Н.Е. Эльянова

Н.Е.Эльянова
Пособие
по английскому языку
для специалистов
по метеообеспечению
международной авиации
ИЗОГРАФ
Москва 2000
ББК 81.2 Англ
Эл 53
Под редакцией Киселева Б.А.
Эльянова Н.Е.
Эл 53 Пособие по английскому языку для специалистов
по метеообеспечению международной авиации. —
М.: Изограф 2000. — 104 с.
ISBN 5-87113-104-2
Пособие предназначено для авиационных метео-
рологов, авиационных специалистов, переводчиков,
студентов и преподавателей.
ББК 81.2 Англ
ISBN 5-87113-104-2
© 1 БЕ.Эльянова, 2000
© Главный авиаметеорологический центр РФ, 2000
© Издательство «Изограф», 2000
Содержание
111'1 ДПСЛОНИЕ................................................5
II 1(1 I ы .......................................1...........6
Ml 11 (>R(>1 OGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE.........................7
III) ATMOSPHERE.............................................7
Ml II UROLOGICAL SERVICE FOR AVIATION.......................8
Illi Al RoDROME OF TODAY....................................8
PI Illi IC WEATHER SERVICE..................................9
Ml II ORO1.0GICAL OFFICES..................................10
MlKI ACE OBSERVER..........................................10
Л I M( ISP1IIRIC CONDITIONS CAN BE MEASURED BY INSTRUMENTS.11
II MI-1 RAl'URE............................................12
MolsillRI .................................................12
I I OIH) FORMS AND CLOUD AMOUNT............................13
WIND	 14
DI W POINT.................................................14
RVR ......................................................15
l-RI SSI IRE.............................................. 16
PRI SSURI SYSTEM...........................................16
I V( I ONES AND ANTICYCLONES..„............................17
( I (II ID ( (IMPOSITION...................................17
H IN(> ....................................................18
11 HUM It I NCE............................................18
Illi II I STREAM...........................................19
П HINDERS FORM.............................................19
SKIMI I INFORMATION........................................20
W1 \ I HER SERVICE.........................................21
S(ll(l ACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS............................22
i I ODD IYPES..............................................22
Illi AIR IFMPERATURE......................................23
IHI WINDS.................................................24
"Illi RMAL BARRIER”.......................................25
WIND SHEAR.................................................25
lc>t. .....................................................26
WARM IRON IS.........................................••....27
( ill DI RONTS............................................ 27
11II INDI RSI ORM SITUATION...............................28
< I A SMI К ATION OF THUNDERSTORMS.........................29
( I I AR AIR TURBULENCE....................................30
I >Л IA NF( TSSARY FOR FORECASTING.........................30
S< II N 11| |( FORECASTING.................................31
SI AS( >NS OF THE YEAR.....................................32
Ml IK IROI OGY — THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE.32
AIR( RAI I OBSERVATIONS....................................33
( I IMA II ...............................................34
Illi ARI A FORECAST SYSTEM................................35
SA II I I I I E OBSERVATION................................36
IHI WORLD WEATHER WATCH...................................36
WM( 1 RI I ilONAL CENTER FOR TROPICAL METEOROLOGY...........37
PA( IFIC HURRICANE CENTERS (PHC)..........................38
I il-l-l'R AIR OBSERVATIONAL NETWORK......................38
I > ( MOSCOW COMMUNICATIONS CABLE CIRCUIT.................38
3
GLOBAL TELECOMMUNK Al IONS SYSTEM......................39
SUBSTATION NETWORKS....................................39
OCEANOGRAPHIC SERVICES.................................40
THE HURRICANE WARNING PROGRAM..........................41
AUTOMATED SYNOPTIC WEATHER STATIONS AND NETWORKS.......42
ICE WARNING SYSTEMS FOR ROADS AND RUNWAYS..............43
WEATHER Ml ASUREMENT.................................. 44
WIND Ml ASUREMENT SYSTEMS OF ALL SIZES ................45
AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEMS FOR LARGE AIRPORTS..............45
WEATHER STATIONS ON THE MOVE...........................46
AUTOMATED AND UNMANNED UPPER AIR OBSERVATIONS WITF1
AIIIOSONDE.............................................47
OUR WEATHER..........................................  48
SADIS..................................................49
I K.1ITN1NG LOT A HON AND PROTECTION.	 50
Fl К .11'1 MAN.......................................  50
NEW MOONS............................................  51
THE FUTURE............................................52,
BENI Fl I OF AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY	 53
AIR NAVIGATION AND Ml IT OROLOGY .. ...	  53
GAME'S ..............................................  54
(ODES................................................  55
WHATISWMO?...........................................  55
HOW IS IT ORGANIZED?.. .	 56
SI RV1CES FOR THE PUBLIC	 56
NUMBERS GAME ........................................  57
M Y111 A N D FANTASY.................................  58
INSTRUMENTS..........................................  59
SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PRODUCTS	 59
AUTOMATED SURFACE WEATHI ROBSI RVING SYSI’I M	 61
METEOROLOGY FOR EVERYONE ....	 61
UPPER AIR TECHNICIANS................................  62
NETSYS INTERNATIONAL.................................  63
ATMOSPHERIC INSTRUMENTAT1ON RFSFAlU 11	 64
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZA’I .ON	 64
LESS THAN E1G11TY HOURS..............................  65
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPM1 NT....	 66
TROPICAL CYCLONE.....................................  66
S1GWX DATA - IT IF. FUTURE	 67
VOLCANIC ASH.......................................... 68
IMPRUV1NG MET. DATA FOR AIR T RAI I K MANAGI Ml NT ....68
USE OF RADAR IN IDENTIITC A l ION O| PRI Г1Р11 Л I li >N ARI AS .. . 69
ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЯ МЕТЕОКОНСУЛЬТАНИН	.......................71
КРАТКИЙ АНГЛО-РУССКИЙ АВИАМ1 II cPOIIoi 1141 < КИИ СЛОВАРЬ............78
СОКРАЩЕНИЯ УСЛОВНЫЕ 01.0311АЧЕ1 ГИЯ	.......................9.3
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
11астоящее пособие предназначено для специалистов
аинаметеорологических подразделений, осуществляющих
метеорологическое обеспечение международных авиакомпа-
ний па английском языке, при. подготовке к экзаменам по 2-х
п J-x годичной программе РОСГИДРОМЕТа «О знании и
применении английского языка в повседневной практике», а
киоке для изучающих язык авиационных специалистов.
11особие включает:
- Тексты по общей метеорологии и смежным вопросам.
При подборе текстов использовалась подлинная англий-
т кая и американская литература и адаптированные вари-
анты.
Фразеология метеоконсультаций на русском и англий-
i ком языке.
Краткий англо-русский словарь с транскрипцией.
К раткий англо-русский словарь сокращений.
5
Тексты
We have forty million reasons for failure, but not a single ex-
cuse.
Great minds must be ready not only to take advantage of op-
portunities, but make them.
The greatest thing in this world is to recognize not so much
where we are, but in what direction we are moving.
Hope sees the invisible, feels the intangible and achives the
impossible.
How much is left in you if you lose everything outside of you.
Always search first for people who love to win. If you can't
find any of those, look for people who hate to lose.
Before you reject an idea find at least five things good about it.
Write your idea down. If you can’t put it on one sheet of pa-
per, you probably can't do it.
The best way to predict the future is to invent it.
Only those who dare to fail can ever achieve great things.
In every work of genies we recognize our own rejected
thoughts.
Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every
time we fall.
Criticism is by far the easiest form of intellectual activity.
6
METEOROLOGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Meteorology studies the behaviour of the atmosphere. The
barometer, thermometer and rain gauge are still the basic instru-
ments of meteorology, although radar, electronic and most re-
cently the orbiting weather satellites which observe clouds, radia-
tion and other phenomena in space have appeared. The very re-
cent success made in space science will produce further develop-
ment in the science of meteorology.
It is necessary to use all these data to predict with any degree
of accuracy the weather for the coming week or even for the next
few days. The trans-pacific or trans-atlantic flights cannot be left
to chance. The route forecast is very essential to the safety of
these flights.
The scientific forecasting of weather depends not only on lo-
cal observations, but also on observations taken at the same time
over a wide area of the Globe, both at the surface and high into
the atmosphere. The data collected must be analysed by trained
meteorologists who then use them in forecasts of the weather. The
quality of the forecast depends on the quality of the observations
taken by the meteorological technician.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere, in the dry state, is a mixture of many
gases — three parts of nitrogen and one of oxygen-almost 99% of
the whole, and than argon, hydrogen, neon, carbon dioxide, ozon,
helium and some others.
But the atmosphere is never entirely dry, as water vapour is
always present in varying proportions. The vapour bahaves as a
gas, but frequently the vapour condenses into liquid or solid form
as fog and mist, cloud and precipitation.
The composition of the atmosphere is unchanged up to great
heights.
For the lower layer-the temperature changes with height. The
layer characterized by marked fall of temperature with height is
called the troposphere, its upper boundary is tropopause.
7
The height of the tropopause is the greatest near the equator
and decreases in higher latitudes.
The layer above the tropopause is stratosphere. It is charac-
terised by a temperature, which is practically constant with height
or perhaps increases slightly.
There are great differences in the weather conditions between
troposphere and stratosphere.
After stratosphere begins mesosphere and thermosphere.
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE FOR AVIATION
Meteorological service for international aviation is provided
by meteorological authorities designated by States. Details of the
services to be provided for international aviation are determined
by each State in accordance with provisions of ICAO Annex 3
and with air navigation agreement. Meteorological offices and
stations provide information required for operational planning,
flight operations, the protection of aeronautical equipment on the
ground, and for various other aeronautical users. The information
provided includes observation of actual weather and forecast, it is
made at aerodrome meteorological offices and is disseminated to
aeronautical users.
Forecasts of en-route conditions issued by meteorological of-
fices are normally those prepared by world area forecast centres
and regional area forecast centres. It permits meteorological
watch offices to concentrate on keeping watch on weather condi-
tions in their flight information regions and meteorological offices
at aerodromes to concentrate on local aerodrome forecasting,
keeping watch over local (aerodrome) conditions and issuing
warnings of weather conditions (e.g. wind shear, thunderstorms).
THE AERODROME OF TODAY
At the aerodrome of today nothing is left to chance. Before
taking off the forecaster tells the pilot what weather to expect.
Modern radio compasses, radio beacons and radar equipment
8
have taken all the danger out of blind Hying. Passenger planes fly
at a speed of over 600 km per hour (modern jets do much bet-
ter). 1 hey are equipped for Hying at all altitudes. Distance under
200 km can now be covered by modern passenger planes on non-
stop Hights without landing to re-fuel. No wonder that a great
number of people prefer going by air.
All year-round lines reach out to all the important points and
many capitals. Passenger traffic is constantly growing and statis-
tics show that travelling by air is as safe as travelling by rail.
The progress that has been made toward safe all-weather
Hying is really astonishing.
It is only natural that youth dreams of sky. A wide net- work
of Hying clubs in the country provide instruction in piloting
ground servicing and all the other things a future pilot must know.
PUBLIC WEATHER SERVICE
Objective: To contribute to the safety, health, welfare, com-
fort, and convenience of the public, and to meet the needs of
all segments of the national economy for general weather infor-
mation.
Description of Service: The Public Weather Service pro-
vides for the general public current weather information, fore-
casts, and warnings which are distributed in cooperation with the
news media. These products also serve as the starting point for
most interpretive and specialized forecast services, including the
many detailed services provided by industrial and consulting
meteorologists. For long-range weather planning needs, nonper-
ishable climatological information is available at each public
service office.
Approximately 320 offices cooperate directly and indirectly
in serving the public. These include the National Meteorological
Centre, the National Hurricane Center, the National Hurricane
Center, Eastern Pacific and Central Pacific Hurricane Centers, the
National Severe Storms Forecast Center, the State Forecast Of-
fices, and the local and zone forecast offices.
9
The principal products are state, zone, and local forecasts.
These and the functions of the Regional Weather Center and
Warning Coordination Centers are discussed on the next few
pages.
METEOROLOGICAL OFFICES
Meteorological offices serving aviation are normally located
at aerodromes in which case they are called aerodrome meteoro-
logical offices. These offices provide briefing, consultation and
flight documentation or other meteorological information: often
they also display weather charts, reports and forecasts. Much of
their information is obtained from regional area forecast centres
(RAFCs) or from other meteorological offices which may be lo-
cated in different countries. However, not all aerodromes have a
meteorological office and for such aerodromes the national aero-
nautical information publications (AIPs) indicate the name and
location of meteorological office designated to supply meteoro-
logical information to operators and other users.
Certain meteorological offices are designated by regional air
navigation agreement to maintain a watch over meteorological
conditions in a specified FIR or control area. They issue informa-
tion on the occurrence or expected occurrence of potentially haz-
ardous en-route weather conditions which may affect the safety of
aircraft operations (SIGMET) and supply this and other weather
information to their associated units.
SURFACE OBSERVER
There are two kinds of surface weather observations-synoptic
and aviation. Synoptic observations are complete general obser-
vatios made every six hours and transmitted in an international
code to all major forecast centres throughout the world. The code
is concise and independent of all language barriers.
The aviation observations are more specialized observations
which are made hourly except in poor flying conditions, when
many additional observations may be required.
10
In making surface observations, the observer must observe
and record the pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed, pre-
cipitation, cloud types etc. The observer is constantly watching
the developing weather systems. It is a very responsible job. A
number of meteorological instruments are used: hydrogenfilled
balloons, ceilometer (for measuring cloud heights), transmis-
someter (for measuting horizontal visibility).
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS CAN BE MEASURED
BY INSTRUMENTS
The changes in temperature, humidity and the speed of air
masses can be measured by instruments made for that purpose.
However, before instruments were invented to measure at-
mospheric conditions, man made his own observations of wind
and sky, the behaviour of birds and animals, and came to associ-
ate certain phenomena with types of weather.
The task of the meteorologist is no easy one. A good fore-
cast for a given region can be made up to 24 hours ahead and
sometimes longer by taking into account the character of that re-
gion.
Weather forecast is now a regular feature of radio and TV
broadcasts. The weather bureau supplies the information, and
sometimes the wrong one.
Air observations and accurate forecasts are necessary for the
safety of ships and aircraft.
The layer of the earth’s atmosphere which begins about 9 to
I I km above the earth is known as the stratosphere. Weather
phenomena, as commonly understood, do not occur in the strato-
sphere.
Nearly all weather phenomena occur in the lower level of
the atmosphere up to a height of about 9,11 km at the poles and
17 km at the equator. This is the region of most interest to the
forecaster studying temperature, humidity, wind-speed and the
movement of air masses.
TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy. It is an expression of molecular
activity. Temperature is a measurement of heat and thus exper-
esses the degree of molecular activity. Since different sub-
stances have different molecular structures, equal amounts of
heat applied to equal masses of two different substances will
cause one substance to get hotter than the other. This charac-
teristic is expressed by saying that the substances have differ-
ent heat capacities (specific heat). Every substance has its own
unique specific heat. For example, a land surface becomes
hotter than a water surface when equal amounts of heat are
added to each. The degree of “hotness”or “coldncss”ol a sub-
stance as measured with a thermometer is known as its tem-
perature.
The earth’s surface is heated during the day by the sun. In-
coming radiation to the earth is called "insolation". I leal is ra-
diated from the earth by outgoing radiation, called “terrestrial
radiation”. Cooling results at night as terrestrial radiation con-
tinues and insolation ceases.
The earth’s daily rotation about irs axis, its yearly motion
about the sun (revolution), the tilt of the earth’s axis, and the
uneven heating of the earth’s surface are the basic causes of
seasonal and geographical variations in general weather condi-
tions over the world. The heat energy radiated by the sun is in-
directly the major motivating force for all weather phenomena
over the earth.
MOISTURE
Water, an important part of the atmosphere, is found in
three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. As a solid, it takes the
form of snow, hail, sleet, frost, ice-crystal clouds, ice-crystal
fog. As a liquid, it is found as rain, drizzle, dew, and as the mi-
nute water droplets composing clouds and fog. In the geseous
state, water forms an invisible vapour.
Water vapour is the most important element in the produc-
tion of clouds and other visible weather phenomena. The avail-
12
ability of water vapour for the production of precipitation
largely determines the ability of a region to support life. At the
same time, however, it creates problems and sometimes haz-
ards for the pilot when it changes into the liquid or solid state.
Most of the atmosphere's moisture is concentrated in the
lower troposphere, and only rarely is it found in significant
amounts above the tropopause.
The oceans are the primary source of moisture for the at-
mosphere but it is also furnished by lakes, rivers, swamps,
moist soil, snow, ice fields and vegetation. Moisture is intro-
duced into the atmosphere as water vapour, and may then be
carried at great distances by the wind befor it is eventually re-
moved as liquid or solid precipitation.
CLOUD FORMS AND CLOUD AMOUNT
The observation of clouds begin by identification of all
cloud forms present. This should be based primarily on the
definitions, specifications and descriptions given in the Inter-
national Cloud Atlas (WMO, 1956). The Atlas also provides
illustrations of the various cloud forms for comparison and
gives detailed coding instructions. For general use at stations
where cloud observations are regularly made, the Atlas, which
was specially prepared for the use of observers, is a very good
guide. The specifications of cloud forms are also given in
WMO Publication.
The problem of identifying cloud forms is not always easy:
the classification of clouds into typical forms is of very great
use. Observations of cloud can be made by keeping as close
and continuous a watch as possible on their development. It is
not enough to make a short examination of the sky at the ob-
servation hour.
The scale which should be used for recording the amount
of cloud is given in the international meteorological Code
2700, which is shown in the table. The unit of measurement is
the “okta” (meaning one eighth of the area of the sky), and ball
(meaning one tenth of the area of the sky).
13
WIND
Pressure and temperature variations result in two kinds of'
motion in atmosphere: the movement of air in ascending and de-
scending currents (vertical motions), and the horizontal flow of air
known as “wind”.
But now these motions are of primary interest to the pilot be-
cause they affect the flight of aircraft in takeoff, landing, climb-
ing, speed, and direction. They also affect the degree of smooth-
ness of the air and bring about changes in weather which may
make a difference between safe flight and disaster.
It is difficult to distinguish between cause and effect of
wind, pressure and temperature because of their close interrela-
tionship. Actually, wind affects the very thing that causes it in a
never ending struggle to obtain equilibrium-just as the ocean
tends to maintain a constant level. Wind occurs because there
are horizontal pressure differences in the atmosphere. But hori-
zontal pressure differences, are primarily the result of uneven
temperature distribution. On the other hand, wind very definitely
affects both the horizontal and vertical distribution of tempera-
ture. It also is the main mechanism through which the mass
(weight) of the atmosphere is redistributed, thus causing pres-
sure to change.
At the transportation agency for water vapour, wind has an
important effect of the formation of fogs and clouds and on the
production of precipitation.
DEW POINT
The dew point is that temperature, at a given pressure, to
which air must be to become saturated. When this temperature
is below freezing, it is sometimes called the “frost point”. The
difference between the actual air temperature and the dew point
temperature is an indication of how close the air is to satura-
tion.
The dew point is included in Aviation Weather Reports be-
cause it is a critical temperature, indicating the behaviour of
14
water in the atmosphere. When the surface air temperature is
higher than the dew point, and the difference between the tem-
peratures is increasing, an existing fog and low clouds are
likely to dissipate because the air is becoming capable of
holding much lower than the freezing point, and sometimes
even below — 60°C, but rarely below — 40°C. This situation
called “supercooling”, is prevalent in clouds to a temperature
of about — 15°C. Aircraft penetrating supercooled clouds are
likely to accumulate ice because the impact of the aircraft may
induce freezing of the droplets.
R VR
RVR-runway visual range. In most States the light of the
horizontal beam of transmissometers, the most frequently used
instrument for RVR measurement. RVR observations are the
best possible assessment of the range over which the pilot of an
aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway sur-
face markings or the lights delineating the runway or identify-
ing its centre line. For this assessment a height of approxi-
mately 5 m is regarded as correspoding to the average eye-level
of a pilot in an aircraft. This assessment may be based on
readings of transmissometers or other instruments or may be
determined by an observer counting markers, runway lights
or, in some cases, specially installed lights on the side of the
runway.
The site for observations to be representative of the touch-
down zone should be located about 300m along the runway
from the threshold. The sites for observations to be representa-
tive of the midddle and far sections of the runway should be lo-
cated at a distance of between 1000 and 1500m along the run-
way from the threshold and at a distance of about 300m from
the other end of the runway. The exact position of these sites
and, if necessary, additional sites should be decided after con-
sidering aeronautical, meteorological and climatological factors
such as runway length, swamps and other fog-prone areas.
15
PRESSURE
Weather is closely dependent on the distribution of pressure
at the surface. Charts of sea-level pressure and charts for higher-
levels are the basis of weather forecasting.
Pressure differences provide the forces for generation of wind
and changes in weather.
Connection between pressure and height is utilized in the al-
timeter for determination of height in the atmosphere. Meteorol-
ogy is connected with the static pressure.
The pressure of the atmosphere at a point on the earth’s sur-
face is equivalent to the weight of the whole column of air. at that
point, the only exception is high speed air currents as may be in
thunderstorms.
In meteorology the unit of pressure is millibar (hectopascal).
Isobars are lines of equal pressure, which are drawn in accor-
dance with the reduced observations to form a synoptic chart,
from which the pressure distribution may be seen.
From the inspection of a synoptic chart is seen continuous
modification of the pressure system.
PRESSURE SYSTEM
The sea level pressure at each station is plotted on a weather
chart, and lines of equal pressure (isobars) are drawn at selected
intervals (usually 5 millibars). These lines indicate the configura-
tion of pressure systems. The five types of pressure systems are
defined as follows:
LOW — a centre of low pressure surrounded on all sides by
higher pressure.
HIGH — a centre of high pressure surrounded on all sides by
lower pressure.
COL — the neutral area between two highs and two lows.
TROUGH — an elongated area of low pressure with the low-
est pressure along a line, called a TRPUGH I INE, which marks
the place of maximum cyclonic curvature in the isobars (on sur-
face charts) or contours (on upper air charts),
16
RIDGE — an elongated area of high pressure along a line,
ealled a RIDGE LINE, which marks the place of maximum anti-
cyclonic curvature in the isobars (on surface charts) or contours
(on upper air charts).
CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES
We know that the weather is changing almost constantly with
the passage of cyclones (low pressure systems) and anticyclones
(high pressure systems). These migrating systems move fjom
west to east with the prevailing westerly winds. They are accom-
panied by wind shifts and with some exceptions, large and rapid
changes in temperature and broad moving areas of precipitations.
Migrating cyclones and anticyclones are the most important
means through which heat is exchanged between high and low
latitudes. Cyclones are usually a few hundred miles in diameter.
Anticyclones are generally larger and the larger exes are up to
2000 miles or more in some cases. Isobars are curved in cyclones
and anticyclones, but the wind follows the isobars. In the North-
ern Hemisphere, air flows counterclockwise around cyclones (low
pressure systems) and clockwise around anticyclones (high pres-
sure systems). The apposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere
where the air flow around cyclones is clockwise, the flow around
anticycloes is counnterclock-wise. Wind speed tend to be consid-
erably greater in cycloes than in anticyclones.
CLOUD COMPOSITION
Clouds are weather signposts in the sky. They are composed
of minute liquid water droplets and/or ice crystals, depending on
the temperature within them. When their temperatures are be-
tween the freezing point (0°C) and — 15°C, they are composed
largely of supercooled water droplets, but usually have some ice
crystals. At temperatures below— 15°C, clouds usually are com-
posed entirely of ice crystals.
Cloud particles are about one-thousandth of centimetre in di-
ameter, but are clustered together enough to make them visible.
17
They must grow enormously in order for precipitation to be pro-
duced: the average raindrop contains about one million times the
water of that in a cloud droplet.
Condensation nuclei, such as dust and products of combus-
tion, compose the centers of cloud particles. These water — ab-
sorbent impurities must be present for cloud droplets or ice crys-
tals to form when the air becomes saturated.
ICING
Aircraft icing is one of the major weather hazards to aviation. Its
formation on either fixed or rotary wings can dangerously disrupt the
smooth flow of air, which reduces the aircraft’s flying efficiency and
capability. Another very significant hazard of ice accumulation is the
vibration of structural components of the aircraft which at times can
be disastrous. Ice which fonns in the induction system literally tends
to choke the engine by cutting off its air intake.
Other hazards to aviation which icing can create are loss of
proper operation of control surface, brakes, and landing gear; loss
of visibility from the cockpit to the outside; false indication on
flight instruments; and loss of the radio communication.
Aircraft icing can be classified into two main groups: struc-
tural, powerplant.
These icing hazards must be discussed in detail, including the
conditions which contribute to ice formation, its rate of accumu-
lation, and the types of ice which result.
TURBULENCE
Turbulence affecting aircraft ranges all way from a few an-
noying bumps to severe jolts which are capable of producing
structural damage. Since turbulence is associated with many dif-
ferent weather situations, a knowledge of the behavior of irregular
air movements is helpful in avoiding or minimi/mg the effects of
this disturbed air.
The atmosphere is considered turbulent when irregular whirls
or eddies of air affect aircraft so that a series of abrupt jolts or
18
bumps is felt. A large range of eddy series exists, but those caus-
ing the bumpiness are roughly of the same size as the aircraft. The
eddies usually occur in an irregular sequence. The reaction to the
turbulence varies not only with the intensity of the irregular mo-
tions of the atmosphere, but also with aircraft characteristics such
as flight speed, wing loading, and aircraft altitude.
The main causes of turbulence are vertically moving air in
connective currents, air moving around or over mountains and
other obstructions, and wind shear. Two or even all three of these
factors are often acting in a turbulent area at one time.
THE JET STREAM
The jet stream is a narrow, shallow river of strong winds. It is
located in regions where there are large horizontal differences in
temperature between warm and cold air masses. Wind speeds in
the jet stream sometimes may reach 300 knots but generally are
between 100 and 150 knots. Since the jet stream is stronger at
some places than at others, it rarely encircles the entire hemi-
sphere as a continuous river of air. More frequently it is found in
segments from 1000 to 3000 miles in length. 100 to 400 miles in
width, and 3000 to 7000 feet in thickness.
In middle and high latitudes, the strength of jet streams is
greater in winter than in summer. The mean position of the jet
stream shifts south in winter and north in summer. As the jet
stream moves southward, its core rises to a higher altitude and, on
the average, its speed increases. Winter jet stream often are found
as far south as the 20 th parallel. The core of strongest winds in
the jet stream generally is found between 25.000 and 40.000 feet,
depending on latitude and season.
There may be two or more jet streams in existence at the
same time.
THUNDERSTORM
The thunderstorm is a local storm which is produced by a
cumulonimbus cloud and is always accompanied by lightning and
19
thunder. The thunderstorm represents atmospheric convection at
its strongest.
Thunderstorms are particularly dengerous lor pilots because
many the most severe atmospheric are found within them. They
are always accompanied by strong gusts of wind and severe tur-
bulence. Heavy rain showers usually occur, and hail is not un-
common.
Thunderstorms are daily occurrences in many parts of the
Tropics throughout the year. In the middle latitudes, they occur
most frequently from late winter through the early fall; they
sometimes accompany very active cold fronts even in winter.
In summer thunderstorms have occurred as far north as the
Arctic region.
Thunderstorms which are removed from fronts tend to be
scattered or isolated; shose associated with fronts tend to be more
numerous and in line.
It is convenient, therefore, to identify them as either air mass
or frontal thunderstorms.
SIGMET INFORMATION
The preparation and issue of information advising pilots and
other aeronautical personnel of weather conditions likely to affect
the safety of international civil aviation is an important function
of meteorological office. Special class of meteorological offices
exists primarily to prepare and issue information on potentially
hazardous en-route weather phenomena in the area. This informa-
tion is called “SIGMET information”. The issue of warnings of
dangerous weather conditions at aerodromes, including wind
shear warnings, is usually the duty of aerodrome meteorological
office.
The purpose of SIGMET information is to advise pilots of the
occurrence or expected occurrence of en-route weather phenom-
ena which may affect the safety of aircraft operations, including
the following phenomena:
a)	at subsonic cruising levels active thuderstorm area,
tropical cyclone, severe line squall, heavy hail, severe turbu-
20
lence, severe icing, marked mountain waves, widesprea
sand/duststorm?
b)	at transonic and supersonic cruising levels: moderate or
severe turbulence, cumulonimbus clouds, hail.
Sigmet informationis often based on aircraft reports; it may
also be based on weather satellite data and on ground-based ob-
servations, such as weather radar observations, or on forecasts.
SIGMET information messages are distributed to aircraft in
Hight and to operators.
WEATHER SERVICE
The weatherman is the person with whom the pilot talks face-
to-face when he goes to the weather office for briefing. The
weatherman is not only a briefer but also an interpreter, analyst
and a forecaster.
The weatherman in his work uses a lot of weather informa-
tion, that is sent by teletypewriter circuits for coded material and
by facsimile networks for graphic material.
Weather reports, and information are extremely important be-
cause of the constantly changing weather picture. If the informa-
tion is not distributed in time, it becomes history.
So the weatherman gets hourly and special observations, pilot
reports, wind aloft forecasts, radar reports, terminal forecasts and
area forecasts, severe weather forecasts, SIGMET, satellite data,
surface analyses and prognoses.
Weather observers on the ground cannot always determine
weather conditions at altitude, the weather service and air traffic
control service always ask pilots to provide reports on weather
phenomena aloft. So the aviation weather reports are gathered and
sent hourly.
The reports greatly help in the control of air traffic and in ad-
vising pilots of prevailing conditions. This is especially useful
when unforecast weather develops between reporting stations or
over remote regions.
Although pilots are not trained weather observers they usually
are in the right place at the right time to see the weather as it oc-
21
curs and changes. Tf a pilot observes weather that looks hazard-
ous, to other pilots in the vicinity, it should be reported to the
nearest flight service station.
SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS
There are two kinds of surface weather observations —- syn-
optic and aviation. Synoptic observations are general observations
made every six hours and transmitted in an international code to
all major forecast centres throughout the world. The code is inde-
pendent of all language barriers.
The making of a complete observations and coding it can be
done in approximately twenty minutes.
The aviation observations are more specialized observations
which are made hourly except in poor flying conditions when
many additional observations may be required.
In making surface observations, the observer must observe and
record the pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed, precipita-
tion, cloud types, cloud amount, base and top of cloud, etc. A num-
ber of meteorological instruments are used. For example, the usual
method for measuring cloud heights in the daytime is a balloon.
Aviation reports are used by all aviation. Meteorological of-
fices at airports receive these reports from all stations, within
minutes from the time of origin.
At large centres, such as at airports where many requests are
made for weather data, the observer uses his time on observing
duties. But the observer is often required to plot weather charts
between hourly observations.
The observing duties are very interesting. The observer is
watching the development of weather systems.
CLOUD TYPES
Cloud indicate what the atmosphere is doing, giving visible evi-
dence of the atmosphere’s motions, water content, and degree of sta-
bility. In this sense, clouds are a friend to the pilot They become his
22
enemy, however, when they become too numerous or widespread,
form at very low levels, or show extensive vertical development.
Knowledge of principal cloud types helps the pilot, when be-
ing briefed, to visualize expected weather conditions. His knowl-
edge of cloud formation helps him to recognize potential weather
hazards when he is flying.
Information on cloud types and amounts is received by the
weatherman at the frequent intervals. This is a very important aid
to him in analyzing and predicting the weather.
The basic clouds may be devided into four cloud types: high
clouds, middle clouds, low clouds, and clouds with extensive
verical development.
Within the high, middle and low clouds, there are generally
two main subdivisions: 1) clouds formed when localized vertical
currents carry moist air upward to the condensation level, and; 2)
clouds formed when whole layers of air are cooled until conden-
sation take place. The clouds in the first subdivisions are called
“cumulus type”. Those in the second subdivision are called
“stratus type”, meaning “spread out”. •
In addition to these subdivisions, the word “nimbus”, which
means “rain cloud”, is added to the names of clouds that normally
produce precipitations.
THE AIR TEMPERATURE
In meteorology, the air temperature at the earth’s surface is
defined as the shade temperature measured in a meteorological
screen at a height about ground. The variation of air temperature
follows closely temperature of the surface. The primary influence
controlling the variations of ground and air temperature are the
incoming solar and outgoing terrestrial radiation, the nature of the
surface, and the horizontal transference of heat by wind.
Solar radiation has its greatest heating effect when the sun is
highest in the sky. The distribution of average temperature over
the earth’s surface depends on elevation of the sun, greatest in
equatorial regions and decreasing towards the poles. The seasonal
variations warm in summer and cold in Winter.
23
The solar radiation reaches the surface of the earth. The
amount of heat received by the ground depends upon the character
of the surface.
The solid ground or other objects because of strong sunshine
may get high temperatures during the middle part of the day if
conditions are such that absorbed heat is conducted.
The loss of heat by long-wave radiation from the earth’s sur-
face depends almost on the temperature of the surface, but the loss
is in part compensated by a downward stream of long-wave ra-
diation from the atmosphere.
THE WINDS
In the tropics hurricanes are several hundred kilometers wide.
They appear in the Atlantic Ocean and carry a trail of violence
across the Caribbean Sea, or up the east coast of America. Ty-
phoons, the name by which they are known in the Pacific Ocean,
spread disaster over the eastern shores of Asia.
Aircraft on the ground are in danger if there are strong winds,
especially when the direction of the gale changes rapidly as it
does when a hurricane passes by.
A strong wind of icy temperature blows up the drifting snow
from the ground into air. Nothing could be seen except snow all
about you. It is a dangerous thing.
Trade winds blow in one direction almost all the year round
from north-east to south-west on the northern side of the equator
and from south-east to north-west south of the equator. The At-
lantic trade winds are more regular than those of the Pacific. They
were very useful to navigators and therefore to trade. Columbus
crew were in a panic where they came into the region of the trade
winds, which blow their boats in one direction only.
There are “season” winds, not regular like trades. In India the
monsoons play a great role. From the end of May to October there
is heavy rainfall, especially in the higher regions because of the
southwest monsoon, which is filled with moisture from its long
passage over the Indian Ocean.
24
“THERMAL BARRIER”
You will be surprised to hear that a strong wind heats the sur-
face of a body because you know that a breeze on a hot summer
day cools you. This cooling takes place because the water form
our body is evaporated through the pores of the skin and the vapor
is carried away by the breeze.
With an aeroplane this process of cooling does not exist. A
strong wind does not cool its surface but heats it. This heating
takes place even in low-speed flight, but then it is hardly noticed.
When the speed is greater than the speed of sound this heat-
ing is so great that in becomes dangerous. Some scientists say that
when the speed is still greater this heating will make the flight
impossible due to the “thermal barrier”. Not so long ago we heard
of the “sonic barrier” when some scientists thought that planes
could never fly at the speed of sound. But we know that the
achievements in science and technique made supersonic flights
quite possible.
WIND SHEAR
Wind shear is a change in wind speed and/or wind direction
in a short distance, resulting in a “tearing” or “shearing” effect. It
can exist in a horizontal or vertical direction and, occasionally, in
both. Wind shear, which can be present at any level, produces
motions (eddieas) resulting in turbulence. The degree of turbu-
lence increases as the amount of wind shear increases.
A narrow zone of wind shear, with its accompanying turbu-
lence, is often encountered when an aircraft climbs or descends
through a temperature inversion; wind speed and/or direction
sometimes changes very abruptly with altitude in this zone.
A potential hazard to aircraft immediately after take off or on
the final approach for landing is an extreme form of wind shear
associated with strong temperature inversion near the ground. The
air, only some tens meters thick, is underneath a moving layer of
warmer air. Because of the difference in speed between the warm
air and the cold air, a narrow zone of wind shear forms along their
boundaries. An aircraft climbing or descending through this zone
25
may encounter a large loss of airspeed. If the wind direction in the
warm air is the same as the direction of a climbing aircraft, the
abrupt change in wind speed can cause a substantial loss of alti-
tude or airspeed. This situation can be dangerous since the zone is
only some tens meters above the ground. The intensity of turbu-
lence veries mostly with the speed of the warm air, since the cold
air is about calm. The condition described here occurs almost en-
tirely in winter in colder climates.
FOG
Fog is one of the most common and persistent weather haz-
ards encountered in aviation. Since it occurs at the surface, it is
primarily a hazard during landing and take-off. Flight visibility
above fog is generally good. Fog is the most frequent cause of
prevailing visibilities below 1 km.
Fog is a cloud composed either of water droplets or ice crys-
tals depending on the temperature, which lies on the surface of the
earth Since fog normally forms in air which is very stable, there is
little or no collision between the droplets or ice crystals, and these
particles are extremely small. Therefore, a large number of these
suspended particles must be present before the visibility is re-
duced greatly. However, fog which is dense enough to restrict
visibility to one km or less can form quite rapidly — a gradual
thickening does not always occur. An example of this is the sud-
den increase in fog density that often occurs shortly after sunrise.
Ideal atmospheric conditions for the formation of fog are high
relative humidity (small temperature-dew point), an abundance of
condensation nuclei, light surface wind, and some cooling process
to start condensation. Fog is, therefore, more prevalent in coastal
areas where moisture is abundant. Even when the relative humid-
ity is less than 100%, it is persistent in industrial areas, where
products of combustion provide a high concentration of conden-
sation nuclei.
Fog occurrences on the whole are more licqueiit in the colder
months, but the season and frequency of occurrence vary from
one area to another.
26
WARM FRONTS
The leading edge of an advancing warm air mass is called a
warm front. Warm air is overtaking and replacing colder air.
Warm fronts are seldom as well marked as cold fronts, and they
usually move about half as fast when the general wind flow is the
same in each case. The warm air gradually moves up over the
frontal surface, and a broad cloud system usually forms.
If the warm air is moist and stable, stratiform clouds develop.
The sequence of cloud types encountered when flying in a direc-
tion opposite to the movement of the front is cirrus, cirrostratus,
altostrarus, and nimbostratus. Precipitation increases gradually
with the approach of warm front and usually continues until it
passes.
If the warm air is moist and unstable, altocumulus and cu-
mulonimbus clouds, and frequently thunderstorms, will be
imbedded in the cloud masses which normally accompany any
warm front. The presence of these thunderstorms is often un-
known to the pilot until he enters them. Precipitation in advance
of the front is usually showery.
The widespread precipitation area often causes low stratus
and fog to form. In this case, the main raises the humidity of the
cold air to saturation. This and related effects may produce low
ceiling and poor visibility over thousands of square miles. The
frontal zone itself may have zero ceilings and visibility over a
wide area. If the cold air has below-freezing temperatures, the
precipitation may take the form of freezing rain or sleet.
COLD FRONTS
The leading edge of an advancing cold air mass is called a
cold front. Cold fronts are usually accompanied by very marked
weather changes and some of the most hazardous flying weather.
In the northern hemisphere, strong cold fronts are usually ori-
ented in a northeast to southwest direction and move toward the
east and southeast. They are followed by cooler and drier weather.
I'he sequence of events with passage of a typical cold front is as
27
follow: first, the southerly winds in the warm air lying ahead of
the front increase. Then altocumulus clouds appear on the horizon
in the direction from which the front is approaching. The baro-
metric pressure decreases.
The clouds lower and rain begins as the cumulonimbus
clouds move in. The rain increases in intensity when the front
nears the station. As the front passes, the wind shifts to a westerly
or northerly direction and the pressure rises sharply. This type of
cold front passage normally is followed by rapid clearing with
falling temperature and dew point. The cloudness in the cold air
depends on the degree of stability and moisture content of the air
mass.
Cold fronts may be devided into two general types: fast-
moving and slow-moving. These types often change gradually
from one to the other. In extreme access, cold fronts have been
observed to move with speeds of 60 or more miles per hour, but
they normally move at less than half this speed. They usually
move faster in winter than in summer.
THUNDERSTORM SITUATION
Knowledge of conditions in the thunder-clouds has been
greatly advanced by flights through the clouds by aircraft and by
observations by radar either from the ground or from the air, from
those parts of the cloud in which the size and the concentration of
the water drops are very great; and which contains falling or sus-
pended raindrops.
The development of instability cloud is the thunder-cloud.
There is no great difference between the conditions given rise to
shower cloud without thunder and lightning and (hose which do
result in thunderstorm.
If the air is not saturated it does not become unstable.
Very high humidity in the surface layers and heating may re-
sult in fair-weather cumulus.
If the humidity is moderately high, as when the air has been
for a considerable time over the sea, (he c untulus c loads are easily
developed to the shower stage Surface healing may take place by
28
insolation or by advection; both processes operate to give the fre-
quent passing showers.
Over the land, instability showers caused by heating occur
mostly in the day-time.
The first sign in the sky is frequently a cumulus type of cloud
in the altocumulus level. Altocumulus is usually flat, but if it be-
gins to develop, in is a certain sign of high-level instability which
may pass further to the thunderstorm stage.
CLASSIFICATION OF THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorm are identified as:
FRONTAL THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms associated with cold fronts are normally the
most severe once found anywhere except in squall lines. They
usually form in a continuous line and are easy to recognize by a
pilot approaching the front from any direction. Their bases are
normally lower than these of other frontal thunderstorms and they
are most active during the afternoons.
Thunderstorms are often associated with a warm front. In this
case they occur along the upper cold front and are set off by the
rapid lifting of warm moist air. They are more severe than warm
f ront thunderstorms but, in similar fashion, are usually embedded
in stratiform clouds.
AIR MASS THUNDERSTORMS
The basic characteristics of air mass thunderstorms are the
following:!) they form within a warm, moist air mass and are in
no way associated with fronts and; 2) they are generally isolated
or scattered over a large area. Air mass thunderstorms may be
classified as connective, orographic or nocturnal.
CONVECTIVE THUNDERSTORMS
They may receive their necessary lift by heating from below
or by convergence of the wind flow. An example of convergence
in the wind flow within an air mass is a low pressure trough con-
taining no fronts. If a line of thunderstorms develops in this zone,
29
it is formed a squall line. However, if the thunderstorms arc scat-
tered or isolated, most people would refer to them as air mass
thunderstorms.
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE
Clear air turbulence, or simply CAT, is normally caused by
wind shear between two different layers of air. These two differ-
ent layers of air may be moving in different direction or veloci-
ties, or a combination of direction and velocity. This turbulence
can often develop into small waves.
The tropopause boundary zone is a place where vertical
movement within the troposphere stops and begins to flow be-
neath the stable air of the stratosphere. This boundary zone can
either be very sharp or diffuse. When the boundary zone is rela-
tively sharp, turbulence can be expected at the tropopause level.
The degree of turbulence will be greater when the boundary zone
is very sharp and a great amount of vertical movement is present.
If the boundary zone is diffused and vertical movement is mini-
mal, the turbulence will be considerable less.
Turbulence associated with the jet stream can be consider-
able. Horizontal wind shear is more often on the north side of the
jet core where the isotachs are closely spaced.
The occurrence of CAT can be associated with other wind-
flow patterns which produce the necessary shears.
Normally, high level clear air turbulence is isolated or in
patchy locations. These patches of CAI' have variable dimensions
and thickness.
DATA NECESSARY FOR FORECASTING
The changes in temperature, humidity and the speed of'air
masses can best be measured by instruments made for that pur-
pose. However instruments were invented to measure atmospheric
conditions, man made his own observations of wind and sky. the
behaviour of birds and animals, and came to associate certain
phenomena with types of weather.
30
The task of the meteorologist is no easy one. A good forecast
for a given region can be made up to 24 hours ahead and some-
times longer by taking into account the character of that region.
Weather forecasts arc now a regular feature of radio and TV
broadcasts. The weather bureau supplies the information, and
sometimes the wrong one.
Air observations and accurate forecasts are necessary for the
safety of ships and aircrafts.
The layer of the earth's atmosphere which begins about 9 to
I I km above the earth is known as the stratosphere. Weather phe-
nomena, as commonly understood, do not occur in the strato-
sphere.
Nearly all weather phenomena occur in the lower level of the
atmosphere up to a height of about 11,9 km at the poles and 17
km at the equator. This is the region of the most interest to the
forecaster studying temperature, humidity, wind-speed and the
movement of air masses.
SCIENTIFIC FORECASTING
fhe scientific forecasting of weather is a relatively young
branch of meteorology. It relies not only on local observations,
but also on observations taken at the same time over a wide area
ol the Globe, both at the surface and high into the atmosphere.
fhe weather data obtained in this way must be analysed by
trained meteorologists who then translate the observed data into
forecast of the weather which may be expected to develop.
A weather forecasting service consists of a group of highly
trained technicians, communications system to transmit weather
data to central offices and a group of scientifically trained mete-
orologists capable of analyzing the data collected.
I'he quality of the forecast is dependent on the quality of the
observations taken by the meteorological technicians.
A great number of industries are served by forecasts, able to
meet their particular needs, or statistical information on climate.
\nd there are many ways in which the Meteorological Branch
serves the public: such as frost warnings, storm warnings for
31
fishermen, public transportation, humidity and precipitation data
for forest fire control and for industrial purposes.
SEASONS OF THE YEAR
The four seasons of the year are: spring, summer, autumn,
winter.
The weather depends on the season and the climate of the
country.
Our great country is so large that we may find practically all
kinds of climatic conditions on its territory.
The weather, as you know, changes with the changing of the
season.
In autumn the sky is often cloudy or overcast. It is misty, the
air can be moist. Fogs occur comparatively rare in our region.
Autumn is a rainy period.
In winter the sky is often gray with low clouds. It’s snowing.
The air is frosty, but then the temperature rises. Sometimes it’s
slippery and one must be careful when crossing the road. Strong
wind is blowing that turns the snow into snowstorm. Towards the
end of the winter the temperature grows higher, the snow begins
to melt, the sun grows warmer, soon showers come down, it stops
raining.
Spring has come. The first flowers appear. The birds come
back from the warm lands.
But by and by the sunrays become hot, the days are long,
nights short and warm. Summer has come. It is cloudless. But if
the heat lasts too long black clouds cower the sky; after silence a
.gust of wind raises a cloud of dust and sand, we hear a roll of
thunder. And again fine weather.
METEOROLOGY — THE SCIENCE OF BEHAVIOUR OF
THE ATMOSPHERE
Meteorology, the science of the behaviour of the atmos-
phere, has engaged the interest of many people over the past
2000 years including Aristotle, Galileo. At first the study of
32
meteorology consisted of observing and recording weather data
as a result of man’s curiosity about the world in which he lived.
These early observations led to the perfection of devices to
measure certain characteristics of the atmosphere, such as pres-
sure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. The
barometer, termometer and rain gauge are still the basic instru-
ments of meteorology although radio, radar, electronic comput-
ers and satellites, which observe clouds, radiation, and other
phenomena from about three to five hundred miles in space,
have added new and exciting data. The achievements made in
space science will produce further development in the science of
meteorology.
It is one thing to observe and record the weather for histori-
cal purposes and quite another to use these data and attempt to
predict with any degree of accuracy the weather for the coming
week or for the next few days.
It was not very long ago that t<he farmer, the sailor and oth-
ers tried to give his own forecast.
AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS
Weather observations by aircraft are of importance to mete-
orologists and pilots because they frequently provide information
on upper winds, upper air temperatures and other meteorological
elements over regions where it is not possible to install ground-
based radiosonde/wind systems (e.g. ocean areas, deserts, arctic
regions).
On some occasions, aircraft weather observations are the only
available means for detecting severe clear air turbulence and other
phenomena which may affect the safety or efficiency of other air-
craft.
Routine aircraft meteorological observations are normally
made at the traffic services reporting points or times.
On aeronautical charts these reporting points are to be indi-
cated by symbols.
In some regions, with high density air traffic and/or with ade-
quate ground-based observing networks, additional exemptions
are prescribed for all aircraft. In other regions, designation proce-
dures are in use, where a few aircraft are designated to make and
transmit observations.
Routine aircraft observations and reports are required at des-
ignated reporting points or at hourly intervals-over Africa, Aus-
tralia, Central and South America, as well as on most oceatic
routes, over the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the South At-
lantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
Special observations should be made by all the aircraft oper-
ating on international air routes wherever:
severe turbulence or severe icing;
moderate turbulence, hail or cumulonimbus clouds;
during transonic or supersonic flight;
other meteorological conditions, for example, the other en-
route weather phenomena specified for SIGMET messages, which,
in the opinion of the pilot in-command, may effect the safety or
markedly affect the efficiency of other aircraft operations.
CLIMATE
The ancient Greeks supposed that the climate of a locality de-
pended only on geographical latitude; that is, on the height of the
sun above the horizon and the duration of light. To-day it is
known that climate depends also on phisico-geographical condi-
tions, such as: distance from seas and oceans, the contour of the
land, air masses of different kinds, circulation of the atmosphere,
duration of sunshine, amount of rain, and the frequency of snow,
frost, gales, etc.
The most important factor of any climate are temperature and
moisture. But due to the daily and yearly movements of the earth
and to the special form of the earth, the sun’s heat is unevently
distributed. Because of this the different zones, or belts, of climate
exist.
There are no sharp boundaries between the belts of climate.
Within one and the same zone the climate may vary. Thus in the
same zone there is equatorial climate which gives much rain and
tropical climate with low rainfall.
34
In the Temperate zones of both hemispheres we have sub-
tropical climate with low precipitation, and temperate climate
with great precipitation. In the Arctic was found to have two
belts of climate.
Mountain ranges form barriers to wind and produce a spe-
cial mountain climate. The Gulf Stream as well plays a great
role.
The mild winter of Britannia, coastal parts of Norway and
Murmansk are dqe to this currents of air.
THE AREA FORECAST SYSTEM
The purpose of the area forecast system is to provide aero-
nautical meteorological offices with forecasts of en-route mete-
orological conditions required by them for inclusion in flight
documentation and use in briefing. These forecasts are to be is-
sued by a small number of area forecast centres appointed in
each region. These area forecasts permit meteorological offices
to economize and concentrate on local and aerodrome forecast-
ing. A properly functioning area forecast system has many im-
portant operational, as well as economical advantages.
The area forecast system represents a successful interna-
tional effort to provide meteorological information for flight
planning in an efficient and economical manner.
The most difficult aspect of the area forecast system con-
cerns the dissemination of the forecasts. The preferred method
for their dissemination is by means of facsimile.
Satellite dissemination is also being carried out.
Data received form international aerodromes show clearly
that the system is meeting a real need. At many aerodromes it
has made it possible for documentation and briefing to be sup-
plied where they were formerly not available: at others, it has
helped to improve these services, particularly for flights of in-
creasing length.
In regions with facsimile dissemination means all or most
charts are indicated as area forecast system products.
35
SATELLITE OBSERVATION
Satellites have observed clouds and radiation over the whole
world; and those observations can be used to improve synoptic
analyses and to study the interaction between radiation and at-
mospheric circulation.
For forecasting by modern techniques it would be desirable to
have the three dimensional, worldwide distribution of wind, tem-
perature and pressure. However, these are not available now; it is
therefore desirable to extract as much information as possible
about those parameters from the cloud patterns.
The cloud patterns are caused by fields of wind, temperature
and moisture; therefore the interpretation of the cloud patterns can
be used to supplement analyses of the initial state of the atmos-
phere, especially in data sparse areas.
The satellite pictures contain many examples in which a
marked spiral cloud pattern appears.
In data sparse ocean areas, the pictures can be used to im-
prove the initial analyses.
Many parts of Northern Hemisphere and a large fraction of
the Southern Hemisphere, particularly oceanic areas, are poorly
observed in terms of conventional meteorlogical data, especially
upper-air observations.
So the project at the Meteorological Satellite Laboratory has
been working to develop techniques whereby information can be
derived from satellite cloud pictures and incorporated into opera-
tional numerical analyses in data-sparse regions.
THE WORLD WEATHER WATCH
The World Weather Watch is intended as a global meteoro-
logical observing and prediction system designed to avoid dupli-
cation in preparing analyses and prognoses; providing each me-
teorological service with the data and background information it
requires to carry out its responsibilities. The system is based on
the establishment of World Centres and Regional Centres over
the globe.
36
A selected, representative data of the various sources of
global and satellite meteorological observations, enough to estab-
lish the broad lines of th<? world weather situation, is transmitted
to World Centres where world and hemispheric analyses and
prognoses are prepared both for climatological and research uses
and for transmission to each of several Regional Centres.
The meteorological service of the country are provided with
hemispheric information from the world centre plus more detailed
information from the regional centre.
Using this information with local observations and small-area
charts, the meteorological services can get all the necessary com-
binations of charts and data for analyses and prognoses over large
areas.
But the regional centres do not replace existing national me-
teorological services. They serve to assist these services in ob-
taining in a convenient form the vast amount of additional data.
WMO REGIONAL CENTER FOR TROPICAL
METEOROLOGY
At the meeting of the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) held in Asheville, October 1966, there was a formal offer
and acceptance of Miami as the Regional Meteorological Center
of the WMO. The nucleus of this organization had already been
established under the name of Tropical Analysis Center the previ-
ous year, and the evolving importance and additional responsi-
bilities agreed to were reflected with a change of name to Re-
gional Center for Tropical Meteorology (RCTM).
Under the WMO plan, this Regional Center specializes in the
analysis and forecasting of weather patterns of the tropics and
subtropics, the emphasis being on development of tropical distur-
bances and most particularly the development and movement of
(hose of tropical storm and hurricane intensity.
The surface analyses from the Regional Center are distributed
to the entire Caribbean Neighbourhood of Nations by radio fac-
simile twice daily, by land line facsimile to NWS domestic of-
fices, and by special cable to San Juan.
37
PACIFIC HURRICANE CENTERS (PHC)
The Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC), San Francisco,
EA, is responsible for all technical matters concerning the identi-
fication, tracking, and prediction of tropical cyclones in the East-
ern Pacific Ocean east of longitude 140°W, and north of the
Equator. The Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC), Hono-
lulu, HI, is responsible for the tropical cyclone forecast and
warning program in the Central Pacific Ocean from longitude
140°W to the 180th meridian and north for the Equator.
UPPER AIR OBSERVATIONAL NETWORK
Objective: To obtain basic data on the vertical and horizontal
distribution of pressure, temperature, water vapor, and wind. This
information, together with surface, satellite, and radar observa-
tions, is used to provide forecasters with a complete three-
dimensional picture of the atmosphere.
Description of Program: Balloon soundings (rawinsonde or
pilot balloon) of the upper atmosphere are taken at 159 locations
by NWS and at 38 additional locations where programs are jointly
supported by NWS and other agencies or governments.
Rocket soundings (rocket sondes) are made by NASA and
Department of Defense (DOD), and by NWS (under contract with
NASA and DOD) to supplement conventional upper-air data with
additional data between 100,00 and 200,00 feet (unattainable by
balloon techniques).
In addition to the observations made at land stations, NWS
supports the upper-air observation programs aboard Coast Guard
cutters at four fixed ocean stations. This program is under the
Overseas Operations Division.
D.C. - MOSCOW COMMUNICATIONS CABLE CIRCUIT
Objective: To provide exchange of satellite data between the
World Weather Center at Washington and Moscow.
Description of Circuit: This 24-hour-per-day circuit links the
World Weather Centers at Washington and Moscow to provide
38
for the exchange of meteorological data, particularly cloud pic-
tures received from satellites.
Other conventional meteorological information, exchanged on
a temporary basis pending full utilization of the circuit for the ex-
change of satellite data, includes surface and upper-air data, fore-
cast contour charts, vertical motion charts, vorticity charts, sealevel
isobaric forecast pressure height charts, and other special charts for
aviation. Both teletype and facsimile transmissions are used.
GLOBAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
Objective: To provide the United States’ portion of the Global
Telecommunications System (GTS) of the World Weather Watch
for the exchange of meteorological information on a global scale.
Description of System: The Main Trunk Circuit of the GTS
connects the World Weather Centers, Regional Meteorological
Centers, and Regional Telecommunication Hubs. Data received at
Washington via computer-to-computer high-speed channels are
relayed to other Centers as required by international agreements
and are distributed to domestic users on the Service Network and
the International Exchange System (1ES includes U.S. portion of
GTS). U.S. data for foreign centers are collected on domestic cir-
cuits and prepared in WMO bulletin form by the communications
computer at Suitland. The GTS channels are:
Washington to London, 3,000 wpm, full duplex alternate
data/facsimile.
Washington to Toronto, 3,000 wpm, full duplex data. No
plans for facsimile.
Washington to Tokyo, 3,000 wpm, full duplex data. Facsimile
in future.
Washington to Brasilia, 66 wpm teletypewriter. High-speed
alternate in future.
SUBSTATION NETWORKS
Objective: To provide data for climatic, hydrologic, agricul-
ture, and local service programs.
39
Description of program: The distinctive feature of this service
is that observations are taken by lay persons who perform their re-
sponsibilities without pay or receive only token compensation.
Use of the information is for basic data and/or reporting pur-
poses. The data usually are provided through published records
and are used in connection with climatic studies, hydrologic de-
sign, and for other planning.
Reports serve operational purposes and are transmitted in ac-
cordance with specific criteria to meet the needs of hydrologic
forecasting, agricultural advisories, hurricane and severe storm
warnings, control of hydrologic structures, crop summaries, ets.
Special cooperative projects are operated for other agencies to
meet their particular needs when these are beyond those normally
provided by NWS. A total of 49 substation network specialists
supported by state, and NWS funds inspect and maintain a net-
work of more than 12,000 substations.
All substations have a network classification to represent the
basic purposes for which they are established:
The “a” network includes basic climatic substations which re-
cord daily precipitation and temperature extremes. They are
spaced about one substation per 600 square miles.
The “b” network includes all substation from which reports
are transmitted and/or basic data are recorded for hydrologic pur-
poses.
The “ab” network includes substations which serve both cli-
matic and hydrologic purposes.
The “c” network includes substations which serve local serv-
ice needs; however, long-record and other special substations are
also included.
OCEANOGRAPHIC SERVICES
The oceanographic functions of NWS are performed under
the direction of the Office of Oceanography. The Office of
Oceanography develops marine environmental programs in-
volving the observation, collection, processing, analysis, and
prognosis of marine data for preparation of marine forecasts and
40
warnings and their dissemination to users. It also establishes
policies and develops plans and procedures for the provision of
marine environmental services such as support to the National
Marine Fisheries Service, the NOAA Marine Advisory Service,
the ocean fishing industry, and commercial shipping interests. It
is responsible for managing the Tsunami Warning Service which
provides tsunami watches and warnings on a regional, national,
and international basis. Coordination on all marine environ-
mental service operations and technical aspects of oceano-
graphic programs, procedures, and requirements is accomplished
through this office. The office determines the effectiveness of
oceanographic programs, provides management for marine op-
erations, and coordinates with NWS elements involved in sup-
porting marine oriented activities.
The Office of Oceanography reviews submitted to NOAA
and NWS Headquarters for various types of marine environmental
surveys and investigations. It determines NWS training require-
ments and programs for personnel assigned or to be assigned to
marine activities.
THE HURRICANE WARNING PROGRAM
(Hurricane and Tornado Warning Service)
Objective: To warn or alert the public and concerned special
interests of threatening hurricanes and tropical storms.
Description of Program: Atlantic: The National Hurricane
(’enter (NHC) at Miami has the overall responsibility for super-
vision of the hurricane warning program in the Atlantic, Carib-
bean, and Gulf of Mexico. It issues forecasts for the hurricane-
affected areas.
Hurricane Warning Offices (HWO’s) Boston, Washington,
San Juan, and New Orleans have warning responsibility.
Coordination between the military services and the National
Hurricane Center is effected through the Chief, Aerial Reconnais-
sance Coordination, Atlantic Hurricanes (CARCAH).
Eastern Pacific: The Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center
(EPHC) at San Francisco has the hurricane forecasting and warn-
41
ing responsibility for the eastern Pacific Ocean east of longitude
140°W, and north of the Equator.
Coordination between the military services and the Eastern
Pacific Hurricane Center is effected through the Fleet Weather
Center, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and Tropical Cyclone Reconnais-
sance Coordinator (TCRC). McClellan AFB, CA.
Central Pacific: The Central Pacific Hurricane Center
(CPHC) at Honollulu has the hurricane forecasting and warning
responsibility for the central Pacific Ocean from longitude I4O°W
to the 180th meridian, and north of the Equator.
Coordination between the military services and the Central
Pacific Hurricane Center is effected through the Fleet Weather
Center, Pearl Harbor, and the Base Weather Division. Hickam Air
Force Base, Hawaii, and the TCRC, McClellan AFB, CA.
The chief products of the centers and offices are the basic
hurricane advisories and bulletins, the coordinated prognostic hur-
ricane positions, the tropical weather outlooks (NHC only), and
the post-storm reports. In addition, local action statements are is-
sued by field offices as appropriate.
AUTOMATED SYNOPTIC WEATHER STATIONS
AND NETWORKS
Automated weather observation systems and complete net-
works are the foundation of any national meteorological service to
increase the efficiency of data collection and to improve the accu-
racy and consistency of data.
Automated synoptic stations offer high-quality real-time data
and processing power to support forecasting needs. Fully auto-
mated synoptic stations extend the scope of observation network
to remote sites and locations that are difficult to access. While
improving data quality and developing maintenance of the net-
work, the cost of running observation network can be considera-
bly reduced through automation. Moreover, increased observation
density is easy to set up for improved mesoscale forecasts.
Automatic stations usually measure wind, pressure, tempera-
ture, humidity, precipitation, visibility, and present weather.
42
Cloud cover and layers can be estimated jis well. Measurements
of solar radiation, soil temperatures at several levels and snow
depth will produce more complete climatological records.
Measured and calculated data are automatically coded using
WMO's standard SYNOP, METAR, and SPEC! formats. Gen-
eral and regional groups, national groups or practices, as well as
user-specific changes to message formats can be easily config-
ured.
The data can be distributed via modem, phone, radio or sat-
ellite network.. Spoken weather reports are available as well. The
station can operate on mains power, with batteries, solar panels
or wind generator.
When it is not economically feasible to set up a fully auto-
mated system or a manual observation is preferred, data can be
added to the measured data using a PC and data entry software.
ICE WARNING SYSTEMS FOR ROADS
AND RUNWAYS
While often expensive, winter road maintenance is necessary
io keep traffic flowing safely. Our winter maintenance products
are designed to help maintenance personnel to ensure safety in
road and air traffic, enhance efficiency in operations and keep
deicing and other maintenance costs to a minimum.
Here are offered comprehensive systems, starting with ther-
mal mapping and the meteorological observations that are the ba-
as for weather forecasts. This full range of weather products also
includes applications for airport runways, which face many of the
une safety and cost concerns as highways.
Road and runway surface conditions are monitored with
ROSA ice warning station which also provides warnings about
Jipperiness. ROSA forms an integrated part of the IceCast Ice
Warning and Prediction System, offering the real-time informa-
tion, which IceCast uses in various monitoring, alarming, and
lorecasting functions. IceMan is a semi-automated decision aid
and monitoring system, consisting of one central database of all
winter maintenance related data. When connected to IceCast,
43
IceMan analyzes and classifies each forecast and automatically
proposes pre-defined actions for affected routes.
The Road/Runway Sensor connected to the ROSA analyzer
forms an integral part of the ice warning remote processing sys-
tem. Based on a measuring technique, the Road/Runway sensor is
designed to represent real surface conditions on the road or run-
way. Meteorological and surface measurements determine the
following main surface conditions: dry; moist; moist and chemi-
cal; wet and chemical; frost; snow; and ice. Additionally, water
layer thickness and concentration of deicing chemical are esti-
mated. Besides the Road/Runway sensor. Air Temperature and-
Humidity Sensor and Rain Detector are also included in the basic
configuration of ROSA station.
WEATHER MEASUREMENT
Nuclear power plants and flux measurement systems use sen-
sor at several levels of a tower which are connected to a data col-
lection and processing system. Each sensor level is provided with
a data collector to collect and transmit sensor measurement data to
a data collection and processing system serving as a host proces-
sor. The user can retrieve the data via modem lines, radio or sat-
ellite links.
Multilevel towers are a demanding environment install, oper-
ate and maintain sensors. Regardless of icy weather conditions,
vibrations, or electromagnetic interference, the system is required
to continuously produce accurate data with minimum mainte-
nance costs. The system allowing new sensors to be added to the
system when needed. Additionally, a multilevel system compen-
sates for the mast effect in wind measurements.
Local measurements at different heights of the mast are col-
lected with data collectors or wind transmitters and transmitted to
Data Collection and Processing System. With one unit located on
one level, cabling is short which makes the system less vulnerable
to thunderstorms.
For wind measurement onboard ships, True Wind Calculation
is needed which compensates for the effect of the direction and
44
speed of the ship's movement. Other common measurements of
ship weather stations are relative humidity and temperature, pres-
sure, precipitation, global radiation and water temperature. Also
cloud base and visibility data are needed for supporting helicopter
operations. Digital displays or monitors show the weather data in
real time at any part of the ship.
WIND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS OF Al I SIZES
There are variety of wind measurement systems, starting from
a single wind speed measurement point at the top of a construc-
tion crane up to dozens of sites within a large region, supplying
processed data on parameters such as wind averages, extremes,
and gusts. Such a system is usually composed of wind sensors,
wind transmitters, instruments masts, power supplies, displays
and recorders.
The sensors can be sited long distances away at strategic
points in a region to give a representative view of wind condi-
tions. For energy research or wind shear detection, the sensors are
often installed on a multilevel tower. Several displays can be
chained together and they can be located in different buildings to
distribute wind data to the users. The systems are easily expand-
able to meet changing needs.
The new family of wind displays covers the range of low-cost
wind systems demanding, multi-channel measurements. The dis-
play units are bright and clear with full of power for sensor con-
trol and data processing. The systems are provided with commu-
nication interfaces designed for use over long distances and noisy
environment.
Wind systems of varied sizes serve in marine and harbor use,
nuclear power plants, oil refineries, wind power plants, energy
production, military use, airports, and research sites.
AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEMS FOR
LARGE AIRPORTS
The strive to improve aviation safety through ever better sys-
tems for aviation weather guides the development of our inte- ’
45
grated automated weather observating systems. Vaisala offers
complete solutions for aviation weather observation needs, rang-
ing from sensors to integrated weather systems. By combining an
Automated Terminal Information System (ATlS),an Automated
Weather Observing System (AWOS), and a Low Level Wind
Shear Alert System (LLWAS),airports and air traffic control are
provided with an integrated weather monitoring, weather warning
and information distribution capable of providing accurate data on
a variety of potentially hazardous meteorological conditions.
Conforming with applicable JCAO,WMO and FAA recom-
mendations and regulations, the MIDAS 4 Automated Weather
Observing System inputs data from meteorological sensors for
wind speed and direction, pressure (QFE,QNH), temperature,
humidity, dew point, meteorological visibility, runway visual
range assessment, cloud height, precipitation and lightning.
The system collects, processes, monitors, distributes and ar-
chives meteorological data measured by a dedicated set of sensors
located along the runways. The system includes weather stations,
transmissometers or forward scatter meters, ceilometers, wind
measuring systems, air temperature and relative humidity sensors,
digital barometers, a precipitation sensor, and runway surface
condition sensors. The system is a scaleable solution for all kinds
of airports, starting from not categorized airports and going all the
way to CAT 3B airports.
Coupled with MIDAS 4, the ATIS enables broadcasting data
to pilots in spoken weather reports, or it can be used as a stand-
alone system. The LLWAS Wind Shear System offers early de-
tection of hazardous wind shear and microburst situations.
WEATHER STATIONS ON THE MOVE
Meteorological applications requiring weather stations —
MAWS— that are compact, easy to install and use as well as
portable find an excellent solution to their measuring needs.
MAWS series of weather stations are designed for both per-
manent installations and applications requiring portability. They
are compact and suited for use in very harsh environments.
46
MAWS is an ideal choice for a wide range of applications
where reliable and accurate measurements and low cost-of-
owncrship are important. The station is easy to install and to take
into use. Once assembled, simply connect the power on and the
MAWS will begin operation.
The accurate measurements begin with the sensors. The basic
suite of sensors measures wind, pressure, temperature, relative
humidity and precipitation. These can be extended with soil/water
temperature(s), solar radiation, net radiation and water level.
The built-in quality control software checks the sensor data
against the user-set climatological limits and step changes be-
tween the successive measurements. This ensures that the meas-
ured data can be relied upon.
The operation of MAWS can be easily modified.
Alarm messages are automatically sent whenever a user-set
alarm threshold has been exceeded. Each sensor and calculated
parameter has its own alarm set point.
Various statistical calculations can be made.
Using a standard solar panel and battery, MAWS has low
power consumption and can operate independently for extended
periods of time.
AUTOMATED AND UNMANNED UPPER AIR
OBSERVATIONS WITH AUTOSONDE
Complete automation of meteorological observations reduces
operating costs and allows greater scope for site selection and ob-
servation times, while maintaining the quality of observation data,
and even improving data availability.
The AUTOSONDE system offers a cost-effective solution for
upper air observations — a concept that has proven to work in
tests and operational use in varied environments, harsh climates
and remote locations around the world. Remote upper air stations
can be set up in
locations where manned operation is not feasible. Full auto-
mation is especially suited also for e.g. research programs, and
monitoring stations where adaptive observations are often needed.
47
AUTOSONDE otters the possibility to program observations to
be made at a short notice.
The AUTOSONDE Sounding System prepares and activates
as many as 24 radiosondes, fills the balloon, launches them at pre-
set times as well as automatically receives the radiosonde signals
and processes them into meteorological messages. The system can
be configured for fully automatic operation with no human op-
erator at the sounding site or for semiautomatic operation with
manually-controlled balloon launch.
With the AUTOSONDE, operating an upper air station be-
comes more of a periodic maintenance task. The need for operator
attendance is limited to the days when the system is to be loaded
with new radiosondes, balloons, and gas. For instance in a 24-tray
configuration with two observations per day, attendance is needed
only every 12 days. Several radiosonde versions, including radio-
activity sondes, can be used and launched with the AUTOSONDE
in any sequence.
The AUTOSONDE provides a flexible choice of windfinding
options. The operator can easily select the windfinding option to
be used in a specific sounding. The local conditions, availability
of navigation networks, and periodic maintenance breaks can eas-
ily be programmed into the system. This guarantees data avail-
ability.
OUR WEATHER
Many of you will be familiar with weather presentations on
television and radio. It is how most people get the answer to that
familiar question — "What's the Weather going to be like today?'
Rather less is known about the complexity of our weather and the
effort that goes into the forecast following the familiar introduc-
tion"... here's the weather forecast".
The British Isles sit where several airflows meet — cold air
from the north; warmer moist air from the Atlantic; and dry air
from the continent of Europe.
Thus we often experience a clash of the airflows on our door-
step and this is why the weather can change very quickly and
sometimes it will be quite different just a few miles apart.
48
1'hc weather maps which you see are assembled from thou-
sands of observations from around the world. For example:
Civil and military aircraft, reporting as they travel the globe.
Weather stations on land and sea, all around the world, meas-
uring wind, rainfall, temperature and more.
Radiosondes, carried up into the stratosphere by balloon,
measure winds, temperature and humidity aloft.
A network of weather radars shows exactly where it is raining.
The Met. Office turns this complicated information in to fore-
casts which you can understand and use to your benefit.
With help from the Met. Office you can find out what to ex-
pect throughout the day or night no matter where you are.
The Met. Office can help you make up your mind whether to
take a raincoat, protect your plants from frost or simply persuade
you to sit in the sun and take it easy. Our aim is to provide the
highest levels of excellence at all times.
SADIS
SADIS is operational system dedicated to aeronautical infor-
mation in line with ICAO world-wide provisions. WAFS (World
Area Forecast System) products and OPMET (Operational Mete-
orological) information will be disseminated without conflict or
delay.
SADIS is satellite distribution of aeronautical and meteoro-
logical products for weather and civil aviation communities.
These products are now available to all interested civil aviation
and meteorological authorities. In order to receive these products
you will need satellite receiving equipment from WAFC London
or a connection to your local weather bureau with such a satellite
receiver.
This will bring the products to you as a continuous stream.
I his stream of products must be managed, secured and made
available to users in the form of Briefing Reports and Briefing
Displays.
WAFC Washington has a complementary system generating
(he same products as SADIS. These products are distributed
49
across the Carribcan, North America, the North Atlantic and
South America Regions. The system is called the International
Satellite Communications System.
LIGHTNING LOCATION AND PROTECTION
Lightning Location and Protection (LLP).
In the mid 1970s unique combination of scientific research
and engineering skills introduced the world's first operational
lightning location system. Fully capable of filtering out atmos-
pheric and other electrical noise, the system for the first time per-
mitted the locating of dangerous cloud-to-ground lightning strikes
as they occurred, with total reliability.
Today, with nearly 70 such networks containing over 650
sensors operating worldwide, LLP is far and away the leader in
this field. The LLP system has become the standard by which the
performance of all others is measured, both in terms of system re-
liability and uniformly high-quality data.
The new Impact Sensor family was introduced in 1992 and
provides a dramatic performance improvement over everything
that went before. Lightning location accuracies of better than 500
meters are now typical, and system reliability has been raised to
new heights.
FLIGHTMAN
A Flight Briefing System
FlightMan can be used in a number of ways by flight plan-
ning and dispatch offices to increase the speed at which flight
plans are produced and their accuracy. FlightMan makes the
meteorological and NOTAM information readily available to
the user, so one can easily check the information available for
any station on the globe. As the system can automatically
evaluate all airports for the availability of data, the user can see
at a glance whether a route intended for flying is good or not.
The support provided by the system, strengthens the arm of the
flight planner.
50
FlightMan has many extensive meteorological functions that
ease the daily tasks of meteorologist. A wide choice of meteoro-
logical products is offered by the system.
I'he Graphical View screen of FlightMan visually indicates
the cloudbase, visibility and weathertrend at each station on the
globe. This is done by means of symbols appearing on regional
maps. Each symbol represents a station. The colour of the symbol
changes as the cloudbase and visibility values for the stations go
above or below their threshold values. Weather trends are indi-
cated by a + or— appearing in the centre of the dot and indicate
improving or worsening weather trends. The grcen/rod around a
symbol indicates the availability of current Long TAFs, Short
TAFs and METARs for that station.
NEW MOONS
The advent of the artificial satellite made it possible to ob-
serve the Earth from space. For the first time meteorologists were
able to view complete cloud systems on a global scale. Soon re-
mote sensing by satellite became a key element in the global ob-
servation system. Geostationary and polarorbiting satellites pro-
viding a constant stream of cloud images made it possible to ob-
serve the formation and movement of active thunderstorm areas,
frontal zones and cyclones, in both tropical and temperate lati-
tudes. Of great value in the protection of human life was the new
ability to detect tropical cyclones at an early stage and to monitor
the subsequent development and movement of these violent
weather systems which, on striking land, have on occasion re-
sulted in thousands of casualties.
Remote sensing by satellites also made it possible to over-
come to some extent the sparseness of data over the oceans and
uninhabited land areas. Nowadays wind and temperature data
from the upper air as well as from the sea surface are obtained by
sophisticated satellite observing techniques.
The description of actual weather is but one of the objectives
of meteorology and an obvious question to ask is how the marked
improvements in .the availability of observational data affected
forecasting skill.
51
THE FUTURE
The development of aviation technology will surpass all
known limits. New materials will result in stronger and more
economical engines and in lighter airframes. On-board elec-
tronic systems will control the aircraft operation — automated
take-off, landing and en-route navigation — with high preci-
sion. Data links will partly replace vcrice communication be-
tween aircraft and ground and will permit the rapid transfer of
navigational and meteorological data. The use of satellites will
improve navigation, surveillance of aircraft and traffic control.
Advances in aviation technology will continue to make
flying less weather-sensitive. However, meteorological infor-
mation will remain essential for air transport operations. For
example, the latest aircraft must be protected against lightning
and electromagnetic interference. Higher speeds and advanced
wing profiles will increase the aircraft's sensitivity to heavy
rain.
The astronomical costs of the initial expense and operation
of a fleet of modern airliners will ensure that commercial avia-
tion makes optimum use of meteorological information before
and during flight.
The scientific and technical developments in meteorology
indicate that present and future aviation requirements can be
met. The performance of the numerical models lor global fore-
casts of winds and temperatures will improve f urther as a result
of scientific progress and more complete basic data It is ex-
pected that research on small-and medium-scale weather phe-
nomena will lead to better aerodrome forecasts
The installation of Doppler radar at aerodromes will make
possible the early location of cloud systems. 1 he next genera-
tion of meteorological satellites will be a powerful tool for de-
tecting and monitoring hazardous weather. Satellite data over
oceanic regions will help to improve definition of ihc upper air
flow, and in particular the position of jet streams and areas of
clear-air turbulence.
52
BENEFIT OF AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY
The importance of air transport in a wide variety of economic
and social activities has already been described. For aviation, the
availability of high-quality meteorological information will re-
main an essential factor in maintaining efficiency and safety of
flight operations. Negligence regarding existing or expected
weather conditions may lead to a waste of time and fuel, unneces-
sary deviations, damage to aircraft and even loss of life.
By establishing meteorological stations and offices at aero-
dromes the State makes a valuable contribution to the infrastruc-
ture of aviation which will have a positive effect on the develop-
ment of the national economy. Meteorological service to air navi-
gation is very cost-effective. The operational value to airlines of
the global wind and temperature forecasts issued by one of the
World Area Forecast Centres has already been mentioned; the an-
nual financial benefit is assessed at many millions of dollars.
There are also indirect benefits.
When a meteorological office is established at an aerodrome,
it will soon be discovered as a source of valuable meteorological
information by local farmers, industries and commercial firms
with weather-sensitive operations. It is not unusual for one aero-
drome meteorological office to have more than a hundred regular
non-aviation customers in the region.
AIR NAVIGATION AND METEOROLOGY
Air navigation is by nature sensitive to atmospheric condi-
tions and meteorological information will remain an important
factor in the planning and execution of flights. Through interna-
tional co-operation in meteorology and aviation, a very cost-
effective distribution of tasks in the production and supply of the
required meteorological data has been achieved.
Regional and sub-regional co-operation in aeronautical mete-
orology is conveniently arranged within the context of the two
international organizations with the advantage that the world-wide
compatibility of services is ensured. Another important benefit of
53
international co-operation is the technology transfer to countries
where aviation meteorology is still under development.
The responsibility of the national Meteorological Services
primarily concerns the establishment of aeronautical observing
stations and (aerodrome) meteorological offices. The supply of
aerodrome observations and forecasts together with the monitor-
ing of potentially dangerous weather phenomena in the fiational
airspace are the main contributions to aviation which have sub-
stantial safety implications.
Aeronautical meteorological services certainly form a cost-
effective part of this structure, in particular as a sub-system of an
integrated national Meteorological Service.
As for the future, there is no reason to doubt that aviation will
require continued support from meteorology. Technological and
scientific advances will make it possible to accept this challenge
with confidence.
GAMES
Kites and unmanned balloons were used as less dangerous
and less expensive techniques to make regular upper-air obser-
vations. Although the preoccupation with kites and small bal-
loons by the meteorologists of that time must have provoked
ironic remarks concerning scientific research used by grown
men. Steady progress was made in the exploration of the at-
mosphere. The first kite carrying meteorological instruments
was flown by Alexander Wilson in England (1749).More sys-
tematic measurements with kites began in 1847 and for a long
time this method, as well as that involving captive balloons,
was used to obtain regular observational data from the lower
atmosphere.
Upper-wind observation based on measurement of the drift of
a sounding balloon by an optical instrument (theodolite) was in-
troduced in 1890.Free sounding balloons were also used to meas-
ure upper-air temperature and humidity. Recording instruments
together with a small parachute were attached to the balloon; data
were obtained only if, after balloon burst and descent to Earth. On
54
the basis of such observations, it was discovered that the atmos-
phere had a different thermal structure above an altitude of ap-
proximately 11 kilometers. This layer, where the temperature no
longer decreases with height, acquired the name stratosphere. Up
to the end of the nineteenth century only imperfect means existed
to measure the weather elements aloft.
CODES
An airline pilot may take off from a snow-covered runway
and land a few hours later on an aerodrome in the tropics. Not
only the climate and weather, but also the written and spoken
language may differ widely from one airport to another. At
major air terminals pilots from all over the world have to be
provided with meteorological information for flight planning.
Although they are not professional linguists, weather forecast-
ers and aircrew can in most situations communicate satisfacto-
rily. Misunderstandings are dangerous; this risk has carefully
been eliminated by the rigid standardization of the form in
which the information is given. Aerodrome reports and fore-
casts are issued in the appropriate'WMO aeronautical codes.
Wind and significant-weather forecasts are generally entered
on the prescribed chart from by means of the internationally
agreed symbols and notations. It is estimated that more than
half a million pilots and as many ground personnel are familiar
with these codes and charts. Without the advantage of gener-
ally accepted products and procedures, the supply of adequate
weather information for all flights would be absolutely impos-
sible, considering the present high volumes of traffic and the
diversity of destinations.
WHAT IS WMO?
WMO was established in 1951 as a specialized agency of the
United Nations. Within the UN it provides the authoritative sci-
entific voice on the state and behaviour of the earth's atmosphere
and climate.
55
HOW IS IT ORGANIZED?
There are some 183 Member States of the WMO (15 May
1996). They each have their own Permanent Representative
(PR) with the Organization and are grouped into six Regional
Associations. The World Meteorological Congress is the su-
preme body of the WMO and meets every four years to decide
policy, approve the programme and budget and adopt regula-
tions. The Executive Council (EC) is composed of thirty-six
members who are PRs and Directors of National Meteorologi-
cal services. The Council meets once a year to coordinate the
Programme of the Organization, to implement the decisions of
Congress, to prepare recommendations for Congress and to ad-
vise Members.
The Secretariat monitors and co-ordinates the activities of the
WMO, implements decisions of Congress, prepares documenta-
tion for WMO meetings and produces publications. It is headed
by the Secretary-General of the WMO.
There are eight technical Commissions which meet every four
years including those responsible for aeronautical meteorology
(CAeM) and basic systems (CBS). These Commissions take into
consideration requirements from WMO Members, co-ordinate
with Regional Associations and give commendations/obtain tasks
from the Congress and Executive Council.
SERVICES FOR THE PUBLIC
Changes in the weather affect everyone. The Met. Office pro-
vides a number of services which enable you to make plans about
your day, your weekend and even your holiday.
These are broadcast nationally, regionally and locally. So no
matter where you are a forecast is always available. Many of the
Met. Office's weather presenters are household names. The major
TV weather broadcasts are around breakfast-time, lunch-time and
in the evening. They are made also at regular intervals during the
day. Radio broadcasts are most frequent around breakfast, lunch
and tea times. Details of times and coverage can be found in pro-
56
gramme timetables such as in the Radio Times and TV Times <
magazines.
Newspapers have forecasts and information for both the
British Isles and overseas. Many of these are provided by the
Met. Office.
You can now get detailed information about local weather
through special premium-rated recorded telephone services.
Whether you are interested in hill walking, skiing, driving, sailing
or just want to know about weather in your area, there is a tele-
phone forecast which will match your needs. These are kept up-
to-date and are available to you at any time of the day or night.
Sometimes the weather is so severe that it can threaten lives
or cause injuries and damage property. Trees can be uprooted in
storms, roads and rail links closed, and animal life put at risk in
floods or blizzards. To help the Emergency Services cope with
these problems the Met. Office provides reliable early warning of
severe weather and advice is given to the public through special
"Flash Messages" broadcast on radio and television.
4
NUMBERS GAME
The achievements of mathematical astronomy in the nine-
teenth century led to the conviction that — at least in theory —- it
must also be possible to calculate the future state of the atmos-
pheric circulation on the basis of relevant physical laws and ob-
servational data. Unfortunately the problem in meteorology is
much more complex than in celestial mechanics, in particular on
account of the enormous amount of data required to describe the
initial state of the atmosphere. Л heroic attempt to calculate the
pressure distribution over central Europe six hours after observa-
tions was made in 191O.Many weeks of painstaking calculations
gave a result which can only be described as a disastrous failure.
Nevertheless, the visionary Richardson hoped that in the distant
future it would be possible to carry out the computations faster
than the weather developed and to obtain more useful results. No
more than 40 years later the modern electronic computer made
this dream come true.
57
In 1950 the first numerical forecast was made with the help
of a first-generation computer called MANIAC. The mathe-
matical-physical models and the computers used for the pro-
duction of numerical forecasts were at first far from sophisti-
cated. Nowadays the most powerful computers are used in
many meteorological centres with numerical models that have
been improved and developed during thirty years of laborious
research.
Computers brought about revolutionary changes in the pro-
duction processes used in operational meteorology.
MYTH AND FANTASY
The phenomenon of flight has always fascinated mankind.
The ability of birds to overcome gravity, to move through the air
without apparent effort, appealed to the imagination, in particu-
lar in an era when travel was a slow process and when moun-
tains and rivers formed almost impassable barriers. The theme of
flight by human or superhuman beings is found in the mythology
or folklore of many nations — a clear indication that even in this
respect man was not destined to submit to his natural limitations.
History has recorded the many unsuccessful attempts to fly,
which often had the same fatal outcome as the legendary flight
of Icarus. The daring pioneers of aviation never doubted that one
day man would succeed in transforming his dream of flying into
an everyday reality.
The hot-air balloon, was invented in France by Joseph and
Etienne Montgolfier as early as 1783.It was not until the end of
the nineteenth century, however, that science and technology
had developed to a level at which "the accomplishment of aerial
navigation by mechanical means only" became feasible.
In 1881 the first practicable sailplane was constructed by
Otto Lilienthal in Germany. On 17 December 1903 Wilbur and
Orville Wright made the first successful flights with an engine-
powered aircraft in North America. This first step towards to-
day's world-wide air transport was very modest indeed: the
longest flight lasted only 59 seconds and covered no more than
58
255 m. But this event was followed by spectacular development
and within 20 years commercial aviation was well established in a
number of countries.
INSTRUMENTS
Before suitable instruments were available flight was possi-
ble only during conditions of good visibility; the pilot had to
control the altitude of his aircraft by looking at the skyline and
ground visibility was necessary for navigation and to keep a safe
distance from obstacles. When the aircraft unintentionally en-
tered cloud, the pilot would lose his orientation within a short
time, often with fatal results. Although, over land, precautionary
or emergency landings on a suitable terrain were generally fea-
sible with the relatively light and slow aeroplanes of the twen-
ties, passengers in general did not appreciate such maneuvers.
Flights had to be cancelled as soon as weather conditions along
the route, visibility in particular, were unfavorable. For the time
being, many potential air passengers preferred the slower, con-
ventional means bf transport, especially during winter.
It was developed the gyroscopic turn-and-bank indicator.
This instrument, when used in combination with a good altime-
ter, made it possible to fly straight and level without visual ref-
erence to the ground. The value of the new flight instruments
was demonstrated by Charles Lindbergh. In 1927 he flew the
Spirit of St.Louis, a one-engine aircraft specially designed for
this undertaking, from New York to Paris in 33 hours and 29
minutes.
SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PRODUCTS
In 1982 it was agreed that the World Area Forecast System
(WAFS) should move towards a final phase in which the two
WAFCs would produce gridded wind and temperature data and
significant weather (SIGWX) globally. By the early 1990s, the
technology of the workstation had developed. It was now pos-
sible to generate NWP fields on mainframes and then transfer,
store and. manipulate them on workstations. With improve-
59
ments in speed, these systems soon met operational require-
ments.
In April 1993, RAFC London (CFO Bracknell) 'went live',
producing four operational NAT charts per day on the new sys-
tem. In April 1995 it also took over responsibility for the opera-
tional production of the MID and EUR products from RAFC
Frankfurt. Since January 1996, SIGWX production has been in-
tegrated within the UKMO 'Horace' system in the Central Fore-
casting Office (CFO).
After the 0000 and 1200 UTC main runs of the Global
Model, the workstations load a selection of operational forecast
fields for T+18 and T+24 to use as a background. T+30 and
T+36 forecast fields are also stored as back-up against a failure
or delay of the next model run.
Although individual forecasters will work in slightly differ-
ent ways, the basic method is then to analyze the model's fore-
cast fields, drawing jets with maximum speeds and heights, ar-
eas of CAT with severity and expected height ranges, areas of
significant weather, tropopause heights (including highs and
lows) and surface fronts (associated with significant weather).
Provision is also made to warm of volcanic eruptions which may
be a hazard to aircraft.
Predicting the spread and dispersion of volcanic ash is at the
forefront of the minds of many aviation customers. Bracknell is
one of the designated Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs)
agreed under ICAO. It has a responsibility to provide advice on
the spread of an ash cloud should it occur over the eastern side
of the NAT area and the UK FIRs. The UKMO has developed a
pollution model (NAME) to forecast the dispersion of nuclear
and chemical gases in the atmosphere which is also suitable for
the prediction of volcanic ash movement and dispersal. How-
ever, R&D effort is required to refine the current NAME model
to forecast the spread and dispersal of volcanic ahs in the high
troposphere and stratosphere.
Tropical storms are also shown as they often contain areas
of deep embedded convection.
60
AUTOMATED SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEM
Enhancing real-time aviation weather monitoring is the most
costeffectivc way to improve safety and achieve savings in aero-
drome operations today.
Delays due to poor weather conditions result in annual
losses to airline operations amounting to hundreds of millions of
dollars, as well as loss of valuable time to passengers. With the
use of modern sensor technology and computers, it is now pos-
sible to provide real-time terminal weather data to aii* traffic
controllers and other airport management personnel more relia-
bly and faster than previously possible. These advanced tech-
nologies contribute to safety improvements and reductions in
flight delays, as well as cost benefits for major aerodromes and
terminal areas throughout the world. An integral part of these
technologies is the ability to monitor, continuously and in real
time, the surface weather conditions within the airport terminal
area.
The system is presently being deployed at international
aerodrome and meteorological services.
The system is a backups for all critical data collec-
tion/processing subsystems and has provisions for redundant
sensor subsystems where required. It is designed and tested to
operate in the most extreme environmental conditions. It incor-
porates extensive grounding and lightning protection systems, so
that critical real-time meteorological data will be available when
it is needed most, during severe weather events.
Newest generation is the only completely automated surface
observing system available for airports. It requires no operator
interaction unless the operator desires to manually make and edit
the observation.
METEOROLOGY FOR EVERYONE
The gaseous layer which envelops the Earth does not consti-
tute more than a millionth part of the total mass of our planet.
Although insignificant in terms of relative mass, this layer of air is
61
necessary for all forms of life; without an atmosphere the Earth
would be a dead planet.
Ninety-five per cent of the total air mass is contained in the
lowest 20 km of the atmosphere. This thin layer is the domain of
meteorology as well as of aviation. It is where all our weather is
produced and where air navigation, as we know it today, is tak-
ing place. An intimate knowledge of the properties and behavior
of this part of the atmosphere is essential in both fields.
It is not surprising that the rapid development of meteorol-
ogy and of aviation during this century has proved to be mutu-
ally beneficial. For more than seventy years now meteorology
has played an important role in the effort to improve the safety
and efficiency of air navigation. Although technological ad-
vances have made flying possible under almost all atmospheric
conditions, aviation is still the most weather-sensitive industry in
the world. The prompt and reliable supply of meteorological in-
formation remains imperative for the safety and economy of
flight operations.
Aeronautical meteorology — although only one of the
many applications of meteorology in the service of mankind —
has developed into a world-wide*system of national and inter-
national meteorological support indispensable to civil aviation
as it plays its important role in almost every area of social and
economic activity. This publication describes the historic de-
velopment and present role of aeronautical meteorology and
outlines the activities of the World Meteorological Organiza-
tion in this context.
UPPER AIR TECHNICIANS
Surface observations alone are not sufficient to allow the
meteorologist to make an adequate forecast. He must know the
temperature, pressure and moisture content of the air and the di-
rection and speed of the winds at all levels. Observations of this
kind are called upper air observations and are indispensable to
the modern forecaster. They are also used extensively in atmos-
pheric research and in studies in climatology.
62
The upper air technician is a qualified surface observer
with the additional skills needed to make upper air observa-
tions. At regular intervals, twice a day, an electric instrument
called a radiosonde, is sent up through the atmosphere. The ra-
diosonde itself has sensing elements which measure the pres-
sure, temperature and humidity of the air as it ascends. It also
has a small radio-transmitter which transmits these data con-
tinually to the ground station where they are automatically re-
corded.
All the information collected at the ground is plotted on spe-
cial charts, and finally coded and transmitted to be used by me-
teorologists in forecast preparation.
NETSYS INTERNATIONAL
Netsys International Specializes in data communications
products, services and expertise as one of the world's foremost
developers and suppliers of message handling systems in the
meteorological and aviation industries. Products by Netsys In-
ternational which are meeting these challenges are.
WeatherMan — the most advanced meteorological message
switch operational today. WeatherMan’s automation in the col-
lection and distribution of Weatherrelated messages is at the
modern technology for a meteorological centre and fully sup-
ports the Global Telecommunications System (GTS) of the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). FlightMan —
AFTN message switch system. It complies fully with the speci-
fication of the existing ICAO character formats used on AFTN
as well as the new binary formats for radar and satellite images,
the FlightMan system combines its facilities to support all
AFTN message type and is able to support CIDIN, the new
ICAO Network.
VisionMan is a powerful graphical representation applica-
tion software package for meteorological and aeronautical data.
VisionMan is tailored especially for use as a SADIS or 1SCS
display system.
63
ATMOSPHERIC INSTRUMENTATION RESEARCH
Atmospheric Instrumentation Research company located in
Colorado, USA, was founded.in 1975 with the mission to design
and manufacture the most advanced instrumentation for the
monitoring and study of the atmosphere. Since that time the com-
pany become globally recognized as a technological leader in the
meteorological and pressure instrumentation area. Its products
have received worldwide acceptance by the meteorological, aca-
demic, military and industrial communities. The company was the
first to deliver an operational global upper air sounding system,
whose flexibility and reliability meets the sounding needs of na-
tional Meteorological Services Worldwide. The system has set
new standards for performance and reliability in the meteorologi-
cal community, it is the next evolutionary step in the atmospheric
sounding technology.
Another system that was a great success was a Digital Tether-
sonde system. It is unique in the world of meteorology for atmos-
pheric boundary layer measurements. The system is designed to
provide the research scientist users with a highly mobile, rapidly
deployable tool for measuring atmospheric variables up to 3 km
above the earth’s surface, it acts like a tower by providing sensor
packages which measure the atmosphere continuously at multiple
levels up to 3 km. Up to 6 tethersonde sensor packages may be
operated simultaneously on the tethersonde met Tower. These can
be positioned along the tetherline at the precise altitude intervals
desired by the researcher or scientists .
In addition to the two systems the company continues to im-
prove sensor technology for meteorology instrument lines.
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
For over a century, nations of the world and their Meteoro-
logical Services have cooperated in the free and unrestricted in-
ternational exchange of meteorological I climatological data and
products. Typical of the data exchanged are observations of tem-
perature, wind, pressure and precipitation; typical products in-
clude weather forecasts and warnings.
64
In the late nineteenth century, the development of telegraphy
as a practical means for the real-time exchange of urgent infor-
mation provided the technological breakthrough needed for the
development of operational meteorology. At that time, many gov-
ernments recognized the value of meteorological applications and
formed public, national Weather or Meteorological Services.
These Services were given the mandate to collect meteorological
and other related scientific data and to exchange data and infor-
mation internationally.
Without this international exchange of data and products to-
day’s operational meteorology could not exist, not could its con-
tributions to safety and protection (or its climatological applica-
tions and services to a multitude of economic sectors).
•
LESS THAN EIGHTY HOURS
In 1873 Jules Verne told the story of Phileas Fogg’s record-
breaking trip around the world in eighty days. Now, in the 1990s,
anyone can go around the world in a scheduled lime, including
stops, of considerably less than eighty hours. The hero of the trip
now, of course, isn't the passenger but the aeroplane, with its ca-
pability of flying at speeds rivaling that of sound and its ability to
soar over the obstacles of terrain below, over mountains, oceans,
rivers and deserts.
To achieve their potential, however, the airlines must have ef-
fective allies on the ground, thousands of trained men and women
to guide the aircraft, to service it, to watch over its progress: air
traffic controllers to protect it from collision with other aircraft,
meteorologists to inform it of weather conditions and probabili-
ties, technicians to operate communications and air navigation
equipment. In an afternoon’s flight an airliner can cross the terri-
tories of several nations, nations in which different languages are
spoken, in which different legal codes are used. In all these op-
erations safety must be paramount; there must be no possibility of
unfamiliarity or misunderstanding. In other words, there must be
international standardization, agreement between nations in all the
technical and economic and legal fields so that the air can be the
high road to carry man and his goods.
65
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The UK Met. Office (MO) supports International Services to
aviation on a global scale, as one of the two appointed World Area
Forecast Centres (WAFCs). WAFC London is required to provide
products such as global gridded forecasts of upper winds and tem-
peratures at standard flight levels R&D programmes are based on
the requirements to improve the performance of the numerical
models and to improve direct services provided to aviation.
The UKMO operates a sophisticated numerical forecasting
suite using a global model based on a horizontal grid spacing of
about 100 km, and a regional model based on a horizontal grid of
about 50 km. Both models currently represent the atmosphere at
19 vertical levels from the surface into the stratosphere.
Particular R&D efforts are being made to improve the use of
observations. There are increasing numbers of automated obser-
vations now becoming available, particularly from aircraft.
These data types are taken at many various times, positions and
vertical levels and need to be assimilated at the place and time of
the report.
The increase in numbers of long-haul flights has resulted in a
demand for more-accurate route wind and temperature informa-
tion, which is important in estimating and planning the fuel burn
during each flight. R&D efforts are particularly being applied to-
wards improving the representation of jet streams in the model.
There is a tendency in the model to smooth out the wind shears
around the jet-stream core. This results in a broadening and weak-
ening of the model jet streams compared to reality. The aim of the
R&D is to develop a correction scheme within the model to im-
prove the representation of jet streams.
TROPICAL CYCLONE
There were a total of 20 tropical storms in the 1994/95
southern hemisphere season. Eleven of these were in the south-
west Indian Ocean (west of 90°E) and 9 in the Australian basin
(east of90°E).
66
This year’s northern hemisphere season has been an unusual
one. The North Atlantic has seen its second most active year on re-
cord. As of the end of October, there had been 19 tropical storms,
just 2 short of 1933’s all-time record of 21. Eleven of this year’s
storms became hurricanes (just one short of I969’s record) and
several hit land areas causing property damage and loss of life —
most notably Hurricanes Luis, Marilyn, Opal and Roxanne.
The reasons for seasons for seasonal and geographical varia-
tions in tropical cyclone activity are many and varied. One of the
contributory factors which may be of significance this year is the
ending of an EL Nino event which has persisted for the last three
years. EL Nino is one phase of a cyclical change in the Pacific
pressure gradient known as the Southern Oscillation. During EL
Nino phases, central and eastern Pacific sea-surface temperatures
and convection increase (enhancing tropical cyclone activity) and
upper tropospheric weaterlies in the Atlantic also increase (sup-
pressing tropical cyclone activity). Hence, the ending of the EL
Nino phase may have contributed to this year’s increased Atlantic
tropical cyclone activity and reduced central Pacific activity com-
pared to last year.
Tropical cyclone information will soon be available on the
Met. Office World Wide Web site on the Internet.
SIGWX DATA — THE FUTURE
At the last UKMO/WMO Seminar, many users expressed
their interest in receiving SIGWX data in a digital format, allow-
ing them to produce their own tailor-made SIGWX products using
appropriate software. One possible code is BUFR.
What is BUFR?
BUFR stands for Binary Universal Form for the Representa-
tion of meteorological data. It is a standard WMO code form
(WMO code FM 94 BUFR) for the binary representation of mete-
orological infonnation. It has been designed to be compact, flexi-
ble and machine independent. The fact that it is not a grid-point-
based code makes it particularly suitable for encoding discrete
SIGWX features such as jets, tropical storms, etc.
67
In the next few months, WAFC London hopes to begin initial
tests of high-level (above FL 250) S1GWX forecasts in BUI-R
format with WAFC Washington and selected NMSs. This is in
anticipation of the ICAO adoption of the code. These tests will
allow detailed investigations into the suitability of the code format
and to highlight potential problems which may arise. This infor-
mation will provide valuable input to the WAFS Study Group
Meeting to be held in London in the summer of 1997.
VOLC ANIC ASH
Predicting the spread and dispersion of volcanic ash is at the
forefront of the minds of many aviation customers. Bracknell is
one of the designated Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs)
agreed under ICAO. It has a responsibility to provide advice on
the spread of an ash cloud should it occur over the eastern side of
the NAT area and the' UK FIRs. The UKMO has developed a
pollution model (NAME) to forecast the dispersion of nuclear and
chemical gases in the atmosphere which is also suitable for the
prediction of volcanic ash movement and dispersal. However,
R&D effort is required to refine the current NAME model to fore-
cast the spread and dispersal of volcanic ash in the high tropo-
sphere and stratosphere.
IMPRUVING MET. DATA FOR AIR TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT
The UKMO has taken part in European studies for several
years to examine the future requirements for short-term forecasts
(of accuracy and timeliness) to allow accurate trajectory predic-
tion (TP). These studies have also reviewed the role of air-ground
and ground-air data links. The emphasis is on improving effi-
ciency, although of course safety is paramount. Timescales in-
volved are typically 20 minutes ahead for АТС, and 1 to 2 hours
ahead for FMS (Flight management System).
The main source of TP error during all phases of flight
(climb, cruise and descent) is the wind field, so wind modeling is
68
being given the greatest priority. As well as providing the wind
forecast, the forecast confidence level should also be given. This
could be used by ЛTC to determine separation criteria appropriate
to the prediction accuracy, and could also be used by the FMS to
determine fuel uplift when planning a flight, or to decide whether
an updated forecast might be needed en route.
During the climb phase, when the efficiency of aircraft en-
gines depends highly on temperature, accurate knowledge of the
temperature profile is crucial. During the descent phase, using
anti-icing systems on some aircraft may require an increased
thrust setting, which could also have a.significant effect on TP.
(Anti-icing is used when in cloud/precipitation with temperatures
between about +10°C and -40cC).
USE OF RADAR IN IDENTIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION
AREAS
One of the most important uses of radar for the terminal
forecaster is to locate existing precipitation areas in the vicinity
of his terminal. Once a storm has been detected, the movement
and growth of the system can readely be determined by making
observations and nothing the changes in position and size of the
echoes.
The movement indicated from observations should be ex-
trapolated to-determine which storms, if any, are likely to effect
the terminal area.
Particular attention should be focused on potentially critical
upstream areas. When it appears that a particular storm will pass
over the terminal, the weather conditions which have been re-
ported to be in this storm area should be forecast for the extrapo-
lated time over the station.
The general appearance of weather echoes on the scopes
identifies the type of precipitation in the area. Convective pre-
cipitation is easily differentiated from stratiform precipitation on
radar. Convective precipitation is characterized by cellular echoes
with generally higher reflectivity than echoes from stratiform pre-
cipitation. Individual echoes are usually form cells, so that these
69
echoes appear to move with speed somewhat less than the average
wind speed through the cloud layer or cell.
Radar observations often provide indication as to the possible
presence of hail. Echo tops are generally a reliable indicator of
possible hail areas. The majority of thunderstorms with hail will
penetrate into the stratosphere; the deeper the penetration, the
larger the hail.
Since water droplets scatter about five times as much tends to
be weaker, and the differences of intensity within a snowstorm are
generally much less than in a rainstorm.
ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЯ МЕТЕОКОНСУЛЬТАЦИИ
Эго приземная синоптиче-
ская (особых явлений, высот-
ная) карта за 0600 UTC
Эта прогностическая карта
особых явлений (высотная,
200,300 гПа) на 18UTC
Этот циклон (антициклон)
по данным барической топо-
графии прослеживается до вы-
соты... км
Циклон (антициклон), рас-
положенный над (Северной,
Южной...) Норвегией смещает-
ся к Северу-востоку (Югу...) со
скоростью... км/ч
В дальнейшем циклон (ан-
тициклон) изменит траекторию
движения
Циклон (антициклон), рас-
положенный севернее (южнее
Багамских о-вов)
Верхняя граница куч. дож-
девой облачности выше ... км
Нижняя граница облачности
понизится до ... м (км) (быст-
ро). Повышается облачность,
(местами) гроза (ы), (вероят-
ность грозы, т.е. грозовое по-
ложение)
This is the 0600 UTC sur-
face (significant weather, high
level) chart
This prognostic significant
weather (high level. 200, 300
hPa) chart is valid for 1800
UTC
This cyclone (anticyclone)
according to data of barric to-
pography is tracked up to the
altitude of... km
The cyclone (anticyclone)
centred at (Northern, South-
ern...) Norway is displacing
Northeast (South...) with the
speed of... km/h
Uater on the cyclone (anti-
cyclone) will change the tra-
jectory of movement
The low (high) centred
North (South... of the Bahames)
is
CB top above ... km
Cloud bases will be lower-
ing to ... m (km) (rapidly). In-
creasing cloud layers, (local)
thunder - storm (s) (probability
of thunderstorm, i.e. thunder-
storm situation)
71
Предполагается по маршру-
ту влияние куч.дождевой об-
лачности с верхней границей
свыше 10 км и связанные с ней
грозы
Слабое (умеренное, силь-
ное) обледенение в облаках
(осадках)
Умеренная (сильная) турбу-
лентность в облаках(призем-
ном слое)
(Орографическая) умерен-
ная (сильная)турбулентность в
ясном небе ожидается к северу
от ... (оси струйного течения)
на высоте ... км
Фронт хорошо выражен в
температурных контрастах (в
ветровом режиме, осадках)
На приземной карте, за 12
UTC показан холодный (теп-
лый...) фронт
Рекомендуется не пересе-
кать зону холодного фронта,
идти над облаками на расстоя-
нии не менее 1000м от вершин
куч. дождевых облаков
Теплый (высотный теплы)
фронт расположен над Норве-
гией на 18 UTC
В связи с этим ожидается...
СВ clouds with tops above
10 km and associated thunder-
storms are expected to affect
the route
Feeble (moderate, severe)
icing in cloud (precipitation)
Moderate (severe) turbu-
lence in cloud (surface layer)
(Orographic) moderate (se-
vere) clear air turbulence is ex-
pected North of... (the jet
stream) at... km
Front is well expressed in
temperature contrasts (wind re-
gime, precipitation...)
A cold (warm ...) front is
shown on 12 UTC surface chart
It is recommended not to
cross cold front zone, to fly
above clouds at the distance not
lower than 1000m from CB
tops
Warm (high warm) front is
placed over Norway at 18 UTC
In connection with it, it is
expected...
72
Незначительная (значитель-
ная) облачность (слой); сплош-
ная
Scattered (broken) clouds
(layers); overcast
(Маскированные) отдель-
ные (незначительные, значи-
тельные) куч.дождевые облака
Нижняя граница облачно-
сти.. .км
Поэтому по маршруту ...
ожидаются метеоусловия ...
Полет в зоне холодного (те-
плого, вторичного холодного,
окклюдированного) фронта
Полет вдоль холодного (те-
плого) фронта(холодного
фронта с волнами)
При пересечении холодного
(теплого...) фронта...
Холодный (теплый...) фронт
смещается к северу (северо-
востоку...) со скоростью... км/ч.
Активный теплый фронт,
пролегающий с юго-востока на
северо-запад вдоль побережья
Норвегии на 12 UTC смещает-
ся на восток со скоростью 30
км/ч. Ему предшествует узкая
зона сильного снегопада
(Embedded) isolated (occa-
sional, frequent) СВ
Base of cloud... km
Weather conditions on the
route ... to ... are therefore ex-
pected to be...
Flight in cold (warm, secon-
dary cold, occluded) front zone
Flight along cold (warm...)
front (cold front with waves)
While crossing cold
(warm...) front...
Cold (warm...) front is dis-
placing North (Northeast...)
with the speed ... km/h.
An active warm front lying
South east to Northwest along
the coast of Norway at 12 UTC
is moving East at 30 km/h. It is
preceded by a narrow belt of
heavy snow
73
Чтобы избежать обледене-
ния (турбулентности) рекомен-
дуем выбрать высоту полета
выше... км
Бортовые данные подтвер-
ждают наличие умеренного
(сильного)обледенения(тур-
булентности) в облаках
Радиолокационные (спут-
никовые) данные подтвержда-
ют наличие грозовых очагов,
куч. дождевой облачности
Смещением к северу (югу...)
Видимость... км (м) (в дож-
де...)
Улучшение (ухудшение)
Высота тропопаузы... км
Резкий наклон тропопаузы
наблюдается над районом...
Ветер и температура на вы-
соте
По 500 гПа прогностиче-
ской карт за 12 UTC высотный
ветер 240° 60 км/ч и темпера-
тура -20° С
То escape icing (turbulence)
we advice you to choose Hight
level over... km
Data from boards confirm
presence of moderate (severe)
icing (turbulence) in cloud
Radar (satellite) data con-
firm presence of thunderstorms,
CB clouds
Displacing Northward
(Southward...)
Visibility... km (m) (in rain)
Changing for the best
(worse)
The altitude of tropopause
is... km
Sharp slope of tropopause is
observed over area of...
Upper wind and temperature
The 500 hPa prognostic
chart for 12 UTC indicates up-
per winds of 24° degrees 60
kilometers per hour with tem-
perature -20° degrees Celsius
74
Направление ветра... град
(неустойчивое)
Скорость ветра... км/ч (если
приземный - м/с)
Предполагается усиление
(ослабление) ветра по маршру-
ту Москва-Ленинград от ... до
... км/ч
Предполагается на после-
дующие 12 часов сохранится
настоящее положение
Максимальный ветер
Струйное течение с ветром
240° 200 км/ч предполагается
па высоте 12 км
Борты сообщают о сдвиге
ветра
Согласно данным прибы-
вающих (вылетающих) воз-
душных судов...
Информация о наблюдае-
мом (ожидаемом) сдвиге ветра
(В этом случае) условия
сдвига ветра связаны с грозой
(холодным, теплым фронтом;
сильным приземным ветром;
температурной инверсией в
приземном слое)
Wind direction ... degrees
(variable)
Wind speed ... kilometers
per hour (meters per second)
Wind speed over the route
Moscow-Leningrad are ex-
pected to increase (decrease)
from ... to ... km/h
It is expected to remain in
the present position for the next
12 hours
Maximum wind
The jet stream with wind
240 degrees and speed 200
km/h is expected at 12 kr
Wind shear was reported by
aircrafts
According data from arriv-
ing (departing) aircrafts...
Information of the observed
(expected) existence of wind
shear
(In this case) wind shear
conditions are associated with
thunderstorm (cold, warm front;
strong surface wind; low level
temperature inversion)
75
Сдвиг ветра может оказать
неблагоприятное воздействие
на воздушное судно на взлете
(при наборе высоты) в слое -
уровень ВПП/500 м
Интенсивность сдвига ветра
Оповещение о сдвиге вет-
ра - в зоне захода на посадку -
приземный ветер 320710, на
высоте 60 м - 360725
Б707 (Боинг 707) сообщает
об умеренном (сильном, очень
сильном) сдвиге ветра при
подходе (на взлете, при заходе
на посадку к ВПП в 15.10
Температура ... -(м)... граду-
сов Цельсия
Нулевая изотерма на высо-
те.. .км
В начале (конце, в середине,
в первой половине) маршрута
Смещается
к северу (югу,...),
на север (юг ...)
Местами от ... до ...
На высоте... км
В слое... км
При посадке (взлете)
Wind shear could adversely
affect aircraft on the take off
path (in climb out) between
runway level and 500 meters
above that level
The intensity of wind shear
Wind shear warning-Surface
wind 320710 wind at 60m
360725 in approach
B-707 reported moderate
(strong, severe) wind shear in
approach (while take off, in fi-
nal approach) runway 34 at
15.10
Temperature between ... and
(minus) ... degrees Celsius
Zero isotherm is at the alti-
tude of... km
At the beginning (end, in the
middle, in the first half) of the
route
It is displacing
to the North (South...)
Northward (Southward...)
Locally from ... to ...
At the altitude of... km
In the layer from (between)
... to (and)... km
While landing (take off)
Па основании данных нефа-
нализа за 12 UTC настоящего
дня видно, что...
Облако вулканического пеп-
ла, достигающее высоты при-
мерно... км, наблюдалась в рай-
oi ie Камчатки
Имеется последний
METAR?
В 16.00 UTC наблюдается
тропический циклон Глория.
Координаты 27 градусов 1 ми-
нута Северной широты 73 гра-
дуса 1 минута Западной долготы
Частые грозы с верхней
границей FL 450 (15 км)
Ориентировочный прогноз
тропического циклона
Информация об облаке вул-
канического пепла
Зарегистрировано изверже-
ние вулкана
Границы облака вулканиче-
ского пепла на 030300 UTC по
спутниковым данным
Информация на высотных
картах (ветер, температура) яв-
ляется данными в точках сетки
Nephanalysis for 12 UTC to
day shows that...
Ash cloud observed at Kam-
chatka region extended ap-
proximately...km
Is the latest METAR avail-
able?
Tropical cyclone Gloria ob-
served 27 degrees one minute
North and 73 degrees one min-
ute West at 16.00 UTC.
Frequent thunderstorms.
Tops FL 450(15 km)
Outlook tropical cyclone
Volcanic ash information
Detected eruption
Ash cloud boundary ob-
served at 030300 UTC in satel-
lite imagery
The information depicted on
high level (wind and tempera-
ture) charts should be grid
points data
Примечание: UTC — Universal Time Civil — универсальное .
гражданское время, соответствует времени по Гринвичу
77
Краткий англо-русский
аниаметеорологический словарь
А
abate [э be it] ослабевать, ути-
хать
abatement [э beitmant] ослаб-
ление
above [э bxv] над
abrupt [a'brxpt] внезапный
accept [эк sept] принима ть,
признавать
accompany [э клтрэш] сопро-
вождать
accomplish [э'кэшрЦП выпол-
нять, достигать
accomplishment [э komplijrrant]
выполнение, завершение
accordance [a'ko'.dans] согла-
сие, соответствие
account [э'кашЛ] счет, расчет
accurate |'zekjurit| точный,
правильный
accuracy [э' kjurasi] точность
achieve [э tfi:v] достигать, до-
бавлять
achievement [ э’tfkvment] до-
стижение, выполнение
across [э'кгэз] поперек, через
activity [ю ktiviti] деятельность
add [asd] добавлять
addition [э dijn] прибавление
additional [э'сЩпэ!] добавоч-
ный, дополнительный
adequate ['aedikwit] соответ-
ствующий, адекватный
adopt [a'dopt] принимать,вы-
бирать
advance [эсГ va:ns] продвиже-
ние, успех
advantage [ad'varntids] преи-
мущество, польза
advective [эсГvektiv] адвектив-
ный
advent faedvant] приход, при-
бытие
adverse [аесГ va:s] враждебный,
неблагоприятный
advice [эсГ vais] совет, консуль-
тация
advisory [эсГ vaizari] консульта-
тивный
affect [a'fect] эффект, действо-
вать
after [' a:fta] после
afternoon ['adta'nun] полдень,
послеобеденное время
against [э'деп] снова, опять
agreement [a'grrment] согла-
сие
ahead [a'hed] вперед, опере-
дить
aim [eim] цель
air | еэ] воздух
aircraft [' еэ' kra:ft] воздушное
судно
aircrew ['еэкги:] экипаж само-
лета
78
airflow fcollou] воздушный по-
ток
airmass ['еэ' mass] воздушная
масса
airport [capo.t] аэропорт
airspace [caspeis] воздушное
пространство
although [э:Г бои] хотя, несмот-
ря на то, если бы даже
allweather |'o:lweOa] всепогод-
ный
ally ['aslai] союзник
almost f arlmoust] почти,едва не
aloft [a'laf t] наверху, высотный
alone [a'loun] один, единствен-
ный
already [э:Г redi ] уже
altitude [' seltitjud] высота
always [' a:lwaz] всегда
amendment [a'mendmant] по-
правка, корректировка
amount [o' maunt] количество
analyse [a' naelasis] анализ, ис-
следование
ancient [einfant] древний, старый
angle ['aeijgl] угол
anima) [' senimal] животное
annual [aenjual] ежегодный, го-
довой
another [а' плбэ] еще один,
другой
answer f ansa] ответ
apart [a'pat] отдельно
apparent [a'paerant] видимый
appear [a'pia] показываться,
i |роявляться
appearance [a'piarans] появление
appoint [a'paint] назначать
apposite f sepazit ]подходящий,
approach [o'proutj] приближе-
ние, подход
appropriate [a'proupriit] под-
ходящий, соответствующий
approve [a' pru:v] одобрять
approximately [o' proksimitli]
приблизительно
area f'earia ] район, площадь,
зона
around [a' raund] всюду, кругом
arrange [a' reindj ] приводить в
порядок, устраивать
ascend [a'send] подниматься,
набирать высоту
ash [sef] пепел
assemble [a'sembl] созывать,
монтировать
assesment [a'sesment]
обложение, оценка
associate [a'soujiit] объединен-
ный, связанный
astonish [as'tanij] удивлять
attach [a'taetf] прикреплять,
касаться
attention [ a'tenfan] внимание
attempt [ a'tempt] попытка
authoritative [a:'6oritativ]
авторитетный, властный
authority [af Oariti] власть, ад-
министрация, управление
autumn [a:tam] осень
available [o'veilabl] доступный
average ['aevarids ] среднее
число, средняя величина
В
back [Ьзек] назад
background ['baekgraund]
основа
back up [Ьзеклр] поддерживать
balloon [ba lu:n] шар
base [beiz] основа, база, нижняя
граница
beacon ['bi’.kan] маяк
because [bi'ко z] потому
become [bi клт] становиться
before [bi'fa:] до, перед
79
begin (began) [bi'gin] начинать
behaviour [bi'heivja] поведение
below [bi' lou] под, ниже
belt [belt] пояс
beneficial [bini'fifal] благотво-
рительный, выгодный, полезный
benefit [benifit] выгода, польза
better (good, better, [' beta ]
the best)	лучше
between [bi'twim] между
bird [baid] птица
blizzard ['blizad] снежная буря,
буран
body ['bodi]Teno
boundary ['baundari] граница
branch [bramtj] отрасль, ветвь,
филиал, область
break [breik] разрыв, перерыв
breakfast [brekfast] завтрак
briefing ['brilfir)] брифинг,
краткое сообщение/консультация
briefly f briifli] коротко, кратко
bring [brir)] приносить
broad [braid] широко
broadcast [broidkaist]
радиовещание
brume [bruim] дымка
bumpiness [bAmpinas] болтанка
C
calculation [kselkju leijan]
вычисление, калькуляция
call [kail] зов, призыв, сигнал
capability [keipa'biliti]
способность
capable [keipabl] способность,
умелый
capacity (cpecific heat)
[ka'ptesiti] вместимость
capital ['kaspitl] капитал,
столица
careful [keaful] заботливый,
осторожный
carbon dioxide |' kaibon
dioksid] двуокись углерода
carry [kaeri] нести
case [keis] чемодан, случай.
ящик
casual [ kaesjual] случайный
cause [ka:z] потому
cease [sis] переставать,
прекращать
ceiling ['siilip] потолок
ceilometer [si:' lamita] силометр
celestial [si'lestial] небесный
cell [sei] ячейка
century [sentfari] столетие
certain [saitn] определенный
challenge [tfselinds] вызов,
сомнение
chance [(Jams] шанс,
возможность
change [tfeinds] изменение
charge [tfazds] заряд
chart [tfait] карта
check [tfek] проверять
choice [tfois] выбор
circulation [sakju'leifn]
циркуляция, круговорот
civil [sivil] гражданский
clash [kkej] столкновение, гул
clear [klia] ясный
climb [klaim] подъем
clockwise ['klokwaiz] no
часовой стрелке
close [klouz] закрывать
cloud [klaud] облако
cloud amount [ klaud a'maunt]
количество облачности
cloud base ['klaud beiz] нижняя
граница облачности
cloudless fklaudlas] безоблачно
cloudness ['klaudnas]
облачность
coast [koust] берег
col [koi] седловина
80
cold [kould] холодный, холод
collect [ka'lekt] собирать
collection [кэ lekjbn] коллекция,
собрание
collision [ко' 11зп] сталкновление
colour ['кл1э] цвет
combination [кэтЬГ neifn] со-
единение, сочетание
combustion [кэгп bxstfon] горение
commendation [кэ mcndeijbn]
рекомендация
common [кэтэп] общий
commonly [кэтэпН] обычно
communicate [kamjuni'keit]
передавать
communication [кэ rnjuni'keifn]
связь
community [кэ'mjumiti]
общество
compatibility [kompaete'biliti]
совместимость
complementary
[kompli'men tori]
дополнительный
complete [ka'mpltt] полный,
совершенный
complex ['kompleks] комплекс
complicated [komp'likeitod]
i юлный, совершенный
comply [kam'plai] уступать,
соглашаться
compose [kom'pouzj составлять,
сочинять
composition [kompo'zijan]
сочинение, композиция
computation [kompju:' teifon]
вычисления, расчет
concern [кэп so:n] касаться,
иметь отношение
concise [kon'sais] краткий,
четкий
condition [кэп diJan] условия
confidence [' konfidans] доверие
connect [кэ nekt] соединять
connection [ka'nekjan] соедине-
ние
consider [кэп' sida] рассматри-
вать
consideration [kan'sido' reijan]
рассмотрение
constant [konstant] постоянная
constantly [ konstantli] часто,
постоянно
contain [кэп'loin] содержать
content [кэп tent] содержание
continually [кэп tinjuali]
постоянно
continue [kon'tinju:] продолжать
contrary wind [ kontrari wind]
встречный ветер
contribution [kontrf bjtrjan]
содействие, вклад
controller [kon'troulo]
контролер
convection [kan'vekjan]
конвекция
conveniently [kan'vrnjantli]
удобно
cool [ku:l] холодный,
прохладный
cooperation [kou эрэ' reijan ]
сотрудничество
coordination [kouo:di'neijbn]
координация, согласование
cope [koup] колпак
core [кэ: ] сердцевина
correction [кэ'гек/эп]
исправление
correspond [ karis'pand]
соответствовать
cost [kost] цена
cost-effective [кэ st i' fektiv]
эффективно
co on cel [kaunsal] совет
count [ kaunt| считать
country [kAntri] страна
81
cover [' клуэ ] накрывать
coverage [ клуэпПз ] охват
crest [krest] гребень
cross [kros] пересекать
cross-section [kras'sekfan]
вертикальный разрез
cross wind [kras'wind] боковой
ветер
cruising [' kriisiri] крейсерский
curiosity [ kjuari'ositi]
любопытство
current [kAtant] поток
curvature [ka.’vatfa] кривизна
customer [' кл5(ата]таможенник
cyclone [saiklan] циклон
D
daily [deily] суточный, ежеднев-
ный
damp [daemp] сырость,
влажный; сырой
dangerous ['deind^rasj опасный
data [deit] данные
date [deit] дата, срок
day [dei^eHb
daytime ['deitaim] дневное
время
dead wind [' ded wind] встречный
ветер
decode [di' koud] раскодировать
decrease [di:'kri:s] понижение,
уменьшение; понижать
dedicate [dedikeit] посвящать
degree [di'gri:] градус
demand |di'ma:nd] требование
density [densiti] плотность,
густота
departure [di' pa:t[o] вылет,
отправление
depend [di'pend] зависить
depression [di'prefan] депрессия
depth [depO ] глубина
descend | di'send] снижение, сни-
жаться
desert [dezat] пустыня
design [di zain] замысел, план
designate [dezig' ncit] определя гь,
назначать
desirable [di'zaiarabl]
желательный
detect [ditekt] определять, обна-
руживать
determine [di'ta:min] определять
develop [di velap] развивать
devide [di'vaid] делить
dew-point [ dju:point] точка росы
different ['difrant] различный
difficult [' difikalt] трудный
diffused [di'fjuzd] рассеянный,
размытый
dimension [di'menfan] размеры
dioxide ['dioksid] двуокись
direction [di'rekfn] направление
disaster [di'zarsta] опасность,
бедствие
display [dis'plei] показ,
представление
dissemination [di'semineifn]
распространение
distant ['distant]расстояние
distant lightning [ distant laitnirj]
зарница	<
distribute [distri' bju:t] распро-
странять
domestic [da'mestik]
внутренний
dominance [dominans] господ-
ство
doorstep [' doistep] порог
down [daun] внизу
down-gust [ daun gxst] нисходя-
щий порыв, воздушная яма
dream [dri:m] мечта
drifting snow [driftir)' snou] ни-
зовая метель
drizzle [drizl] морось
82
droplet Г droplot] капля
dry [drai] сухой
dull [dxl] сумрачный,
пасмурный
duration [djua'reijan]
продолжительность
during ['djuarir) ] в течение, в
продолжение
dust [dAsl] пыль
dustdevil ['dAst' deval] пыльный
вихрь
dust haze f'dASt'heiz] пыльная
мгла
dusty [dAsti] пыльно
E
each [iitf ] каждый, всякий
early ['э:П]рано
earth [ э:0 ] земля
east [i:st] восток
easy | i.si] легко
eddy [edi] вихрь
edge [eds] гребень
effect [f feet] следствие,
результат
efficiency [i'fifansi]
эффективность
emergency [i' ma.dsansi] случай,
критическое положение,авария
emphasis [em'fasis] ударение,
сила
enable [i'neibl] делать
возможным
encounter [in kaunta]
поддерживать, столкновение
engin ['endrin| машина,турбина
enter f enta] входить
entirely [ intaiali] полностью
equal [iikwal] равный
equator [i'kweita] экватор
equipment [f kwipmant]
оборудование
especially [is'pejali] специально
essential [i 'senjal|
значительный, существенный
establish [is'teblij] основывать
evening ['iivnip] вечер
event [i'vent] случай, событие
evident ['evident] очевидный
evolution [iiva'lujn] развитие
example [ig'zaimpl] пример
except [ek'sapt] выбирать
exchange [iks'tjeinds ] обмен
excite [ik'sait] возбуждать
execution [eksi'kjuifan]
выполнение
exemption [ig' zempfan]
извлечение
exist [ik' zist] существовать
expect [iks'pekl] предполагать
experience [iks piarians] опыт
explain [iks'plein] объяснять
expression [iks' preJon]
выражение
extensive [iks'tensiv] обширный
extent [iks'tent] степень,
протяжение, пространство
extract ['ekstrakt] отрывок
extreme [iks'tri.m] чрезвычайно,
крайне
eye-level [' ailevl] уровень глаза
F
fade [feid] ослабевать, исчезать
failure [failja ] неуспех,
порожение
fall [fol] падение
false [foils] ложный
fast [faist] быстро
feature [fiitja] особенность,
черта
few [fju] немного, несколько
field [fuld] поле
figure [ figa] цифра
filling up ['filipAp] заполнение
83
finaly [ fainteli] наконец, в
завершении
fine [fain | ясно, хорошо
finish [finij] конец, окончание
fishing [' fifir)] рыбоводство
five [faiv] пять
fleet [fli:t] флот
flexibility ['flaksi'biliti] гибкость
flight [flait] полет
flight crew [flait 'kru:] экипаж
flightman [flait' man] система
обработки и представления
метеоданных
flood [flxd] наводнение
fly [Наплетать
fog [fog] туман
forecast ['fo:ka:st] прогноз
foreign [ form] иностранный
foremost ['fo:moust] передний
forenoon [fo:'nu:n] время до
полудня, утро
foreward scatter
meter [fo:wgd'skgeta'mi:ta]
нефелометр
four [fa:] четыре
freezing [fri:zir)] замерзание,
переохлаждение
freezing level [fiizir) leva!]
нулевая изотерма, уровень
замерзания
frequency ['fri:kwansi] частота
frequently ['fiikwantli] часто
frontless ['frxntlas]
безфронтальный
frost [frost] мороз
frosen ['frouzon] замерзший
future ['fjirtfa] будущее
G
gale [geil] град
gale warning ['geil wo: nip]
штормовое предупреждение о
граде
gauge [geid^l калибр, размер,
измерять, измерительный прибор
general [djenorol] общий
generally [d^encroly] обычно
generate [dpna' reit]
порождать, производить
genus [' d^rnas] сорт, вид
get [get] получать
give [giv] давать
glaze [gleiz] гололед
globe [gloub] шар
goods [gu:dz] товар
gradual ['grsedjuol]
постепенный
great [greit] великий
green [gri:n] зеленый
grid [grid] сетка
grid point ['grid point] точка
сетки
ground-air ['graund 'еэ]
приземный воздух
grow |grou] расти, произрастать
H
hail [heil] град
hemisphere [hemi'sfio] полуша-
рие
hazard f'hsezad] опасный
head [hed] голова
headquarter [hed'kwo:to] •
штабквартира
headwind [hed'wind] встреч-
ный ветер
heat [1м:1]жара
heavy [hevi] тяжелый, трудный
height [hait] высота
help [help] помогать, помощь
high [hai] высоко
high clouds ['hai'elands] высо-
кая облачность
highest ['haiast] наиболее вы-
сокий
holiday fholidei] праздник
84
hot |hot] горячий,жаркий
hour [aim ] час
however [hau evo] однако, как
бы ни, несмотря на то
hub [йлЬ] центр
human [hju:mon] человеческий
humidity [hju:' miditi] влажность
hundred [hAndrad] сотня
hurricane fliArikon] ураган
hydrogen [ haidridan] водород
1
ice [ais]nefl
ice accretion [ais ac'krijan]
отложениельда
icing ['aisirj] обледенение
identify ['aident ifai]
отождествлять, опознавать
image ['imidj] образ,
изображение
implement [implamanl]
осуществлять
important [im' poitant] важный,
значительный
improve [imp' ru:v] улучшать
improvement [imp' rurvmant]
улучшение
impurity [im'pjuariti] примесь,
загрязнение
incoming [in'kAmiij] наступа-
ющий, предстоящий
incorporate [in'ka:parit] соеди-
i (енный, объединенный
increase [in'krits] увеличивать
indicate [indi'keit] указывать
indispensable [ indis'pensabl]
необходимый
initial [ i'nifal] начальный
intend [intend]намереваться
interaction [intar' eekjan ]
взаимодействие
interest ['intrist] интерес
interference [inta'fiarans] вме-
шательство
interpretation [ in' t;epri' teijan]
интерпретация
interval [ intaval] перерыв
introduce [intra'dju:s[ представ-
лять
intrusion [in'trusan] вторжение
issue [' isju:] выпуск, издание
isothem ['aisou0a:m] изотерма
J
jet [djet] струя,реактивный
jetstream |'d3et'stri:m] струй-
ное течение
К
kind [kaind] род, вид, добрый
kite [kait] змей
knot [not] узел
know [non] знать
knowledge [' nolidj] знание
L
land [leend] земля, суша
landing [leendir)] приземляться,
посадка
landmark [lasnd ma:k] ориентир
language [' leerjgwids ] язык
large [la:ds ] большой
late [leit] поздно
latitude [' Isetitjud] широта
law [1э:] закон
layer [1е]э]слой
leader [ li:da] лидер (грозовой
разряд)
left [left] левый
level ['leval] уровень
light [lait] светлый, слабый
lightning ['laitniij] молния
likely ['laikli] подобно
line [lain] линия
link [link] связь, соединение
live [йу]жить
85
load [b:dj нагрузка
local [loukal] местный
locate [lou'keit] располагаться
location [loii' keijn] место
long [bg] длинный
longitude [' bndsitjurdJ долгота
loss [bs] потеря
low [b:] низкий, слабый
lowering ['lauaripj понижение
lunch time [lAntf'taim] время
завтрака
M
magazine [maega' zliin] журнал
main [mein] главный
maintain [men tein]
поддерживать, удерживать
make [meik] делать
man [maen] мужчина, человек
man made [' maen meid] сделано
вручную
management f maenidsmant]
управление
mandate [' maendeit] приказ
many [rnaeny] много
map [maep] карта
mark [mark] знак
mass [maes] масса
match [maetf] спички
matter [maeta] вещество,
предмет
mean [mi:n] значить
meaning [mi:nip] значение
measure [meja] мера
meet [met] встречать
melt [melt] таять
member ['memba] член
mention ['menfan] упоминание
meridian [meridian] меридиан
message ['masidj] сообщение
meteorology [mrtjara'bdji]
метеорология
mid [mid] средний
middle [midi] середина
mile [mail] миля
military I'militari] военный
mind [maind] разум
misunderstanding
| misAnda'strendig] непонимание
mist [mist] дымка
mizzle [mizl] исчезать
moderate [' modarit] умеренный
moist [ moist] влажный
monsoon [mon'sum] мусоп
month [тлпб] месяц
morning [mo.niij] утро
most [moust] большинство
motion [moufan] движение
mountain [mauntin] гора
move |mu:v] двигаться
movement [' muivamant] движе-
ние
N
name [neim] имя
narrow [ naerou] узкий
navigation [naevi'geijan]
навигация
near [nia] вблизи
necessary [nesisari] необходимо
need [ni:d] требуется
neighborhood [' nejbahud]
соседство
net [net] сетка
network [netwa:k] сеть
new [nju:] новый
nonflying weather [non'flaip
weda] нелетная погода
non-uniform [nan'ju:nifo:m]
неоднородный
noon [nu:n] полдень
north [na:0] север
nucleus [' njuklias] ядро, центр,
ядро атома
number [' плтЬэ] число
86
night [nait] ночь
numeric [nju:' merik] численный,
число
О
objective fabd^ektiv]
объективный
observation [ab'za: 'veifn]
наблюдение
observer [ab' zo: va]
наблюдатель
obvious fobvias] очевидный,
ясный
occasional [o'keijanl] изредка,
временами
occur [ a'kar] встречаться
often [ofn] часто
old [ould] старый
only [ounli] единственный
opposite fapazit] напротив
other [лба] другой
our [aua] наш
outbreak [' autbreik] вторжение
outer [aula] внешний
outgoing [auf gair)] выходящий
outspread [aut'spred] paenpo-
сгранять
over [ouva] над
overcast [ouva'ka:st] пасмурно,
сплошная облачность
P
Pacific ocean [pa'sifik oufan]
Тихий океан
package [ paskids] пакет, упаковка
paramount fpaeramaunt] перво-
степенный, высший
part [part] часть
particles [' partiklas] частица
particular [pa'tikjula] специфи-
ческий
pass [pars] пересекать, проходить
passage [paesidj ] проход
passenger [paesindsa] пассажир
patches [paetfaz] клочья, куски
penetrate [penitreit] проникать
people [ргр1]люди
perfomance [pa'fa: mans]
представление
permanent f parmanant]
постоянный, неизменный
permit [permit] разрешать
persistant [pa'sistant] стойкий,
устойчивый
picture [piktfa] картинка
place [pleis] место
plane [plein] ровный, открытый
play [plei] играть, выполнять роль
point [paint] точка
polar [' poula] полярный
pollution [pa'lurfan] загрязнение
poor [pua] бедный
possible [' posabl] возможно
powerful f pauaful] сильный
powerplant [pauaplarnt]
электростанция, силовая установка
precipitation [prisipiteifan]
осадки
predict [pre'dikt]
предсказывать, прогнозировать,
используя математические методы
preliminary [pri'liminari] орие-
нтировочный, предварительный
preoccupation [prirakju peifan]
занятие
prepare [pri'pea] готовить,
подготавливать
presence fprezns] присутствие
pressure [prejb] давление
prevalent [prevalent] распро-
страненный, господствующий
previously [' prirvjasli] ранее
principal [prinsipal] главный,
основной
87
probability [prabo' bi!iti | вероят-
ность
produce [pro' djirs] производить,
давал,
property ['propati] собствен-
ность
propose [pra'pouz] предложе-
ние
protect [pra'tekt] защищать
provide [pro vaid] обеспечивать,
снабжать
provision [pra'vijn] снабжение,
обеспечение
public [рлЬПк] публика, народ
Q
quantity [' kwantiti] количество
quasi ['kwa'.zi] почти, квази
quiet ['kwaiat] спокойный,
тихий
R
radiation [reidi'eifan]
излучение, радиация
rain [rein] дождь
rain shower [rein Jana] ливне-
вой дождь
raincoat ['reinkout] плащ
rainfall [' reinfa:!] дождь,
выпадение дождя
range [reins] ряд,величина
rapid ['rsepid] быстро
rare [rca] редкий
rarely [rcali] редко
real [rial] действительный,
реальный
real time ['rial'taim] реальное
время
reason [ri.zn] причина
receive [ri'stv] получать
receiver | ri'si:v ] ресивер, прие-
мник, приемi юс устройство
recognize [' rekagnaiz] узнавать
record [ rekaxl] отмечать, реги-
стрировать
recorder [re'ka:da] регистратор
red [red] красный
redundant [ri'dAndant] чрезмер-
ный
region [ridsn] регион
relay [ri'lei] обеспечивать
reliability [rilaia'biliti] надеж-
ность
remove [ri'murv] передвигать
represent [reprizant] представ-
лять
require [ri'kwaia] требовать
requirement [ri'kwaiamant]
требование
research [ri'salj] поиск
responsibility [rispansa' biliti]
ответственность
restrict [ris'trikt] ограничивать
revolving storm ['rivalviij 'sta:m]
тропический ураган
revolve [ri'valv] вращаться
review [ri'vju:] обзор
ridge [rids] гребень
rime [raim] иней
rise [raiz] ехать
rival [raival] соперничать
river [riva] река
road [roud] дорога
roughly [rAfli] грубо,
приблизительно
route [ru:t] путь
runway [' rxnwei] впп
runway visual range [' rxnwei
'vizjual reinds] величина
видимости на ВПП
88
s
saddle [saedl] седловина
safety [ seifti] безопасность
safety message ['seifti'mesedj]
сообщение о безопасности
sail [seil] плыть
satellite [' saetolait] спутник
saturation ['ssetjo'reijan]
насыщение
saving ['seivir)] спасательный
scale [skeil] масштаб
scattered ['skaetad] рассеянный,
отдельные
schedule [Jedju:l] расписание
science ['saians] наука
scientist ['saiantist] ученый
scud [skxd] облака плохой
погоды
sealevel [sidaval] уровень моря
second fsekand]второй
secure [s'ikjua] безопасный,
сохранять
see [si:] видеть
select [sa' lekt] выбирать
send [send] посылать
sensor [sensor] чувствительный
прибор, сенсор
separation [sepa'reijan] разделе-
ние, эшелонирование
sequence [' sirkwans] последова-
тельность
service ['sa:vis] служба,обслу-
живание
several ['seva ral] несколько
severe [se'via] сильный
shear [jir] сдвиг
short [fat] короткий
show [fou] показывать
shower [faua] ливневые осадки
significant [sig' nifikant] значи-
тельные
significant weather [sig'nifikant
weda] особые явления погоды
silence [ sailans] тишина
simply ['simpli] просто
since [sins] с тех пор как
site [sail] сторона
situration [sitju reijan] насыще-
ние
size [saiz] размер
ski [ski:] лыжа
skill [skil] искусство
skin [skin] кожа
sky [skai] небо
sleet [sli:t] гололед
small [smal] маленький
smog [smog] смог
smoke [smouk] дым, курить
snow [snou]cHer
snowdrift ['snou'drift] метель
snow fall ['snou fol] снегопад
snow pelits ['snou pelits] снеж-
ная крупа
snowing [snouwirj] идет снег
snow shower [ snou'Jaua]
ливневой снег
snow and rain mixed [ snow
and' rein' miksad] дождь co снегом
solar ['soula] солнечный
solid ['solid] твердый
sometimes ['sAmtaimz] иногда
soon [sum] вскоре
sophisticate [so'fistikeit]
извращать, усложнять
sound [saund] звук, звучать
source [so:s] источник
south [sau0]ior
space [speis] пространство
speak [spi:k] говорить
speed [spi:d] скорость
spring [sprig] весна
squall [skwo:l] шквал
squall line ['skwo:l lain] линия
шквала
stability [sta'biliti] устойчивость
89
stable [steibl] стабильный
state [steit] государство
station [steijon] станция
storm [storm] шторм
storm information ['storm
info' meijon] штормовая инфор-
мация
strait [streit] прямой
stream [strirm] поток, течение
strength [ strepO] сила
strengthen [strepQon] усиливать
strong [strop] сильный
study [stAcli] изучать
substantial [sob'stsenfol] значи-
телы ю
substantion [sob'staenjbn]
значительный
successful [sok'sesful] успешный
sudden [sAdn] внезапный
suitable [sjurtobl] подходящий
summer [' saitio] лето
sunray [ sAnrei] солнечный луч
supercooled [ sjurpo'kurld] пере-
охлажденный
supersonic [sjurpo'sonik] сверх-
звуковой
supervision ['sjurpo'vrjon] на-
блюдение, надзор
supplement [sAph ment] дополни-
тельный
support [so' port] поддерживать
suppose [so'pouz] предполагать
supreme [sjur'prirm] верховный
surface [' sorfis] поверхность
surprise [so'praiz] удивлять
swamp [sweempl болото
T
table [teibl] стол
take [teik] брать
take off [teik' of] взлет
temperate [temporit] умеренный
temporary [temporori]
временно
terminal f terminal] вокзал,
конечный пункт
themometer [0a' momita]
термометр
thick [0ik] толстый, плотный
thick clouds ['0ik 'klaudz]
плотные облака
thickness f'Giknas] плотность
thickness chart ['Giknas 'tjart]
карта относительной топографи и
threshold ['Grejbuld] порог
thunder [0Anda] гром
thunderstorm [0Anda'storm]
гроза
time [taim] время
time table ['taim' teibl]
расписание
tail [teil] хвост
tail wind ['teil'wind] попутный
ветер, пассат
tired [taiad] занятый
top [top] вершина
total ['toutal] общий
touchdown ftAtJdown] касание
towards [ta'wordz] no
направлению
trade [treid] торговля
trade wind [treid wind] пассат
traffic Г trafik] сообщение
trans-frontal f'traens'frAntl]
зафронтальный
transmit [trains' mit] передавать
transmitter ['trans' mita]
передатчик
transport f transport] транспорт
travel [travl] путешествовать
tree [trir] дерево
tropical revolving storm
[tropikol ro'volvir)'storm] тропи-
90
ческий циклон
trough [trof] ложбина
true [tru:] правда
true direction ['trur'direkjan] ис-
тинное направление
turn [torn] поворачивать
twice [twais] дважды
U
understand [Anda'stsend] пони-
мать
uneven [лп irvan] неровный, не-
четный
unfamiliarity ['Anfa'miljariti] не-
знакомство, странность
unfavourable ['An'feivarabl] не-
благоприятный
uninfromly ['jurniniformli] одно-
образно
unique [jur'nirk] единственный,
уникальный
unit ['ju:nit] единица, часть
unstable [лп'steibl] неустойчивый
unsteady weather [Ans' tedi weda]
неустойчивая погода
unsuccessful [Ansak'sesful] не-
удачный
upper Глрэ ] верхний
upper air [ лрэ сэ] верхние слои
атмосферы
upper front ['лрэ'ГглШ] верхний
фронт
urgent [ar'dsant] срочный
use [jcirs] использовать, употре-
блять «
useful ['jursful] полезный
usually [jursuali] обычно
V
valid ['vselid] действительный
valuable [vseljuabl] ценный,
полезный
value ['vseljur] цена, стоимость
vapor [ veipa] nap
variable ['vcariabl] переменный,
неустойчивый
various [vcarias] разный,
разнообразный
vast [varst] огромный,
обширный
vegetation [vedsi'teijan]
растительность
velocity [vi'bsiti] скорость
visibility [vizi'biliti] видимость
visionman [vijan msen] предста-
влениеданных/система SADIS
visual [vizjual] визуальный
W
warm [warm] теплый
warm front ['warm frAnt] теплый
фронт
warming up ['warmil] 'лр]
потепление
warning [ warnig] штормовое
оповещение
watch [wo tj] следить
water [warta] вода
weak [wirk] слабый
weather [' weda ] погода
weather analisis [ weda a' nselisis]
синоптический анализ
weatherbureau ['weda'bjua'rou]
бюро погоды
weather chart ['weda 'tfart]
синоптическая карта
weather outlook [ weda' autluk]
виды на погоду
weatherman ['weda' msen] систе-
ма переключения (шлюзования)
метеосообщений
weathertrend ['weda'trend]
двухчасовой прогноз на посадку
типа “trend”
91
wedge [weds]гребень well [wel] хорошо west [west] запад wet [wet] влажный wet snow ['wet'snon] мокрый снег whirldwind [' wa:ld'wind] вихрь, смер*ц ураган wind [wind] ветер wind current [wind клгэт] вет- ровой поток wind direction ['wind'direkfan] направление ветра wind shear [wind'Jia] сдвиг ветра winter ['winta]3HMa within [wi'din] в пределах without [widaut] без woman [woman] женщина working up [ wo:kir)'Ap] разра- батывать world [ wa: Id] мир	world weather watch ['wa: Id 'weda 'watf] всемирная служба погоды world wide ['wo: Id'waid] все- мирный Y yard [ ]ах!]ярд year [jo:] год young [jAp] молодой young cyclone [ jaij saiklan] мо- лодой цикло! i (идеальный циклон) Z zero ['ziarou] ноль zero layer ['ziarou 'leia ] нулевой слой zone [zoun] зона, поле zone of maximum wind speed [' zoun af maeksimum wind spi:d] зона максимального ветра
СОКРАЩЕНИЯ
УСЛОВНЫЕ ОБОЗНАЧЕНИЯ
А		
АВМ	- abeam	- траверз, на траверзе
АВТ	- about	- около, примерно, о
ABV	- above	- над, выше, сверх
ACFT	- aircraft	- самолет, воздушное судно
ACT	- active/activated	- активный/ активизирующийся
AD	- address	- адрес
ADJ	- adjacent	- уточнение, сложный, соседний
ADS	- address	- адрес
AERO	- aeronautics	- авиация, аэронавтика
AFI	- Africa	- Африка, Африканский район
AFT	- after	- после
AFTN	— aeronautical fixed	- авиационная фиксиро-
	telecommunication network	ванная сеть телесвязи
AGL	- above ground level	— над уровнем земли
AIP	- aeronautical infor-	- сборник аэронавигаци-
	mation publications	онной информации
AIREP	- air report — alternative	— авиационная сводка от- крытым текстом
ALT		- запасной
AMD	- amend	— корректив
APCH	- approach	- подход, приближение
APL	- April	- апрель
ARFOR	— area forecast	- зональный прогноз(код)
ARR	— arrival	- прилет, прибытие
ASC	— ascend	- набор высоты
ASL	— above sea level	- над уровнем моря
АТС	- air traffic control	- управление воздушным
движением
93
ATS ATZ AUG AWY	1. airdrome traffic service 2. air traffic service -	aerodrome traffic Zone -	August -	airway	1	.аэродромный диспет- черский пункт 2	. Служба воздушного движения -	зона движения в районе аэродрома -	август -	авиатрасса
В		
ВС	- patches	- клочья, обрывки
BL	- blowing	- дующий, низовая
BLO	- below	- ниже, под
BLSN	- blowing snow	- низовая метель
BLW	- below	- ниже, под
BR	- mist	- дымка
BTL	- between layers	- между слоями
BTN	- between	- между
C		
c	- central	- центральный
CAEM	- commission for	- комиссия по авиацион-
	aeronautical Mete-	ной метеорологии
CAR	orology - Caribbean	- Карибски й район
CAT	- clear air turbulence	- турбулентность в ясном
CAVOK	- ceiling and visibility	небе - нижняя граница облач-
	OK	ности и видимости ОК
CBS	- commission for basic	- комиссия ПО ОСНОВНЫМ
	systems	системам
CCCC		- четырехбуквенный ин-
CIT	- near or over large	декс аэропорта - вблизи или над больши-
	town	ми городами
CIDIN	- common ICAO Data	- общая сеть обмена дан-
	Interchange Network	ными 1САО
94
CLD	- cloud	- облако, облачность
CNL	- cancel	- отменять
COM	- communication	- связь
COR	- correction	- исправление, поправка
COT •	- at the coast	- на побережье, прибреж-
		ный
CTR	- airdrome control re-	- контролируемый район
	gion	аэродрома
D		
DEC	- December	- декабрь
DEG	- degree	- градус
DEP	— depart, departure	- вылетать, вылет, отъезд
DES	- descent	— снижаться
DIF	-diffuse	- рассеивать, размывать
DIST	- distance	- расстояние
DP	- dew point	- точка росы
DR	- drifting	- наносимый ветром, дрейфующий
DS	- duststorm	- пыльная буря
DU	— widespread dust	- пыль (обширный район)
DZ	- drizzle	- морось
Е
Е	- East	- восток
ЕС	- Executive Council	— исполнительный
		комитет
EMBD ЕТА	- embedded - estimated time of ar- rival	— маскированный - расчетное время прибы- тия
ETD	- estimated time of de-	— расчетное время вылета
EUR	parture - European region	- Европейский район
F
- degrees Fahrenheit
- градусы Фаренгейта
95
FBL	— feeble	— слабый (о турбулентно- сти, обледенении)
FC	1. funnel cloud	- воронкообразное облако 2. условное обозначение 9/12 час. TAFa	
FCST	- forecast	— прогноз
FEB	- February	- пятница
FG	- fog	- туман
FIC	- flight information centre	- центр полетной инфор- мации
FIR	-flight information re- gion	- район полетной инфор- мации
FIS	- flight information service	- службы полетной ин- формации
FL	- flight level	- эшелон, уровень полета
FM	- from	- от, с
FPM	- feet per minute	- фут в минуту
FRI	- Friday	- февраль
FRQ	- frequent	— частые
FT	1. условное обозначение 18/24 час. TAFa 2. foot	- фут	
FZ	-	freezing FZR	-	freezing rain G GEN	-	general GMT	-	Greenwich	mean time GND	- relative to ground GRADU - gradual, gradually GP	- glide path GS	- glide slope GTS	- global telecommuni- cation system H H	- high pressure centre	-	замерзающий, переох- лажденный -	переохлажденный дождь -	общий -	среднегринвичское время —	относительно земли -	постепенный, постепенно -	глиссада -	глиссада -	глобальная система телесвязи -	область повышенного давления
96
HEL	- helicopter	- вертолет
HR	- hour	— час
HURCN	- hurricane	- ураган
HVY	- heavy	- тяжелый
HZ	- haze	- мгла
IC	Lin cloud 2. diamond dust	1. в облаках 2. ледяные иглы
ICAO	- International Civil Aviation Organisation	- международная организация гражданской авиации
IES	- International Ex- change System	- система международно- го обмена
IFR	- instrument flight rools	- правила полетов по при- борам
ILS	- instrument landing system	- система посадки по при- борам
INS	- inches	- дюймы
INTER	- internittent	- кратковременный
INTST	intensity	- интенсивность
ISCS	- Internationa Satellite Communication Sys- tem	- международная спутни- ковая система связи
ISOL	- isolated	— изолированный, отдельные
J		
JAN	- January	- январь
JTST	-jet stream	- струйное течение
Jul	- July	- июль
JUNE	- June	- июнь
к		
KG	- kilograms	- килограммы
KM	- kilometers	- километры
97
КМН - kilometer/hour
K.TS - knots
- километры/час
- узлы
L	- low	- центр низкого давления
LAN	- inland, land	- внутри страны, земля, суша
LAT	- latitude	- широта
LOC	- local, locally	- местами
LONG	- longitude	- долгота
LYR	- layer	- слой
M		
M	1. meters	1. метры
	2. minus	2. минус
	3. meteorology, mete-	3. метеорология, метеоро-
	orological	логический
MAR	1. at sea	1. на море
	2. March	2. март
MAX	- maximum	- максимум, максималь- ный
MAY	- May	- май
MBS	- millibars	- миллибары
MET	- meteorological	- метеорологический
METAR		- кодированное сообще- ние о фактической погоде в районе аэродрома
MI	-shallow	- тонкий
MID	1. middle	1.середина ♦
	2. middle East	2. средне-восточный регион
MIN	- minimum	- минимум
ML	1. mean level	1. средний уровень
	2. mile	2. миля
MMO	- main meteorological	- главная метеорологиче-
	office	ская служба
98
МММ	- minimum	- минимум
MOD	- moderate	- умеренный (обледене-
MOM	1. Monday	ние, турбулентность) 1. понедельник
MOTNE	2. above mountains — meteorological op-	2. над горами - метеорологическая опе-
MOV	erational Telecommu- nication Network, Europe - move	ративная сеть телесвязи, Европа - двигаться, смещаться
MPS	- meters per second	- метры в секунду
MS	1. message	1. сообщение
MSL	2. minus - mean sea level	2. минус - средний уровень моря
MTW	- mountain waves	- горные волны
MX	- mixed	-смешанный
N		
N	- North	- север, северный
NAT	- North Atlantic	- Северная Атлантика
NASA	- National Aero-	- Национальный комитет
NC	Nautical and Space Administration — no changes	по аэронавтике и исследо- ванию космического про- странства - без изменений
NHC	-National Hurricane-	- национальный центр
NIL	Center	циклонов - отсутствие
NM	- nautical miles	- морские мили
NOAA	-National Oceanic and	- национальная админи-
NOSIG	Atmospheric Admini- stration - no significant	страция по вопросам океана и атмосферы - без существенных изме-
NOTAM	changes - notice to airman	нений - информация для летного
NOV	— November	состава (код) - ноябрь
99
NSC	- no significant cloud NSW	- no significant weather NWS	-National Weather Servic О OBS	- observed OCNL	-occasional OCT	- October OPA	- opaque OPMET	- operational meteor- ology OVC	- overcast P РАС	- Pacific PE	- ice pellets PO	- well developed dust/sand whirls PR	- permanent represen- tative PROP	- probability PS	1. plus 2. position PSN	- position R RA	- rain RAFC	- regional	area forecast centre	-	отсутствие значительной облачности, т.е. св. и об- лачности ниже 1500 м -	отсутствие опасных яв- лений -	национальная служба погоды —	наблюдается -	временами,случайно -	октябрь -	вид обледенения, непро- зрачный белый снег -	оперативная метеоин- формация -	сплошная облачность -	Тихоокеанский -	ледяной дождь —	ярко выраженные пыль- ные/песчаные вихри -	постоянный представи- тель —	вероятность 1. плюс 2. позиция - положение, местополо- жение -дождь - региональный прогно- стический центр
100
RAG	- ragged	- шершавый, рваный, неровный
RCTM	- regional centre for	- региональный центр
	tropical meteorology	тропической метеоро- логии
ROFOR	- rout forecast	- прогноз по маршруту (код)
RPT	- repeat	- повторять
RTT	- radioteletyp writer	- радиотелетайп
RVR	- runway visual range	- величина видимости на полосе
RWY	- runway	-ВПП
s
S	1. South 2. Sunday	- ЮГ - воскресенье
SA	1.sand	- песок 2. условное обозначение METARa	
SAM	— South America	- Южная Америка
SAP	— soon as possible	— как можно скорее
SAT	1. Saturday 2. South Atlantic	1	.суббота 2	.Южная Атлантика
SCT	- scattered	- незначительная(облач- ность), рассеянный, разо- рванный, отдельные
su	- Sunday	- воскресенье
SEC	- second	- секунда
SEP	- September	- сентябрь
SEV	— severe	- сильное(обледенения, турбулентности)
SG	- snowgrains	— снежные зерна
SH	- shower	- ливневые осадки
SIGMET	- significant meteorol- ogy	- сообщение о наличии или возможном наличии опасных для авиации явлений открытым текстом
101
SKC	- sky clear	- небо ясно (отсутствие св. и облачность ниже 1500м)
SLW	-slow	- медленно
SM	- statue miles	- статутные мили
SN	- snow	- снег
SQ	- squall	- шквал
SS	- sand storm	- песчаная буря
SST	- supersonic transport	- сверхзвуковой самолет
ST	- stratus	- слоистые
STNR	- stationary	- стационарный,непод- вижный
SUN	- Sunday	- воскресенье
SVR	- slant visual range	- величина наклонной ви
димости
т
Т	- temperature	- температура
TAF	- aerodrome forecast	- прогноз по району аэро- дрома (код)
TCYC	- tropical cyclone	- тропический циклон
TEMPO	- temporary, tempo- rarily	- временный, временно
TEND	- tendency	- тенденция
THU	- Thursday	- четверг
TS	- thunderstorm	- гроза
ти	-Tuesday	- вторник
TURB	- turbulence	- турбулентность
U
UK	- United Kingdom	- Соединенное Королев- ство (Англия)
UN	- United Nations	- Объединенные нации (ООН)
USA	- united states of America	-США
102
V
VA	- volcanic ash	- вулканический пепел
VAL	- in valleys	- в долинах
VC	- in the vicinity	- вблизи (в пределах 8 км от периметра аэродрома)
VER	- vertical	- вертикальный
VFR	- visual flight rules	- правила визуального по- лета
VIS	-visibility	- видимость
VOLMET	- volume meteorology	- объем метеоинформации
VRB	- variable	- неустойчивый (ветер), переменный
VRBL	- variable	- неустойчивый (ветер), переменный
VSP	- vertical speed	- вертикальная скорость
VV w	- vertical visibility	- вертикальная видимость
w	1. West	1.запад
	2. Wednesday	2. среда
WDSPR	- wide spread	- широко распространен- ный
WKN	- weaken	- ослабление
WTSPT	- water spout	- водяной смерч
WX	- weather	- погода
WWW	- World Weather	- Всемирная служба пого-
Y	Watch	ды
YD	-yard	-ярд
YR	-your	- ваш
103
Н.Е.Эльянова
ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛИСТОВ ПО МЕТЕООБЕСПЕЧЕНИЮ
МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ АВИАЦИИ
Редактор Киселев Б.А.
Корректор Пущина Н.М.
Верстка Евсеев Е.Е., Перевозов А.С.
ЛР № 062750 от 18 июля 1998 г.
Издательство «Изограф»
Москва, 3-й проезд Марьиной Рощи, 40
Тел./факс 289-04-54
Подписано в печать 20.11.2000 г.
Формат 84x108/32. Гарнитура «Таймс»
Печать офсетная. Усл.-печ. л. 3,25
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