalk)
Pinna
(leaflet)
Rachilla
(secondary axis
of pinnate leaf)
TRIPINNATE
Rachis
(main axis
of pinnate
leaf)
Meadow rue
Petiole
(leafstalk)
(Thalictrum delavayi)
31
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their food using
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. It takes place inside special
structures in leaf cells called chloroplasts. The chloroplasts contain
chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight.
During photosynthesis, the absorbed energy is used to join together
carbon dioxide and water to form the sugar glucose, which is the
energy source for the whole plant. Oxygen, a waste product, is
released into the air. Leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis and
have various adaptations for that purpose. Flat laminae (blades)
provide a large surface for absorbing sunlight; stomata (pores) in the
lower surface of the laminae allow gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen)
to pass into and out of the leaves; and an extensive network of veins
brings water into the leaves and transports the glucose produced by
photosynthesis to the rest of the plant.
THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
MICROGRAPH OF LEAF
Lily (Lilium sp.)
lamina
(blade)
opening
and closing
of stoma)
Glucose molecule
	I	
Oxygen	Carbon	Hydrogen
atom	atom	atom
Glucose is a high-energy
product of photosynthesis.
Sunlight, which is absorbed
by chloroplasts in the leaf
provides the energy for
It travels to all parts of the
plant through the phloem
photosynthesis
The leaf is the main site of
photosynthesis. Its broad,
thin lamina (blade) is an
adaptation for this process

Hydrogen atom
Oxygen atom
Water
molecule
Hydrogen atom
Carbon dioxide
molecule
Oxygen
atom
Water, a raw material
in the soil, travels to the
.Oxygen
atom
_ Oxygen
molecule
leaf from the roots via
the xylem
Carbon dioxide, a raw
material in the air, enters
the leaf through stomata
Oxygen, a waste product
on the lower surface of the
of photosynthesis, leaves
the leaf through stomata
lamina (blade)
on the lower surface of
the lamina (blade)
32
CROSS SECTION THROUGH LEAF
Christmas rose
(Helleborus niger)
Upper (adaxial) _
epidermis (outer
layer of cells)
Palisade mesophyll —
(tightly packed layer
of photosynthetic
tissue)
Spongy mesophyll_____
(loosely packed layer
of photosynthetic
tissue)
Cuticle (waterproof covering)
Substomatal
Parenchyma
(packing
tissue)
Stoma
(pore)
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Vacuole
Chloroplast
(photosynthetic
organelle)
Nucleus
Intercellular
space
Sclerenchyma
(strengthening
tissue)
Xylem (tissue
that transports
water and
mineral salts)
Phloem (tissue
that transports
sugars and
other nutrients)
Vein
chamber
Lower (abaxial)
epidermis (outer
layer of cells)
Guard cell
(controls opening
and closing of
stoma)
INTERNAL VIEW OF CHLOROPLAST
Thylakoid
(flat sac of
granum)
Lamella
(membrane of
thylakoid)
Starch grain
Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) strand
Stroma thylakoid
(link between grana)
Granum
(stack of thylakoids that
hold chlorophyll
molecules in position)
Stroma
(watery matrix)
Chloroplast
envelope____
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Ribosome
(site of protein
synthesis)
33
Flowers 1
Inner tepal
(monocotyledonous
petal)
Groove
Г LOWERS ARE THE SITES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION in secreting
flowering plants. Their component parts are arranged nectar
in whorls around the receptacle (tip of the flower stalk).
The sepals (collectively called the calyx) are outermost;
typically small and green, they protect the developing
flower. The petals (collectively called the corolla) are
typically large and brightly colored; they are found inside the
sepals. In monocotyledonous flowers (see pp. 20-21), sepals and petals
are indistinguishable; individually they are called tepals (collectively
called the perianth). The petals surround the male and female
reproductive structures (androecium and gynoecium). The
Honey
guide
Style
Outer tepal
(monocotyledonous
sepal)
Stigma
Anther
EXTERNAL VIEW
Filament
androecium consists of stamens (male organs); each stamen
is made up of a filament (stalk) and anther. The gynoecium
has one or more carpels (female organs); each carpel consists
of an ovary, style, and stigma. Some flowers (like the lily)
singly on a pedicel (flower stalk); others (such as elder,
sunflower) are arranged in a group (inflorescence)
on a peduncle (inflorescence stalk).
A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS
FLOWER
Lily
(Lilium sp.)
Syncarpous
(fused carpels)
gynoecium
Ovary
Stigma.
_ Style
Anther_
Stamen____
Filament
Pollen on
anther___
Outer tepal
sheath
Style
Stigma
Anther
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FLOWER RUD
occur
Outer tepal
(monocotyledonous
sepal)
Receptacle
-
Tepal
scar
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Papilla
(fleshy hair)
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Filament
Folded inner tepal
(monocotyledonous petal)
Ovary
______Recep taele
Inner tepal
(monocotyledonous
petal)
Honey
guide
Ovary
wall
Ovule
34
Anther
Anther,
EXTERNAL VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Androecium
Ovary-
Style
Receptacle
Filament
Carpel
Stamen
Stigma
Anther
Anther
Receptacle
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH FLOWER RUD
Honey
guide _
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Sepal
sheath
Position
of nectary
Rract_____
(leaflike
structure)
Sepal
sheath
Rract
(leaflike
structure)
Rract-----
(leaflike
structure)
Lateral
sepal
Anterior
sepal
Immature_____
spur of
posterior sepal
Posterior
sepal
Posterior
petal
Anterior
petal
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
.Anterior
petal
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Membranous
spur of
posterior sepal
Posterior
petal
Posterior
sepal____
A DICOTYLEDONOUS FLOWER
Larkspur
(Delphinium orientalis) яЛ
Posterior
petal___—
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Posterior
sepal
False anthers
attract pollinating
insects
Membranous
spur
Membranous
spur_______
Rract____
(leaflike
structure)
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FLOWER RUD
Nectary
Ovary
, Filament
Anterior
sepal
Anterior
petal
Anterior
sepal
Lateral
sepal
35
Flowers 2
COMPOUND INFLORESCENCE
(CAPITULUM)
Sunflower
(Helianthus annulus)
Disk florets_
Ray floret
Sterile ray floret to
attract pollinating
insects
Outer
fertilized
floret
Two-lobed
stigma
r~i PollenL
Florets with
anthers ready
to shed pollen
Pappus/
(modified
sepal)
Ovary__
Corolla
tube
(fused
petals)
Inner, immature
florets
----------1
_______I
Florets (small
flowers) are grouped
together to resemble
a single large flower
Corolla tube (fused petals)
Ovary
FLORETS FROM SUNFLOWER
Disk floret
Ray floret
Nectar
Stigma
Style
Rract
(leaflike structure)
Hair
Epidermis
(outer layer of cells)
of peduncle
(inflorescence stalk)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH
SUNFLOWER INFLORESCENCE
Corolla tube
(fused petals)
Pappus
(modified
sepal)
Peduncle (inflorescence stalk)
Pith
Domed receptacle
(flattened top of
inflorescence stalk)
36
ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON STEM
Spathe
Flower
Petal
Flower
Ovary-
Remains of tepals I
(monocotyledonous
petals and sepals)
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
(large bract) to
attract pollinating
insects
Peduncle /
(inflorescence
stalk)
Bract_____
(leaflike
structure)
Spadix (fleshy
axis) carrying
male and female
flowers
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Peduncle______
(inflorescence
stalk)
INFLORESCENCE (SPIKE)
Heliconia peruviana
INFLORESCENCE
(COMPOUND UMBEL)
European elder
(Sambucus nigra)
INFLORESCENCE (SPADIX)
Painter’s palette
(Anthurium andreanum)
Stigma
Style _
Anther
——^Filament
_ Stamen
Flower
Style
Filament
Stamen
Ovary.
Anther
Corolla
Calyx
Flower
bud
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Three-lobed
stigma
Outer tepal
(monocotyledonous
sepal)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
SINGLE FLOWER
Glory lily
(Gloriosa superba)
Bract ---Tf I
(leaflike
structure)
SINGLE
Inner tepal
(monocotyledonous
petal)
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk) fused
to bract
Bract_____
(leaflike
structure)
Peduncle______
(inflorescence
stalk)
FLOWER
INFLORESCENCE
(DICHASIAL CYME)
Common lime
(Tilia x europaea)
INFLORESCENCE
(SPHERICAL UMBEL)
Allium sp.
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen (which contains
the male sex cells) from an anther (part of the male
reproductive organ) to a stigma (part of the female
reproductive organ). This process precedes fertilization
(see pp. 40-41). Pollination may occur within the same
flower (self-pollination), or between flowers on separate
plants of the same species (cross-pollination).
In most plants, pollination is carried out either
by insects (entomophilous pollination) or by the
wind (anemophilous pollination). Less commonly,
birds, bats, or water are the agents of pollination.
Insect-pollinated flowers are typically scented and
brightly colored. They also produce
nectar, on which insects
feed. Such flowers also
tend to have patterns that
are visible only in ultraviolet
light, which many insects can
see but which is invisible to
humans. These features attract
insects, which become covered
with the sticky pollen grains when
they visit one flower, and then
transfer the pollen to the next
flower they visit. Wind-pollinated
flowers are generally small,
relatively inconspicuous, and
unscented. They produce large
quantities of light pollen grains
that are easily blown by the
wind to other flowers.
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Prominent stigma
protrudes from flower
Female
MALE
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Filament
Anther
-Male
flower
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES IN
WIND-POLLINATED PLANT
Sweet chestnut
(Castanea saliva)
Flower bud
FEMALE
Bract
(leaflike
structure)
Part of male _
catkin
(inflorescence
adapted for
wind
pollination)
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Stigma
Style
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES IN
INSECT-POLLINATED PLANTS
MICROGRAPH OF STAMENS (MALE ORGANS)
Common centaury
Calyx
(whorl of
sepals)
Dehisced
(split open)
pollen sac
Boundary between
two fused carpels
(each carpel
consists of a stigma,
style, and ovary)
Ovary
I Anther
Filament
Stamen
MICROGRAPHS OF
POLLEN GRAINS
MICROGRAPH OF CARPELS (FEMALE ORGANS)
Yellow-wort
Exine (outer coat of pollen
(Blackstonia perfoliata)
(Centaurium erythraea)
grain)
Pore
Pore
I Equatorial
furrow
Colpus
(furrow-shaped
aperture)
Colpus
(furrow-shaped
aperture)___
Exine _
(outer
coat of
pollen
grain)
Exine
(outer
coat of
pollen
grain)
Baculum
(rod-shaped
structure)
Exine
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
EUROPEAN FIELD ELM
JUSTICIA AUREA
MEADOW CRANESRILL
ROX-LEAVED MILKWORT
(Ulmus minor)
(Geranium pratense)
(Polygala chamaebuxus)
38
INSECT POLLINATION OF MEADOW SAGE
Immature, unreceptive
stigma
Sepal
Labellum
(lip) forming
landing area
for bee
pushed on to
bee’s hairy abdomen
Pollen grains from
anther stick to
bee’s abdomen
Pollen grains attached
to hairy abdomen
Long style curves
downward when
bee enters flower
Sepal
Labellum
(lip) forming
landing area
for bee
Mature, receptive
stigma touches bee’s
abdomen, picking
up pollen
1. BEE VISITS FLOWER WITH MATURE
ANTHERS BUT IMMATURE STIGMA
2. BEE FLIES TO
OTHER FLOWERS
3. BEE VISITS FLOWER WHERE
THE ANTHERS HAVE WITHERED
AND THE STIGMA IS MATURE
Petal
Ovary
Stigma
Filament
Stamen
Anther
Ray floret
NORMAL LIGHT
NORMAL LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Colpus
Dark central area containing /
nectaries, anthers, and stigmas
Darker, inner
part of ray floret
Central area of
disc florets
Lighter, outer part
of ray floret
SUNFLOWER UNDER NORMAL
AND ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
ST JOHN’S WORT
UNDER NORMAL AND
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Insects attracted to
darkest, central part
of flower, which
contains nectaries,
anthers, and stigmas
Honey guide
directs insects
to dark,
central part
of flower
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Columella (small
(furrow-shaped
aperture)
Pore
Exine
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
Trilete mark
(development
scar)
column-shaped
structure)
Exine
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
MIMULOPSIS SOLMSII
Exine ’
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
Exine /
(outer coat of
pollen grain)
Tricolpate____
(three colpae)
pollen grain
THESIUMALPINIUM	RUELLIA GRANDIFLORA
CROSSANDRA NILOTICA
39
Fertilization
DEVELOPMENT OF A SUCCULENT FRUIT
Blackberry
(Rubus Jruticosus)
BANANA
Fertilization is the fusion of male and female
gametes (sex cells) to produce a zygote (embryo).
Following pollination (see pp. 38-39), the pollen
grains that contain the male gametes are on
the stigma, some distance from the female
gamete (ovum) inside the ovule. To enable the
gametes to meet, the pollen grain germinates
and produces a pollen tube, which grows
down and enters the embryo sac (the inner
part of the ovule that contains the ovum).
Two male gametes, traveling at the tip of the
pollen tube, enter the embryo sac. One gamete
fuses with the ovum to produce a zygote that will
develop into an embryo plant. The other male
gamete fuses with two polar nuclei to produce the
endosperm, which acts as a food supply for the
developing embryo. Fertilization also initiates
other changes: the integument (outer part of ovule)
forms a testa (seed coat) around the embryo and
endosperm; the petals fall off; the stigma and style
wither; and the ovary wall forms a layer (called the
pericarp) around the seed. Together, the pericarp
and seed form the fruit, which may be succulent
(see pp. 42-43) or dry (see pp. 44-45). In some
species (such as blackberry), apomixis can occur:
Stamen _
Carpel-
Petal__________
Endocarp seed
(inner layer of
pericarp)
Mesocarp
(middle
layer of
pericarp)
Exocarp
(outer
of
style
Carpel
Receptacle
Abortive
of stamen
layer of
pericarp)
Sepal
(flower
stalk)
(Musa ‘lacatan) The seed develops without fertilization of the ovum
by a male gamete, but endosperm formation and fruit development
take place as in other species.
Exocarp
(outer layer of
pericarp)
Carpel
Remains
of sepal
Pedicel
Remains
of style
Remains
of stamen
(flower
stalk)
Drupelet
Exocarp
(outer layer of
Remains
of style
Remains
of sepal
(flower
stalk)
4. PERICARP FORMS
FLESH, SKIN, AND A HARD INNER
LAYER (SHOWN IN CROSS SECTION)
Exocarp
(flower
stalk)
7. MESOCARP (FLESHY PART OF PERICARP)
OF EACH CARPEL STARTS TO
CHANGE COLOR
8. CARPELS MATURE INTO DRUPELETS
(SMALL FLESHY FRUITS WITH SINGLE SEEDS
SURROUNDED BY HARD ENDOCARP)
9. MESOCARP OF DRUPELET BECOMES
DARKER AND SWEETER
40
Sepal
Anther	_ Stamen
Filament
Carpel
Stamen
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
2. FERTILIZATION HAS TAKEN
PLACE; PETALS FALL OFF
Exocarp
(outer
layer of
pericarp)
Remains
of style
Carpel
Sepal
Remains of stigma
and style
Ovary
Anther.
Filament
Remains of
stamen
Sepal
THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION
Generative nucleus
(divides to form two
male gametes)
Pollen grain
lands on stigma
Surface of stigma
Prickle
Male gamete
Pollen tube
nucleus
Pore
Pollen
tube
Pollen
tube
nucleus
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
POLLEN GRAIN GERMINATES
Pollen grain
5. OVARIES BEGIN TO SWELL:
STAMENS WITHER AND DIE
Exocarp
(outer layer
of pericarp).
Remains
,of style
Style
Polar nucleus
Stigma
Pollen tube
Antipodal
cell
Carpel
Ovary
Ovule
Remains
of stamen
Sepal
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
5. CARPELS EXPAND AND BECOME
MORE FLESHY
6. CARPELS EXPAND
FURTHER
Micropyle
(entrance
.to ovule)
Embryo sac /
Ovum
(female gamete).
MALE GAMETES TRAVEL TO
EMBRYO SAC
. Antipodal cell
Nucellus
(layer surrounding
embryo sac) /
---1 \Male gamete
Receptacle
Exocarp
(outer layer
of pericarp)
Remains
of style
Remains of style
2nd male gamete-
fuses with polar
nuclei to form
endosperm nucleus
f Integument
(outer part
of ovule)
. 1st male
gamete fuses
with ovum to
form embryo
Drupelet
Synergid nucleus,
(disappears after
fertilization)
y Pollen tube reaches
ovum via micropyle
FERTILIZATION
Pedicel.
(flower
stalk)
Exocarp _
(outer
layer of
pericarp)
Remains
of stamen
Remains
of sepal
Remains
of stamen
Pedicel _
(flower
stalk)
Remains
of sepal
10. DRUPELETS (COLLECTIVELY
11. DRUPELETS RIPEN FULLY
AN AGGREGATE FRUIT) EXPAND
Drupelet
Style and
stigma wither.
Endosperm
(food store)
Pericarp
(maturing
ovary wall)
Embryo plant
Testa
(seed coat)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
(L Plumule
/ (embryonic
shoot)
Radicle
(embryonic
root)
DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
41
Succulent fruits
HESPERIDIUM (A TYPE OF BERRY)
Lemon
(Citrus Limon)
A fruit IS A FULLY DEVELOPED and ripened ovary—the
seed-producing part of a plant’s female reproductive
organs. Fruits may be succulent or dry
(see pp. 44-45). Succulent fruits are
fleshy and brightly colored, making
them attractive to animals, which
eat them and disperse the seeds
> away from the parent plant. The
. - 1 wall (pericarp) of a succulent fruit
к has three layers: an outer exocarp,
bi a middle mesocarp, and an inner
, endocarp. These three layers vary
in thickness and texture in different
types of fruits and may blend into
each other. Succulent fruits can be
classed as simple (derived from
one ovary) or compound (derived
from several ovaries). Simple
succulent fruits include berries,
which typically have many seeds, and drupes, which
typically have a single stone or pit (such as cherry and
peach). Compound succulent fruits include
aggregate fruits, which are formed from many
ovaries in one flower, and multiple fruits, which
develop from the ovaries of many flowers. Some
'u 

BERRY
Cocoa
(Theobroma cacao)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Exocarp
Endocarp
Mesocarp
Leathery-
exocarp
Remains
of style
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Seed
Placenta
Remains
of style
Vesicle
(juice
sac)
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Oil
gland
Embryo
Hilum (point of__
attachment to
ovary)
Seed
Testa
(seed
coat)
Carpel
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Carpel
wall
Cotyledon/
(seed leaf)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
Placenta
fruits, known as false fruits or pseudocarps, develop
from parts of the flower in addition to the ovaries.
For example, the flesh of the apple is formed
from the receptacle (the upper end of the
flower stalk).
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
SYCONIUM (A TYPE OF FALSE FRUIT)
4	Remains
(Ficus carica)	offemale
flowers
Pit (seed
surrounded
Fleshy infolded
receptacle
Remains
of male
flowers
FRUIT WITH FLESHY ARIL
Lychee
(Litchi chinensis)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
Pericarp
(fruit wall)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Skin
Seed
closed
by scales__
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
Remains
of style
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Endocarp
Aril (fleshy
outgrowth
from seed
stalk)
Pericarp
(fruit wall)
Drupelet _
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)___
Embryo
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH PIT
Endocarp
REMAINS OF A SINGLE
FEMALE FLOWER
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Testa
(seed coat)
42
BERRY
AGGREGATE FRUIT Pedicel
Cape gooseberry
(Physalis peruviana)
Calyx
(whorl
of sepals)
Calyx
(whorl of sepals)
surrounding berry
Exocarp
of berry
Pedicel_______
(flower stalk)
Pedicel_____________\
(flower stalk)
EXTERNAL VIEW
INTERNAL VIEW
Raspberry
(Rubus idaeus)
Mesocarp
and
exocarp
Remains
of style
Remains
of stamen
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
OF FRUIT
(flower
stalk)
Receptacle
Drupelet
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Pit (seed
surrounded
by endocarp)
OF FRUIT
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Testa
(seed coat)
EXTERNAL
VIEW OF SEED
Hard
endocarp
Hard
endocarp
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
_ Testa
(seed
-Seed
coat)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH PIT
POME (A TYPE OF FALSE FRUIT)
Apple
(Malus sylvestris)
Pedicel (flower
stalk) Seed
PEPO (A TYPE OF BERRY)
Charentais melon
(Cucumis melo)
Waxy skin
Endocarp
Swollen
receptacle
EXTERNAL
VIEW OF FRUIT
Mesocarp
and exocarp
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Rind
(fused receptacle
and exocarp)
Vascular
strand
Hilum (point-
of attachment
to ovary)
Rind
(fused receptacle
and exocarp)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Seed
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
Mesocarp
and
endocarp
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Testa
(seed coat)
Embryo
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Testa
(seed coat)
Embryo
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
Testa
(seed coat)
____Testa
(seed coat)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
43
Dry fruits
LEGUME
Pea
(Pisum sativum)
Receptacle
Dry FRUITS HAVE A HARD, DRY PERICARP (fruit wall) around Remains
their seeds, unlike succulent fruits, which have fleshy	of sepal
pericarps (see pp. 42-43). Dry fruits are divided into three types:
dehiscent, in which the pericarp splits open to
release the seeds; indehiscent, which do not split
open; and schizocarpic, in which the fruit splits
but the seeds are not exposed. Dehiscent dry
fruits include capsules (for example,
love-in-a-mist), follicles (delphinium), legumes
(pea), and siliquas (honesty). Typically, the
seeds of dehiscent fruits are dispersed by the
wind. Indehiscent dry fruits include nuts
(sweet chestnut), nutlets (goose grass),
achenes (strawberry), caryopses (wheat),
samaras (elm), and cypselas (dandelion). Some indehiscent dry
fruits are dispersed by the wind, assisted by “wings” (elm) or
“parachutes” (dandelion); others (goose grass) have hooked
pericarps to aid dispersal on animals’ fur. Schizocarpic dry fruits
include cremocarps (hogweed), and double samaras (sycamore);
these are dispersed by the wind.
Remains
of stamen
NUTLET
Goose grass
(Galium aparine)
Receptacle
Placenta
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
.__Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
Remains of
style and
stigma
Seed
Remains of
style and
stigma
Remains
of sepal
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
___Funicle
(stalk
attaching
seed to
placenta)
INTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
Funicle
(stalk attaching
seed to placenta)
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
NUT
Spanish chestnut
(Castanea sativa)
Line of splitting
between valves
of cupule
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Remains
of male
inflorescence
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Nut
(indehiscent
fruit)
Spiky cupule
(husk around
fruit formed
from bracts) external view of fruit with
SURROUNDING CUPULE
Remains	Remains
of stigma ~	of stigma
j____Remains
of style
Nut_________
(indehiscent
fruit)
Woody pericarp
(fruit wall)
Testa
(seed coat)
Micropyle
(pore for water d
absorption)
Testa
(seed coat)
Testa
(seed
coat)
Radicle
(embryonic
root)
Plumule
(embryonic
shoot)
EXTERIOR VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
ACHENE
Strawberry
(Fragaria x ananassa)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Remains
of style
Remains
of stigma
and style
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Woody pericarp
(fruit wall)
Achene
(one-seeded
dry fruit)
Swollen
receptacle
Sepal
Swollen
fleshy
of receptacle
EXTERNAL VIEW
OF FRUIT
Pedicel
(flower
stalk)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
„ . THROUGH FRUIT
Pericarp
(fruit
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH FRUIT
Pericarp
(fruit wall)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Testa
(seed coat)
44
DOURLE SAMARA
Sycamore
(Acer pseudoplatanus)
Remains
of sepal
Seed
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Pericarp (fruit wall)
enclosing single seed
Testa I
(seed coat)


Remains
of stigma
and style
Mericarp/
(half-fruit)
L_ Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
extended and
flattened to
form wing that
assists in wind dispersal
CAPSULE
Love-in-a-mist
(Nigella damascena)
Placenta
Receptacle
Rranching
bracteole
(leaflike
structure)
Fused
edge of
carpels
Pedicel _
(flower
stalk)
Carpel
wall
Remains
of style
Line of
dehiscence
(splitting)
Vitta____
(oil duct)
Seed
L SECTION
Placenta
Flattened
pericarp
(fruit
wall)
Carpophore
(central
supporting
strand)
Abortive .
ovule
B— Pedicel
(flower stalk)
LONGITUDIN
THROUGH FRUIT
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
EXTERNAL VIEW OF FRUIT
CREMOCARP
Hogweed
(Heracleum sp.)
Testa
(seed coat)
EXTERNAL
VIEW OF SEED
Pericarp
(fruit wall)
Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
Seed
Carpel
wall
Carpel
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH FRUIT
Sculptured
testa______
(seed coat)
EXTERIOR VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
EXTERNAL VIEW OF FRUIT
Pericarp
covering
seed
SILIQUA
Honesty
(Lunaria annua)
Placenta
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Vitta
(oil duct)
Testa
(seed coat)
VIEW OF SEPARATED CARPELS
FOLLICLE
Larkspur
(Delphinium sp.)
_ One-seeded
mericarp
(half-fruit)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Remains of
style and
stigma
False
Seed
_ Valve of
pericarp
Testa
(seed coat)
Remains of
stigma and style
Pericarp
(fruit wall)
Embryo
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Flattened
K; 'edge of testa
aids dispersal
of seed
Replum
(ridge surrounding
false septum)
PARTS OF SPLIT-OPEN FRUIT
Carpel split open
along one side
Hilum (point
of attachment
to ovary)
Pedicel	Testa\
(flower stalk) (seed coat)
EXTERNAL VIEW AND
SECTION THROUGH SEED
Seed
Receptacle
Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
Pericarp
(fruit
wall)
Carpel split
open,
exposing
seeds
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
45
Germination
HYPOGEAL GERMINATION
Broad bean
(Viciafaba)
Germination is the growth of seeds into seedlings. It starts when
seeds become active below ground, and ends when the first foliage Testa
leaves appear above ground. A seed consists of an embryo and	(seeci
its food supply, surrounded by a testa (seed coat). The embryo is	coat)
made up of one or two cotyledons (seed leaves) attached to a central
axis. The upper part of the axis consists of an epicotyl, which has a
plumule (embryonic shoot) at its tip. The lower part of the axis consists
of a hypocotyl and a radicle (embryonic root). After dispersal from the
parent plant, the seeds dehydrate and enter a period of dormancy.
Germination begins, following this dormant period, as long as the seeds
have enough water, oxygen, warmth, and, in some cases, light. In the
first stages of germination, the seed takes in water; the embryo
SEED AT START OF
GERMINATION
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Plumule
(embryonic
shoot)
Epicotyl
(upper part
of axis)
Hypocotyl
(region
between
epicotyl and
radicle)
Radicle
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Cataphyll
(scale leaf of
plumule)
(embryonic
root)
Split in testa /
(seed coat) due
to expanding
cotyledons
Young
shoot
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Foliage leaf-
Lateral root
RADICLE BREAKS
THROUGH TESTA
Root tip
(region of
cell division)
Lateral
root
system^
Primary
root
Vascular tissue,
(xylem and
phloem)
Plumule
(embryonic
shoot)
____Epicotyl
(upper part
of axis)
lengthens
Testa
(seed coat)
Hilum (point of
attachment to ovary)
Cortex
starts to use its food store; and the radicle
swells, breaks through the testa, and
grows downward. Germination then
proceeds in one of two ways,
depending on the type of seed.
In epigeal germination, the
hypocotyl lengthens, pulling
the plumule and its protective
cotyledons out of the soil.
In hypogeal germination,
the cotyledons remain below
ground and the epicotyl
lengthens, pushing
the plumule upward.

Stipule______
(structure at
base of leaf)
Epicotyl
increases in
length and
turns green_____
Cataphyll—
(scale leaf
of plumule)
Epicotyl
(upper part
of axis)
Cotyledons____
(seed leaves)
remain within
testa (seed
coat) below
soil’s surface
SHOOT APPEARS
ABOVE SOIL
Epidermis___
Radicle
(embryonic
root)
Hypocotyl (region
between epicotyl and
radicle)
FOLIAGE LEAVES
APPEAR
Cotyledons (seed leaves)
remain food source for л
the seedling
46
EPIGEAL GERMINATION
Black bean
(Phaseolus sp.)
Epicotyl
(upper part
of axis)
EXTERNAL VIEW OF SEED AT
START OF GERMINATION
Raphe
(ridge)
Hilum (point
of attachment
to ovary)
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH SEED AT
START OF GERMINATION
Testa
(seed coat)
Plumule___
(embryonic
shoot)
Micropyle
(pore for
water
absorption)
Testa______
(seed coat)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Hilum
(point of
attachment
to ovary)
Radicle
(embryonic
root)
Hypocotyl
(region between
epicotyl and
radicle)
First foliage leaf
protected by cotyledons
(seed leaves)
Testa
(seed
coat)
splits
Hypocotyl
“hook” pushes
out of soil
HYPOCOTYL
“HOOK” APPEARS
ABOVE SOIL
Primary
root___
Lateral
root
HYPOCOTYL
STRAIGHTENS,
PULLING LEAVES
AND COTYLEDONS
OUT OF SOIL
Hypocotyl (region
between epicotyl and
radicle) elongates
Epicotyl___
(upper part
of axis)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
Plumule -----
(embryonic
shoot)
Lateral root____
Cotyledon (seed
leaf) withers
Primary root
(elongated
radicle)
Growing
point
Testa______
(seed coat)
Hypocotyl
(region between
epicotyl and radicle)
First foliage
leaffully
grown
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Cotyledon
(seed leaf)
____Hypocotyl (region
between epicotyl
and radicle)
straightens
and lengthens
Testa (seed
coat) shed
Root
FIRST FOLIAGE
LEAVES FULLY
DEVELOPED
Root
Testa (seed
coat) begins to
disintegrate
RADICLE BREAKS THROUGH
TESTA AND LENGTHENS
Root cap
(protective
covering for
root tip)
47
Vegetative
reproduction
Many plants can propagate themselves by vegetative
reproduction. In this process, part of a plant separates,
takes root, and grows into a new plant. Vegetative
reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction; it
involves only one parent and there is no fusion
of gametes (sex cells). Plants use various structures
to reproduce vegetatively. Some plants use
underground storage organs. Such organs include
rhizomes (horizontal, underground stems), the
branches of which produce new plants;
Leaf
margin
Notch in leaf
margin containing
meristematic
(actively dividing),
cells
CORM
Gladiolus
(Gladiolus sp.)
bulbs (swollen leaf bases) and corms (swollen stems),
which produce daughter bulbs or corms that separate
from the parent; and stem tubers (thickened
underground stems) and root tubers (swollen
adventitious roots), which also separate from
the parent. Other propagative structures include
runners and stolons, creeping horizontal stems that
take root and produce new plants; bulbils, small bulbs that
develop on the stem or in the place of flowers, and then
drop off and grow into new plants; and adventitious buds,
miniature plants that form on leaf margins before dropping
to the ground and growing into mature plants.
ADVENTITIOUS BUD
Mexican hat plant
(Kalanchoe
daigremontiana)
Apex of
leaf
Lamina
(blade) of
leaf
Node
Parent
plant
STOLON
Ground ivy
(Glechoma hederacea)
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Daughter plant
developed from
lateral bud

BULBIL IN PLACE OF
Orange lily
(Lilium bulbiferum)
FLOWER
Peduncle______
(inflorescence
stalk)
in place of
flower
Scar left
by flower
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Adventitious bud
(detachable bud
with adventitious
roots) drops
from leaf
Internode
Terminal
bud
Node
Adventitious root
of daughter plant
48
ROOT TUBER
STEM BULBIL
Lily
(Lilium sp.)
Sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas)
Root tuber
(swollen
adventitious
root)
Leaf
Aerial
stem
Lateral
bud
Terminal
bud
Lateral
branch
Root
Fleshy scale
leaf containing
stored food
Petiole
(leafstalk)
ROOT TUBER
Foliage
leaf
Stem bulbil
developing
from lateral
bud
Stem
Adventitious
root
CORM
GROWING BULB
Apex
Grape hyacinth
(Muscari sp.)
Stem bulbil
at base of
stem
Foliage
leaf
Flower bud
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Stem
Immature
spike (type of
inflorescence)
Fleshy scale
leaf containing
stored food
I Adventitious
root
BULB WITH SHOOT
Begonia
Gladiolus
Amaryllis
(Regonia x tuberhybrida)
(Gladiolus sp.)
(Hippeastrum sp.)
Shoot
Shoot
Shoot
Stem
Epidermis
Node
Cortex
Internode
Scale leaf.
Node
Epidermis
Food store
Lateral bud
Food
store,
Swollen stem
containing
stored food
Foliage
leaf___
New corm forming
at base of shoot
Protective
scale leaf
Scale
leaf
Fleshy scale /
leaf containing
stored food
Scale
leaf)
Protective
scale leaf
Remains of
flowering shoot
Vascular
tissue
Vascular
tissue
Aerial shoot developing
from terminal bud
Vascular
tissue
New
foliage
leaf^_
Apical bud
(flower bud)
RHIZOME
Ginger
(Zingiber officinale)
Developing
adventitious
root
Adventitious,
root
Developing
adventitious
root
Adventitious
root
Scale leaf
scar
[Last year’s
root
EXTERNAL VIEW
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH AERIAL SHOOT
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH RHIZOME
49
Dryland plants
LEAF
SUCCULENT
Lithops sp.
Areole (modified
lateral shoot)
STEM SUCCULENT
Golden barrel cactus
(Echinocactus grusonii)
Trichome
(hair)
Spine
(modified
leaf)
Dryland plants (xerophytes) are able to
survive in unfavorable habitats. All are found
in places where little water is available; some
live in high temperatures that cause excessive
loss of water from the leaves. Xerophytes
show a number of adaptations to dry
conditions. These include reduced leaf area,
rolled leaves, sunken stomata, hairs,
spines, and thick cuticles. One group,
succulent plants, stores water in specially
enlarged spongy tissues found in leaves, roots,
or stems. Leaf succulents have enlarged, fleshy,	В
water-storing leaves. Root succulents have а
large underground water-storage organ with
short-lived stems and leaves above ground. Stem "
succulents are represented by the cacti (family
Cactaceae). Cacti stems are fleshy, green, and
photosynthetic. They are typically ribbed or
covered by tubercles in rows, with leaves
being reduced to spines or entirely absent.
Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
covering)	. /i.
Water-storing //
parenchyma
(packing tissue)
Root
EXTERNAL VIEW
Spine
(modified
leaf)
Tubercle
(projection
from stem
surface)

MICROGRAPH OF STEM SURFACE
Sinuous
(wavy)
cell wall
Stoma (pore)
controlling
exchange of
gases
Vascular
cylinder
(transport
tissue)
Tubercle
(projection
from stem
surface)
Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
covering)
Areole-------
(modified
lateral shoot)
Spine
(modified
leaf)
DETAIL OF STEM SURFACE
Tubercle
(projection from
stem surface)
I
____Root
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH STEM
50
LEAF SUCCULENT
Translucent
LEAF SUCCULENT
Haworthia truncata
“window”
Lithops bromfieldii
Leaf,
Fissure
Root tuber
Fissure,
Root
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
.Unified
leaf pair
Water-storing
parenchyma
(packing tissue)
Waxy cuticle
(waterproof
covering)__
Water-storing
parenchyma
(packing
tissue)
Cup surrounding
sunken stoma
Dead/
flower in
old fissure
Raised cell
surface
Mottled
surface
of leaf-
Dead,
withered
leaf
Translucent
“window”_____
allows light to
reach base
of leaf
Stoma
(pore)
Photosynthetic
region
allows light
to reach
base of leaf .
Succulent
leaf
Waxy cuticle___
(waterproof
covering)
Photosynthetic
region
Translucent
“window”
allows light to
reach center
LONGITUDINAL SECTION of leaf___
THROUGH LEAF
(pore)
MICROGRAPH OF LEAF SURFACE
THROUGH LEAF PAIR
ROOT SUCCULENT
Oxalis sp.
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Stem
STEM AND ROOT SUCCULENT
String of hearts
(Ceropegia wood/
Root tuber.
EXTERNAL VIEW
Root
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Succulent
trailing stem
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
THROUGH ROOT TUHER
Succulent
leaf
Root tuber
Water-storing
parenchyma
Root
GRAND FORKS
Flower
bud___
PUBLIC
Stem
Root
LIBRARY
Root
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
51
Wetland plants
Wetland plants grow submerged in water, either partially, like the water hyacinth, or completely, like the
pondweeds, and show various adaptations to this habitat. Typically, there are numerous air spaces inside the
stems, leaves, and roots; these aid gas exchange and buoyancy. Submerged parts generally have no cuticle
(waterproof covering), allowing the plants to absorb minerals and gases directly from the water. Also,
because they are supported by the water, wetland plants need little of the supportive tissue found in land
plants. Stomata, the gas exchange pores, .. . , „
are absent from plants that are completely surface of
submerged. In partially submerged plants lamina (blade)
Abaxial (lower)
with floating leaves, such as
water lilies, stomata are found
on the upper leaf surfaces, where
they cannot be flooded.
Leaf-
Dorsal lobe
of leaf
WATER FERN
(Azo Ila sp.)
Stem
Leaf with tiny
hairs to prevent
waterlogging
Adventitious
root
Vein
Lacuna
(air space)
_ Orbicular
lamina
(blade)
Isthmus
(narrow
connecting
region)
Epidermis
(outer layer
of cells)
Lacuna____
(air space)
Leaf base
water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes}
Adaxial (upper) surface
of lamina (blade)
Rhizome
Dense, fibrous
root system___
Adventitious
root
CANADIAN PONDWEED
(Elodea canadensis}
Inflated petiole
(leafstalk)
provides buoyancy
Isthmus (narrow
connecting
region)
Orbicular
lamina
(blade)
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
Epidermis—
(outer layer
of cells)
_ Inflated
petiole
(leaf stalk)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Phloem _yascuiar
Xylem tissue
LAMINA AND SECTION THROUGH INFLATED MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
PETIOLE OF WATER HYACINTH THROUGH ROOT OF WATER HYACINTH
Lateral branch of
adventitious root
Internode
Node
Node
Stem
Adventitious
root
52
WATER LILY
(Nymphaea sp.)
Lacuna
(air space)
Vein
Star-shaped sclereid	Upper epidermis
(short strengthening cell)
Vascular
tissue
Parenchyma
(packing tissue)
Palisade mesophyll
(tightly packed
2|_photosynthetic tissue)
Lower epidermis
(outer layer of cells)
Phloem
Xylem
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH LEAF OF WATER LILY
Leaf
Vascular
bundle__
Plant fully
submerged
Vascular
bundle
Epidermis _
(outer layer
of cells)
Star-shaped sclereid
(short strengthening cell)
Lacuna,__-
(air space)
Lacuna
(air space)
Developing
leaf______
Petiole
(leafstalk)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Cortex
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
Pedicel
(flower stalk)
___________Rhizome
Flower
bud MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
PETIOLE OF WATER LILY
'HV'- Endodermis
fX (inner layer
of cortex)
Epidermis___f =.
(outer layer Vf
of cells)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH STEM OF
'»	ELODEASP.	У
Adventitious
root
C arnivor ous
Areola
(“window” of
transparent tissue)
plants
Carnivorous (insectivorous) plants feed on insects and other small
animals in addition to producing food in their leaves by photosynthesis.
The nutrients absorbed from trapped insects allow carnivorous plants to thrive
in acid, boggy soils that lack essential minerals, especially nitrates, where
most other plants could not survive.
All carnivorous plants have some leaves
modified as traps. Many use bright colors
and scented nectar to attract prey, and
most use enzymes to digest the prey. There I
are three types of traps. Pitcher plants, such
as the monkey cup and cobra lily, have leaves
modified as pitcher-shaped pitfail traps,
half-filled with water. Once lured inside the
mouth of the trap, insects lose their footing on
the slippery surface, fall into the liquid, and
either decompose or are digested. Venus fly-
traps use a spring-trap mechanism; when an
insect touches trigger hairs on the inner
surfaces of the leaves, the two lobes of the trap
snap shut. Butterworts and sundews entangle
prey by sticky droplets on the leaf surface,
while the edges of the leaves
slowly curl over to envelop
I and digest the prey.
Fishtail nectary
Wing
A PITCHER PLANT
Cobra lily (Darlingtonia calif о mica)
Smooth surface
Nectar roll
Dome-shaped
hood develops
Fishtail
nectary
appears
Immature
Immature
trap
Pitcher
Tubular
petiole
(leafstalk)
Areola
(“window” of
transparent
Mouth
Downward-
pointing hair
DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED
LEAF IN COBRA LILY
Interlocked
teeth
Closed
trap
VENUS FLYTRAP
(Dionaea mus cipula)
Red color of trap
attracts insects
Phyllode _
(flattened
petiole)
Summer petiole
(leaf stalk)
Sensory
hinge
Trigger
hair
Nectary zone
(glands secrete
nectar)
Inner
surface
of trap
Digestive zone
(glands
secrete
digestive
enzymes)------•
Lobe o,
trap
Midrib
(hinge of
trap)
Tooth
Trigger hair
Trap
(twin-lob ed
leaf blade)
Spring petiole
(leafstalk)
Digestive
gland
MICROGRAPH OF LOBE OF VENUS
FLYTRAP
54
Tendril
MICROGRAPH OF WALL OF PITCHER
Midrib
Lid
Spun
Tendril
Pitcher.
Frontal
Rim of
pitcher.
Recently
formed leaf
Digestive
gland____
Digestive
gland
Inner surface
of pitcher
Outer surface
of pitcher
Tendril at tip of
recently formed leaf.
Lid (attracts insects
and stops rainwater
from flooding pitcher)
Waxy_____
zone (no
foothold
for insects)
Partly
digested
insects
Lamina
(blade).
Mouth of.
pitcher
Lamina
(blade)
Immature
pitcher
Lid remains
firmly closed as
pitcher develops
Tendril
elongates
Rim of pitcher
(containing
nectar
glands)
Mature
pitcher
Mouth
of pitcher
PITCHER PLANT
Monkey cup
(Nepenthes mirabalis)
Nectar-
secreting
gland
Digestive
zone
(normally
containing
digestive
fluid)
Swelling forms \ Immature pitcher
at tip of tendril fills with air
Lid
opens
SECTION THROUGH
PITCHER
DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED LEAF
IN PITCHER PLANT
BUTTERWORT
(Pinguicula caudata)
Insect
trapped
on sticky
surface
Stalked secretory
gland (produces
sticky, mucus-like
Digestive gland
(produces enzymes)
Adaxial
(upper) surface
substance)
Flattened
lamina
(blade)
of lamina
(blade)
I
Abaxial
(lower) surface
of leaf
Margin
lamina (blade)
rolled inwards
MICROGRAPH OF
BUTTERWORT LEAF
Immature
leaf
55
Epiphytic and parasitic plants
Epiphytic and parasitic plants grow on other living plants. Typically, epiphytic plants are not
rooted in the soil. Instead, they live above ground level on the stems and branches of other
plants. Epiphytes obtain water from trapped rainwater and from moisture in the air. They
obtain minerals from organic matter that has accumulated on the surface of the plant on which
they are growing. Like other green plants, epiphytes produce their food by photosynthesis. Epiphytes
include tropical orchids and bromeliads (air plants) and some mosses that live in temperate regions. ZjrflS"
Parasitic plants obtain all their nutrient requirements from the host plants on which they grow. The parasites
produce haustoria, root-like organs that penetrate the stem or roots of the host and grow inward to merge
with the host’s vascular tissue. These extract water, minerals, and manufactured nutrients. Because they have
Flower
Stem
Leaf
Node
Pith
Stem
Xylem
Phloem
Aerial
root/
Flower
bud^/
Cortex cell
containing
chloroplasts
Scale
leaf
Pedicel
(flower
stalk.)
Exodermis
(outer layer
of cortex)
Vascular
tissue___
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Bark of tree to
which epiphyte
is attached
Cortex--------
(layer between
epidermis and
vascular tissue)
Overlapping leaf__
bases in which
rainwater is trapped
Mass of
adventitious roots
EPIPHYTIC ORCHID
Brassavola nodosa
Velamen
(multilayered epidermis
capable of absorbing
water from rain or
condensation)__________
EPIPHYTIC BROMELIAD
Aechmea miniata
Bark of tree to
which epiphyte
is attached
Peduncle
(inflorescence
stalk)
Endodermis
(inner layer
of cortex)
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH
AERIAL ROOT OF EPIPHYTIC ORCHID
no need to produce their own food, parasitic plants lack
chlorophyll, the green photosynthetic pigment, and they
have no foliage leaves. Partial parasitic plants, like mistletoe
obtain water and minerals from the host plant but have
green leaves and stems and are therefore able to
produce their own food by photosynthesis
Inflorescence
(spike)
Strap-shaped__. oMF*
arching leaf
(pari of rosette	,
of leaves)	T .
Leaf margin
with spines
56
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH EPIPHYTIC BROMELIAD
ROOT PARASITE
Scarlet star
Broomrape
(Orobanche sp.)
Stem of host plant
Stem
Swollen stem base
Phloem
Xylem
(Guzmania
Ungulata)
Flower of
broomrape
Stem of
host plant.
Stem of
host plant
Shoot of
broomrape
Leaf of
host plant
Leaf of
host plant
Stem of
broomrape
Stem of
dodder _
. Inflorescence
(spike) of dodder
flowers
Union of host and dodder
vascular systems
Leaf (part of \
rosette of leaves)
Lateral root of
host plant____
Vascular
tissue of
host plant
.Immature
flowers
Flower bud
of broomrape
Main root
of host plant
Thread-like
stem of dodder
twined around
stem of host
plant
Point of
attachment
of dodder stem
to host stem
Bract
(leaflike
structure)
Vascular tissue
of dodder
Immature
bracts
STEM PARASITE
Dodder
(Cuscuta europaea)
Overlapping leaf bases
in which rainwater is
trapped
Haustorium
(penetrating organ that
absorbs nutrients from
host’s vascular tissue)
Tip of dodder,
stem showing
circular
movement
around
host plant
Tuber of broomrape attached to.
host plant’s roots through
haustoria (penetrating organs
that absorb nutrients from host’s
vascular tissue)
EXTERNAL VIEW OF PLANT
MICROGRAPH OF CROSS SECTION THROUGH STEM
PARASITIZED BY DODDER
OF PLANT PARASITIZED BY DODDER
57
Plant classification
Biologists use a common system of classification to
catalog the millions of living organisms. Initially, all living
organisms are assigned to five large groupings called
kingdoms. All plants belong to the kingdom Plantae. The
plant kingdom, like other kingdoms, is subdivided into
progressively smaller groups, based on the similarities among
plants within each group. The plant kingdom is first divided into
ten phyla (singular: phylum)—for example, the phylum
Angiospermophyta, which includes all flowering plants, such as
orchids, palms, cacti, roses, and maples. Each phylum is then
subdivided into classes, each class into orders, each order into
families, and each family into genera (singular: genus). Finally,
each genus is subdivided into
species. This system
of repeated
subdivision
produces a
“family tree” of
all plants. The
chart shows the
main groups
in the plant
kingdom. Also
included are
plantlike
organisms:
algae (those
protists that
produce their
own food by
photosynthesis)
and fungi.
KINGDOM
PROTISTA
KINGDOM
PLANTAE
Bryophyta
(bryophytes)
Lycopodophyta
(club mosses)
Ginkgophyta
(Ginkgo) ’
Filicinophyta
(ferns)
Gnetophyta
(Welivitschia,
Ephedra, Gnetuni)
Sphenophyta
(horsetails)
Cycadophyta
PHYLUM
CLASS
FAMILY
Hepaticae
(liverworts)
Antliocerotae
(homworts)
Monocotyledoneae
(monocotyledons)
Musci
(mosses)
Coniferophyta
(conifers)
Psilophyta
(whiskferns)
Myxomycota
(slime molds)
Dicotyledoneae
(dicotyledons)
Phaeophyta
(brown algae)
Xantliophyta
(yellow-green
algae)
Mycophycota
(lichens)
Gamophyta
(conjugating green
algae)
buglenophyta
(euglenoid
flagellates)
Deuteromycota
(Penicillium,
Aspergillus,
Candida)
KEY
These colors show the
classification groupings
used in the chart.
Dinoflagellata
(dinoflagellates)
Chrysophyta
(golden algae)
Angiospermophyta
(flowering plants)
Basidiomycota
(smuts, rusts,
jelly fungi,
mushrooms,
puffballs,
stinkhorns)
Zygomycota
(black bread
mold,
dung fungi)
Ascomycota
(yeasts, morels,
truffles)
Cryptophyta
(cryptomonads)
Bacillariophyta
(diatoms)
Oomycota
(downy mildew,
potato blight)
Liliaceae
(e.g., lily,
tulip)
Orchidaceae (orchids)
Poaceae (e.g., wheat,
bamboo)
Iridaceae (e.g., iris,
gladiolus)
Arecaceae (e.g., coconut
Balm, date palm)
romeliaceae
(e.g., bromeliad, pineapple)
Cyperaceae (sedges)
Juncaceae (rushes)
Musaceae (e.g., banana)
Amaryllidaceae
(e.g., daffodil, amaryllis)
Ranunculaceae
(e.g., buttercup,
delphinium)
Brassicaceae (e.g., cabbage,
turnip)
Rosaceae (e.g., apple, rose)
Fabaceae (e.g., bean,
peanut)
Magnoliaceae (e.g., tulip
tree, magnolia)
Apiaceae (e.g., carrot,
parsley)
Solanaceae (e.g., potato,
tomato)
Lamiaceae (e.g., mint,
lavender)
Asteraceae
(e.g., sunflower, dandelion)
Sahcaceae (e.g., willow,
poplar)
Cucurbitaceae (e.g., melon,
cucumber)
Malvaceae (e.g., hibiscus,
hollyhock)
Rhodophyta
(red algae)
Chlorophyta
(green algae)
58
Index
A
Abaxial epidermis 33
Abaxial surface
Butterwort leaf 55
Fem pinnule 15
Mulberry leaf 24
Water hyacinth leaf 52
Water lily leaf 53
Welwitschia leaf 17
Abortive ovule 45
Abortive seed 40
Absorptive hyphae 8
Acanthostachys
strobilacea 6-7
Acersp. 21
Acer pseudoplatanus 25,45
Acetabularia sp. 10
Achenes 44
Acorn 25
Acuminate leaf apex 30-51
Acute leaf apex 31
Adaptation 6
Dryland plants 50-51
Wetland plants 52-53
Adaxial epidermis 53
Adaxial surface
Butterwort leaf 55
Mulberry leaf 24
Tree mallow leaf 25
Water hyacinth leaf 52
Water lily leaf 53
Welwitschia leaf 17
Adventitious buds 48
Adventitious roots
Aechmea miniata 56
Canadian pondweed 52
Couch grass 7
Fem 15
Horsetail 14
Ivy 25
Monocotyledon 20
Potato 22
Rock stonecrop 22
Tree fern 6
Vegetative
reproduction 48-49
Water fern 52
Water hyacinth 52
Water lily 53
Aechmea miniata 56
Aerial root 56
Aerial shoot 49
Aerial stem 13, 49
Aesculus hippocastanum
24
Aesculus parviflora 31
Aggregate fruits 42-43
Bramble 24
Development 40-41
Agropyron repens 7
Air bladder 11
Air chamber 12
Air plants 56
Air sac 16
Air spaces
Club moss stem 14
Mare’s tail stem 29
Moss 13
Root 26
Stem 29
Wetland plants 52-53
Algae 6, 10-11,58
Desmid 6
Lichen symbiote 8
Algal cell 8
Algal layer 8
Allium sp. 37
Alstroemeria aurea 23
Amaryllidaceae 58
Amaryllis 49
Plant classification 58
Ammophila arenaria 7
Androecium 34-35, 57
Anemophilous
pollination 38
Angiospermophyta 6,
20, 58
Annual growth ring 19
Annuals 22
Annulus
Fem 15
Mushroom 9
Anterior petal 35
Anterior sepal 35
Antheridium 11
Fem 15
Moss 13
Antherozoids 10-11
Fem 15
Moss 13
Anthers 34-37, 39
Dicotyledons 20-21
Fertilization 40-41
Pollination process
38-39
Anthocerotae 58
Anthriscus sp. 29
Anthurium
andreanum 57
Antipodal cell 41
Apex
Club moss shoot 14
Fem frond 15
Fem pinnule 15
Horsetail shoot 14
Leaf 30-31,48-49
Moss 13
Pine shoot 19
Apiaceae 58
Apical bud
Bulb 49
Pine shoot 19
Apical bud scale 19
Apical meristem 28
Apical notch
Seaweed 10
Thalloid liverwort 12
Apomixis 40
Apophysis 15
Apothecium 8
Apple
False fruit 42-43
Plant classification 58
Archegoniophore 12
Archegonium
Fem 15
Liverworts 12
Moss 13
Scots pine 16
Arecaceae 58
Areola 54
Areole 50
Aril
Lychee fruit 42
Yew seed 17
Arundinaria nitida 25
Ascomycota 58
Asexual reproduction 48
Aspergillus 58
Asteraceae 58
Autumn wood xylem 28
Axillary bud 28
Dicotyledon stem 21
Durmast oak 25
Leaf scars 48
Axis
Pine cone 16
Seed 46-47
Azolla sp. 52
В
Bacillariophyta 58
Baculum 38
Bamboo
Plant classification 58
Stem 25
Banana
Fertilization 40
Plant classification 58
Barberry 24-25
Bark
Bishop pine stem 19
Epiphytes 56
Lichen 8
Perennials 24-25
Stems 28
Woody plants 24-25
Basal scale 8
Basidiomycota 58
Basidium 9
Bat pollination 38
Beak 13
Bean
Black 47
Broad 46
Plant classification 58
Bee pollination 38-39
Begonia 23, 49
Begonia x tuberhybrida
23, 49
Berberis sp. 24-25
Berries 42-43
Biennials 22
Biflagellate cell 10
Bilobed leaves 17
Bipinnate leaves 31
Bird pollination 38
Bishop pine 18-19
Bitemate leaves 31
Black bean 47
Blackberry
Fruit development
40-41
Woody stem 24
Black bread mold 58
Blackstonia perjoliata 38
Black walnut 31
Bladder wrack 11
Blades
Butterwort 55
Dicotyledon leaf 21
Leaf surfaces 30, 32
Monocotyledon leaf 21
Seaweed 10-11
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Venus flytrap 54
Wetland plants 52-53
Box-leaved milkwort 38
Bracken 15
Bracteoles
Dehiscent fruit 45
Ice plant 25
Live-for-ever 23
Bracts 35-37
Bromeliad 7
Dicotyledon flower 21
Durmast oak 25
Florists’
chrysanthemum 25
Guzmania Ungulata 57
Ice plant 23
Indehiscent fruit 44
Live-for-ever 23
Peruvian lily 25
Rose 25
Slender thistle 23
Wind-pollinated
plant 38
Bract scales 16
Bramble
Fruit development
40-41
Woody stem 24
Branched leaf venation 21
Branches
Bishop pine 18
Club moss 14
Crab cactus 23
Dicotyledons 21
Horsetail 14
Perennials 24-25
Seaweed 11
Sporophore 8
Woody plants 24-25
Branching bracteoles 45
Branchlet 8
Branch trace 19
Brassavola nodosa 56
Brassica sp. 26
Brassicaceae 58
Broad bean
Germination 46
Primary root 27
Bromeliaceae 58
Bromeliads 6-7
Epiphytic 56-57
Plant classification 58
Broomrape 57
Brown algae
Plant classification 58
Seaweed group 10
Brown scales 15
Brown seaweed 10-11
Bryophyta 12, 58
Bryophytes 6,12-15
Plant classification 58
Bryurn sp. 6
Buds
Adventitious 48
Aechmea miniata 56
Apical meristem 28
Begonia 23
Bishop pine 18
Broomrape 57
Clematis flower 25
Dicotyledons 21
Durmast oak 25
Florists’
chrysanthemum 23
Horse chestnut 24
Larkspur 35
Lily 34
Lime 37
London plane 28
Moss 13
Oxalis spA5
Pine needle 19
Rhizome 49
Root tuber 48-49
Rose 25
Rowan twig 25
Stolon 48
Water lily 53
Bud scale
Bishop pine 18
Dicotyledon stem 21
London plane 28
Pine shoot apex 19
Bulbils 48-49
Bulbs 48-49
Buoyant wetland
plants 52
Bushes 24-25
Buttercup
Plant classification 58
Root features 26-27
Butterwort 54-55
c
Caarduus tenuiflorus 23
Cabbage
Plant classification 58
Root development 26
Cactaceae 50
Cacti
Desert survivors 6
Dryland adaptation 50
Herbaceous flowering
plants 23
Plant classification 58
Calyptra 15
Calyx 34
Allium sp. 57
Centaury 38
Simple succulent
berry 43
Cambium 20
Camellia 31
Camellia japonica 31
Canadian pondweed
52-53
Candida 58
Cape gooseberry 45
Capitulum 36
Florists’
chrysanthemum 25
Slender thistle 23
Cap
Alga 10
Fungi 8-9
Radicle tip 47
Capsule
Dry fruit 44-45
Moss 6,13
Carbon atom 32
Carbon dioxide 32
Carduus tenuiflorus 23
Carinal canal 14
Carnivorous plants 54-55
Pitcher plant 7
Carpels 34-55
Dehiscent fruit 45
Fertilization 40-41
Fruit development
42-43
Insect-pollinated
plant 38
Lemon fruit 42
Ovary 34
Stigma 34
Style 34
Carpel wall
Dehiscent fruit 45
Lemon fruit 42
Carpophore 45
Carrot
Herbaceous flowering
plant 22
Plant classification 58
Roots 22, 26
Caryopses
Couch grass 7
Dry fruit 44
Castanea sativa 30, 44
Cataphyll 46
Catkin 38
Caudex 7
Cells
Algae 10-11
Chusan palm leaf 24
Club moss stem 14
Dicotyledons 20-21
Epiphytic orchid 56
Fem rachis 15
Horsetail stem 14
Leaf 20, 53
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledons 20-21
Moss 13
Mushroom 9
Photosynthesis 32-33
Pine 18-19
Roots 26-27
Root tip 46
Sinus 6
Spirogyra sp. 11
Stem 28-29
Wetland plants 52-55
Cell wall
Alga 6, 10
Leaf 35
Palisade mesophyll 33
Roots 26
Spirogyra sp. 11
Stem surface 50
Centaurium erythraea 38
Cereoid cactus 23
Ceropegia woodii 51
Chambers
Seaweed 10
Substomatal 33
Channeled wrack 10
Charentais melon 43
Checkerbloom 30
Cherry 42
Chervil 29
Chlamydomonas sp. 10
Chlorenchyma 14
Chlorophyll 32
Chloroplast 33
Photosynthesis
pigment 10, 32, 56
Chlorophyta
Classification 58
Green algae 10
Chloroplasts 32-33
Alga 6
Chlamydomonas sp. 10
Envelope 35
Epiphytic orchid 56
Internal view 53
Spirogyra sp. 11
Christmas rose 33
Chrysanthemum
morifolium 23
Chrysophyta 58
Chusan palm 21, 24
Citrus limon 42
Cladode 23
Cladonia jloerkeana 8
Cladonia portentosa 8
Classes 58
Classification of
plants 58
Clematis
Bitemate leaf 51
Woody plants 24-25
Clematis sp. 25, 51
Clematis montana 24
Club mosses 14-15
Plant classification 58
Cobra lily 54-55
Cocoa 42
Coconut palm
Plant classification 58
Cocos nucifera 29
Codiaeum variegatum 30
Coenobium 10
Coleus sp. 28
Collar of horsetail 14
Collenchyma
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Stems 28-29
Colpus 38
Columella 13, 39
Column 20
Common centaury 38
Common earthball 9
Common English ivy 25
Common horse
chestnut 24
Common horsetail 14
Common ivy 31
Common lime 57
Common mulberry 24
Companion cells
Root 26-27
Stems 28
Compound
inflorescence 36
Russian vine 25
Compound leaves 30
Clematis 24
Mahonia 24-25
Rowan 24
Compound succulent
fruits 42-43
Compound umbel 37
Conceptacles 10-11
Conducting tissue 13
Cones
Bishop pine 18
Gymnosperms 16
Pine 16
Scots pine 16
Smooth cypress 17
Welwitschia 17
Yew 17
Cone stalk 18
Coniferophyta
Conifers 16
Plant classification 58
Conifers 16-19
Plant classification 58
Conjugating green
algae 58
Conjugation 11
Conjugation lube 11
Conocephalum
conicum 12
Contractile vacuole 10
Corallina officinalis 11
Cordate leaf bases 30-31
Cork
Stems 28-29
Woody dicotyledons 21
Corms 48-49
Com 6, 21
Corolla 34, 36-37
Corolla tube 36
Cortex
Apical meristem 28
Canadian pondweed
52-53
Club moss stem 14
Dicotyledons 21
Epiphytic orchid 56
Horsetail stem 14
Lichen 8
Monocotyledons 21
Moss 15
Pine 19
Radicle 46
Rhizome 49
Root 26-27
Stems 28-29
Water hyacinth 52
Water lily 53
Cotyledons 20, 46-47
Development 26
Dicotyledons 20
Dry fruit seed 44-45
Embryo development
41
Epigeal germination 47
Hypogeal germination
46
Monocotyledons 20
Pine 16
Root development 26
Seed 46-47
Succulent fruit seed
42-43
Couch grass 7
Crab apple 20
Crab cactus 23
Creeping stems 48
Club moss 14
Strawberry 22
Cremocarps 44-45
Crossandra nilotica 39
Cross-pollination 38
Cross wall of hypha 9
Croton 30
Crustose lichens 8
Cryptomonads 58
Cryptophyta 58
Cucumber 58
Cucumis melo 43
59
Cucurbitaceae 58	Monkey cup 55	Fruit development	Bishop pine 18	Rose 25	Seaweed 10-11
Culm 25	Venus flytrap 54	40-41	Gymnosperms 16	Water lily 55	Tree fem 6-7
Cuneate leaf bases 30-31	Digitate leaves 31	Fruit layer 42	Pine 16,18	Wind pollination 38	Frontal rib 55
Cupressus glabra 17	Dilsea camosa 11	Succulent fruit 42-43	Smooth cypress 17	Flowering plants	Fruits
Cup surrounding	Dinoflagellata 58	Endodermis	Yew 17	Herbaceous 22-23	Bramble 24
stomata 51	Dinoflagellates 58	Bishop pine needle 18	Female flower	Plant classification 58	Couch grass 7
Cupule 44	Dionaea muscipula 54	Canadian pondweed	organs 34-37	Structure 6-7	Development 40-41
Cuscuta europaea 57	Disk 12	stem 52-53	Female flower remains 42	Woody 24-25	Dry 44-45
Cuspidate leaf apex 31	Disk florets	Dicotyledons 21	Female flowers 37,38,42	Flowering shoot 49	Durmast oak 25
Cuticle	Florists’	Epiphytic orchid 56	Female gametes	Flowers 34-37	Peach 25
Bishop pine needle 18	chrysanthemum 23	Fem rachis 15	Fertilization 40-41	Brassavola nodosa 56	Pitcher plant 7
Dryland plants 50	Sunflower 36, 39	Horsetail stem 14	Gymnosperms 16	Bromeliad 7	Rowan 25
Golden barrel cactus 50	DNA strand 33	Mare’s tail stem 29	Scots pine 16	Broomrape 57	Succulent 42-43
Haworthia truncata 51	Dodder 57	Monocotyledons 21	Seaweed 10-11	Buds 34-35, 37	Sycamore 25
Leaf 35	Domed receptacle 56	Pine root 19	Yew 17	Clematis 25	Fruit walls
Lithops bromfieldii 51	Dormancy	Root 26-27	Female receptacles 11	Color 54, 38-59	Dry fruit 44-45
Marram grass 7	Horse chestnut	Water hyacinth root 52	Female reproductive	Dicolyledons 20-21,	Succulent fruit 42-45
Monocotyledon	bud 24	Endoperidium 9	organs	55-57	Fruticose lichens 8
leaf 20	Seed 46	Endosperm 41	Fem 15	Dodder 57	Fruticose thallus 8
Rose stem 29	Dorsal lobe 52	Endothecium 38	Fruit 42	Epiphytes 56-57	Fucoxanthin 10
Rush stem 29	Double samaras	Energy conversion 32	Moss 15	Everlasting pea 23	Fucus spiralis 10
Wetland plants 52	Dry fruit 44-45	English ivy 25	Plants 38	Florists’	Fucus vesiculosus 10,11
Cycadophyta 16	Sycamore 25	Enteromorpha linza 11	Fems 14-15	chrysanthemum 25	Funaria sp. 15
Plant classification 58	Downy mildew 58	Entire leaf 24	Life cycle 15	Guzmania	Funaria hygrometrica 15
Cycads16-17	Drupelets	Entire margin 30-31	Plant classification 58	Ungulata 57	Fungal filaments 8-9
Plant classification 58	Aggregate fruit 43	Entomophilous	Tree fem 6-7	Ice plant 23	Fungi 6, 8-9
Cycas revoluta 17	Fruit development	pollination 38	Fertile horsetail stem 14	Involucre 23	Lichen symbiote 8
Cyme 23, 37	40-41	Enzymes 54	Fertilization 40^41	Monocotyledons 20,	Mycorrhizal
Cyperaceae 58	Syconium 42	Ephedra 58	Fem 15	54-35, 57	association 27
Cypress 17	Drupes 42	Epicotyl 46-47	Gymnosperms 16	Peruvian lily 25	Plant classification 58
Cypselas 44	Peach 25	Epidermis	Process diagrams 41	Pollination 38-39	Funicle 44
Cytoplasm	Succulent fruit 42-43	Apical meristem 28	Scots pine 16	Rose 25	Funnel guide 20
Chlamydomonas sp. 10	Dry fruits 44-45	Canadian pondweed	Seaweed 11	Russian vine 25	Fused carpels 54, 58
Diatom 10	Couch grass 7	stem 53	Fibers	Scented 58	Dehiscent fruit 45
Palisade mesophyll 33	Durmast oak 25	Club moss stem 14	Stem phloem 28-29	Stem arrangements 57	Fused petals 56
Root cells 26	Sycamore 25	Dicotyledons 20-21	Stem sclerenchyma 29	Ultraviolet light 39	Pollination role 59
Tharassiosiva sp. 10 D	Dryland plants 50-51 Dryopteris filix-mas 14-15 Dry pericarps 44 Dung fungi 58 Durmast oak 25	Epiphytic orchid 56 Fem rachis 15 Flower 36 Horsetail stem 14 Leaf 33 Marram grass 7	Stem xylem 28-29 Ficus sp. 31 Ficus carica 42 Fig 31,42 Filaments Alga 10	Vegetative reproduction 48 Water lily 53 Yew 17 Flower scars 48 Flower spikes 57,49	Fused receptacles 43 G
Daffodil 58	Dwarf shoot	Monocotyledons 20-21	Dicotyledon flower	Flower stalks	Galium aparine 44
Dandelion	Bishop pine 18	Moss 13	20-21	Brassavola nodosa 56	Gamete-producing
Dry fruit 44	Pine stem 19	Multilayered 56	Fem 15	Bulbil 48	structures 6
Plant classification 58	Dwarf shoot scar 18	Pine needle 18	Fertilization 40-41	Clematis 25	Gametes 48
Darlingtonia	Dwarf shoot trace 19	Pine stem 19	Flowers 54-35, 57	Dry fruit 44-45	Brown seaweed 10-11
califomica 54-55		Prickle 29	Fungal 8-9	Fertilization 40-41	Bryophytes 12-15
Date palm 58		Radicle 46	Moss 15	Florists’	Fem 14-15
Daucus carota 22, 26		Rhizome 49	Pollination 58	chrysanthemum 25	Fertilization 40-41
Daughter bulbs 48		Root 26-27	Filicinophyta	Fruit development	Gymnosperms 16
Daughter plants 48		Stem 28-29	Classification 58	40-41	Moss 6
Deadnettle 29	Earthball fungus 9	Water hyacinth 52	Fems 14	Monocotyledons 34-55,	Pine 16
Deciduous plants 24-25	Echinocactus	Water lily 55	Fishtail nectaries 54	57	Vegatative
Dehiscence 44-45	grusonii 50	Epigeal germination	Fissures	Oxalis sp. 51	reproduction 48
Fem spore 15	Eichhomia crassipes 52	46-47	Leaf succulent 51	Rose 25	Yew 17
Pollen sac 38	Elder	Epiphytes	Lithops bromfieldii	Rowan 25	Gametophytes
Dehiscence line 45	Flower arrangement	Fem 6	leaf 51	Russian vine 25	Bryophyte 12-13
Dehiscent fruits 44-45	34	Plants 56-57	Flagellum	Succulent fruit 42-43	Fem 14-15
Dehydration 46	Inflorescence 37	Equatorial furrow 38	Chlamydomonas sp. 10	Sycamore 25	Liverwort 12
Delphinium	Woody flowering	Equisetum arvense 14	Moss 15	Water lily 53	Moss 6,15
Dry fruit 44	plant 24-25	Euglenoid flagellates 58	Seaweed gametes 11	Foliage leaf bud 18	Gamophyta 58
Plant classification 58	Elliptic leaves 31	Euglenophyta 58	Flat laminae 32	Foliage leaves	Gas exchange 28
Delphinium sp. 45	Elm 38,44	European elder 37	Flattened pericarp 45	Bishop pine 18	Leaf 32-33
Delphinium orientalis 35	Elodea sp. 55	European field elm 38	Flattened petiole 54	Bulb 49	Photosynthesis
Deltoid leaves 31	Elodea canadensis 52-53	Even pinnate leaves 31	Flattened stem 23	Germination 46-47	process 32
Dentate leaf margins	Elongating root 27,47	Evergreens 24-25	Fleshy aril 42	Monocotyledons 20	Root 26
Hogweed 23	Emarginate apex 30	Everlasting pea 23	Fleshy axis 37	Parasitic plants 56	Sunken stoma 50-51
Ice plant 23	Embryo	Exine 38-39	Fleshy fruits 40-41	Pine 18-19	Wetland plants 52
Live-for-ever 23	Cotyledons 46-47	Exocarp	Fleshy hair 34	Rhizome 49	Gelatinous sheath 10
Mulberry 24	Dry fruit seed 44-45	Fruit development	Fleshy infolded	Seedling 46-47	Gemma 12
Rock stonecrop 22	Fertilization 40-41	40-41	receptacle 42	Stem bulbil 49	Gemma cup 12
Deoxyribonucleic acid	Germination 46-47	Fruit layer 42	Fleshy scale leaf 49	Yew 17	Genera 58
strand 53	Seed leaves 46	Succulent fruit 42^13	Florets 56	Foliose lichens 8	Generative nucleus 41
Desmid 6	Succulent fruit seed	Exodermis 56	Florists’	Foliose thallus 8	Genus 58
Detachable bud 48	42-43	Exoperidium 9	chrysanthemum 25	Follicles 44-45	Geranium pratense 38
Deuteromycota 58	Embryonic roots 41	Eyespol10	Ultraviolet light 59	Food storage	Germination 46-47
Diatoms	Epigeal germination 47		Florists’	Bulb 49	Cabbage seed 26
Algae 10	Hypogeal germination		chrysanthemum 23	Corm 49	Epigeal 46-47
Plant classification 58	46	F	Flower bud	Embryo 41	Fem spore 15
Dichasial cyme 57	Pea seed 44		Aechmea miniata 56	Rhizome 49	Hypogeal 46-47
Dicksonia antarctica 6-7	Seed axis 46-47		Broomrape 57	Root tuber 49	Mushroom spore 9
Dicotyledoneae	Embryonic shoots 41	Fabaceae 58	Bulb 49	Scale leaf 49	Pine 16
Classification 58	Epigeal germination 47	False acacia 30	Clematis 25	Seed 46	Pollen grain 40-41
Dicotyledons 20	Hypogeal germination	False anthers 35	Florists’	Succulents 50-51	Giant redwood 6
Dicotyledons 20-21	46	False fruits 42-43	chrysanthemum 23	Swollen stem 7,49	Gill 8-9
Classification 58	Pea seed 44	False septum 45	Hibiscus 21	Fragaria x ananassa	Ginger 49
Flower parts 35-37	Pine 16	Families 58	Ice plant 25	22,44	Ginkgo 16-17
Digestive enzymes 54	Seed axis 46-47	“Family tree” 58	Live-for-ever 23	Fringed crumble cap 9	Plant classification 58
Digestive glands/zones	Embryo sac 40-41	Female apex 13	Oxalis sp. 51	Fronds	Ginkgo biloba 17
Butterwort 55	Endocarp 40-41	Female cones	Peruvian lily 23	Fem 14-15	Ginkgophyta 16, 58
Girdle 10
Girdle scar 17
Gladiolus 48-49
Plant classification 58
Gladiolus sp. 48-49
Glands
Butterwort 55
Monkey cup 55
Venus flytrap 54
Gleba 8-9
Glechoma hederacea 48
Gleditsia triacanthos 31
Gloriosa superba 37
Glory lily 37
Glucose 32
Molecule 32
Gnetophyta 16, 58
Gnetophytes 16
Gnetum 58
Golden algae 58
Golden barrel cactus 50
Goosegrass 44
Granular stalk 8
Granum 33
Grape hyacinth 49
Grasses 7
Green algae 6,10-11
Plant classification 58
Green chlorophyll
pigment 10, 32
Green seaweed 11
Ground ivy 48
Growing point 47
Guard cells 32-33
Guide hair 20
Guzmania Ungulata
56-57
Gymnosperms 16-19
Gynoecium 34
Habitats 6
Dryland plants 50-51
Wetland plants 52-53
Hairlike sepal 56
Hair
Cobra lily 54
Golden barrel cactus 50
Inflorescence 34, 36
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledon 20
Pitcher plant 7
Root 26
Venus flytrap 54
Water fem leaf 52
Half-fruit 45
Hapteron 10-11
Hard endocarp
Fruit growth 40-41
Raspberry pip 43
Hastate leaf 22
Haustoria
Broomrape 57
Dodder 57
Haworthia truncata 51
Heartwood 19
Hedera colchica 31
Hedera helix 25, 31
Helianthus annulus 56
Heliconia peruviana 37
Helleborus niger 33
Hepaticae
Classification 58
Liverworts 12
Heracleum sp. 45
Heracleum
sphondylium 23
Herbaceous flowering
plants 20, 22-23
Herbaceous stems 28
Hesperidium 42
Hibiscus 20-21
Plant classification 58
Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis 20-21
Hilum
Dehiscent fruit seed 45
Epigeal germination 47
60
Hypogeal germination
46
Succulent fruit seed
42-43
Hinge cells
Marram grass 7
Venus flytrap 54
Hippeastrum sp. 49
Hippophae rhamnoides 30
Hippuris vulgaris 29
Hogweed 23, 44-45
Hohenbuehelia
petaloides 9
Holdfast 10-11
Hollow pith cavity 14
Hollow stem 23
Hollyhock 58
Honesty 44-45
Honey guides 34-35, 39
Honey locust 51
Hood 54
Hooked pericarps 44
Horizontal underground
stems 48-49
Homworts 58
Horse chestnut
Digitate leaf 31
Woody stem parts 24
Horsetails 14-15
Plant classification 58
Host plants
Epiphytes 56-57
Parasites 57
Howeaforsteriana 20
Husk 44
Hydrogen atom 52
Hydrogen requirement 32
Hyphae
Fungus 8-9
Mycorrhizal
association 27
Hypocotyl 46-47
Hypocotyl hook 47
Hypodermis 19
Hypogeal germination
46-47
Hypogymnia physodes 8
I
Ice plant 22-23
Immature pitcher 55
Immature spur 35
Indehiscent fruits 44
Indusium 15
Inflated petiole 52
Inflorescences 34
Aechmea miniata 56
Bromeliad 7
Catkin 38
Compound 36-37
Couch grass 7
Dodder 57
Stem arrangements 37
Inflorescence stalks 34-37
Aechmea miniata 56
Brassavola nodosa 56
Everlasting pea 23
Indehiscent fruit 44
Peach 25
Peruvian lily 23
Rowan 25
Russian vine 25
Succulent fruit 42
Vegetative
reproduction 48-49
Wind-pollinated
plant 38
Inflorescence types
Capitulum 23, 36
Compound umbel 37
Dichasia! cyme 57
Raceme 23
Single flower 37
Spadix 37
Spherical umbel 37
Spike 37, 49, 56
Inner bud scales 28
Inner florets 23, 56
Inner layer of cortex
Dicotyledons 21
Epiphytic orchid 56
Monocotyledons 21
Wetland plants 52-53
Inner membrane 33
Inner tepals 34, 37
Monocotyledons 20
Insectivorous plants 7,
54-55
Insects
Plant food 54-55
Pollinators 38-39
Integument
Ovule 41
Scots pine 16
Intercellular leaf space 33
Internode
Canadian pondweed
52-53
Horsetail 14
Ice plant 23
Live-for-ever 23
London plane 28
Rhizome 49
Rock stonecrop 22
Rose stem 24
Stems 28
Stolon 48
Ipomeoa batatas 48
Iridaceae 58
Iris
Linear leaf 51
Plant classification 58
Iris lazica 51
Isthmus 52
Ivy
Deltoid leaf 51
Palmately lobed leaf 31
Woody flowering
plant 24-25
J
Jelly fungi 58
Jointed stems 25
Juglans nigra 51
Juice sac 42
Juncaceae 58
Juncus sp. 29
Justicia aurea 38
К
Kalanchoe
daigremontiana 48
Kedrostis africana 7
Kingdom Fungi 58
Kingdom Plantae 58
Kingdom Protista 58
L
Labellum
Bee landing stage 59
Monocotyledon
flower 20
Laburnum 31
Laburnum x watered. 31
Lacuna
Club moss 14
Mare’s tail 29
Wetland plants 52-53
Lamella 33
Lamiaceae 58
Lamina 50
Butterwort 55
Couch grass 7
Dicotyledon leaf 21
Leaf 52
Monocotyledon leaf 21
Seaweed 10-11
Succulent 7
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Water hyacinth leaf 52
Water lily leaf 55
Laminaria digitata 10-11
Lamium sp. 29
Lanceolate leaves 30
Club moss 14
Peach 25
Larkspur
Flower parts 35
Fruit 45
Lateral branches
Adventitious roots
52-55
Horsetail 14
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Lateral buds 28
Begonia 23
Dicotyledons 21
Horse chestnut 24
Leaf scars 48
London plane 28
Rhizome 49
Rowan twig 25
Stem bulbil 49
Stolon 48
Lateral root 27
Broomrape host 57
Carrot 22
Dicotyledons 21
Germination 46-47
Horse chestnut 24
Seedling 46-47
Strawberry 22
Sweet pea 22
Lateral root scar 22
Lateral sepal 35
Lateral shoot 50
Lateral tepal 20
Lateral vein
Sweet chestnut leaf 30
Water lily leaf 53
Lathyrus latifolius 23
Lathyrus odoratus 22
Lavatera arborea 25
Lavender 58
Leaf bases 22, 30-31
Aechmea miniata 56
Couch grass 7
Dicotyledons 21
Florists'
chrysanthemum 23
Guzmania Ungulata
56-57
Hogweed 25
Monocotyledons 20-21
Sago palm 17
Seedling leaf 46
Water hyacinth 52
Leaf blades
Butterwort 55
Dicotyledons 21
Leaf surfaces 30, 52
Monocotyledons 21
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Venus flytrap 54
Wetland plants 52-55
Leafless branch 14
Leaflets 30-51
Everlasting pea 25
Fem 14-15
Horse chestnut leaf 24
Mahonia 24-25
Monocotyledons 20
Pinna 15, 30-31
Rose 25
Rowan 24
Sago palm 17
Tree fem 6-7
Leaflet stalks 31
Leaflike structures 55-37
Dehiscent fruit 45
Dicotyledon flower 21
Guzmania
Ungulata 57
Ice plant 23
Live-for-ever 23
Peruvian lily 25
Slender thistle 23
Wind pollination 58
Leaf margins 23
Aechmea miniata 56
Slender thistle 23
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Leaf notches 48
Leaf primordium 28
Leaf scar
Begonia 23
Elder 24
Horse chestnut 24
Ice plant 22-23
London plane 28
Rock stonecrop 22
Leaf shapes 50-51
Leaf sheath 23
Leaf stalk 22, 30-31
Chusan palm 24
Clematis 25
Cobra lily 54
Common horse
chestnut 24
Dicotyledons 21
Everlasting pea 23
Florists'
chrysanthemum 23
Ginko tree 17
Kedrostis africana 7
Monocotyledons 20-21
Mulberry 24
Oxalis sp. 51
Passion flower 24
Peach 25
Seedling 47
Strawberry 22
String of hearts 51
Tree fern 6
Tree mallow 25
Vegetative
reproduction 48-49
Venus flytrap 54
Water lily 55
Wind pollination 38
Leaf succulents
Haworthia truncata 51
Lithops sp. 50
Lithops bromfieldii 51
Leaf trace 21
Leaf venation 25
Leafy liverwort 12
Leafy thallus 8
Leathery exocarps 42
Leaves 30-51
Abaxial surface 17,24
Adaxial surface 17, 24
Aechmea miniata 56
Apex 50-31
Apical meristem 28
Barberry 24-25
Bishop pine 18
Brassavola nodosa 56
Bromeliad 6-7
Broomrape 57
Butterwort 55
Canadian pondweed
52-55
Carnivorous plants
54-55
Checkerbloom 30
Chusan palm 24
Classification 30-51
Clematis 24-25
Club moss 14
Cobra lily 54
Couch grass 7
Dicotyledons 20-21
Dryland plants 50-51
Durmast oak 25
Epiphytes 56-57
Fem 14-15
Florists'
chrysanthemum 23
Germination 46-47
Ginko tree 17
Guzmania Ungulata
56-57
Haworthia
truncata 51
Hinge cells 7
Hogweed 23
Horsetail 14
Intercellular space 33
Ivy 25
Kedrostis africana 1
Lamina 30
Lithops bromfieldii 51
Liverwort 12
London plane 28
Margin 50
Marram grass 7
Midrib 30
Monkey cup 55
Monocotyledons 20-21
Moss 6,15
Mulberry 24
Orange lily 48
Oxalis sp. 51
Parasite host 57
Passion flower 24
Peach 25
Photosynthesis 28,
32-55
Pine 16,18-19
Pitcher development 55
Pitcher plant 7, 54-55
Primordia 28
Rock stonecrop 22
Rose 24-25
Rosettes 56-57
Rowan 24
Sago palm 17
Scots pine 16
Seedling 46-47
Slender thistle 25
Smooth cypress 17
Stomata 33
Strawberry 22
Tendrils 55
Toadflax 23
Tree fem 6-7
Tree mallow 25
Vegetative
reproduction 48-49
Veins 30, 32-33
Venus flytrap 54
Water fem 52
Water hyacinth 52
Water lily 55
Welwitschia 16-17
Xerophytes 50-51
Yew 17
Legumes 44
Lemon 42
Lenticels
Elder stem 24
Stems 28
Woody plants 24-25
Lichens 8-9
Plant classification 58
Lid
Moss 13
Pitchers 55
Life cycles 6
Brown seaweed 11
Fern 15
Moss 15
Mushroom 9
Scots pine 16
Light
Seed germination 46
Translucent
“window” 51
Ultraviolet 39
Ligulate ray floret 25
Liliaceae 58
Lilium sp. 27, 32,
54-55,49
Lilium bulbiferum 48
Lily
Bulbils 48-49
Flowers 34-35
Leaf surface 52
Plant classification 58
Lime 37
Linaria sp. 23
Linear leaves 23, 31
Lips
Flower 20, 59
Pollination 39
Litchi chinensis 42
Lithops sp. 50
Lithops bromfieldii 51
Live-for-ever 22-23
Liverworts 6, 12-13
Plant classification 58
Structure 12
Lobe
Liverworts 12
Venus flytrap 54
Lobed leaf
Durmast oak 25
Florists'
chrysanthemum 25
London plane 28
Longitudinal
channels 14
Lora 21, 24
Love-in-a-mist 44-45
Lower epidermis 33, 53
Lower leaf surface
Butterwort 55
Fem 15
Photosynthesis 32
Water hyacinth 52
Water lily 53
Welwitschia 17
Lower seed axis 46-47
Lunaria annua 45
Lychee 42
Lycopodium sp. 14
Lycopodophyta 14, 58
M
Magnolia 58
Magnoliaceae 58
Mahonia 24-25
Mahonia lomariifolia
24-25
Main root
Broomrape host 57
Dicotyledons 21
Horse chestnut 24
Sweet pea 22
Male apex 13
Male catkin 58
Male cone
Bishop pine 18
Pines 16,18
Scots pine 16
Smooth cypress 17
Male fem 14-15
Male flower organs
34-57
Male flowers
Painter’s palette 37
Succulent fruit 42
Wind-pollinated
plant 58
Male gametes
Fertilization 40-41
Gymnosperms 16
Seaweed 10-11
Male inflorescences 44
Male receptacles 11
Male reproductive
organs 58
Male sex organ 13,15
Malus sylvestris 45
Malus sp. 20
Malvaceae 58
Maple 21
Plant classification 58
Marchantia
polymorpha 12
Mare’s tail 29
Margin
Lamina 10-11, 55
Leaf 25, 50-31
Needle 18
Water lily leaf 53
Marram grass 7
Meadow cranesbill 58
Meadow rue 51
Meadow sage 59
Medulla 8
Medullary ray 19
Megaspores 16
Melon
Berry fruit 45
Plant classification 58
Membranes
Chloroplasts 33
Thylakoid 35
Membranous spur 55
Mericarp 45
Meristematic cells 48
Mesocarp
Fruit development
40-41
Fruit layer 42
Succulent fruit 42-43
Mesophyll 29
Bishop pine needle 18
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledon
leaf 20
Palisade layer 53
Spongy layer 55
Metaxylem
Dicotyledon root 21
Monocotyledon
root 21
Root 26-27
Mexican hat plant 48
Micrasterias sp. 6
Micropyle
Epigeal germination 47
Fertilization 41
Scots pine 16
Seed 44
Microsporangium 16
Microspores 16
Microsporophyll 16
Midrib
Dicotyledon leaf 20-21
Durmast oak leaf 25
Fem fronds 15
Hogweed leaf 23
Ice plant leaf 23
Live-for-ever leaf 23
Liverwort 12
Monkey cup 55
Moss leaf 13
Spiral wrack 10
Spanish chestnut leaf 30
Tree fem 7
Venus flytrap 54
Water lily leaf 53
Mimulopsis solmsii 39
Minerals 26
Carnivorous plants 54
Epiphytes 56
Photosynthesis 52-53
Wetland plants 52
Xylem vessel 28
Mint 58
Mistletoe 56
Modified cuticle 51
Modified lateral shoots 50
Modified leaflets 23
Modified leaves
Barberry 24-25
Cobra lily 54
Dryland plants 50-51
Everlasting pea 23
Golden barrel cactus 50
Pitcher development 55
Spines 50
Strawberry 22
Modified shoots 50
Modified stipules 22-23
Monkey cup 55
Monocotyledoneae 20
Classification 58
Monocotyledons 20
Monocotyledonous
petals
Glory lily 57
Lily 54
Monocotyledonous
sepals
Glory lily 37
Lily 54
Orchid 20
Monocotyledons 20-21
Classification 58
Flower parts 20,34-35,
37
Morels 58
Morus nigra 24
61
Mosses 6, 8,12-15
Epiphytic 56
Life cycle 13
Plant classification 58
Structure 13
Mottled leaf surface 51
Molds 8
Mouth
Cobra lily 54
Pitcher plants 55
Mucronate leaf apex 31
Mulberry 24
Multiple fruits 42-43
Musaceae 58
Musa ‘lacatan’40
Muscari sp. 49
Musci
Classification 58
Mosses 12
Mushrooms 6
Classification 58
Life cycle 9
Mycelium 8-9
Mycophyco ta 58
Mycorrhizal
association 27
Myxomycota 58
N
Nectar 36
Carnivorous plants
54-55
Nectaries 55, 58-59
Cobra lily 54
Monkey cup 55
Venus flytrap 54
Nectar roll 54
Nectar-secreting gland 55
Nectar-secreting
groove 54
Nectary zone 54
Needles
Bishop pine 18
Pine 18-19
Scots pine 16
Yew 17
Nepenthes mirabilis 55
Nigella damascena 45
Nitrates 54
Node
Bamboo 25
Brassavola nodosa 56
Canadian pondweed
52-55
Couch grass 7
Dicotyledons 21
Horsetail 14
Ice plant 25
Live-for-ever 25
Rhizome 49
Rock stonecrop 22
Rose stem 24
Stems 28
Stolon 48
Strawberry 22
Nodules 22
Nucellus 41
Nucleus
Chlamydomonas sp. 10
Endosperm 41
Fungal cell 9
Palisade mesophyll
cell 55
Pollen 16
Pollen tube 41
Roots 26
Scots pine pollen 16
Synergid 41
Thalassiosira sp. 10
Nutlets 44
Nutrients
Carnivorous plants 54
Epiphyte supply 56
Phloem sieve tube 28
Plant transport 35
Nuts
Dry fruit 44
Durmast oak 25
Nymphaea sp. 53
Nyssa sylvatica 31
О
Oarweed 10-11
Obovate leaves 31
Odd pinnate leaves 30
Oil duct 45
Oil gland 42
One-seeded dry fruits 44
One-seeded mericarps 45
Oogonium 11
Oomycota 58
Oospheres 10-11
Fem 15
Moss 13
Opening of ovules 41
Operculum 13
Orange lily 48
Orbicular lamina 52
Orbicular leaves 31
Orchidaceae 58
Orchids
Epiphytic 56
Fungal association 27
Monocotyledon 20
Plant classification 58
Orders 58
Organs of
photosynthesis 28
Orobanche sp. 57
Ostiole 11
Outer bud scale 28
Outer coat of pollen
grains 38-39
Outer fertilized floret 36
Outer layer of cells
Apical meristem 28
Dicotyledons 20-21
Epiphytic orchid 56
Monocotyledons 20-21
Pine stem 19
Roots 26-27
Stem 28-29
Wetland plants 52-53
Outer membrane 33
Outer tepals
Glory lily 37
Lily 34
Monocotyledons 20
Outer tepal sheath 34
Outer waterproof
layer 33
Ovaries
Epigeal germination
47
Fertilization 40-41
Flower 34-37
Hypogeal germination
46
Insect pollination 38
Rose 25
Succulent fruit 42-43
Ovary walls
Dry fruit 44
Lily flower 34
Ovate leaf
Ice plant 23
Live-for-ever 23
Strawberry 22
Ovules 34-37
Bishop pine 18
Dehiscent fruit 45
Fertilization 40
Pine 16
Scots pine 16
Smooth cypress 17
Yew 17
Ovuliferous scales
Bishop pine 18
Pine 16
Scots pine 16
Smooth Cypress 17
Yew 17
Ovum
Fertilization 40-41
Scots pine 16
Oxalis sp. 51
Oxygen 32
Photosynthesis
process 32
Seed germination 46
Oyster fungus 8
P
Packing tissue
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Fem rachis 15
Golden barrel cactus 50
Haworthia truncata 51
Horsetail stem 14
Leaf succulents 51
Lithops bromfieldii 51
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Roots 26-27
Stem 28-29
Stem succulents 50
String of hearts 51
Water lily leaf 53
Painter’s palette 37
Palisade mesophyll
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Water lily leaf 53
Palms 58
Palmate leaves 30
Chusan palm 24
Passion flower 24
Palmately lobed leaves 31
Palmate venation 23
Panduriform leaves 30
Panicle 25
Papilla 34
Pappus 36
Parachute seed
dispersal 44
Paradise palm 20
Parallel venation 20
Paraphysis 11, 15
Parasitic plants 56-57
Parenchyma
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Dryland plants 50-51
Fem rachis 15
Golden barrel cactus 50
Horsetail stem 14
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Pine stem 19
Roots 26
Stems 28-29
Water lily leaf 53
Parent plant 48
Parsley 58
Partial veil 9
Passiflora caerulea 24
Passion flower 24
Pea 44
Peach 25,42
Peanut 58
Pedicel
Brassavola nodosa 56
Clematis 25
Dicotyledon flower 21
Dry fruit 44-45
Fertilization 40-41
Florists’
chrysanthemum 23
Flowers 34-35, 37
Fruit development
40-41
Oxalis sp. 51
Pitcher plant 7
Rose 25
Rowan 25
Russian vine 25
Succulent fruit 42-43
Sycamore 25
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Water lily 55
Peduncles 34, 36-37
Aechmea miniata 56
Brassavola nodosa 56
Everlasting pea 23
Florists’
chrysanthemum 23
Indehiscent fruit 44
Peach 25
Peruvian lily 23
Rowan 25
Russian vine 25
Succulent fruit 42-43
Toadflax 23
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Wind-pollinated
plant 38
Pelvetia canaliculata 10
Penicillium 58
Pepo 43
Perennials 22,24-25
Perianth 34
Pericarp 42
Dry fruit 44-45
Embryo development
41
Fruit development
40-41
Succulent fruit 42-43
Sycamore 25
Pericycle 26
Dicotyledon root 21
Monocotyledon root 21
Periderm 19
Peridium 9
Peristome tooth 13
Persian ivy 31
Peruvian lily 23
Petals 34-37
Clematis 25
Color 34, 38-39
Dicotyledons 20-21
Everlasting pea 23
Fertilization 40
Insect pollination 39
Monocotyledons 20
Peruvian lily 23
Rose 25
Water lily 53
Petiole 22, 30-31
Chusan palm 24
Clematis 25
Cobra lily 54
Dicotyledons 21
Everlasting pea 23
Florists’
chrysanthemum 23
Horse chestnut 24
Kedrostis africana 7
Maidenhair tree 17
Monocotyledons 20-21
Mulberry 24
Oxalis sp. 51
Passion flower 24
Peach 25
Rock stonecrop 22
Seedling 47
Strawberry 22
String of hearts 51
Tree fern 6
Tree mallow 25
Vegetative
reproduction 48
Venus flytrap 54
Water hyacinth 52
Water lily 53
Wind-pollinated
plant 38
Petiolule 31
Phaeophyta
Brown algae 10
Classification 58
Phalaenopsis sp. 20
Phallus impudicus 8
Phaseolus sp. 47
Phellem
Pine root 19
Stem 28-29
Woody dicotyledon 21
Phloem 32
Bishop pine 18-19
Club moss stem 14
Dicotyledons 20-21
Dodder host 57
Epiphytic orchid 56
Fern rachis 15
Horsetail stem 14
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledons 20-21
Parasite host 57
Photosynthesis 32
Pine root/stem 19
Radicle 46
Root 26-27
Sieve tube 28
Stem 28-29
Water hyacinth root 52
Water lily leaf 53
Phloem fibers 28-29
Phloem sieve tube 28
Photosynthesis 6, 10, 28,
30, 52-55
Algae 58
Carnivorous plants
54-55
Diatom organelle 10
Photosynthetic cells 33
Bishop pine 18
Coconut palm stem 29
Water lily leaf 53
Photosynthetic
organelles 35
Photosynthetic region 51
Photosynthetic tissue
Cacti 50
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Horsetail stem 14
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Rush stem 29
Phyla 10, 58
Phyllode 54
Phylum 10, 58
Physalis peruviana 43
Pigments 10, 32
Pileus 8-9
Pineapple 58
Pines 16, 18-19
Life cycle 16
Pinguicula caudata 55
Pinna 30-31
Everlasting pea 23
Fem 15
Leaflet 31
Sago palm 17
Tree fem 6-7
Pinnate leaves 30-31
Mahonia 24-25
Main axis 31
Rachis 31
Rowan 24
Sago palm 17
Pinnule 15, 31
Fem 15
Pinus sp. 16, 18-19
Pinus muricata 18-19
Pinus sylvestris 16
Pips 42-43
Pisum sativum 44
Pitcher plants 7, 54-55
Pitfall traps 54
Pith
Apical meristem 28
Bishop pine stem 19
Dicotyledon stem 21
Epiphytic orchid 56
Horsetail stem 14
Monocotyledon root 21
Pine stem 19
Stems 28-29
Pith cavity 29
Placenta
Dry fruit 44-45
Fern pinnule 15
Succulent fruit 42-43
Plant bodies 10
Plant classification 58
Plant kingdom 58
Plantlike organisms
10, 58
Plant variety 6-7
Plastids 10
Platanus x acerifolia 28
Pleurotus pulmonarius 8
Plicate lamina 21
Plumule 41
Epigeal germination 47
Seed axis 46-47
Poaceae 58
Podetium 8
Polar nuclei 40
Pollen 34, 36, 38-39
Dicotyledon flower 20
Fertilization 40-41
Pollen-forming
structures 16
Pollen grains 38-39
Aperture 38-39
Colpus 38-39
Exine 38-39
Fertilization 40-41
Pine 16
Pore 38
Scots pine 16
Pollen sac wall 38
Pollen tubes
Fertilization 40-41
Scots pine 16
Pollination 38-39
Insect role 38-59
Scots pine 16
Pollinators 20, 38-39
Polygala chamaebuxus 58
Polygonum
baldschuanicum 25
Polytrichum commune 13
Pome 25, 43
Pondweeds 52
Poplar 58
Pores
Bishop pine needle 18
Blackberry 41
Dryland plants 50-51
Elder stem 24
Epigeal germination 47
False fruit 42
Gas exchange 32, 52
Golden barrel cactus 50
Haworthia truncata 51
Leaf 32-33
Liverwort 12
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Perennial bark 24-25
Pollen grain 38-59
Seed 47
Water absorption
44, 47
Wetland plants 52
Woody plants 24-25
Woody stems 28
Porous stipe 8
Posterior petal 35
Posterior sepal 35
Potato
Herbaceous flowering
plant 22
Plant classification 58
Potato blight 58
Prickle
Blackberry 41
Bramble stem 24
Rose stem 24
Slender thistle 25
Primary leaf 15
Primary mycelium 9
Primary root 26-27
Development 26
Germination 46-47
Seedling 46-47
Primary thallus 8
Primary xylem
Pine root/stem 19
Stems 29
Procambial strand 28
Propagative structures
48-49
Protective outer layer 19
Protective root
covering 47
Protective scale 28
Protective scale leaf 49
Protein body 6
Protein synthesis site 33
Prothallus 15
Protista 6
Algae 10
Classification 58
Protonema 13
Protoxylem
Dicotyledon root 21
Monocotyledon root 21
Root 26-27
Prunus persica 25
Psathyrella candolleana 9
Pseudocarps 42-43
Psilophyta 58
Pteridium aquilinum 15
Puffballs 8
Plant classification 58
Pyrenoid 6,10
Q
Quercus pelraea 25
R
Raceme
Everlasting pea 23
Ice plant 23
Rachilla 31
Rachis 30-31
Bipinnate leaf 31
Couch grass 7
Everlasting pea 23
Fem 15
Hogweed 23
Pinnate leaf 30-31
Rowan leaf 24
Tree fem 6
Tripinnate leaf 31
Radicle
Dry fruit 44
Embryo development
41
Epigeal germination 47
Hypogeal germination
46
Ramaria formosa 8
Ramentum 6,15
Ranunculaceae 58
Ranunculus sp. 21, 26-27
Raphe 47
Raspberry 43
Ray 28
Liverwort 12
Ray florets
Florists’
chrysanthemum 23
Sunflower 36, 39
Receptacles
Algae 10
Dicotyledon flower 21
Dry fruit 44-45
Fertilization 41
Flower 34-36
Rose 25
Seaweed 10-11
Succulent fruit 42-45
Red algae 10
Plant classification 58
Red seaweed 11
Replum 45
Reproduction
Algae 10-11
Fertilization 40-41
Flowering plants 34
Liverwort 12
Moss 12-13
Vegetative 48-49
Reproductive chamber 10
Reproductive structures
Flower 34-37
Pollination 38
Resin canal
Bishop pine needle 18
Pine root/stem 19
Rhizine 8
Rhizoids 12-13
Alga 10
Fem 15
Liverwort 12
Moss 13
Rhizomes 48-49
Fem 15
Herbaceous flowering
plants 22
62
Horsetail 14	Rowan 24-25	Secretory gland 55	Fertilization 40-41	Lichen 8	Dodder 57
Water hyacinth 52	Rubus fruticosus 24,40-41	Sedges 58	Gametophyte plants 14	Moss 6	Epiphytes 56-57
Water lily 53	Rubus idaeus 43	Sedum rupestre 22	Gymnosperms 16	Spores	Everlasting pea 23
Rhizophore 14	Rueilia grandiflora 39	Sedum spectabile 22-23	Liverwort 12	Club moss 14	Florists’
Rhodophyta	Runners	Seed axis 46-47	Moss 12-13	Fem 14-15	chrysanthemum 23
Classification 58	Rock stonecrop 22	Seed coat 26, 46-47	Sexual reproduction	Fungi 8-9	Flower arrangements
Red algae 10	Strawberry 22	Dry fruit 44-45	Algae 10-11	Horsetail 14	37
Rhomboid leaves 31	Vegetative	Embryo development	Bryophytes 13	Lichen 8	Golden barrel cactus 50
Rib 22	reproduction 48	41	Flowering plants 34-41	Liverworts 12	Guzmania Ungulata
Ribosome 35	Rush	Epigeal germination 47	Mosses 12-13	Mosses 12-13	56-57
Ridge	Plant classification 58	Hypogeal germination	Seaweed 10-11	Mushroom 9	Hogweed 23
Epigeal germination 47	Russian vine 25	46	Spirogyra sp. 11	Sporophores	Horsetail 14
False septum 45	Rusts 8	Succulent fruit 42-43	Shoot apex 19	Fungi 8-9	Ice plant 22-25
Seed 47 Rim of pitcher 55 Rind 45 Ring 9 Ring scar Horse chestnut 24	Plant classification 58 s	Seed leaves 20, 46-47 Dry fruit 44-45 Embryo development 41 Epigeal germination 47 Hypogeal germination	Shoots Broomrape 57 Embryo 41 Horsetail 14 Hypogeal germination 46	Lichen 8 Sporophytes Club moss 14 Fem 14-15 Horsetail 14 Liverworts 12	Ivy 25 Kedrostis africana 7 Live-for-ever 22-23 Liverwort 12 Maidenhair tree 17 Maple 21
Rowan twig 25	Sago palm 17	46	Pine 19	Moss 6, 12-13	Monocotyledons 20-21
Robinia pseudoacacia 30	St John’s wort 59	Pine 16	Vegetative	Spring petiole 54	Moss 13
Rock stonecrop 22	Salicaceae 58	Succulent fruit 42-43	reproduction 49	Spring-trap mechanism 54	Parasitic plants 57
Rod-shaped structure 38	Samaras	Seedlings	Shrubs 24-25	Spring wood xylem 28	Passion flower 24
Root cap	Dry fruit 44	Epigeal germination 47	Sidalcea malviflora 30	Squamulose lichens 8	Peach 25
Broad bean 27	Sycamore 25, 44	Hypogeal germination	Sieve tubes 28	Squamulose thallus 8	Perennials 24-25
Radicle 47	Sambucus nigra 24-25,37	46	Siliquas 44-45	Stalked secretory	Sago palm 17
Root hairs 26	Sapwood 19	Pine 16	Simple leaves 30-51	glands 55	Strawberry 22
Root nodule 22	Sarracenia purpurea 7	Seed-producing	Entire 24	Stalk	String of hearts 51
Root parasite 57	Scale leaf scar 49	organs 42-43	Hastate 22	Algae 10	Vegetative
Roots 26-27	Scale leaves	Seeds	Herbaceous flowering	Dicotyledons 21	reproduction 48-49
Adventitious 6-7	Bishop pine 18	Apomixis 40	plants 22-23	Flower 34	Water fem 52
Amaryllis 49	Bulb 49	Apple 43	Lanceolate 25	Fungi 8-9	Welwitschia 17
Begonia 49	Corm 49	Cape gooseberry 43	Lobed 25	Liverwort 12	Woody plants 24-25
Brassavola nodosa 56	Epiphytic orchid 56	Dehydration 46	Simple succulent fruits	Monocotyledons 22	Woody stem 28
Broomrape host 57	Hypogeal germination	Dispersal 42-45	42-43	Moss 6, 13	Yew 17
Carrot 22	46	Dormancy 46	Single flowers 34-35, 37	Pitcher plant 7	Stem segments 23
Cell division 27	Pine 16, 19	Dry fruit 44-45	Sinuous cell wall 50	Seaweed 11	Stem succulents 7, 50-51
Club moss 14	Plumule 46	Embryo development	Sinus 6	Stem succulent 7	Stem tubers
Couch grass 7	Rhizome 49	41	Skins 42-43	Water lily 53	Potato 22
Dehiscent fruit 44	Sago palm 17	Fig 42	Slender thistle 23	Stalk scar 17	Vegetative
Dicotyledons 21	Stem bulbil 49	Germination 26,46-47	Slime molds 58	Stamen remains	reproduction 48
Elongation region 27	Scales	Goosegrass 44	Smooth cypress 17	Dry fruit 44	Sterile hairs
Embryo 41	Bishop pine 18	Gymnosperms 16	Smuts 8	Fruit development	Brown seaweed 11
Epigeal germination 47	Bract 16	Hilum 42-43,45-47	Plant classification 58	40-41	Moss 13
Epiphytes 56-57	Brassavola nodosa 56	Hogweed 45	Solanaceae 58	Succulent fruit 43	Sterile ray 13
Fem 15	Dicotyledons 21	Honesty 45	Solanum tuberosum 22	Stamens 34-37	Sterile ray floret 36
Germination 46-47	False fruit 42	Larkspur 45	Soralium 8	Anther 54-37	Sterile shoots 14
Ginger 49	Fem fronds 15	Lemon 42	Sorbus aucuparia 24-25	Dicotyledon flower	Sterile whorl 10
Gladiolus 49	Mushroom 9	Love-in-a-mist 45	Soredia 8	20-21	Stigma
Golden barrel cactus 50	Ovuliferous 16-18	Lychee 42	Sori 14-15	Fertilization 40-41	Dicotyledon flower
Grape hyacinth 49	Pine cone 16	Melon 43	Spadix 37	Filament 34-37	20-21
Horse chestnut 24	Pine shoot apex 19	Parts 46-47	Spathe 37	Insect-pollination 58	Fertilization 40-41
Horsetail 14	Sago palm 16	Pea 44	Species 58	Monocotyledon	Flower 34-37
Hypogeal germination	Tree fem 6	Pine 16	Sphenophyta	flower 20	Pollination 38-39
46	Yew 17	Raspberry 43	Classification 58	Rose 25	Stigma remains
Ivy 25	Scaly lichens 8	Root development 26	Horsetails 14	Starch grains 33	Dry fruit 44-45
Kedrostis africana 7	Scapania undulata 12	Scots pine 16	Spherical umbel 37	Chlamydomonas sp. 10	Fruit development
Lily 49	Scarlet star 56-57	Smooth cypress 17	Spike	Orchid root 27	40-41
Monocotyledons 20-21	Scars	Strawberry 44	Aechmea miniata 56	Star-shaped	Stinkhorns 8
Mycorrhizal	Horse chestnut 24	Succulent fruit 42-43	Dodder 57	parenchyma 29	Plant classification 58
association 27	Leaf 22-24, 28	Spanish chestnut 44	Flower 37	Star-shaped sclereids 53	Stipe
Oxalis sp. 51	Rowan twig 25	Sycamore 25, 45	Grape hyacinth 49	Stele	Fungi 8-9
Pine seedling 16	Scent 38	Wind dispersal 44	Spiky cupule 44	Dicotyledons 21	Seaweed 10-11
Potato 22	Schizocarpic dry	Wings 44-45	Spine	Monocotyledons 21	Stipule
Rock stonecrop 22	fruits 44-45	Yew 17	Aechmea miniata 56	Root 26-27	Begonia 23
Seedling 46-47	Schlumbergera truncata 23	Seed scar 16	Barberry 24-25	Stellate parenchyma 29	Everlasting pea 23
String of hearts 51	Sclereid 53	Seed stalks 44	Bromeliad 7	Stem bases	Passion flower 24
Sweet pea 22	Sclerenchyma	Seed wings 45	Diatom 10	Bulbil 49	Rose 25
Sweet potato 49	Fern rachis 15	Selaginella sp. 14	Dryland plants 50	Guzmania Ungulata	Seedling leaf 46
Vegetative	Horsetail stem 14	Self-pollination 38	Golden barrel cactus 50	56-57	Strawberry 22
reproduction 48-49	Marram grass 7	Sensory hinge 54	Herbaceous flowering	Stem branch 23	St John’s wort 39
Water hyacinth 52	Monocotyledon leaf 20	Sepal remains 40-41	plants 22-23	Stem bulbils 49	Stolons 48
Water transport 32	Stems 28-29	Sepals 34-37	Mahonia 24-25	Stem cambium 20	Stomata
Root scar 22	Sclerenchyma fibers 29	Clematis 25	Spinose-dentate	Stem projections 50	Dryland plants 50-51
Root succulents 51	Scleroderma citrinum 9	Dicotyledons 20-21	margin 25	Stems 28-29	Golden barrel cactus 50
Oxalis sp. 51	Scots pine 16	Dry fruit 44-45	Spiny leaflets 24-25	Aechmea miniata 56	Haworthia
Root tip 26-27	Sculptured testa 45	Everlasting pea 23	Spiral wrack 10	Bamboo 25	truncata 51
Broad bean 27	Sea buckthorn 30	Fertilization 40-41	Spirogyra sp. 11	Barberry 24-25	Monocotyledon leaf 20
Cabbage 26	Seaweed 10-11	Monocotyledons 20	Split line 45	Begonia 23	Photosynthesis role
Radicle 46-47	Life cycle 11	Peruvian lily 23	Split open pollen sac 38	Bishop pine 18-19	32-33
Root tubers 48-49	Secondary mycelium 9	Pitcher plant 7	Spongy mesophyll 20,33	Brassavola nodosa 56	Pine needle 18
Haworthia truncata 51	Secondary phloem 28-29	Pollination 39	Spongy tissues 50	Bromeliad 7	Wetland plants 52
Oxalis sp. 51	Secondary pinnate leaf	Rose 25	Sporangia	Broomrape 57	Stone 42
String of hearts 51	axis 31	Succulent fruit 43	Club moss 14	Canadian pond	Storage organs
Succulent 51	Secondary thallus 8	Sepal sheath 55	Fem 14-15	weed 52-53	Bulb 49
Rosaceae 58	Secondary vascular	Separated carpels 45	Horsetail 14	Chusan palm 24	Corm 49
Rosa sp. 24-25, 29	tissue 28	Septum 9	Sporangiophore 14	Club moss 14	Rhizome 49
Rose 24-25	Secondary xylem	False 45	Spore-producing	Corallina officinalis 11	Scale leaf 49
Plant classification	Bishop pine stem 19	Serrate leaf margins 23	structures	Couch grass 7	Seed 46
58	Pine root/stem 19	Seta 6, 13	Fern 15	Crab cactus 23	Succulent tissue 50-51
Rosette 56-57	Stems 28-29	Sex cells 48	Fungi 8-9	Dicotyledons 20-21	Swollen stem 7, 49
Tubers 22, 49
Underground 48-49
Strap-shaped leaf 56
Strawberry 22, 44
Strengthening tissue
Fern rachis 15
Horsetail stem 14
Marram grass 7
Monocotyledon leaf 20
Stems 28-29
Water lily leaf 55
String of hearts 51
Strobili 14
Stroma 35
Stroma thylakoid 33
Style 34-37
Fertilization 40-41
Monocotyledon
flower 20
Pitcher plant 7
Pollination 38-39
Rowan fruit 25
Style remains
Dry fruit 44-45
Fruit development
40-41
Succulent fruit 42-45
Subacute leaf apex 50-51
Substomatal chamber 55
Substrate 6
Substratum 9
Succulent fruits 42-43,44
Bramble 24
Development 40-41
Peach 25
Rowan 25
Succulent leaves 22, 51
Succulent plants 50-51
Succulents 6
Leaf 51
Stem 50-51
Stem and root 51
Trailing stem 51
Succulent stem 23
Sugars
Formation 32
Transport 33
Summer petiole 54
Sundew 54
Sunflower
Inflorescence 34, 36
Plant classification 58
Ultraviolet light 39
Sunken stoma 51
Sunlight and
photosynthesis 32
Supporting tissue
Bishop pine stem 19
Dicotyledon leaf 20
Stems 28-29
Spanish chestnut 38,44
Leaf 30
Sweet pea 22
Sweet potato 48
Swollen adventitious
roots 48-49
Swollen leaf bases 48-49
Swollen receptacles 43,44
Swollen stem bases
Guzmania Ungulata 57
Kedrostis africana 7
Oxalis sp. 51
Swollen stems 48-49
Sycamore
Double samara 25
Fruit 44-45
Syconium 42
Symbiosis
Lichens 8
Mycorrhizal
association 27
Syncarpous gynoecium 34
Synergid nucleus 41
T
Tap root 22
Taxus baccata 17
Teeth 54
63
Temperature 46	Trachycarpus fortunei	Tupelo 31	Stems 29	Venus flytrap 54	Waxy fruit skin 43	Xylem
Tendril	21,24	Turnip 58	Water lily petiole 53	Vertical ridge 23	Waxy laminae 53	Bishop pine 18
Clematis 24	Translucent “window” 51	Twin-lobed leaf blade 54	Vascular cambium 28-29	Vesicle 42	Waxy zone 55	Club moss stem 14
Everlasting pea 23	Transparent tissue 54	Two-lobed stigma 36	Vascular cylinder	Vida faba 27, 46	Welwitschia	Dicotyledons 20-21
Monkey cup 55	Transpiration 30		Dicotyledon root 21	Vitta 45	Classification 58	Dodder host 57
Passion flower 24	Transport tissue		Golden barrel cactus 50	Volva 8-9	Gymnosperm 16-17	Epiphytic orchid 56
Tepals	Golden barrel cactus 50	T T	Monocotyledon root 21	Volvox sp. 10	IVelwilschia mirabilis	Fem rachis 15
Flower parts 34, 37	Monocotyledons 20	U	Root 26-27		16-17	Higher plants 12-13
Monocotyledons 20	Photosynthesis 32-35		Vascular strand 43		Wetland plants 52-53	Horsetail stem 14
Peruvian lily 23	Traps	Ulmus minor 38	Vascular systems 56-57		Wheat 44	Marram grass 7
Tepal scar 34	Butterwort 55	Ultraviolet light 39	Vascular tissues 24	w	Plant classification 58	Monocotyledons 20-21
Terminal bud	Cobra lily 54	Umbels 37	Aerial shoot 49		Whiskfems 58	Pine needle 18
Bishop pine 18	Monkey cup 55	Umbrella of style 7	Apical meristem 28	Walls	Whorls	Pine root/stem 19
Horse chestnut 24	Pitcher plant 7, 54-55	Underground mycelium 9	Bishop pine 18	Carpel 42, 45	Flower 34	Radicle 46
London plane 28	Sundew 54	Underground stems 48	Canadian pondweed 53	Cell 6,11,26, 33	Green alga cell 10	Root 26
Rhizome 49	Venus flytrap 54	Underground storage	Club moss stem 14	Fruit 42-45	Sepals 38, 43	Stem 28-29
Root tuber 48-49	Tree fern 6-7	organs 48-49	Corm 49	Fungal tissue 9	Willow 58	Water hyacinth
Stems 28	Tree mallow 25	Unified leaf pair 51	Dicotyledons 21	Ovaries 34, 44	Wind-dispersed seeds	root 52
Stolon 48	Trees 24-25	Universal veil 8-9	Dodder 57	Water	44-45	Water lily leaf 53
Terminal pinna 30	Epiphytes 56-57	Upper epidermis 53	Epiphytic orchid 56	Absorption 44	Wind-pollinated	Xylem fibers 28-29
Testa 26	Gymnosperms 16-19	Upper leaf surface 33	Fern rachis 15	Epiphyte supply 56	plants 38	
Dry fruit 44-45	Trichome 50	Butterwort 55	Higher plants 12-13	Molecule 32	Wing	
Embryo development	Marram grass 7	Fem 15	Horsetail stem 14	Photosynthesis	Cobra lily 54	
41	Tricolpate pollen grain 39	Mulberry 24	Marram grass 7	process 32	Dry fruit 44-45	
Epigeal germination 47	Trifoliate leaves 22, 24	Tree mallow 25	Monocotyledons 20-21	Pollination agent 38	Pine seed 16	
Hypogeal germination	Laburnum 31	Water hyacinth 52	Parasite host 57	Seed germination 46-47	Pitcher plant 7	Yeasts 8
46	Oxalis sp. 51	Water lily 53	Perennials 24-25	Storage organs 50-51	Scots pine seed 16	Plant classification 58
Succulent fruit seed	Trigger hairs 54	Welwitschia 17	Pine needle 18	Transport 28, 33	Sycamore 25	Yellow-green algae 58
42-43	Trilete mark 39	Upper seed axis 46-47	Pine root/stem 19	Water fem 52	Winged seeds	Yellow-wort 38
Thalassiosira sp. 10	Tripinnate leaves 31		Radicle 46	Water hyacinth 52	Scots pine 16	Yew 17
Thalidrum delavayi 31	Triple spine 24-25		Rhizome 49	Water lily 52-53	Sycamore 25, 45	Young leaves 28
Thalloid liverwort 12	Tropical orchids 56	T7	Root 26-27	Waterproof covering	Winged stem 23	Young seaweed thallus 11
Thallus	Truffles 58	V	Stem 28-29	Bishop pine needles 18	Wing scar 16	Young strawberry plant 22
Algae 10-11	Truncate leaf base 31		Water hyacinth root 52	Golden barrel cactus 50	Woody flowering plants	Yucca 20
Lichen 8	Trunk 24-25	Vacuole	Water lily leaf 53	Haworthia truncata 51	20, 24-25	Yucca sp. 20
Liverwort 12	Tree fern 6	Chlamydomonas	Woody plants 24-25	Lithops bromfieldii 51	Woody pericarps 44	
Seaweed 10-11	Tubercles	sp. 10	Vegetative reproduction	Monocotyledon leaf 20	Woody plants 20	
Theobroma cacao 42	Golden barrel cactus 50	Diatom 10	48-49	Rush stem 29	Woody scales	r/
Thesium alpinium 39	Stem projections 50	Palisade mesophyll 33	Veils 8-9	Wetland plants 52	Bishop pine cone 18	z
Thickened underground	Tubers	Vallecular canal 14	Vein	Water-storing	Smooth cypress 17	
stems 48	Broomrape 37	Valves	Dicotyledon leaf 20-21	parenchyma	Woody stem 28-29	Zea mays 21
Three-lobed stigma 37	Dryland plants 51	Dehiscent fruit 45	Hogweed leaf 23	Golden barrel cactus 50	Wracks 10-11	Zingiber officinale 49
Thylakoid 53	Horsetail 14	Indehiscent fruit 44	Leaf 30,32-33	Haworthia truncata 51		Zygomycota 58
Tilia sp. 28	Potato 22	Variegated lamina 25, 31	Monocotyledon leaf 20	Lithops brorrfieldii 51		Zygote
Tilia x europaea 37	Vegetative	Vascular bundle	Tree mallow leaf 25	String of hearts 51		Bryophyte 12-13
Tip of dodder stem 57	reproduction 49	Canadian pondweed 53	Water hyacinth leaf 52	Waxy cuticle		Fertilization 40-41
Toadflax 23	Tubular petioles 54	Dicotyledons 20-21	Water lily leaf 55	Golden barrel cactus 50		Plant formation 40
Tomato 58	Tulip 58	Fem rachis 15	Velamen 56	Haworthia truncata 51	Xanthophyta 58	Primitive land plants 14
Toothed notch 23	Tulip tree 58	Monocotyledons 20	Velar scale 9	Lithops bromfieldii 51	Xerophytes 50-51	Seaweed 10-11
Acknowledgments
Dorling Kindersley would like to thank:
Diana Miller for advice and obtaining plant
specimens; Lawrie Springate for dissecting and
identifying specimens, and for advice; Karen Sidwell
for advice; Chris Thody for collecting plant
specimens; Michelle End for advice; Susan Barnes
and Chris Jones at the EMU Unit of the Natural
History Museum for electron micrography; Jenny
Evans at Kew Gardens; Kate Biggs at the Royal
Horticultural Society Gardens, Wisley, Surrey; Spike
Walker of Microworld Services for micrography; Neil
Fletcher for electron micrography and collecting
plant specimens; John Bryant at Bedgebury Pinetum,
Kent; Dean Franklin; Clare Roe; Roy Flooks
Additional editorial assistance:
Fiona Courtenay-Thompson, Daniele Guitton,
Gail Lawther
Additional design assistance:
Sandra Archer, Ellen Woodward
Index:
Indexing Specialists, Hove, East Sussex
Picture credit:
Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library:
p.26, top right
64