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Learn Old English with Leofwin
Matt Love

First Published 2013 by
Anglo-Saxon Books
Hereward, Black Bank Business Centre
Little Downham, Ely, Cambridgeshire CB6 2UA England
Printed and bound by
Lightning Source
Australia, England, USA
Revised March 2014
© Matt Love
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
including photo-copying, recording or any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the
publisher, except for the quotation of brief passages in connection with
a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
This book may not be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise disposed
of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other than that
in which it is published, without the prior consent of the publishers.
ISBN 9781898281672

To the memory of my Mum and Dad
Thanks for everything
Unregarded, unrenowned,
men from whom my ways begin.
Here I know you by your ground,
but I know you not within —
there is silence, there survives
not a moment of your lives.
Edward Blunden, Forefathers

YA
Contents
Foreword
Going Back in Time — New English to Old English
A note on Old English Writing and Pronunciation
How to Use this Book
Meet Leofwin!
Leornungdeel 1 — min cynn / my family
Leofwin’s family
Family questions
More about Leofwin’s family
Leofwin’s neighbours
Wesan - ‘to be’
Hatan — ‘to be called’
Family phrases
Yes and no
Likes and dislikes
Numbers 1-30
More family vocabulary
Foxtail describes his family
Mini-essay: Anglo-Saxon Families
Leornungdeel 2 — min his / my house
Leofwin’s house
House vocabulary
Gender — some grammar!
Describing people
Golde describes her family
Describe your family
Spreculmuth’s family
Some more characters
Meet Aelfgifu
Béon — ‘to be’
Habban — ‘to have’
Colours
Translation!
Eth and thorn — two Old English letters
Mini-essay: Farmsteads, villages and towns

page 39
Leornungdeel 3 — iite / outside
39
1 Where Leofwin lives
40
2 ‘oneardian’ - to inhabit
40
3. Plurals - examples so far
42
4 Plurals — strong and weak nouns
43
5 Strong and weak nouns - test
44
6 Leofwin describes his village
46
7 Some verb patterns
47
8 Animals
48
9 Consolidating plurals - strong and weak nouns
48 10 Subjects and objects — more grammar!
49 11 Weak nouns
51 12. Word order
51 13 (aand b) Basic survival guide — some essential phrases
54 14. Mini-essay: Prittlewell in Anglo-Saxon times
55
Leornungdeel 4 — timan, weder / seasons, weather
55
1 The four seasons
56
2 Reading task (easy!), and discussion on verbs
oy| 3. Fairly easy translation task
58
4 Foxtail describes the seasons — and offers a feast of verbs
60
5 Grammar task on verbs
61
6 Months of the year (harder than you’d think)
63
7 Birthdays
64
8 Numbers 31 — 100
65
9 Weather
66
10 Clufweart talks about the weather
67 11 Writing about the weather yourself
67 12 Revision of greetings
68 13. Days of the week
69
14. (a) Times of the day
(b) Hours of the day
70 15 Mini-essay: dividing the year
7
Leomungdeel 5 - gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamnlic lif/natural world, daily life
a
1 Leofwin’s world
a
2 Wordsnake
13
3 More on Leofwin’s world
74
4 ‘this’ — some grammar, and a test!
ie) 5 Leofwin’s daily routine
7
6 Tasks on daily routine
78
7 More on daily routine
80
8 Consolidation of verb patterns
83
9 Mini-essay: the Round of the Year

page 87
Leornungdeel 6 - mete, drenc and mé!l / food, drink and meals
1 Clufweart milks the cow
2 Food and drink vocabulary
3. Revision of plurals and checking of new vocabulary
4 (a) Foxtail talks about mealtimes
(b) Mealtimes — true, false or unknown
5 ‘drincan’, to drink and ‘etan’, to eat
6 More on mealtimes
7 Leofwin asks you about your mealtimes
8 Talking animals: translation
9 ‘niman’ to take, and ‘giefan’ to give
10 More food and drink vocabulary
11 Revise likes and dislikes
12 Revision of negatives
13. Leofwin describes Easter
14. Three new verbs — cooking, catching, answering
15 Belonging — possessive adjectives
16 Ealhstan’s Easter Sermon
17 Mini-essay — food and drink / cooking and eating
Vocabulary: New English (NE) to Old English(OE)
Vocabulary: Old English (OE) to New English (NE)
Transcripts and Answers
Grammar Summary

Foreword
Nearly ten per cent of the people on our planet speak English either as their mother tongue,
or as a first foreign language of choice. It’s a global language. But where did it come from?
How long has it been around? How much has it changed over time?
This book aims to give the reader who is not a language specialist a glimpse of the English
language as it was spoken over a thousand years ago by a couple of million people on a
green and pleasant island off the coast of mainland Europe.
Old English, as it is called, or Anglo-Saxon, survives in a fairly substantial number of
manuscripts, which include laws, charters, wills, histories, religious works, poetry,
medical and scientific treatises and other material. If everything were collected together,
it would take up the equivalent space of about forty or so medium-sized books. The
material dates from the 8" to the 11" century, during which time the language was
evolving constantly; it continues to do so today.
There are, of course, gaps, regional variations, and since what survives is necessarily rather
‘bookish’, there are some aspects of the everyday language which can only be inferred.
Nevertheless, it is this everyday language of Anglo-Saxon England that I’ve tried to present
in this book. Old English tends rather to be the playground of paleo-linguists and
philologists, who are interested primarily in how language changes over time and in the
relationship of languages to each other. Although there’s a fairly wide range of books on
Old English, many can appear rather intimidating and inaccessible to anyone who’s not
already heavily involved in this kind of study.
‘Leofwin’ presents Old English, as far as possible, as if it were a living language, and I
hope it will fill the need for a lively, entertaining and attractive introduction for anyone
interested in the roots of our quirky and marvellous tongue.
My thanks are due to David Cowley, who checked the draft text, and to Steve Pollington,
who put me up to the whole project. Also to Linden Currie, and my other friends in ‘The
English Companions’, who’ve given me every encouragement. To Maria Legg, who
provided all the female voices in the audio passages, and to the wonderful people of
‘Centingas’, who share my passion for Anglo-Saxon Living History. To my son Thomas,
for all his help with computer issues, and finally to Tony Linsell of Anglo-Saxon books,
for whose patience, support, guidance and gentle criticism I’m very grateful. Whatever
errors still lurk within these pages are, of course, my own responsibility.
MWL, Leigh-on-Sea, September 2012

Going Back in time - New English to Old English
Language never stops changing! New words are being born all the time, while others fade away.
The way we pronounce words changes slowly over time as well, while more slowly still we alter
the rules of our grammar. How hard will it be to learn the English spoken here more than a
thousand years ago?
1800
If you could travel back in time 200 years, you’d be able to understand the English spoken here in
England without any difficulty, although a few of the sounds and words might be just a little
unfamiliar at first. Because of Britain’s Empire, English is already a global language, spoken in
North America, the Caribbean, India, Australia, parts of Africa and elsewhere.
1600
Another 200 years back: this is the language of Shakespeare. It’s recognizably English, but with
many unfamiliar words and expressions. Printing has helped to ‘standardize’ the language, and lots
of Greek and Latin words are being brought in which we take for granted in the 21° century.
However, many words and some of the grammar seem strange. The language of this period is called
‘Early Modern English’.
1400
Now we’re back to medieval times. Printing hasn’t been invented yet, so all writing is done by
hand. The thousands of French words which flooded into English after the Norman Conquest of
1066 are still settling in to the language. The language sounds very different, and without studying
it, you’d find many words unrecognizable. The language of these times is called ‘Middle English’.
1200
There are two different languages being spoken in England. Norman-French is the language spoken
by the king, the court, and the upper classes, because of the Norman Conquest. English is spoken
by the English people, with just a few words beginning to be adopted from French. These are the
last generations to speak alate form of ‘Old English’. For 21“ century English-speakers, it’s virtually
a foreign language.
1000
Another 200 years back in time: the Battle of Hastings hasn’t yet been fought. Old English is
spoken across the length and breadth of England. Because of the efforts of King Alfred the Great,
many literary and religious texts have been translated into English, and it has become a language
capable of expressing sophisticated thought. Trade and cultural links across the North Sea, and the
settlement of Vikings in the east and north is playing a part in simplifying Old English. This book is
set in this period, in the late 900s.
800
As we go ever further back in time, it starts to grow difficult to find surviving documents in Old
English. There are several different English-speaking kingdoms across the land, often at war with
each other.
600
The English at this time are still fighting with the people who were here before they arrived — the
Britons. They’ve been coming from across the North Sea for a hundred and fifty years or so: in
particular from the areas known today as Angeln, Saxony, Jutland and Frisia. These times have
8

since become known as the “Migration Period’. The native Britons speak a Celtic tongue similar to
Welsh, but their language and culture is being steadily overwhelmed by the Germanic newcomers.
The English rarely use writing, except in runes.
400
English speakers are here as settlers, many are ‘foederati’ invited over by the Romans to help
defend the shores of Britannia against pirate raids, in return for land. Britannia is still a Roman
province, its people are Britons, and the Roman ruling class speaks Latin. The English (Angles) are
one of many Germanic tribes living in mainland Europe — although there’s an intriguing possibility
that some Germanic tribes settled in Britain even before the arrival of the Romans
100
Tacitus, a Roman historian, is the first to mention the ‘Anglii’ (Angles), in a long list of Barbarian
tribes he describes in a book about Germany.
How do we know what OE sounded like?
Old English writers borrowed the Latin alphabet ‘ready-made’ after the arrival of Christianity, so
the values of the letters corresponded closely to what we know of later Latin pronunciation.
Comparison with modern languages like Dutch, Danish and German also helps. Medieval written
English gives further clues about how pronunciation changed over the centuries, and modern
English can sometimes be a good guide — but only sometimes! In the end we don’t know for sure —
and there’s still plenty of disagreement among scholars!
Regional Variation
There were several different dialects of Old English, just as there are today:
Northumbrian
All northern variations, north of the Humber. Viking influences here filtered southwards
from the 10” century.
Mercian
Now called the Midlands. West-Mercian later fell under the influence of the Wessex dialect,
while East-Mercian changed through Viking influence after becoming part of the Danelaw in
the 9 century.
West Saxon
Came to dominate South-Western and South-Central dialects of English. This is the favourite
dialect for most modern books dealing with the subject of old English — including this one!
Kentish
The basis of the South-Eastern dialect.

A Note on Old English Writing and Pronunciation
People were speaking Old English long before it was ever written down. Symbols called runes were used
from the 2nd century onwards, but usually only for short messages or inscriptions, for example on
possessions, monuments etc. Christian missionaries brought with them the Latin alphabet, and eventually
began to use its letters for the sounds of English. Where they couldn’t match English sounds to Latin letters,
they added new ones.
AF hancheNeem remeeleelat wile. kOup Wyuna eiattarty
i 0URLORIG PASE El WYMSV bia gd akOy akWeal onl oS Gong
Most letters are fairly easily recognizable — note the ‘i’ didn’t have a dot, whereas ‘y’ did. ‘g’, ‘s’ and ‘r’
need a little getting used to.
Letters in OE no longer used in NE
z ‘ash’ the ‘a’ sound as in ‘black’ (see long and short vowels, below).
6 ‘eth’ and b ‘thorn’ both make the ‘th’ sound. There’s a temptation to think that one is for the ‘voiced’
sound, (eg this) and the other for the ‘unvoiced ’sound, eg (think), but this isn’t the case. In fact, they’re
interchangeable.
Other letters
g can be pronounced as in NE, but also ‘ch’ as in ‘loch’, but lighter.
Annoyingly, it can often make the sound ‘y’, as in ‘yes’.
sc when used together, nearly always make the sound ‘sh’ as in NE ‘ship’.
j, V notusedinOE. q, kandz rarely used in OE.
w wasn’t used in OE: they used another letter instead called ‘wynn’ w, which looks like
a slightly squashed ‘p’. Modern text-books (including this one!) just use a w.
c often has the sound ‘ch’ as in NE ‘church’, but sometimes as in NE ‘cat’.
SHORT AND LONG VOWELS — approximate sounds
A little bar called a ‘macron’ over the letter is often used in
modern text-books to indicate long vowels
as in NE ‘cat’
as in NE ‘bun’, but tending towards ‘o’.
as in NE bed*
asinNE sit
as in NE ‘not’
as in NE ‘look’
as in French ‘tu’
between NE ‘there’ and NE ‘day’
as in NE ‘barn’
as in NE ‘bade’
as in NE ‘seat’
as in NE ‘note’
as in NE ‘luke’
as in French ‘tu’ but longer
SHORT AND LONG DIPHTHONGS (two-vowels together’)
ea asin NE ‘cat’ + neutral vowel*
éa &+a
eo two short vowels together
ie asin NE ‘sit’ + neutral vowel*
Kc
om
OpwFi
*At the end of a word, probably a ‘neutral vowel’, like the ‘er’ in ‘leader’.
10

How to use this book
The abbreviations OE for ‘Old English’, and NE for
“New English’, (Modern English) are used
throughout the book.
Listening tasks are shown like this
Go to www.asbooks.co.uk to listen
to or download spoken answers
Writing tasks are shown like this
e Work for short periods — about half an hour at a time.
e Test yourself often on vocabulary. Find a friend who’s also learning OE.
e Check the internet for audio and video clips. Speak OE out loud as often
as possible.
e Transcripts of the audio tracks and answers to all the exercises are
. written in full at the back of the book.
| There’s also a grammar reference guide, and a bi-lingual vocabulary section. ¢
11

Meet Leofwin!
Hello! My name is Leofwin and I live in the village of Prittewella, in the
south-east corner of the shire of Eastseaxe. We’ve lived here for many
generations, but not always. There are legends which tell how our folk
came from across the Great North Sea and fought against the Britons, who
occupied this land before. Some of their descendents are still here, but
they speak our language now, and do things our way.
Once there were people here called Romans, who built great cities and roads in stone: but now many of the
building are in ruins because our way of life is different from that of the Romans. They built the road from
Lundenwic to Colneceastre. To the east of Prittewella is the Sea, and to the south is the Temes, the greatest
river I’ve ever seen. Beyond that is Outland, but I’ve never been there. Ships sail up the Temes, sometimes
with goods from Outland to trade with us.
There are eight or nine families like mine living in Prittewella, each one with a wooden house and a few
outbuildings. There’s also the Thane, Godweard, who lives in the Hall, but more about him later. The village
used to be a little further down the hill in the olden days, but as the houses grew old and rotten, we just built
new ones further up.
My wife is called Golde, and we have two children, Clufweart (which means buttercup) and Foxtail. My
mother Elfgifu lives with us, but father died some time ago. Golde’s brother often comes to visit with news
of her family. We have a slave we call Spreculmuth, which means chatterbox, but he doesn’t say much at
all. He used to be a freeman like me but was caught stealing silver from the church. He was sentenced at
Lord Godweard’s court to be reduced to slavery, and Godweard gave him to me. I didn’t really want a slave
and his family, and he’s more trouble than he’s worth — but I couldn’t refuse my lord’s generosity. Our dog
is called Haleth, which means hero. He follows Foxtail and me everywhere.
I’m a ceorl, which means I’m a free man and the head of my family. We live by farming, like everyone in
Prittewella, and it can be hard work. I farm about forty acres of land (about 16 hectares) which in this part of
England is called a hide and is considered enough to support a large family.
We grow wheat, barley, rye and oats, and each family has its share of the big communal fields. In this way
everyone has a fair share of the best and the worst land. I share the meadow-land with the other families as
well: I keep a few sheep and goats there. The Thane owns the two village ploughs, and we all take turns to
borrow them.
In summer my pigs and cows stay in the nearby woodland which is common land; in the winter the pigs feed
on acorns and anything else they can find to eat. The woodland is an important source of fuel for all the
villagers. We collect fallen branches for fuel but trees on common land can only be cut down with the
approval of the other villagers.
We keep chickens next to the house, and Golde grows peas, beans, herbs and all sorts of other plants in the
garden for cooking, medicine, dying clothes and making ale. I rent some of my land to two poor men,
Shortban and Blerig and their families. They are able to grow enough food to live on but in return they work
for me two days every week, and supply me with part of what they grow. I let them build a cottage out in the
fields to live in, but it counts as my property, not theirs. They’re always trying to get out of things if I don’t
keep an eye on them.
We eat mainly bread, cheese, eggs, and vegetables. To this we add animals that I catch in traps, and birds we
shoot with a sling. The children gather fruit, nuts and berries from the woods when they’re in season. We call
that ‘the wild harvest’. When a family slaughters a pig or cow, they preserve the meat by smoking or salting
it: not even Fat Freda can eat a whole pig in a few days! We trade fish with the folks who live by the sea, and
honey with the bee-man who lives near the bridge. We drink mainly ale, which Golde makes, but there are
12

two wells which we can use for water, as well as the stream. Clufweart and Foxtail fetch water up to the
house in buckets every morning.
Godweard Thane owns the biggest farm in Prittewella. He is the only man rich enough to own horses. When
the eorl in Roccesforda needs fighting men, Godweard answers the call: he’s a warrior. He owns two mail
coats, a fine sword and a war-helmet. He helps protect us all in time of war and has the right to call me out to
help him, too, but luckily that hasn’t happened for a while. Nevertheless, I have to have a spear and a shield
just in case, as well as the knife (seax) I always carry. Lower-class people like Scortban and slaves aren’t
allowed to carry weapons.
There’s an Alderman called Byrhtnoth, who looks after all of Essex on behalf of Ethelred the King, but I’ve
never seen either of them.
Godweard helps sort out disputes in the village, and tries to make things run smoothly. He takes charge at the
monthly moot (gathering of freemen) which I have the right to attend. My land is Godweard’s gift to me,
which he renews every year, as long as I pay him rent and ensure that his horses are looked after and I work
on his field one day a week. The rent consists of regular deliveries of milk, cheese, ale, eggs, and many other
things, according to the season. He keeps some of this for himself, but passes some on to his lord the eorl in
Roccesforda. Sometimes I am paid with silver pennies when I sell things at the market in Roccesforda. If
Godweard agrees, I can pay him some or all of my rent with coins instead of produce.
North of the village, down the hill, there’s the stream we call the Pritta. There’s a wooden bridge across it,
and all the villagers help keep it in good order, though some need reminding of this obligation. The children
love to play down there. The lane south leads all the way to the mouth of the Temes where there’s another
settlement called Middeltuna. The people there live mainly by fishing and boat-building. Sometimes traders
beach there and we see things from far-off places. There are always fish hanging from racks, smelly nets and
piles of cockle-shells. As well as the two villages, there are some farmsteads dotted around the countryside.
We believe in Christ the Saviour, the Son of God who died to take away our sins. We worship in a wooden church
where Ealhstan the priest preaches on Sundays. Some bigger settlements have stone churches.
Many of the old customs and beliefs are still with us. We don’t forget the magical beings all around us who
live in our houses, in the woods, marshes and fields, underground and in the sea. Some wander among us at
times in the form of men or animals. Certain stones and trees are special to us, and although they may be
invisible, we feel the presence of elves, good and bad. The sun and the moon, and the wandering stars: to
some people these too are magical beings. Ghosts haunt the land, especially at night, and at certain times of
the year. There’s a woman in the village, Freda, a healer, who understands plant-lore and knows strong
magic: we sometimes go to her for help.
We bury our dead near the church, but close to the woods north of the stream, there’s a haunted place which
our ancestors used. Long ago, a king of Eastseaxe was buried here in a mound, and some say his ghost still
walks in time of danger. Those kings are long gone, and we are ruled now by our Alderman and by Ethelred,
king of all England.
In this book, you’ll find out all about these things: you’ll get to meet my family, find out how we live, and
share in some of the ups and downs of life in Prittewella. But mainly, you’ll learn my language: the language
that yours is descended from. I hope you enjoy it!
Wes 67 hal! Leofwin
13

leornungdeel 1: min cynn unit 1: my family
Ois is min
wif, golde
éala! ic hate
leofwin
éala!
leofwin is
min ceorl
and Ois is
foxtegele...
ic hate
clifweart,
and Gis is
min
brddor,
foxteegele
wesad gé
hale,
gehwa!
leofwin is tire feeder,
and golde is tire mddor
15

Leornungdel 1
“
2. Answer the questions - check on the next page for vocabulary if necessary:
3. Listen to the members of the family, and repeat what they say:
éala!! ic eom leofwin! ic eom 6ritig géar eald. golde is min wif. héo is nigon
and twentig géar eald. ic heebbe tii bearn, foxteegele and clifweart. foxtegele
is cnapa, and clifweart is meg6.
ala! ic eom golde! ic eom nigon and twentig géar eald. leofwin is min ceorl.
hé is Gritig géar eald. foxtegele and clifweart sind tire bearn.
ala! ic eom clifweart! ic eom tyn géar eald. ic habbe an brddor, foxtegele.
leofwin and golde sind mine ealdor. leofwin is wer, and golde is cwén.
éala! ic eom foxtegele! ic eom eahta géar eald. ic habbe sweostor, cliifweart.
leofwin is min feeder, and golde is min mGdor. wé habbaé éac hund. hé hated
heeled. saga ‘éala’, heeled!
WUF!
nb You may have noticed that when Clufweart speaks about her parents, she says
‘mine’, not ‘min’. The extra ‘e’ is an example of an ending, and OE is full of them!
They show what job a word is doing in a sentence. More of them later on.
16

min cynn my family
Vocabulary
wer
man
cwén
woman
cnapa
boy
mego |
girl
bam...
I’m called...
who?
this is...
husband
wife
mother
father
hello!
sunu
son
dohtor | daughter
sweostor | sister
brddor
brother
_wesao gé hale | be well
|| gehwa —s|._ everybody
ac.
also
Saga
say
bearn
children
~ealdor — parent(s)
|p Geis. | whois...
‘min, mine] my
our
éala! ic eom
tréow!*
4. Study the questions below, then listen to another family being interviewed. Give as
much information as you can, then check the answers at the back of the book.
==
«
ee
-
~
rm ="
Re ts
e-
Ne
“
-
hu hatest 6u?
What’s your name
hi eald eart 60?
How old are you?
eart 60 gehiwed?
Are you married?
hi hated din ceorl/wif?
What’s your husband/wife called?
hii eald is hé/héo?
How old is he/she?
heefst 60 bearn
Do you have children?
heefst 60 brddor/sweostor?
Do you have brothers/sisters?
géa, giese / na, nese
yes /no
and, ond / ac
and / but
o0dde
or
KS.
ee,
SENS
ae
SA
NS
eS
*yes, I’m a tree!
Wg

Leornungdel 1
5.You must know how to say ‘I am, you are, he/she is’ etc.
(*These are alternatives)
There are two words in OE for ‘you’.
The first (60) is singular — when you’re talking to one person.
The second (gé) is plural -when you’re talking to more than one person.
6. Here’s another set of words you met earlier.
Words that describe things you do are called verbs.
ic hate heled! WUF!
We’ve also seen a few examples of the verb ‘to have’:
but we’ll look at that one more closely in the next unit.
By the way, what did Foxtail just ask you? And how would you answer?
18

min cynn my family
7. Here’s a selection of ‘family’ phrases, with some you’ve met already but some
new ones as well: compare the blue and pink sets of tables (next page) to check
meanings. Practise the phrases aloud, and write a description of your own family.
ic heebbe feeder. | hé hated...
ic heebbe Anne brddor. | his nama is...
ic heebbe ceorl.
ic haebbe ealdfeeder —
ic heebbe modor.
héo hated...
ic heebbe ane sweostor. | hire nama is...
ic heebbe wif.
ic haebbe ealdmodor
hie hatad...
hiera naman sind...
ic heebbe twégen/drie
brodor.
oe
ic heebbe twa/dréo
ssweostor,
ic heebbe hund, pe ...
min betsta fréond hated ...
Practise these sentences lots of times, and don’t forget
to write that description of your own family.
19

Leornungdel 1
My name is... I’m twelve years old. There are five/six people in my family.
Ihave a father —
He’s called
He is ... years old.
I have a brother.
his name is...
I have a husband.
I have a grand-father
Ihaveamother. — She’s called... She is ... years old
I have a sister.
her name is...
I have a wife.
I have a grand-mother
I have two/three
They’re called... They are... years old
brothers.
Their names are...
I have two/three sisters.
I have a dog who’s called...
Notice you don’t
normally need a
word in OE for ‘a’
(a dog, a mother etc)
My best friend is called...
8. Yes or no? Read the
following questions and
answer out loud with either a
‘oGa!
oa “na!”
*foxteegele is eald
*golde is wer
*Orie and eahta bé06 endlufon
*iire hund hated hzled
*leofwin and his cynn sind englisc
20

min cynn my family
9. Likes and dislikes. Who does Foxtail like and dislike?
Compare the two tables (blue, below, and pink, next page) as in Activity 7 above.
And you should be able to give your opinions about lots of people!
Elfgifu is Foxtail’s Grandmother, who’s a bit grumpy.
Spreculmuth is a slave who belongs to Leofwin.
ic lufie
ms Se
ne licad
ic hatie
minne hund
mé licad min mddor
mé élfgifu spreculmuo
minne feeder
mine mddor
|
ic lufie
minne brodor
ce
| god
ic hatie
mine sweostor
yfel
minne ceorl
snotor
mine wif
hé is
dysig
hé nis
leohtm6d
fordzm pe | héo is
mynewyroe
h&o nis
zoryht
min feeder
a.
mildelic
min modor
|
unmildelic
mé licad min brddor
oo
gedyldig
ne licad mé | min sweostor
ungedyldig
min ceorl
:
min wif
21

I love
I hate
I like
I don’t like
my father
my mother
my brother
my sister
my
husband
my wife
my father
my mother
my brother
my sister
my
husband
my wife
Now put the following into OE:
a) I like my brother because he’s good.
b) I hate my sister because she’s bad
c) Ilove my mother because she’s kind.
d) I don’t like my husband because he’s quite boring
e) I don’t like my father because he’s very stupid.
ic heebbe sunu. hé hated leofwin. ic lufie leofwin,
fordzm 6é hé is min sunu. ic hate heled, ford#m dé hé
is yfel and dysig.
Leornungdel 1
he is
he isn’t
she is
she isn’t
because
good
bad
clever
stupid
funny
interesting
boring
kind
unkind
patient
impatient
very
very
very
quite
ic lufie minne brddor ford#m pe hé is leohtmod
and géd, ac hé is éac dysig and hé stincd!
ic hebbe wif. héo hated nigonfingras. mé licad
nigonfingras fordzém 6é héo is snotor and mildelic.
Le
Did you notice
the neat way of
saying ‘isn’t’?
Can you add some opinions like these to your description from activity 7?
Here are two examples:

min cynn my family
10. Numbers 1-30!
Listen and repeat. Two things to notice — firstly, ‘two’ and ‘three’ change
depending on whether you’re referring to a ‘he’, a ‘she’ or an ‘it’!
Secondly, the tens and digits are the other way round in 21-29. That explains
the blackbird! Counting out loud is a really good way to practise pronunciation,
as well as learning the numbers. There’!I be more numbers later on.
an
endleofon, endlufon
twégen (fem: twa, neuter: ti)
twelf
Ory, Orie (fem + neuter: dreo)
dréotiene
f€ower
feowertiene
fif
fiftiene
Siex, SYX
siextiene
seofon
seofontiene
eahta
eahtatiene
nigon
nigontiene
tyn, tien
twentig
an and twentig
-
siex and twentig
twégen andtwentig (>
seofon and twentig
thrie and twentig
FS.
eahta and twentig
féower andtwentig
42 -15m
nigon and twentig
fif and twentig
oritig
Can you do the following sums?
(nb ‘bé00’ is another way of saying ‘are’)
* An and an béo0...
* siextiene and eahta béod...
* Orie and seofon béo6...
* fif and endleofon bé06...
* nigon and féower bé00...
* fif and twentig and twégen béo0...
ps)

Leornungdel 1
9% 11. Here’s a fuller list of family vocabulary. Notice that each word has a letter in
x y brackets next to it. (m) shows that the word is masculine. (f) shows it’s feminine. (n)
“@egs” shows it’s neuter—neither masculine nor feminine, but just an ‘it’.
This idea is called gender. It may seem obvious, but if you check below carefully, there are a
few surprises! Can you find which ones?
In unit 2, you’ll find a lot more surprises about masculine, feminine and neuter. Can you also
find where we get the NE words woman, queen, knight, knave, wench...
cynn (n) —
feeder (m)
mOdor (f)
brddor (m)
sweostor (f)
sunu (m), eafora (m), magu (m)
dohtor (f)
wif (n), cwén (f), om (m)
ceorl (m), wer (m)
ealdfeeder (m)
ealdmddor (f)
nefa (m)
nefene (f), nift (f)
éam (m)
feedera (m)
mddrige (f)
fade (f)
swustersunu (m), brodorsunu (m)
swusterdohtor (f), brodordohtor (f)
cradolcild (n) bearn (n)
cnapa (m)
cwén (f), maegd (f) m&den (n) wencel (n)
bearn (n), cild (n), lytling (m)
cniht (m)
mon(m), guma(m), wer (m), secg (m)
wif (n) cwén (f)
hlaford (m), dryhten (m)
hléfdige (f), ides (f)
fréond (m), wine (m)
family
father
mother
brother
sister
son
daughter
wife
husband
grand-father
grand-mother
grand-son
grand-daughter
(maternal) uncle
(paternal) uncle
(maternal) aunt
(paternal) aunt
nephew
niece
and werewolf?!

min cynn my family
12. Read Foxtail’s account of his family and translate it into NE:
éala! ic hate foxteegel. ic eom eahta géar eald. ic eom wel snotor!
ic heebbe ane sweostor, be clifweart hated. me licad cliifweart
ford&m de héo is leohtméd and mildelic.
mé licad €ac mine ealdor. hie hatad leofwin and golde. ic lufie
minne feeder fordéém pe hé is leohtmid, and mine modor
forédém pe héo is gedyldig.
ic heebbe €ac hund. hé hated haled, and hé is d¥sig, ac hé
is min betsta fréond.
min ealdmGdor is féower and siextig gear eald. hire
nama is &lfgifu. ne licad mé min ealdmodor forb#m
be héo is unmildelic and yfel.
13. Anglo-Saxon Families
The father was the head of the family in Anglo-Saxon England, and the spear propped up by the
door symbolised his role as protector. In fact, the father’s side of the family was called the
‘sperehealf’, while the mother’s side was called the ‘spinelhealf’. The spindle symbolised her
social role in the family — the spinner and weaver of caring relationships. The latch keys she wore
hanging from her waist band showed she was in charge of house and home. The possessions found
in men’s and women’s graves confirm the link with spears, spindles and keys.
The father would likely have had more to do with teaching his children outdoor skills while the
mother taught indoor skills. The mother’s brother (‘eam’) traditionally had a special caring
relationship with his nephews — this probably included teaching and spoiling them.
OE has many more words for different family relatives than NE, which shows how important the
idea of ‘family’ was for them. If you weren’t very good at remembering all the complexities,
though, you could call any relative ‘brédor’ or “sweostor’.
You might have ‘stéop-’ relatives, if your own parents were dead, or ‘foster-’ parents, if your real
parents had given you away for some reason.
There were almost certainly four or five people in the average family — records from the year 1200
suggest 4.68*. Other relatives, then as now, of course, may have ‘lived in’, as Leofwin’s mother
does. It seems likely that there was an equivalent in Old English to ‘Mum/Dad, Mummy/Daddy,
but nothing is recorded. It’s tempting to suggest something like ‘muma’ and ‘dada’, but it’s a
temptation that has to be resisted!
Cynn were family members. People outside the family, but whose name, family and origin were
known would count as ‘ey66’. Nearly verybody in the village and the surrounding area would
count in this group. Together, your family and friends were “cy60’and cynn’, or “kith and kin’.
People you didn’t know could become ‘cy60’ or a “fréond’ or guest after they’d explained exactly
who they were. Otherwise, strangers were seen as little different from enemies or slaves — “Oéow’.
*quoted in ‘Domesday Quest’, Michael Wood, BBC books, 1986
Thanks also to AC Haymes, ‘Anglo-Saxon Kinship’, in ‘Widowinde’, Winter 1998
25

leornungdeel 2: min hts
unit 2: my house
éala! ic eom leofwin.
ic onerdie tin be
hated prittewella
sind siex
006e seofon hiis
bid duru,
f€ower weallas
and hrof
golde hef6 webbéam,
ac hé nis hér
Ois is se heor6 and Ozt
alfeet. her golde bzecd
golde and ic slépa6 hér.
Ois is Ure bedd
we wascao tis widitan.
spreculmi6 and his
cynn oneardiad det
lytele his. hie sind
péowas
...and mddor (élfgifu)
slép6 hér. mddor is eald
6a bearn
slépad hér...
2

Our family lives in a house with
no separate rooms, just some
curtain dividers. If you’re lucky
enough to live in a house with
more than one room, here are the
words to describe them:
The hall
séo héall
The living-room
sto héall
The kitchen
séo cycene
The dining-room dzt beodern
The bathroom
Ozet beedern
Oat wescern
the bedroom
det slépern
the study
det leornungzern
Gis is se
wyrtgeard
Leornungdeel 2
hit stincd!
Fr WN
Wn et
BED |)
|4
fia.ramcomrene
Gis is Ozet bachts, and
Ois is se Ofen
Ozet hiis
séo duru
se ingang
det Eagdyrel
se weall
se / séo flor
Ozet flet
Ozt bed
se hrof
se daca
Ozet inn
séo steeger
se wyrtgeard
ic oneardie
se tin
se heord
golde beecd
wé slépad
mddor slépd
wé wascao widitan
lytel
se bow
se webbéam
hér
28
Gis is det gangern —
the house
the door
the entrance
the window
the wall
the floor
the floor
the bath
the roof
the thatched roof
the room
the staircase
the garden
I inhabit
the village
the hearth
Golde cooks
we sleep
mother sleeps
we wash outside
little
the slave
the loom
here

min his my house
Sw
giv)
\‘
Ozt spere

Leornungdel 2
3, Gender
We first looked at this in unit 1. Did you notice in the lists above that there seem to be
THREE words for ‘the’? This is because each gender has its own word for ‘the’.
Masculine - se
These are boys, men, and many things we think of as ‘it’ (neuter) in NE.
Feminine - séo
These are girls, women, and many things we think of as ‘it’ (neuter) in NE.
We still have this idea in NE, with words like ‘he’, ‘she’, and ‘it’, but OE can use
gender in a rather surprising way. Many ‘things’ we think of as neuter, like the door,
or the garden, can be feminine or masculine. There are some surprises with people, too
- children are neuter in OE! You just have to get used to this idea. With every new
word you learn, you must remember if it’s masculine (m), feminine (f) or neuter (n).
Make a start by learning all the household things from the previous page.
Make three columns, and label them masculine,
feminine and neuter. Put all the masculine ones in the
left-hand column, the feminine ones in the middle
column, and the neuter ones in the right-hand column.
There’s a fourth word, 64, for ‘the’, when you’re talking about more than one of something -
‘plural’. Fortunately, 64 works for masculine, feminine and neuter words. Unfortunately, OE
doesn’t just put an ‘s’ on the end of a word to show when we mean more than one — but that’s a
problem for another unit.
Oh, what did all those words mean? Here are the same words in New
English — but mixed up! Up to you to work them out: bed, child,
woman, garden, bench, father, wool-basket, loaf, table, sister, cup, jug,
fire, door, cooking-pot, village.
30

ic hebbe
ic hebbe
ic eom
min his my house
lang / scort
I'm
fett / dynne
eald / geong
blachléor, cymlic / unfeeger
stib / unmihtig
englisc / denise / bryttisc
briin hér (n)
feeger h&r / swéart hér
blac hér / hwit hér
greg her
scort hér / lang h#r
beard (m) / cenep (m)
I have
héwen / briin /
Ihave
grég / gréne éagan (n pl)
snotor / dysig
I’m
mildelic / unmildelic
smeorcsum / hefigm6d
gemad / wod
idelgeorn
scéoh / beald
frec / gredig
giernendlic / wilsumlic
4. Listen to the phrases below describing people’s looks and
characters. Practise repeating them.
tall / short
fat / thin
old / young
pretty / ugly
strong / weak
English / Danish / British
brown hair
fair or blond hair / dark hair
black hair / white hair
grey hair
short hair / long hair
beard / moustache
blue / brown /
grey / green eyes
clever / stupid
kind / unkind
funny/ serious
mad
lazy
shy / outgoing
greedy
sexy
5. Now listen to Golde describing herself and her family, then answer the
questions:
1. Is Golde good-looking?
2. Describe her hair.
3. Who has fair hair and blue eyes?
4. Who is greedy and unkind?
5. Who is strong and clever?
6. Describe Foxtail’s character.
6. You should now be able to use the grid to describe yourself. If possible,
describe one or two other members of your family as well!
Remember that you can improve
your description if you use some
of these words from unit 1:
Sa

Leornungdeel 2
7. Read Leofwin’s description of the slave Spreculmuth
and his family, then answer the questions:
spreculmi6 is min déow. hé is scort and dynne,
and hé is eald. hé hef6 lang, grég hér, and
gréne Eagan. hé is swibe dysig and idelgeorn.
his wif is Eac scort and 6ynne, ac héo is sumes
snotor. hire nama is nigonfingras, fordzm de
héo hef6 ane* nigon fingras.
spreculmip and nigonfingras habbad feower
bearn: 6réo mzegé and anne cnapa. ba mzegd habbad sweart hér, and se
cnapa heef6 briin hér. pa bearn sind unmihtig, scéoh and dynne.
*°ane’ here means ‘only’.
1. What is the OE word for ‘slave’? — 4. Who has black hair?
2. Describe Spreculmuth’s character. 5. How are the children’s characters described?
3. What’s his wife’s disability?
6. Who’s described as quite clever?
godweard
1. ic heebbe
2. ic eom swide
3. ic eom geong,
4. ic eom pynne
greg hér, and ic
feett, and ic heebbe
and ic hebbe lang,
and ic heebbe
eom sumes feett
feeger hér
feeger hér
beard and cenep
eye

min his my house
9. Listen, then answer the questions:
hér cym6 mddor!
ic doncie 6é, hit
gx0 wel, ac ic
eom hungrig!
hwér is
claifweart?
mddor! gddne
mergen! hu g&®6
hit todeg?
giese,
ealdmdodor.
hér is hlaf
ic doncie bé
éala, clifweart.
gif mé hlaf,
ic bidde pé
ic sarie, mOdor, wé nabbad ciese
godne mergen, ealdmddor! hér is se ciese!
33

vocabulary
hi go hit?
how are you?
hit go wel
I’m well
ic bidde dé
please
ic doncie dé
thank you
ic sarie
sorry
géa, giese
yes
na, nese
no
hér
here
héo onearded
she lives
gif mé
give me
se hlaf
bread
se clese
cheese
hé hilpd
he’s helping
godne mergen! good morning!
we nabbad
we don’t have
hungrig
hungry
Note - ‘giése’ and ‘nese’ are just stronger ways of saying ‘yes’ and ‘no’
Leornungdel 2
Questions:
1. How’s Leofwin’s mother today?
2. What does she ask Clufweart?
3. Who does she say is lazy? <a>
4. How do we know this is untrue?
5. What does she ask for next?
There were some very important basic
words and phrases on the previous
page: they were printed in bold type,
and underlined. Firstly, did you
remember the words for ‘yes’ and ‘no’?
‘The others were ‘please’, ‘thank you’ and ‘sorry’. Word for word, they’re saying ‘I
beg you’, ‘I thank you’ and ‘I sorrow’. You also met another way of saying hello, and
at the end of this chapter, Leofwin says good-bye. Learn them all off by heart!
|icbidde 0é | icdoncie 6é
ic sarie
godne mergen!
34

béon
TO BE
ic béo
Iam
6i bist
you are
hé, héo, hit bid
he, she, it is
we bé06
we are
gé béod
you are
hie béod
they are
habban
TO HAVE
ic heebbe
I have
60 hefst
you have
hé, héo, hit hefd he,she,it has
we habbad
we have
gé habbad
you have
hie habbad
they have
min his my house
10. BEON
This is very much like ‘wesan’, but it suggests ‘being’
in a more permanent way than ‘wesan’ does. Use it
for sentences like ‘ the sun is yellow’, or ‘Clufweart is
a girl’. Use ‘wesan’ for sentences like ‘Golde is happy
today’, or ‘Foxtail is hungry’. As you probably
realised, NE has mixed these two verbs up together.
spere bid scearp!
11. HABBAN
This is the verb ‘to have’, and the family used it in unit
one. Like all three verbs we’ve seen so far, you’ll need
to use it constantly, so learn it off by heart!
ic hebbe wif, modor
and ti bearn
You need to know how verbs work, because without them you just can’t make a sentence, and
the language falls apart. The ‘title’ at the top of each ‘verb-box’ is called the infinitive — a
technical term that will be useful as you go through the book. There are more verbs to learn in
Chapter three, and a detailed study in Chapter four.
33

Leornungdeel 2
listen and repeat
12. HWILC HIW? (what colour?)
blac, sweart
hwit
read
h&wen*
séo niht bid sweart
snaw bid hwit
bléd bi6d réad
heofon bid h&wenu
fealu, geolu
gréne
greg
briin / dunn
séo sunne bid geolu
rdsen
eppelfealu / geoluréad
basuréadan
blac (=pale)
sméras béo6 rdsene setlgang bid geoluréada
winbergan béod
gast bid blac
basuréadana
vocabulary
Now answer the questions:
wonn, dimm dark
deorc, mirce dark
léaf bid...
asce bid...
feeger
fair or blond |
swin bid...
com bid
déag(f)
colour
fyr bid...
wudu bid._
bl&o (n)
colour
eorpbergan béo00... mist bid...
gylden
golden
molde bid...
plyme bi...
fealu
also yellow-brown
wull bid...
brim in sumor bi6...
or even dark!
don’t worry about the endings
etl
ue.
setlgang (m) ee
on some of the adjectives — yet!
**héwen’ can also be any combination of grey-green-blue
36

min his my house
vocabulary
more vocabulary
niht (f)
night
swin (n)
pig
snaw (m)
snow
fyr (n)
fire
blod (n)
blood
eordberge (f)
strawberry
heofon (m,f)
sky
molde (f)
the earth
sunne (f)
sun
wull (f)
wool
wolcen (n plural)
clouds
asce (f)
ash
gers (n)
grass
corn (n)
com
winbergan (fplural)
grapes
wudu (m)
wood
hara (m)
hare
mist (m)
mist
sméras (m plural)
lips
plyme (f)
plum
gast (m)
ghost
brim (n)
sea
léaf (n)
leaf
sumor (m)
summer
I live in Prittewella
This is the kitchen.
Foxtail has short, fair hair and brown eyes.
The sea in winter* is grey.
Clufweart is very hungry.
Where is the broom?
The bench is here!
Spreculmuth has four children.
The sky is pale today.
. Thank you — the cheese is good!
=eeSe2eeeee
*same word in OE!
14.
Have you noticed in this unit that the ‘thorn’ letter (p)
has been used as well as the ‘eth’ letter (6): they both
make the sound we represent in NE by ‘th’
fér 60 wel! (good-bye!)
x

Leornungdeel 2
15. Farmsteads, villages and towns
Leofwin’s house
No Anglo-Saxon houses survive! But traces like postholes in the ground show their size and shape.
They were squared off, and typically about 30ft x 15ft (10m x 5m). There’s evidence for wooden
floors, with a cavity underneath, possibly for storage.
Walls were built either with upright planks slotted together, or by ‘wattle and daub’. Most houses
probably had windows and wooden shutters. Glass was used in buildings belonging to the Church
but only the very well-off could afford it. There was a central hearth for warmth and cooking, but
chimneys did not appear until a long time after Leofwin’s time: the smoke simply seeped out
through the thatch.
There may have been an ‘upstairs’ in Leofwin’s house, possibly a floor at each end reached by a
ladder. Some beds were probably much less sophisticated than the drawings in this chapter show:
perhaps a cloth bag stuffed with wool, with blankets or fleeces on top. There was probably very little
furniture: perhaps a trestle-table, a pair of benches, a chest, baskets, and some shelves. The thatched
roof would be smoky and soot-blackened on the inside, ideal for curing meat.
Outside, there might be a number of smaller buildings associated with the houses: a midden or loo,
sheds for tools and storing food, shelter for livestock. Water had to be brought daily in buckets from the
nearest stream or well. After dark, candles or the fire gave the family’s only light.
Leofwin’s village
Archaeology shows houses grouped together into villages, typically of up to ten families — ‘a tithing’.
Most villages had a little wooden church, but Prittewella may have had a church built at least partly
of stone.
Farmsteads
The tradition of free-standing farms dates from from pre-Roman times, through the Roman
occupation, into Saxon and Medieval times, to the present day. There were probably a handful of
scattered farmsteads within a hour’s walk of Prittewella.
Roman towns
Towns depend on trade and money to survive. After the Romans left Britain, it seems that no new
coinage was minted at first, and partly for that reason the great towns and cities fell into decline. With
the arrival of the English, ports and towns in eastern England thrived as North Sea trade grew. The
nearest towns to Leofwin were Caesaromagus, which the English called Celmeresforda, and
Camulodunum, which they re-named Colneceastre. Even Londinium, known to the English as
Lundenwic, went into decline for a while.* In the time of King Alfred, London grew with new
development to the west of the old city.
Early English towns
From the 700’s onwards, English kings began minting coinage. With improved trade, a growing
population and a more sophisticated economy, towns began to grow. In the late 800’s, spurred on
by the need for defence against the Danes, King Alfred ordered the building of defences for
strategic towns. The security this gave attracted traders and boosted economic activity. By
Leofwin’s time English towns where thriving and the country was one of the richest in Europe. By
today’s standards most Anglo-Saxon towns and villages were tiny,** but nearly all of them have
survived, with something like their Anglo-Saxon names, into the 21‘ century.
* Chelmsford, Colchester and London.
** The population of England was about one thirtieth of today’s!
38

leornungdel 3: ite
unit 3: outside
we oneardia6 tin se prittewella hated
is Ga, s€o pritta hated, and brycg
sind lictiin and béorg
.
sind zceras, l&s and h#dé
sind eac néat and déor
is str#t sud to 6&m brime, and strz&ta west, nord and éast
sind cleofu, strand, merscas and holt
brim is néah
Now check the new vocabulary on the next page but one.
39

leornungdel 3
2. The verb ‘to live in’:
Here’s the verb ‘to live in’, or
‘to inhabit’. I used itjust now.
oneardian
TO INHABIT
ic oneardie —
60 oneardast
hé, héo, hit oneardad.
wé oneardiad
I eeeee
Wit ial spat
ge oneardiad
we oneardiad prittewella.
hie _oneardiad
dis wyrm oneardad 64 moldan!*
* 64 moldan = the earth
noro
north
sid
south
west
west
éast
east
3. You can’t get far in a language without having to talk
about more than one of something (‘plurals’). Leofwin
mentioned fields, pastures roads, and a few other things in
section | above.
NE usually adds an ‘s’ to express this idea, but there are
some serious and very peculiar exceptions! (man/men,
child/children, ox/oxen, woman/women, fish/ fish,
tooth/teeth etc.). This is because we still haven’t completely
got rid of the rather complicated rules that English used to
have with plurals.
The vocabulary list below gives words used so far in this
chapter, but adds the plural form as well. Can you work out
any patterns?

ONE / MORE THAN ONE
se tin(m) 64 tiinas
séoea(f) da6€a
sto brycg(f) 6a brycga
se lictin(m) 68 lictiinas
se béorg(m) 6a béorgas
bet brim(n) 64 brimu
se strand(m) 04 strand
-stostret(f) 64 str&ta
pet clif(n) da cleofu
se mersc(m) 6a merscas
se ecer(m) 6a eceras
stolés(f) 6al&s
pet néat(n) 68 néat
petholt(n) 6a holt
sehed(m) 6a h&d6as
se wyrm 068 wyrmas
pet déor 64 déor
ute outside
ONE / MORE THAN ONE
the village the villages
the fiver the rivers
the bridge _ the bridges
the graveyard _ the graveyards
the barrow _ the barrows
the sea _ the seas
the beach the beaches
the road __the roads
the cliff the cliffs
the marsh _ the marshes
the field —_the fields
the pasture —_the pastures
the (farm) animal _the animals
the wood the woods
the heathland _ the heathlands
the worm __ the worms
the (wild) animal _ the animals
*What did Godweard just say
about barrows and graveyards?
eala! ic eom
godweard
degn. dis is
se béorg,
and Gis is se
lictiin.
ne licad mé
béorgas and
lictiinas —
dzr sind
gastas!
Here’s some of the vocabulary we’ve already learned in chapters one and two, but this time
with their plurals. Study them very carefully one by one: are any patterns emerging yet?
ONE / MORE THAN ONE
se broéor 6a brddor
séo sweostor 64 sweostor
séocweén 6a cwéne
se wer 06a weras
secnapa 0a cnapa
stomegd 6a megda
pet bearn 06a bearn
Set wif da wif
dethis 64 his
séo duru. 06a dura
det Gagdyrel 64 Eagdz&rel
se weall 6a weallas
det bedd 64 bedd
se webbéam 6a webbéamas
Ozt spere 6a speru
se crocca 06Aacroccan
det leaf 64 léaf
ONE / MORE THAN ONE
the brother the brothers
the sister __ the sisters
the woman the women
the man the men
the boy _ the boys
the girl __the girls
the child — the children
the wife the wives
the house __ the houses
the door _ the doors
the window _ the windows
the wall the walls —
the bed the beds
the loom the looms
the spear __ the spears
the pot __the pots
the leaf the leaves
4]
OE plurals are a bit like
this entangled man — but
the next page should
untangle things for you!

leornungdel 3
4. Nouns and Plurals
A ‘noun’ is the name given to a thing, whether it’s person, like Leofwin or Clufweart, a thing .
like a house or a bed, an animal like a dog or a cat, or even a quality like hunger, happiness or pride.
There are two very common patterns of nouns, called ‘strong’ and ‘weak’. There are several
less common ones, too, but for the moment, they’re all listed together in the ‘others’ box.
Grammar-books call all these patterns ‘declensions’.
STRONG NOUNS
masculine masculine
feminine
feminine
neuter
neuter
singular . plural
singular
plural
singular
plural
se wer
0a wéras
séo stret 0a streta
se tun
6a tiinas
séo duru 6a dura
se lictiin 64 lictiinas
se mersc 6a merscas
se eecer
0a eeceras
se hed
6a h&das
se wyrm 6a wyrmas
se weall 6a weallas
se webbéam 064 webbéamas
Plurals end with -as
Plurals end with -a
WEAK NOUNS
ae9
masculine
masculine
feminine
feminine
neuter
neuter
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
plural
se crocca
0a croccan
séo bune
6a bunan
Most singulars end with -a Most singulars end with —e
Plurals end with -an
Plurals end with -an
42

ute outside
OTHERS
These are a bit unpredictable, so we call them ‘irregular’ for the time being.
masculine
masculine
feminine
feminine
neuter
neuter
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
plural
se €a
0a Ga
séo les
0a l&s
se brycg
6a brycga
séo cwén 0a cwéne
se cnapa
0a cnapa
séo megd 0a megoa
5. Now it’s your turn. Fill in the gaps, looking up any new words in the vocabulary
section at the back.
>: STRONG NOUNS
masculine masculine
feminine
feminine
neuter
neuter
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
plural
se stdl
OB nas:
séo byden 04....
se binn
Oa:
séo hleder
Ode.
se camb
0a...
se béam
Dacia
byden=bucket
Why are they called
strong and weak nouns?
As time went by, some
of the complicated OE
rules about nouns died
away. Words which
adapted the quickest are
weak nouns, while
words which people
WEAK NOUNS
masculine
masculine
feminine
feminine
ied Ge
singular
plural
singular
plural
didn’t like to change
are called ‘strong’.
se besma
Ona.
séo meatte
0a ...
43

leornungdel 3
6. Read and listen to Leofwin’s account of Prittewella below, then find
the exact OE phrases which correspond to the NE ones numbered 1-9:
on prittewella, sind eahta odd6e nigon cynn.
se degn hated godweard. hé hef6 wif and ti bearn. his dohtor hated
agata. hé hefd eac préo odde feower hors, twa sylh, gréat his and micel
land. hé heef scop, se brada hated. brada singed sangas for us.
se préost hated ealhstan. hé gen&osaé tis hwilum. hé hefd diacon and
lytele cirican on prittewella. hé h&l6 folc and bringed spell of ttan.
we growad fodan swa hwéte, bere, atan and béana.
wé healdad néat, swa cy, swin, scéap, get and hennan.
we healdaé séweard wid wicingum.*
*We’ll study this ‘um’ ending in Book 2
He has a deacon
8 He has a wife and two children
He has a story-teller
1 Brada sings songs
2 He visits us
3 He heals people
4 He brings news
5 We grow food
6 We keep animals
7
9
séosulh _—a sylh
OTHER
the plough the ploughs
se scop pa scopas STRONG
the story-teller -tellers
se préost papréostas STRONG
the priest
the priests
sediacon padiaconas STRONG
the deacon the deacons
séo cirice pa cirican WEAK
the church the churches
se hweete
STRONG
the wheat
se bere
STRONG
the barley
pa atan
WEAK
the oats
séo béan _—pa béana STRONG
the bean
the beans
pet néat pa néat
STRONG
the animal the animals
séo cul pa cy
OTHER
the cow
the cows
petswin baswin
STRONG
the pig
the pigs
pet scéap a scéap STRONG
the sheep
the sheep
se gat pa get
OTHER
the goat
the goats
séohenn _—pa hennan WEAK
the hen
the hens
pet hors pa hors
STRONG
the horse
the horses
se wicing pbawicingas STRONG
the Viking the Vikings
pet spell a spell
STRONG
the news
se foda pa fodan WEAK
the food
44

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€ala! ic eom ealhstan préost and
pis is min cirice on prittewella.
In the vocabulary list above, all the nouns are grouped together, and
their plurals given. I’ve also noted whether they’re strong, weak, or
in the ‘others’ group. Some words, like wheat, barley or food, aren’t
usually used in the plural, while others, like oats, don’t work well as
singulars! ‘spell’ as a singular noun, means a piece of news. From
‘godspell’, or good news, comes the NE word ‘gospel’.
singan to sing
hélan
to heal
growan to grow
bringan to bring
healdan to hold / keep
genéosian to visit
hwilum sometimes
swa
such as
wid
against
There’s some more
vocabulary on the left to help
you with Leofwin’s text.
The first Viking raids on English shores took place at
the end of the 790’s. In the late 800’s, Alfred the
Great agreed to give control of half of England to the
Danes — ‘the Danelaw’. After some decades of peace
there have been renewed Viking raids in Leofwin’s
time, and thane Godweard has to organise regular
watches on the estuary for raiders.
Danes and Norwegians came to be known as Vikings
RAARGH! You’ll be hearing more from
us Vikings later in the book!
45

leornungdel 3
7. Here are the new verbs used in Leofwin’s description: can you fill in the gaps in the last
three? (clue: ‘genéosian’ works like ‘oneardian’ in section 2 above)
TO BRING
TO HOLD
TO VISIT
ou bringest
Ou healdest
OU.
wé, gé, hie bringad
we, gé, hie ...
We, ce; hie:.,
Just as hé, héo and hit always work in the same way,
so wé, gé and hie always work the same way too.
In the verb boxes above, therefore, wé, gé and hie are grouped together. From now on, verb
boxes will be presented this way — it’s easier, and gives you all the information you need.
Lots more about how verbs work in unit 4.
46

ee,
(ee,
*
Oe_La7
t
‘
x
wy
‘PY
Ozxt scéap
0a scéap
Oet swin
6a swin
Si.GMs
ae
se wyrm
6a wyrmas
(se snaca/ 64 snacan)
tute outside
8. déor and néat
dzet hors / 64 hors
se Goh /64 Eos
se coce 64 coccas
séo hén 6a hennan
dzet cicen 64 cicenu
se hara
6a haran
se bera
0a beran
47
wild animals and domesticated animals
seo atorcoppe
0a Atorcoppan
séo lobbe / 6a lobban

9. Say what kind of noun these are:
Example — hund = strong masculine
1. hors
2. hen
3. gat
4. hara
5. atorcoppe
leornungdel! 3
You could work out what all the others are, too. Answers at the back! ‘déor’ and néat’ are
both strong neuter nouns, so their plurals don’t change. Here are some more animals (you’ll
find this table useful for doing the task in section 11):
brocc / broccas (strong m)
heort / heortas (strong m)
eofor / eoferas (irregular m)
leax / leaxas (strong m)
hron / hronas (strong m)
fox / foxas (strong m)
frogga / froggan (weak m)
dora / doran (weak m)
draca / dracan (weak m)
acweorna / Acweornas (weak m)
fléoge / fléogan (weak f)
buterfléoge / buterfléogan (weak f)
10. Look at these sentences:
brada singed done song
se préost genéosad done tiin
hé heled 6a cwén
hé bringed det spell
wé growad done fodan
godweard heef6 64 sulh
hé healded dzt land
_ badger
ic eom draca! ic
oneardie done béorg
stag ~
boar
salmon
whale
fox
frog
bee
dragon
squirrel
In the first sentence left, the song is being sung. In the
second, the town is being visited, while in the third,
the woman is being healed. The news is being
brought, and the food is being grown. The land is
being held, and the plough is being had, although it
may sound a little strange.
In grammar, the song is the ‘object’ of the verb ‘sing’.
Brada, who’s doing the singing, is the ‘subject’. In the
second sentence, the priest is the subject, and the town
is the object. What are the subjects and objects in the
other sentences?
48

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Masculine:
_ Feminine:
‘se’ becomes ‘done’
*séo’ becomes ‘6a’
OE marks the objects of verbs by changing some of the words for ‘the’.
- You probably noticed that the new feminine word is the same one we
use for plurals — so be careful!
- You also noticed, I hope, that the neuter word, ‘det’, doesn’t change.
The plural, ‘6a’, stays the same, too.
Can you fill in the correct words for ‘the’?
1. ealhstan préost bringed
diacon to prittewella.
2. se préost heeled
bearn. (two possible answers here!)
3. ic heebbe byden: hwér bid séo hlader?
4. ealhstan préost genéosab _ begn.
5. brada singed
songas.
6. leofwin growed __—__—shweete, ac godweard healded
land.
7. dracas and gastas oneardad
bearg!
Now translate these sentences into NE:
(vocabulary is near the beginning of the chapter).
1. Fish inhabit the river.
2. Ghosts inhabit the marsh
3. Hares inhabit the heath.
4. Birds inhabit the cliff
oF Pigs inhabit the wood
Here’s a rather annoying rule: remember those weak
nouns in section 5? When they are the object of a
verb, they add an —an ending. It’s annoying because
firstly you have to know if a noun is weak, so you can
add the ending, and secondly the ending happens to
be the same one as the plural!
49

leornungdel 3
11a Which of the following nouns are weak, and which are strong? Hint: remember you can
usually tell by the ending.
se foda (the food)
se leax (the salmon)
Ozet scéap (the sheep)
séo fléoge (the fly)
se draca (the dragon)
eom ic strang
0d6d0e wac?
11b_ In the sentences below, the underlined nouns are all weak — but which
ones are singular, which ones are plural, and how can you tell? Let’s work
them out together — and let’s not be fooled by the word-order!
se béorg healdeb bone dracan
The barrow holds the dragon - singular
Only one dragon, because ‘pone’ is the singular object-
word for ‘the’.
If the sentence ran as follows: ‘bone dracan healdep se
béorg’, the order of the words doesn’t change the meaning. The barrow is still holding the
dragon, rather than the dragon holding the barrow, because the words ‘se’ and ‘pone’ make the
meaning clear.
clufweart hefd croccan
Clufweart has a pot / pots - meaning unclear
Because ‘crocca’ is a weak noun, it has an ending ‘-an’ when it’s
the object of the verb.
It has the same ending when there’s than one pot, so the meaning
here is actually unclear — trick question!
64 haran bringab Eostertid
The hares bring Easter-tide - plural
Although ‘6a haran’ could be the subject or the object,
the plural ‘bringab’ comes to the rescue and makes
the meaning clear.
If the sentence ran ‘Eostertid bringap 6a haran’, it would still
be the hares bringing Easter, rather than Easter bringing the
hares, because of the plural form of ‘bring’, which doesn’t fit
with ‘Easter’.
50

ute outside
preost and diacon hef6 séo cirice
The church has a priest and a deacon. — singular
The word ‘séo’ tells you straight away that we’re talking
about just one thing. ‘cirice’ with its ‘e’ ending makes that
even clearer.
The word-order may have thrown you here, but if the
meaning was that the the priest and deacon have the church,
then it would have read ‘préost and diacon habbad 44 cirican’.
Ealhstan genéosa6 64 cirican
Ealhstan visits the church / the churches — meaning unclear
Again, because church is a weak noun in OE, the ending ‘-an’ could be
there because it’s the object, or because it’s plural. ‘6a’ doesn’t help, for
the same reasons.
12. A note about that word-order. In NE, the order of the words is very
important in making the meaning of a sentence clear. ‘man bites dog’ /
‘dog bites man’ is an obvious example. We can change the word-order
around, but it’s unusual, and the effect is often quite dramatic —
-Many times she wrote him a letter, but never a word did she have in return...
-A cold night they had, but came the morning, and the weather improved...
OE can play around with word order much more than NE, because the endings usually make it
clear what job each word is doing the sentence. In fact it’s something of a characteristic of OE,
as we will see later on.
13. Basic survival: revision and survival guide!
Match up the numbers and letters!
1) ic poncie dé
a) yes
2) na
b) no
3) géa
c) please
4) ic sarie
d) thank you
5) éala
e) hello
6) ic bidde dé
f) goodbye
7) fera pi wel
g) sorry
It’s time to gather up the basic phrases you already know, and add
some new ones, so that you could survive the first day if you time-
travelled to visit me and my family in Prittewella. First, match up
the NE and OE words and phrases above. Then listen to and read the
phrases, on the next two pages. Repeating them and copying them
down will help you to remember.
a

leornungdel 3
godne daeg
good day
godne mergen
wes Ou hal / westu hal
:
good morning
wesao gé hale
:
be well
be well (plural)
god 2fen
good evening
ic gréte 0é
ic gréte ow ealle
;
j
god niht
I greet you
py
good night
I greet you all i
f
a
welcumen
welcome
hii g#6 hit?
hit g#0 wel
how goes it?
it goes well
gled 0é t6 métenne
glad to meet you
fer bi wel
ferad gé wel
farewell
(singular and
plural)
God 0é mid sie
God be with you
(goodbye)
géa, giese
yes
.aee
r
Ieee,
ic bidde 6é
ic sarie
please
i,
I’m sorry
forgief mé
ic doncie 6é
:
:
forgive me
thank you
:

ute outside
hweet is dis ?
what’s this?
hii hated dis?
What’s this called?
hii eald eart pi?
How old are you?
ic eom eahta géar eald
ic eom eahta wintra
Im eight years old
ic wolde...
I’d like...
wilt Ou...
do you want to...
hi hatest du?
What’s your name?
min nama is brada
ic hate brada
my name is Brada
I’m called Brada
hweer is... ? is/sind
where is...? there is/are
ic lufie... / ... licad mé
I love ... / I like...
saga det eft
say that again
ic nat
I don’t know
min gebyrdtid bip...
my birthday is...
hwr eardast 0u?
Where do you live?
ic eardie on prittewella
I live in Prittlewell
ic eom godweardes scop
I’m Godweard’s singer
.. ne licad mé / ic hatie..
I don’t like... / I hate..
ic lyste bet...
I prefer...

leornungdel 3
Now answer the questions:
1 What are the two OE words for ‘yes’? 2 Which two people say they’re sorry?
3 How do you say ‘good night’?
4 What does Godweard ask his daughter?
5 Why does Elfgifu use two greetings?
6 What does ‘ic nat’ mean?
7 What does Fat Freda ask you?
8 Which new character is playing the lyre?
9 Which sentence means ‘I am 8 winters’? 10 What does Agata ask?
14. Prittlewell in Anglo-Saxon times
Prittlewell village still exists, but it’s now part of the much larger sea-side town of Southend-on-
Sea. Before the coming of the railway in the 1860’s, Southend was hardly more than a collection
of fishermen’s cottages on the sea-shore, while Prittlewell is listed in the Domesday Book of
1086. There’s no trace of any Anglo-Saxon buildings, but a filled-in stone doorway at St. Mary’s
church dating to the mid-seventh century suggests not just a community living here fourteen
hundred years ago, but a community important enough to have a stone church. The doorway also
contains re-used Roman tiles, which pushes the life of the village even further back in time.
In the 1920’s and 30’s, pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon burials were discovered at Root’s Hall in
the heart of Prittlewell, and at the edge of nearby Priory Park, again strongly suggesting a
permanent village settlement from the earliest Anglo-Saxon times.
In 2003, the discovery of a rich chambered tomb at the Priory Park site made Prittlewell famous
in the archaeological world. The man in the grave lived at the beginning of the 600’s, had both
pagan and Christian links, and may have been related to one of the kings of Essex. Prittlewell’s
location on the Thames Estuary makes it a fitting power-base for a ruling family: the river has
been a vital trading-route between Britain and the rest of the world since earliest times.
By Leofwin’s time, the East-Saxons had lost their independence: they had been taken over first
by the rulers of Mercia (770’s), then by the kings of Wessex (820’s). In King Alfred’s time
(880’s), Essex became part of the Danelaw. In the 900’s, it was returned to English rule, and by
Leofwin’s time was ruled on behalf of Ethelred, king of all England, by a steward or alderman.
The burial-mound at Prittlewell may already have become an overgrown place of ghosts, half-
forgotten stories and distant memory. * The Estuary, however, was about to become the
highway for a new wave of Vikings, fiercer than ever.
*There may be more waiting to be discovered, or others may have been long-since lost to the sea. There’s evidence of
catastrophic floods in the early 1300’s, while the cliff-top - an ideal site for such burials - has suffered serious erosion even
within living memory
54

leornungdeel 4. timan, weder
unit 4: seasons, weather
\eneved man pudu pop Sem pipe on lenccentiman peeped Pah
- PAPAL) WORCS
~
3
N
%
E
Aded
gad
viewnd
10
yrf
Ani
SiH MPCs
cABI A:ALTE
Ke punnan ard dpines been on hepperee ima” piped wate
1. Listen to Leofwin explaining the four seasons — try to follow the hand-
written text as well as the printed version. Notice the OE letter-form for
‘w’: it looks rather like a ‘p’, and it’s called ‘wynn’.
sind féower timan: winter, lencten, sumor and heerfest. on
wintra hiewed man wudu for bzm fyre. on lenctentiman s&wed
man sé&d on b&m eecerum. on sumera sitted man in bére
sunnan and drincé béor. on herfesttiman ripd man done heerfest.
55

timan, weder seasons, weather
2. Now answer the questions — lift the answers straight from the eed iewatt)
hwonne hiewe6 man wudu for pem fyre?
hwonne sitted man in pre sunnan?
hwonne rip6 man done heerfest?
hweet dé6 man on lenctentima? (dé6 = does)
hweet drincd man on sumera?
hweet hiewed man on wintra?
hi hatad 6a féower timan?
vocabulary
tima (m)
season
winter(morn) — winter
lencten (m)
spring
sumor (m)
summer
heerfest (m)
autumn
es)
There are several things going on in that first text.
een)
Good
Firstly me word ‘man’ inOE means ‘people in
sd (n)
ced
general’, not necessarily just men.
eecer (m)
field
Secondly, the word-order is often a little different
béor (n)
beer
to NE. In questions, there’s no need for the rather
ae(f) a:
awkward NE ‘do’, eg in ‘what do they chop...’ In
ye
OE you just say ‘what chop they...’*
.
Thirdly, some of the nouns changed their endings
héawan
to chop
(acerum, f¥re). This is because they’re affected
oe
10 SOW
by words like ‘on’ and ‘for’. More about this in
sittan
to sit
Book 2
drincan
to drink
;
ripan
to reap
Finally, there are some new verbs. This is what
don
to do
we’re going to look at next.
_ -héawan
swan
ic héawe >
ie swe
—hB, héo,hitsewed
*we still use this trick in NE with phrases like ‘how goes it?’, ‘what are they?’ or ‘who has it?’
56

leornungdel 4
| drincan’
TO DRINK :
ie drince
/hé, héo, hit drinced
TO REAP
AS, héo, hit riped —
we, ge, hie tipad
Hp
éala! dis is eft golde!
TO DO
hé, héo, hit déo.
we, gé, hie dod
VERBS! In Chapter one, we saw the verb ‘wesan’, ‘to be’, set out
for you to learn off by heart. We also saw ‘hatan’, ‘to be called’. In
Chapter two, you learned another verb meaning ‘to be’, ‘béon’, as
well as‘habban’, to have. In Chapter three, we encountered
‘oneardian’, ‘to inhabit’, and later on ‘singan’, “hzlan’ and
‘grOwan’ — to sing, to heal and to grow. Finally, you had to work
out three verbs for yourself.
If you were able to do that, you must have realized that most verbs in OE follow set
patterns. Five of the six new verbs set out above follow the same pattern, but one doesn’t!
The verb ‘dn’ is irregular — which simply means that it doesn’t follow the rule. The
verbs ‘wesan’, béon’ and ‘habban’ are also irregular, and there are a few others we shall
meet along the way that need to be learned off by heart, because they don’t follow the
rule, It’s vital to know how verbs work, so revise them and test yourself constantly!
Godspéd!*
*Good luck!
we sit in the sun
they chop the wood
do you sow the seed? (‘sow you the seed?’)
leofwin reaps the harvest
I drink wine
what is he doing? (‘what does she...’)
hie sind
idelgeorne!

timan, weder seasons, weather
4. Foxtail has a more detailed description of the seasons.
Study the text and see how much you can understand:
ba wintermdndas béod Nouember, December and Ianuarius. hit bid
ceald and isig. hit rined oft. hwilum bid hit mistig o66e sniwed. we eriad pa zceras
and sewed hwéte. wé héawad wudu for p#m fyre. wé derscad corn and grindaé melu
mid 6%m cwernstane. se sulhoxa wunad innan mid iis. wé remia6 done hrof, 64 byras
and 6a hegeas. wé acwellad an swin od6e ane cti gif wé hyngrad. pa dagas béo6 scorte,
and pa niht béo6 langa. on middanwintra habbab wé fréols, sé Geol hated.
pa lenctenmGnbas béo6 Februarius, Martius and Aprelis. hit bid ceald and wat,
and oft bid hit swipe windig, ac scinb hwilum séo sunne. pba scéap cennad
lambru. leofwin cl#nsad pet gangern. wé eriaé eft and s#wad bere, atan and
béana. pa dagas langiad, and eft cwicad séo woruld. wé fréolsiad lenctentid on
Eostre. clifweart and ic weardiadé ba ernéda. mddor and ealdmédor bewyrtaéd
henep and fleax for clade, wyrta for 6@m citele and dere wyrta for lacnungum
and weardum.
ba sumorm6ndas bé06 Maius, Iunius and Iulius. pet weder bid wearm and drigge
and 6a dagas béod lange. wé habbab symbel td grétanne sumortid and wé singad
and hléapad and drincad. wé drincad eft meolc, and mddor wyrced ciese and
buteran. wé bescieradé 6a scéap for wullan. wé ripadé pet hieg, and on sumorende
wé onginna6 bet cornheerfest. @ghwa bid ful bisig, and wé swincad andlangne deg
fram dagunge oddzt foranniht.
pa herfestmondas béod Agustus, September and October. bet weder bid oft gid, ac hwilum béod
stormas. pa dagas ne béop swa lange. wé endiad bone cornheerfest, and godweard healded fréolstid for
zghwam in bere héalle. modor gadreé 6a wyrta, and wé legaé bet corn in b&m byre. man gadred
westm, hnyte and bergan fram 6m holte. on 6%m géarende wé habba6 fréolsdeg. wé hlihhad and
singad and gesecgad spell, ac we gemundgiad pa déadan, and wé ondr&da6 fordgesceaftlic unweder.
it's cold and icy
Now find the EXACT
. the plough-ox lives indoors with us
equivalents to the NE
.wekillapigoracowifwegethungry
phrases below left from the
. but the sun shines sometimes
. we celebrate spring at Easter
. the weather is warm and dry
. at Summer’s end we begin the corn harvest
. from dawn till dusk
. the days are not so long
10. people gather fruit, nuts and berries from the woods
11. we have a celebration at the end of the year
12. we laugh and sing and tell stories
OE text above:
On the next page a whole
selection of the verbs used in
the text is shown.
OANIDNABWN
You’ll find a full translation of
this text in the answers section
at the back of the book
58

erian (wk 1b)
TO PLOUGH
ic erie
OU erest
hé, héo, hit ered
bewyrtan (wk Ic)
TO PLANT
lecgan (wk Ic)
TO PUT
endian (wk 2)
TO END
hé, héo, hit endad
we, gé, hie endiad
fréolsian (wk 2)
TO CELEBRATE
leornungdel 4
wunian (wk 2)
TO LIVE
hléapan (str 7)
TO DANCE
clznsian (wk 2)
TO CLEAN
grétan (wk Ic)
TO GREET
ic gréte
tJ
C;
hé, héo, hit grétd
we, gé, hie grétad
gemundgian (wk 2)
TO REMEMBER
ic gemundgie
6a gemundgast
hé, héo, hit gemundgad
we, gé, hie gemundgiad
59
remian (wk 2)
TO MEND
wyrcan (wk Ic)
TO MAKE
TO WORK
ic swince
Ot swincest
hé, héo, hit swinced
we swincad
hlihhan (str 6)
TO LAUGH
ondrzdan(wk 2)
TO FEAR
ic ondrzde
hé, héo, hit ondr#de6
wé, gé, hie ondredad
cennan (wk la)
TO GIVE BIRTH
onginnan (str 3)
TO BEGIN
weardian (wk 2)
TO WATCH OVER
:
gesecgan (wk 3)
TOLELL
gadrian (wk 2)
TO GATHER
hé, héo, hit gadrad
wé, gé, hie gadriad

timan, weder seasons, weather
5. Now you should be a bit more confident about verbs. They mostly fall into different patterns, which
become more obvious when they’re used in the past tense. We’ll look at this in much more detail in Book 2.
From now on, however, whenever a new verb is introduced, we’ll also tell you if it’s a strong verb or a weak
verb. There are three classes of weak verb, and seven classes of strong verb: we’ll tell you that, too.
Notice how class 2 weak verbs work in the ‘6i’ and ‘hé’ forms. ‘secgan’ is a bit strange! Class 1b weak
verb lose the ‘i’ in the ‘di’ and ‘hé’ forms. Class 1a weak verbs have a double letter that’s lost in the
‘Oa’ and ‘hé’ forms. Strong verbs usually behave themselves until they’re used to describe the past...
Can you fill in the gaps for the rest of the verbs from the text?
TO THRESH
wé , gé, hie berscad
TO GRIND
[a grindest |
: Ou grindest 4
we, gé, hie...
TO SHINE
é; gé,
1
we, gé, hie scinad
TO SHEAR
we,gé,hie
bescierad
vocabulary
m6na6 (str m)
melu (str n)
oxa (wk m)
ende (str m)
byre (str m)
hege (str m)
fréols (str m/n)
fréolstid (str f)
lamb (irreg n)
ernd (str f)
dagung (str f)
foranniht (irreg f)
00 , 000et
henep (str m)
fleax (str n)
clad (str m)
month
flour
Ox
end
shed
fence
festival
_ festival
lamb
crop
dawn
dusk
until
hemp
flax
cloth
butere (wk f)
hieg (str n)
weard (str m/f)
lacnung (str f)
weestm (str m)
hnutu (irreg f)
berig (str n)
déadan (wk m pl)
symbel (irreg n)
innan
bisig
Géol
Eostre
meolc (irreg f)
fordgsceaftlic
andlangne deg
dzeg / dagas (irreg m)
60
TO LENGTHEN
we, gé, hie langiad
TO KILL
we
geRie |
TO BE HUNGRY
Peee
we, gé, hie...
TO COME TO LIFE
|
we , gé, hie...
vocabulary
butter
hay
protection
medicine
fruit
nut
berry
the dead
feast, banquet
indoors
busy
Christmas (Yule)
Easter
milk
future
all day long
day

leornungdel 4
6. Months of the year
eefterra éola
hlyda*
zrra lida
2
midsumermd6na0d*
The Christian missionaries who came to
England two hundred years ago brought
with them the Roman calendar: the months
are named after their gods, goddesses,
emperors, or numerical sequence.
* alternative names
It’s the calendar the priest Ealhstan teaches
us, but my ancestors used a different one.
Here are the two calendars, set out side by
side. Ealhstan really dislikes the old system
because he says it’s heathen — but his
‘Christian’ calendar doesn’t seem to have
much to do with Christianity either!
Pll let Freda explain the old system,
and Ealhstan explain the Roman one
Our ancestors had months which fitted quite closely with the
phases of the moon — where your word ‘month’ comes from.
Unfortunately, there were a few days left over after twelve ‘moon-
months’ before the sun-year of 365 days is complete. We used to
solve that problem by adding an extra month before “wéodmGna0d’,
called the ‘dridda lida’ every three years. As the village wise
woman, I try to keep the old ways alive, but even J’m not sure
about where the names of some of the heathen months came from:
this Christianity has been such a success!
‘6riemilcem6na6’ is the month where cows can be milked three times a day.
‘wéodm6nad’ was ‘weed-month’, “haligm6nad’ a holy month, and ‘blotm6nad’
the ‘blood-month, when animals were either sacrificed, or slaughtered and
salted for the winter months ahead.
61

timan, weder seasons, weather
The Roman calendar has been
constantly modified over the
centuries. The Church uses the latest
version, worked out by Dionysius
Exiguus (‘Dennis the Short!’)
I’m sure you recognize all the
months, but you probably don’t
know that we also divide each month
into three phases — the IDUS, the KALENDAS
and the NONAS.
The IDUS always fall on 13” of the month, except
March, May, July and October, when they fall on 15".
The NONAS are always eight days before the IDUS, and
the KALENDAS always fall on the first of the month.
The strangest thing is that after each of these special days in
the month, we COUNT DOWN the days to the next one!
Oh, yes, and the day before one of the special days is
called the PRIDIE.
To make it even more complicated, we use Latin
grammar-rules when talking about the months, so
the endings for these words, and the months as well,
change. As a Christian priest, I should know these
rules, but I don’t always get it right. For people like
Leofwin and his family, it’s a bit hopeless. They use
Just the names and endings I’ve given here. In any
case, they usually reckon the year by the festivals
and saints’ days, the phases of the moon, and the
natural world around them.
I can’t really blame them, just as long as they don’t
go back to heathen ways...
[’ve set out the month of July for you as an example.
62
~

leornungdeel 4
1. Kalendis Ianuariis
a. 20 August
2. Idibus Ianuariis
b. 1° January
NOMS APSE OU EMILE UP
3. Nonis Ianuariis
c. 18'" March
the OF and Ne dates: as
4. tien Kalendas Ianuarias
d. 5" January
wenuk
5. Orie Nonas Ianuarias
e 15" March
6. siex Idus Ianuarias
f. 22" December:
7. Idibus Martiis
g. 13th January
8. twelfKalendas Septembres _h. 2" January
9. pridie Kalendas Iulias
i. 7" January
10. féowertiene Kalendas Apriles j. 31% June
7. Birthdays!
hwonne hefst
Ou gebyrddeg,
ealdmddor?
If you agree with Freda about
the Roman system, you may
like to use a simpler version
instead, with just the numbers
and the months, eg seofon
September, twentig Maius,
twégen Februarius. Or you may
prefer to use her pagan months,
eg eahta and twentig
blotmonad.*
ic nebbe
gebyrddagas —
ic eom to eald!
*We don’t really know exactly how
the Anglo-Saxons numbered the
days of the months, although in the
Middle ages, they often preferred to
name them after Saints’ Days.
gledne gebyrddzg!
(Happy Birthday! )
a) First listen to everyone saying when their birthdays are, and note down the
answers in NE, before checking at the back.
b) Now work out how to say your own birthday in OE, and write it down. You never
know when someone may ask!
63

timan, weder seasons, weather
8. Now is a good time to go back to chapter one and revise the numbers 1-30..When you’re
ready, look at the following table, giving the numbers up to 100:
siex and pritig
46 | siexand féowertig
seofon and pritig :
47 seofon and feowertig
eahta and pritig
48 eahta and. feowerti g
_ nigon and pritig
49 nigon and pritig
feowertig
50 |_ fiftig
siex and siextig
seofon and siextig
eahta and siextig.
nigon and siextig ©
hundseofontig
siex and fiftig
seofon and fiftig
eahta and fiftig
- nigon and fiftig
siextig
siex and hundecolodiic
86 siex and hundeahtatig
seofon and hundseofontig
87 seofon and hundeahtati
eahta and hundseofontig
88 | —eahta and hundeahtatig
nigon and hundeahtatig On|
hundnigontig
nigon and hundseofontig
89
hundeahtatig
90
Remember the gender variations
with one’s and two’s. Notice
also the ‘hund’ that appeared in
front of ‘seofontig’. It stays
through the eighties and nineties,
and only disappears from the
130’s, when it might otherwise
cause confusion. It seems to
have originally meant something
like ‘times ten’.
siex and hundnigontig
seofon and hundnigontig
eahta and hundnigontig
nigon and hundnigontig
hund, hundred, hundtéontig
64

leornungdel 4
1. britig and twentig béoé...
2. tien fram hundseofontig bid...
3. brie sidon twelf béo6...
4. seofon sidon seofon béod...
5. hundred tod&led on féower bid...
More sums
for you!
vocabulary
fram
from
sidon
times (multiplied by)
todzled on divided by
9. Now, some more points from that long text of Foxtail. Firstly, some OE words change their
endings, just like the Roman month-names, and for the same reason. Words like ‘fram’, td’,
‘on’ or ‘in’ are used, they affect the words they’re used with. We’ll deal with this in detail in
Book Two. Secondly, there’s another version of the infinitives of verbs. In the text, you read
‘tO grétanne’ instead of ‘grétan.’ It’s where the NE form comes from, but it was used in OE
just to express the idea of ‘in order to...’ Thirdly, there was plenty of vocabulary to do with
the weather. Here it is again, but in more detail:
Gewider
hitishat/wearm |
hit is ceald
hit rined
hit is rénig weder
65
séo sunne scind

timan, weder seasons, weather
hit is genipful
hit is windig
is storm
is Ounor and liget
hit is hrimceald
hit is isig / fréorig
hit is mistig
10. Now read what Clafweart tells you she does in different types of
weather, and write the answers in OE — remember that while she
uses the first person (ic...), you must use the third person (héo...)
Vocab help: ‘68 hit rined, 64 ga ic innan:
when it’s raining, then I goindoors
66

ee
extra weather vocabula
| wind (m)
wind
leornungdel 4
€ala! mé licad det gewider on sumera, forpzm pé hit b16 oft wearm and drigge,
pa dagas sind lange, and séo sunne scind. pa hit is hat, 64 plegie ic in pxre
sunnan. hwilum swimme ic mid foxtegele and helepe. on herfest ne bid pet
gewider swa god. 6a hit is mistig, 64 cl&nsiad ic and mddor pet his. 64
is storm, ba cume ic in p&m hiise. ne mé liciad stormas. pa hit is windig, pa
gadrie ic westm fram b&m holte. pa hit is ceald on wintra, 64 sitte ic et pam
fyre. ba hit sniw6, 54 plegie ic iite. on lencten onginned god weder, ac pa hit
rined, 04 ne gap wé it.
hweet dép clifweart 64 hit sniw6d?
hweet dé6 héo 64 hit is mistig?
hweet dé6 h&o 62 hit is rénig weder?
hweet dé6 héo 64 hit is ceald on wintra?
hweet dé6 héo 64 hit is windig?
Is (m)
ice
forst (m)
frost
unweder (n)
bad weather
heofonlic boga(m) | rainbow
Remember that after the second ‘6a’, comes the
verb, eg ‘when it snows, then play I in the snow.’
11. Use the help below to write some sentences describing things you do at
different times of the year, or in different types of weather.
pa hit is wearm, 08......
woe:
baitiswindlg,pa
sree a
ee
pa hit rined, 04......
pa hit is fréorig, 04.....
godne mergen!
12. Revise these greetings! — see also Ch.3, section 11.
67

timan, weder seasons, weather
13. Days of week
:
<a
me
séo wucu hefd seofon dagas
The heathen English adopted
the idea of weeks from the
Romans and replaced Roman
names for the days of the week
with their own equivalent
gods: a habit we’ve so far
failed to stamp out!
sunnandeg
heligdeg
The first day was dedicated to the sun. The
first Christians saw Christ as sun-like is some
ways, so Sunday became the natural choice
for his holy day.
monandeg {¢
The next day of the week was dedicated to
the moon.
tiwesdeg
The Romans dedicated the following day
to Mars, the god of war. Tiw was the
English god most similar to him.
The next day was dedicated to Mercury in the
Roman system, but the English chose to
replace him with their chief god, Woden.
wodnesdeeg
Thursday is named after Thunor, famous for
his magic hammer, and for causing thunder
and lightning. He replaced Jupiter, who had
some of the same qualities.
The next day was dedicated to Venus, the
goddess of love, in the Roman week. The
equivalent goddess for the English was Freia.
Ounresdeg
Saturn was the Roman god who oversaw death
and the passing of time. There was no
equivalent English god, so Saturn was kept on!
After sunset, it becomes the ‘eve’ of the next
day, so Saturday evening is ‘sunnanniht’, and
Monday evening is ‘tiwesniht’.
68

leornungdel 4
14. Reckoning of time
hit is dagung
hit is middeg
Match up the following OE and NE phrases:
1. it’s evening
a. hit is morgentid
2. it’s afternoon
b. hit is middeg
3. it’s midday
c. hit is dagung
4, it’s morning
d. hit is foranniht
5. it’s dawn
e. hit is efentid
6. it’s dusk
f. hit is ofermiddeg
Dividing the day into sunrise, morning, noon, afternoon
and so on is enough for people like Leofwin and his family,
but monks and priests need more accurate ways of telling
the time to regulate the different services held throughout
the day in monasteries.
Daytime is divided into twelve ‘tide’ or hours.
We use various systems (eg gradated candles, sand-timers, sun-
dials, dripping water) to calculate the correct time for different services, and
ring bells accordingly.
hit is prim
It’s 6am
hit is undern
It’s 9am
hit is middeg
It’s 12 noon
hit is non
It’s 3pm
| hit is @fensang
It’s 6pm
hit is nihtsang
It’s 9pm
hit is midniht
It’s midnight
69

timan, weder seasons, weather
15. Dividing the Year
As the days grow longer, the sun rises a little to the left of the place it rose the day before.
Eventually, it rises at the same spot on the horizon for several days in a row. This is called the
summer solstice. Then it rises a little to the right each day for about 180 days, and the days
grow shorter. When the sun rises at the same point again a few times, and the days are at their
shortest, this is called the winter solstice. Each complete cycle takes about 365 days, and this is
defined as a YEAR.
The place where the sun rises mid-way between the two extremes is defined as EAST. On that
day, called the equinox, there’s an equal amount of light and darkness. The place on the horizon
directly opposite this special sun-rise is where the sun sets the same day. This is defined as
WEST. At right-angles to a line between EAST and WEST are NORTH and SOUTH.
Moon-rises follow a more complicated pattern, but the moon changes its shape slightly each
day until disappears completely. A ‘new moon’ appears every 29 days or so, and this period is
called a month. There are twelve moon-months to each sun-year, with a few days left over.
Different civilizations have worked out different ways to make the months fit into a year — but
it’s impossible! We’ve already seen that the heathen English system was based on 12 moon-
months, with an extra month inserted every three years or so. The Roman system, which we
still use today, started off the same way, but was constantly modified until no single month
actually matched the phases of the moon.
By Leofwin’s time, the division of the year into four seasons had become traditional, with 13
weeks to each season.* Spring began at the start of February, summer at the beginning of May,
autumn in August and winter at the beginning of November.
Leofwin would have taken much more of an interest in the behaviour of the sun and moon than
we do, because that was how he measured out months and years.** He would probably have
been able to ‘read’ the moon and tell how many days old it was; with the days of the month
being measured from one New Moon to the next.
There were big festivals to mark the winter solstice, and perhaps the summer solstice, too.
There were festivals to mark the start of each new season, and to mark the mid-points of spring
and autumn, when the days had equal amounts of light and darkness. One of the tasks of a
priest like Ealhstan (and very probably his heathen predecessors) would have been to confirm
the days of these festivals to the community.
The most important Christian festivals were made to fit in with these seasonal celebrations:
Christmas a few days after the winter solstice (which was once New Years Day), Easter around the
spring equinox. The name Easter itself is linked to the word ‘east’ and the heathen goddess Eostre:
in the West, it is celebrated on the first Sunday after the full moon following the spring equinox.
* As with all aspects of reckoning time, this also doesn’t work quite perfectly!
** He would also have taken careful note of the yearly patterns of plant and animal life.
70

leornungdeel 5: gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamiic lif
| unit 5: natural world, daily life
1. Listen to Leofwin describing where he lives:
IFII IOOTIOTIeIOIOTNN
A
mee. A
bes micel stréam hated
{2
i
_ TEMES. deghwamlice
ee
geo hé it, and cymp
N
hé eft in.
i
pis is se strand. pér plegiad and swimma6d
hwilum clifweart and foxtegle .
pis clif is héah. hit is oft windig hér!
péos éa hated pritta. clufweart and
foxteegle feccad weeter and plegiad
hér. pér bid brycg.
pes mersc is et strétende.
westrihtes bid 6der mersc. manig
szfugol wunao her, and eac séolh.
pes tiin hated prittewella. sind eac
tinas zt middeltiina and strétende.
pis is se lictiin. hé is swipe eald.
beorgas sind eac hér.
pte
Raegy°sit 4Ld
( re(<awe)

leornungdeel 5
FDO ODO FOF
pis is ecer. hér growad wé ernda.
der sind fif eceras, and folc on
prittewella hie efen ged#lad.
pes ecer is godweardes land.
pis is godweardes mé&d,
ac we gieldad fearm to .
afédenne 6a scéap and gét.
pis is eac godweardes holt, ac hér
afédad wé cy and swin gif wé fearm
gieldad.
pes h#6 is gemana
béos din bid westrihtes, zt
h#dléage. man mot geséon done
stréam, dzet brim, and cent. hér
wuniad gastas.
pis is se heofon. hwilum bib hé
beorht and h&wen, on sumera, and
hwilum bib hé greg and genipful.
nihterne scin6d se mona and
twincliad ba tunglas. hwilum tellaéd
wé pa tunglas tosomne.
ERIE GENEEEUCER CRA CRA

gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
Vocabulary
stréam (str m)
river
deeghwamlice
daily
strand (str m)
beach
clif - cleofu (irreg n) cliff
héah
high
éa -€an(strf)
stream
feccan (wk 1a)
to fetch —
brycg (str f)
bridge
westrihtes
to the west
manig
many
seolh - séolas (irregm) | seal (an animal!)
eecer (str m)
field
folc (str n)
people
land (str n)
land
méd - mzd(irreg f)
meadow
gieldan (str 3)
to pay
efengedélan
to share equally
fearm (str m)
rent
afédan (wk 2)
to feed
holt (str n)
wood (a stand of trees)
gif
i
h&b (str m)
gemana (wk m)
common property
din (strf)
hill
mot geséon :
can see -
heofon - heofenes (irreg m) | sky (or heaven)
beorht
bright
nihterne
at night-time
mona (wk m)
moon
twinclian (wk 2)
to twinkle
tungol — tunglas (irreg n) star
tosomne
together
ernd (str f)
crop
Nb Strétende is the name of the collection of fishing huts by the sea, east
of Prittewella. It means ‘end of the road’, and it’s the origin of the NE place-
name ‘Southend’. Middeltiina still exists as NE ‘Milton’, now part of
Westcliff, and H&6léage is NE ‘Hadleigh’ Cent is NE ‘Kent’, the only
county in England whose name has remained the same since pre-Roman times!
2. Here’s a wordsnake! Chop it up to find the different
things he’s swallowed! The letters are in old English, so
you may need to check the introduction. Look out
especially for old English ‘g’, ‘r’ and ‘s’.
ic eom
wordsnaca...
hyssssss!
. hweet bib sé temes?
. hweet dod clifweart and foxteegele on b&m strande?
. hi hatep séo éa?
. hweet béop str&tende, middeltiina and prittewella?
. is godweardes bearg zt d&m lictiine?
. hwér is séo bricg?
. hweet déd man on godweardes holte?
. hweet mot man geséon zt héapléage?
. hwonne bib se ion greg and genipful?
nee 4 Fodpeapd lypad
10. hweet twinclad nihterne?
3. Now answer the
following questions (One
of them is done for you below)
Oonan
&BWN
13

leornungdeel 5
4. You’ve already met ‘this’ when it’s used as a noun — ‘dis’. In the descriptions above, it’s
also used sometimes instead of ‘the’: when you want to emphasize a particular river, hill or
village etc. Did you notice how it changed according to the gender?
Here’s how it works in detail:
feminine - HILL
masculine - FIELD
singular
plural
subject |bes zcer
pas zceras
object |pisne zcer pas zeceras
neuter - CLIFF
subject |Sis
|
If you’re not sure about subjects
and objects, take another look at
Chapter 3, section 10.
The plural of NE ‘this’ is ‘these’. It’s the
same for all three genders, whether they’re
the subject or the object of the sentence. Now
fill in the gaps with the correct OE words,
using the tables above. You need to remember
gender and number each time!
If you’re thinking that this is a little fiddly, the
good news is that there are no additional OE
words for ‘that’ or ‘those’!
Copy these sentences and fill in the gaps with OE words
for this / these
ic ondr&de
pisne hund!
. --- stréam hatep se temes.
. --- tiinas hatad prittewella, str&tende and middeltin.
. clifweart and foxtegele genéosa6 --- éa.
. --- €a is ceald on wintra!
. dracas and gastas onearda6 --- lictiin.
. --- tunglas sind swide beorht.
. man mot --- duna geséon, p4 hit nis td mistig.
SDN
HBWNW
74

gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
5. From now onwards, in each chapter, we’re going to
follow the lives of my family and me month by month.
We start with one typical day in March. Do you
remember either of the two words for this month in OE?*
ic arise
ic scryde mé
ic wasce mé
ic ete morgenmete
ic swe sed
ic gelére foxtegele. wé settab hecga
ic cume ham ic persce corn mid foxtegele
*It’s ‘Martius’, or ‘hré6mo6nad’
75

ic remie 0a tdl
leornungdeel 5
we etad &fenmete tosomne
ic wyrce plegabing for clifwearte
ic plegie ba hwistlan
ic plegie mid halede
arisan (str 1)
scrydan (wk Ic)
wascan (str 6)
etan (str 5)
swincan (str 3)
ecgan (wk Ic)
gel&ran (wk Ic)
settan (wk la)
to reste gan
to get up, arise
to clothe, dress
to wash
to eat
to work, toil
to rake
to teach
to set, lay
togotobed
ic ga tO reste
76
morgen mete (str m)
middegmete (str m)
zfenmete (str m)
hecg (str f)
ham
tol (str n)
hwistle (wk f)
plegading (str n)
breakfast
mid-day meal
evening meal
hedge
home,
tool,
whistle
toy

TO.GET UP
ic arise
OU 4risest
hé, héo,hitarise}
we, gé, hie arisad
swincan (str 3)
TO WORK
‘hé, héo, hit swincep _
wé, gé, hie swincad
hwonne wasced hé?
hwer eted hé his middegmete?
hweet gelzrd hé foxtegele?
hweet dép pet cynn tosomne?
gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamilic lif
: -serydan (wk 1c)
. - -wascan (str 6)
gelzran (wk Ic)
6. Firstly, answer the questions below
about leofwin. Then copy out the
description of his daily routine from
section 4, but use the extra phrases at the
bottom of the page to add more detail.
natural world, daily life
we, gé, hie etad
he,héo, hit seted.
wé, gé, hie settad
ey
hweet wyrch leofwin?
foxtaegele swinced
peet cynn spriced tosomne
ic hiere pa fuglas
ealle singad
ic lufie minne hund
clifweart is ful blip
ic eom swibe wérig
...zet dagung / on mergen
.. et middum dege
.. et ofermiddeg
.. .et &fen
...eet niht
titan bid hit ceald and windig
ic ete hlaf and drince béor
77

leornungdeel 5
7. Read and listen to the text, then try reading it out loud,
and finally answer the questions in writing:
todeeg bib hit windig. zlfgifu wasced pet hregl, and hie drygap on 6&m winde. golde and
cliifweart bewyrtad wyrta in b&m wyrtgearde. deghwé&mlic wyrcep golde hlaf and béor, and
spinned wull. héo pyncd mé sumes Adlig is.
ic eom wérig!
t we!
ic eom Aadlig, modor
héo wefep éac in 6m webbéamhiise mid
fredan*, and hie gelérad clifweart. pa
wifmenn spricad andlangne deg. golde
wyrcep binn todeg.
ic eom eac
adlig...
des tréowmann is til!
clufweart and foxteegele feccad weeter t6 wascanne and to drincanne.
bib pytt on 6ém tine, and séo a pritte. 64 wyrcab hie tréowmann in 6m westecere.
*Freda’s name is affected by the word ‘mid’, an ending explained in Book 2
78

gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
et ofermiddeg brengab hie in fearn and twigu of b&m holte and fédad hie cy and swin. in
6m holte settad hie 68 treppan. ba giemad clifweart 64 lambru. foxtegle clénsad det
gangern and nim6 post td b&m zcerum. hwér is spreculmup?
bes hlzst is td hefig!
ic heebbe fotece —
ic ne meg
swincan todeg
élfgifu acweled swin and ahiewed hine. héo and golde dp pone &fenmete. ealhstin préost
genéosa0 Us todeg. golde and freda habbad déope sp&ce in b&m webbéamhise. ulf geréfa
heef6 spell for leofwine.
healfp&nig odde scéap for
ciricecandelum. hit bib in tyn
dagum eostrem6nadfylen,
man sceal gearu béon
tomergen déd
man szwearde:
wicingas !
peet hreegl
clothes ,
{
deeghwamlic
daily
Bee Puna
pyncd mé
it seems to me
sceal
shall /will /must
adlig
ll
gearu
ready
wéerig
weary / tired
déope sp&ce
deep speech
mid
with
drygan (wk Ic)
to dry
andlangne deg
all day long
spinnan (str 3)
to spin
treéowmann (irreg m)
scarecrow
wifan (str 5)
to weave
til
good
swincan (str 3)
to work
rof
brave
feccan (wk 1a) to fetch
hefig
heavy
wascan (str 6)
to wash
pytt (str m)
well (hole in ground!)
drincan (str 3)
to drink
fearn and twigu (str n) ferns and branches
afedan (wk Ic)
to feed
lamb Ce f)
lamb |
ic (ne) meg
I can (not)
fotece (str n)
foot-ache
settan (wk 1a)
to set
Oost (str m)
poo
gieman (wk Ic) to look after /tend
hizest (str n)
burden
niman (str 4)
to take
geréfa (wk m)
reeve (an official)
acwellan (wk la) to kill
séwearde(str f)
sea-watch (a duty)
ahiewan (str, class 7) to cut up
healfpénig (str m)
halfpenny
brengan (wk Ic) to bring
treppe / treppan (wk f) trap
79

leornungdeel 5
What’s the missing word in each sentence? Re-read the text to check. The first letter of each
answer should spell out what Leofwin is most afraid of!
todeg bip hit ------ :
clifweart bewyrtad wyrta -- bé&m wyrtgearde.
hie geléra6 --------- ae
bes fugol -- swipe rof!
-foxtegele clénsed det gangern and ---- host t0 b&m ecerum
héo and ----- don pone &fenmete.
-golde --- freda habba6d dope sp&ce
‘tOmergen ded man --------. oo
SIADARWN—
RAAARGH!
8. It’s time to check what we remember about verbs. Most follow set
patterns, and are called WEAK verbs. There are three groups, or CLASSES
of weak verbs, and the first group is sub-divided into three. Grammar-books
of old English often speak of class 1a, 1b or 1c weak verbs,
Here are examples of class 1 verbs:
feccan (wk 1a)
gel&ran (wk 1c
TO TEACH
hé, héo, hit feced
| he, héo, hit gel&rd
we, gé, hie feccad
we, gé, hie gelzrad
Class 1a verbs have a short vowel and a double consonant in the infinitive: in our example,
that’s the double ‘c’ (pronounce: fech—chan).This disappears in the ‘di’ and ‘hé’ forms. Other
examples we’ve met already are settan (= to set) and acwellan (= to kill).
_ erian (wk 1b)
TO PLOUGH
TO FETCH
ic fecce
Class 1b verbs end with a short vowel plus ‘-rian’. The ‘i’ disappears in the ‘60’ and ‘hé’
forms. We haven’t met any other examples so far.
Class Ic verbs lose the ‘e’ in the ‘6a’ and ‘hé’ form. Other examples we’ve already met are
bewyrtan (= to plant) and afedan (= to feed).
** see page 10 for a reminder
about long and short vowels
80

gesceattlice woruld, gedeeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
All class 2 verbs end with ‘-ian’,
but notice also how they behave
in the ‘60’ and ‘h@’ forms. This
is a big group.
Other examples we’ve already met
are endian (= to end) and clénsian
(= to clean).
“he, héo, hit
—twinclad _
min wifes eagan
twincliad... hweet
hyged héo?
habban (wk 3)
. hE bec, hit segd
*sometimes ‘leofad’
**sometimes ‘hogast’
Now would be a good moment to learn a rather handy variation on ‘habban’: a verb that means
‘not to have’. As you can see, below, it works in the same way as ‘habban’.
Many vaiations on these verbs can be found.
god! du eart td fxtt! ic
secge dzet ic hycge!
ic neebbe fodan!
__nabban (wk3)_
TO NOT HAVE
ic nebbe
hé, héo, hit naefo
we, gé, hie nabbad
81

leornungdel 5
Verbs which don’t follow these patterns often look as if they do, until yowlearn how they
behave in the PAST TENSE. They can then behave rather strangely, as well find out in
book 2. These are called STRONG verbs.
The STRONG VERBS tend to fall into groups of their own: there are no fewer than SEVEN
different classes! Until your knowledge of Old English takes you beyond the level of
this book, it’s probably best to learn each strong verb off by heart when you first meet it.
There are a few verbs which won’t fit in into any of the groups. Grammar-books call these
ANOMALOUS verbs, which simply means that they don’t fit. We’ve met one of these
already—the verb TO BE. Here it is again, just to remind you, along with its
opposite — the verb NOT TO BE.
wesan.
TO BE
anomalous verb
hE eo hits
:
wé, gé, hie sint (sind, sindon)
anomalous verb
ic neom
ou neart
hé,héo, hitnis
we, gé, hie ne sint (sind, sindon)
TO GO
ic cume, ic ga, ic
slépe andlangne
deg. swa dod
cattas: wé libbab
wel, pyncd mé!
Some examples of the most common strong and
irregular verbs we’ve met already are as follows:
STL
anomalous verb
preterite-present verb
ne licab mé des catt, hé is idelgeorn,
to swift and td snotor —-WUF!
82

gesceattlice woruld, gedaeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
9. The Round of the Year
Leofwin’s life is ruled by the land he works, and by the turn of the seasons. As each month
comes around, there are different tasks for everyone to do. Unless they are done properly, the
family can’t hope to survive. They are bound to the land and to their lord, and see their way of
life as part of God’s natural, eternal and unchangeable will. Nine out of ten people in England’s
population of perhaps one and a half to two million people live off the land.
There are three big fields around Prittewella: one for hay, one for all the crops, and one left
empty (‘fallow’) for a year to recover its fertility. Each family owns long, narrow strips of land in
each field, so that everyone has a fair share of all the land. Everyone’s sheep and goats can graze
together in the fallow field, and pigs can root about in the woods with the lord’s permission.
Winter
From November onwards, the family has to slaughter some of their animals for food. They salt or
smoke most of the meat to make it last. The last of the summer’s corn is threshed and winnowed
(see below), and at Martinmas (11 November) Godweard the thane demands his annual rent.
Ealhstan the priest expects the Church’s dues as well, in the form of a tenth (‘tithe’) of all
Leofwin’s produce. Wood has to be chopped and brought home to store for winter fuel. Leofwin
harrows his strips of land by having his ox draw a spiked frame over the earth to break it up. Then
he ploughs his land, sows the winter crops and harrows his strips again to work the seed into the
ground. Huge bundles of bracken are brought in from the woods for animal bedding. The children
run about the new-sown crops to scare the birds away, or make a scarecrow. The family begins to
harvest the turnips sown at the start of autumn, to help see them through the winter.
In December, the family looks forward to the twelve days of the Christmas feast, but even as
they tuck into the traditional roast hog, they are thinking of the lean days ahead. There are tools
and equipment to be mended, and perhaps also the roof-thatch to be repaired. All through the
winter, Clufweart and the women are spinning hemp and flax fibre into yarn. The days are short,
and the nights are long and cold.
In January, Ealhstan blesses the ploughs, and reminds everyone of the halfpenny they owe him
every month for candletax. The fences are repaired this month and ditches cleared out. The
children collect reeds for thatching, and now is the time for pig-breeding. Leofwin and Golde
think carefully about when to slaughter more animals for food.
Sprin
(Hie bare spring begins, although the land still looks bare and lifeless at first. The family
celebrates St. Bride’s day by honouring the two wells in Prittewella, and this month the first
lambs are born. Mothers of twins are marked for breeding later on in the year. Hedges are cut
before new growth appears, fruit-trees pruned, and it’s time for the smelly job of emptying the
midden and spreading the muck on the fields, which also have to be limed. Willow is planted
for basket-weaving and other uses. The cattle in the barn are fed with whatever straw is left, or
even holly and ivy. Now is the time they begin to calve: they will nurse for about a month. The
last of the hay is reserved for the plough-oxen.
83

leornungdel 5
In March, the remaining strips are ploughed ready for the spring crop, which will be harvested
a little later than the winter crop already sown. The days grow noticeably longer, and the
Lenten season begins (OE ‘lencten’, to lengthen). Ealhstan expects everyone in the village to
give up meat as a token of Christian sacrifice, but this isn’t too difficult, as there’s so little left
at this time of year anyway. Flax for linen and hemp for rope are planted towards the end of the
month, the flax in the strips Leofwin has closest to the stream.
The great Christian festival of Easter usually takes place at the beginning of April, but it’s also
a celebration of spring: at last the days grow longer than the nights. Leeks and onions are sown,
and the first spring herbs can be picked for medicine and cooking. The calves are weaned, and
fed at first by hand. Now the cows can be milked, once in the morning and once in the evening.
This means that Golde can start making cheese and butter. Weeding becomes a daily chore and
the woods become green again. Sows give birth to their piglets — ‘farrowing’ — and the young
will stay with their mothers until late summer. Ealhstan expects another tithe, called ‘Plough
Alms’ a fortnight after Easter, and during the ‘Rogation Days’, he leads everyone in prayers for
a good harvest. On 25 April, ‘Rogation Thursday’, they follow him in solemn procession
around the fields as he blesses the fields. Now is also the time for ‘beating the bounds’, when
the youngsters of the village like Foxtail and Clufweart are taken round the field boundaries
and tested on their knowledge — any mistakes are punished with a beating.
Summer
The days are warmer, the land is green again, and winter is defeated for another year. Young
adults go to the woods on May eve to ‘bring in the may’- decorating the home with sprigs of
evergreen - and often stay out all night. Ealhstan has forbidden the erection of Maypoles at this
time of year, as they are a heathen practice, but there is often some tension in the village. Golde
plants peas and beans, cabbage and other vegetables, and in the field-strips, weeding continues.
A tithe of the family’s young animals goes to the church on Whitsunday, and a ‘hearthpenny’
on Holy Thursday. If there’s time, moss is scraped off the roofs, there are more repairs to be
done, and swarming bees are captured to populate new hives. Sheep and cattle are turned out at
last to graze and manure the fallow land: each family marks its animals with a sign to save
arguments over ownership!
In June, people take turns at being the ‘hayward’, to keep cattle away from the ripening crops.
The sheep can be shorn, and the fleeces washed for spinning or perhaps for sale. The lambs are
shorn later. St. John’s day is the longest day of the year, and the most important job of the long
summer days is mowing the hay. Everyone helps, the men cutting the hay with scythes, the
women turning and tossing the cut hay with pitchforks to dry it. It’s then raked into bundles
called haycocks. A sudden downpour could ruin it now, so everyone keeps an eye on the
weather. When all the hay is dried and brought safely under cover, the hay-making feast takes
place, and everyone can relax for a short space. The animals are then penned in the hay-
meadow along with the geese to strip what’s left. Ealhstan needs a penny from each family to
send to Rome — ‘Peter’s Pence’.
By July, the winter-sown corn has ripened, and the back-breaking wheat harvest begins, with
everyone working from dawn till dusk. Flax and hemp are also harvested. Flax is left by the
riverbank to rot down for weeks, and now is the best time for spearing or trapping eels.
84

gesceaftlice woruld, gedaeghwamlic lif natural world, daily life
Autumn
In August, once the winter-sown crop has been gathered in, work begins on harvesting the spring-
sown crop. The corn is cut with sickles and the corn-sheaves bundled up. Once carted back home,
the corn is threshed with flails to separate it from the straw. The women then set to work separating
the grain from the ‘chaff’ — the inedible husks. They sit together with ‘winnowing baskets’, tossing
the corn high into the air so that the chaff blows away and the corn lands back in the baskets. The
best and heaviest grains are then carefully picked out for next season’s sowing, while the rest is
dried in a kiln. Then begins the daily job of grinding the corn into flour with a quern-stone. Straw is
gathered in for many uses. Turnips are planted now, late in the season: they can be harvested all
through the winter, when other food begins to run out. Finally, the pigs with their young can be
turned out of the sty into the woods to forage for themselves.
In September, with the rest of the crop safely in, peas and beans can be harvested, already dry
on the plant, along with onions, leeks, parsnips, beets and carrots. The ‘wild harvest’ can now
be collected as well — nuts, fruit and berries from the woods and hedges. Honey and wax can be
collected from the hives, and thane Godweard organizes the ‘Harvest Home’ feast for everyone.
The cows begin to run dry of milk around this time, and are ‘brought to bull’ for breeding.
Wood is gathered and stored, a job which lasts into the winter.
The rotted flax bundles are taken home to begin the long pounding, scutching and heckling
processes which eventually produce the fibres. The seeds are turned into oil for cooking and
lamps. Leofwin is already thinking about ploughing in preparation for the winter crop: the
sooner the better. By the end of the month, the days are already growing shorter than the nights.
In October, Leofwin begins harrowing his strips and ploughing them. The children run about
the fields with wooden clubs to break up the clods of earth. Ideally, the strips should be
ploughed three times before planting with barley, oats, wheat and rye, and the task usually lasts
into November. Sheep are bred this month, and cows which have run dry of milk and have not
been bred may be earmarked for slaughter. Ealhstan gathers grapes from his little vineyard for
wine-making, and in the evenings, everyone makes rush dips and candles to light the house in
the dark winter nights ahead. At the end of the month, as winter approaches, people dread the
onset of the dead season. On all Hallows’ Eve, everyone is safely indoors before dusk, as this
is the night when ghosts will roam the land at will.
Apart from all the seasonal tasks, there are dozens of daily chores: water must be brought in
from the well or the stream, traps must be checked and ale brewed. There’s cooking, washing,
cleaning, spinning and weaving to be done, new clothes made, old ones patched, tools, pots
and other equipment to be repaired.
85

leornungdeel 6: mete, drenc and mel
unit 6: food, drink and meals
pa cy cealfiab, and
we geweniab 64
cealf. ni mOton wé
eft amelcan pa cy,
méolc drencan, and
ciese and buteran
eft don
fru
se zeppel
NS
wesitmas:
it
séo cerse
87
séo eordbeorge
séo winberge
séo hindberge
)G
%vvy
\)Nvvy)
¢
%)¥Yyy

leornungdel 6
wyrta: vegetables
Séo pise
séo béan
se cawel
séo béte
séo more
séo feldmoru
se n&p
pet hwitléac
pet cicenflésc
pet ciflésc
pet scéapfl&sc
pet swinfl&sc
88

mete, drenc and m&l_ food, drink and meals
drencas
drinks
ic drince ealu, gif ic habbe, oppe weter gif ic nabbe ealu. godweard drincb
win and meodu, ope ealu gif hé nefb win od6e meodu...
89

leornungdeel 6
Ober other
Vocabulary
butere (wk f)
ciese (str m)
ég (str n)
hlaf (str m)
swamm (str m)
hnutu (irreg f)
briw (str m)
brob (irreg n)
hunig (str n)
fl&sc (str n)
cicenflé&sc (str n)
cuflésc (str n)
scéapflésc (str n)
swinflésc (str n)
szmete (irreg m)
flicce (str n)
mearg (str n)
amelcan (str 3)
cealfian (wk 2)
gewenian (wk 2)
fléscmete (irreg m)
butter
cheese
eggs
bread
mushroom
nuts
soup
soup
honey
meat
chicken
beef
mutton
pork
seafood
joint of ham
pork sausage
to milk
to calve
to wean
meat
90
westm (str m)
zeppel (irreg m)
cerse (wk f)
winberge (wk f)
hindberge (wk f)
peru (str f)
wyrt (str f)
pise (wk f)
béan (str f)
cawel (str m)
béte (wk f)
more (wk f)
né&p (str m)
feldmoru (wk f)
hwitléac (str n)
drenc (str m)
weeter (str n)
ealu (irreg n)
méolc (irreg f)
séaw / wos (str n)
win (str n)
meodu (irreg m)
fruit
apple
cherry
grape
raspberry
pear
vegetable
pea
bean —
cabbage
beetroot
carrot
turnip
parsnip
onion
drink (a noun!)
water
ale
milk
juice
wine
mead

mete, drenc and mé&l food, drink and meals
3. The table shows whether each of the food and drink words is STRONG or WEAK - check
Chapter 3, section 4, to go over this again. Now give the plurals of the following words:
* s60 eordbeorge
* so peru
nb ‘zppel’ and ‘hnutu’ are irregular:
* sBo pise
the plurals are ‘zeppela’ and ‘hnyte’.
* sSo ban
You also need to check the plurals
* beet hwitléac
of neuter words to see if they end in
* beet mearg
ts or don’t change at all. See also
*batdg
section 10 below or the grammar at
Fee Se
the back of the book.
As we saw before, some of these words rarely crop up in the singular (peas, beans), while
others will rarely be needed in the plural (mead, honey, butter!)
Here’s some food and drink words which have been mixed up: can you untangle them?
e tubere
e mudeo
KE
e retwe
yale
e § fiscwénils
e lodfrume
And lastly, here’s another wordsnake!
Chop him up to find the different things he’s swallowed!
ic eom wordsnaca,
and ic hate Sibba!
hyssssss!
on

leornungdeel 6
4 meeltide mealtimes @
morgenmete
nonmete
éfenmete
et dagung, etad wé morgenmete 0dde festenbryce.
zt middum dege, etad wé nonmete. et &fentid,
etad wé &fenmete. on sunderlicum dagum habbaé
wé symbel, and hwilum healdad wé fastan.
There are several alternative words for the meals of the day, and not everyone agrees how often
people like Leofwin and his family ate. Some think that the mid-day meal was the most
important of the day, and that many people ate nothing before that. The family wouldn’t
usually all be together before the evening, however, and it’s difficult to imagine there not
having been a shared family meal each day. Friday was a fast-day, but that meant the family
could still have bread, water, fish and maybe even some vegetables.
(b) S06, 0dde uns06? Listen to the six sentences about mealtimes, and decide
whether they are true (sod), false (unsod) or unknown (ungecnawan):

mete, drenc and m&1_ food, drink and meals
Vocabulary
-morgenmete (irreg m)
nonmete (irreg m)
&fenmete (irreg m)
sunderlic
breakfast
midday meal
evening meal
special
feestenbryce (str n) breakfast
fastan (n)
fast (ie not eating)
symbel (irreg n)
feast
ic ne oferete
nalles!*
ic oferete!
mé licap
mete, ulf!
5. Here are the verbs ‘to eat’ and ‘to drink’:
=
TO DRINK
class 3 strong
freda is
gredig!
TO EAT
class 5, strong
Pett, ys
~—h8, héo, hit eted
we, ge, hie etad
“hé, ho, hitdrincp
we, gé, hie drincab
*when Ulf says ‘nalles’, he’s just emphasising his statement — ‘not at all’, ‘no way’.
6. Listen to Golde describing mealtimes, and answer the questions afterwards.
You may wish to take a quick look at the two new verbs in section 9.
1. What three things might the family drink at breakfast-time?
2. Who might have ham and eggs at mid-day?
3. Why might Godweard give Leofwin lunch?
4. What’s for lunch if everyone’s at home?
5. Why might the family eat their evening meal outside?
6. Name three things which might be cooking in the pot for supper.
7. What does Golde do to make the food taste nicer?
8. Who loves bread and honey?
nb awuht—something hamweardes—athome _ nestum — nests
wynsumes swacces — of a pleasant taste —sumes flicces — some ham
p#m fiscerum — from the fishermen

leornungdeel 6
7. hweet drincst pti ts morgenmete? and
hweet etst pti? and t6 nonmete? hweet etst
and drincst pi to €fengereord? saga!*
*saga! = say!
8. Translate the following sentences into OE:
I’m a bird. I eat worms and spiders.
I’m a bear. I eat honey.
I’m a sheep. I eat grass. I
drink water and I give milk.
I’m a fish. I drink
xé
a lot of water!
-
Dead
eease,
O25,
955959-2
AW
NY
9. Two more verbs for your collection! Learn them off by heart — they don’t follow any of the
usual patterns.
God giefp, and
hé fornimp...*
* *for-’ at the beginning of ‘nimp’ in Ealhstan’s sentence adds the
sense of ‘away’. OE (and NE!) has lots of these so-called ‘prefixes’.
More about this in Book 2
94

mete, drenc and m&l food, drink and meals
10. andloman utensils
CO
\e
*When you’ve practised the vocabulary above, try some more noun revision!
The usual vocabulary list hasn’t been added this time — you shouldn’t need it!
*Can you work out the plurals of the all the words above? The boxes tell you
if they are masculine, feminine or neuter, and whether they are strong or
weak. If you’re stuck, check Unit 3, section 4.
*Some nouns just don’t fit in with any rules — they’re irregular. In the list
above, there are three such words, so it’s impossible to guess their plurals.
They are: citel /citlas, ofen / ofnas and glesfet / glesfeetu.
*You just have to learn the irregular ones by heart, but there are some guidelines —
check the grammar section at the back if you’d like to know more.
96

leornungdeel 6
11. Revising likes and dislikes — we first looked at this in Chapter One. What are Foxtegele’s
and Clifweart’s likes and dislikes? When you’ve checked the answers, say your own likes and
dislikes out loud — it could be food and drink, or it may be other things... or people! Then write
them down. You may wish to start practising how to write in OE script, although we won’t
study this fully until Book 3.
mé licad
swinflésc and
ciese
ic lufie hunig
and
hindbergan
=a2
Fa?
)
You can use similar constructions for ‘I’m hungry’ / ‘I’m thirsty’ ...
*méhyngrad I’m hungry
*mé pyrsted _—‘I’m thirsty
*mépbinced _it seems to me
96

mete, drenc and mé&l food, drink and meals
12. Revising negatives
We’ve met negatives plenty of times already.
Here’s asummary of what we know so far.
‘na’ is the word for ‘no’. you can emphasise your no by saying ‘niese!’ or ‘nelle’ instead.
‘ne’ is placed in front of a verb to make it negative — even with questions.
‘nan’ means ‘not one’ — it’s the two words ‘ne 4n’ squashed into one.
A few verbs have a special ‘negative’ form — eg ne wesan, nabban, né witan:
-newesan>
NOT TO BE
anomalous verb
ic neom
6a neart
hé, héo, hit nis
we, 2é, hie ne sindon
NOT TO HAVE
NOT TO KNOW
class 3 weak
preterite-present verb
hé, héo, hit nefo —
we, gé, hie nabbad
nan ding!
:
hweet dést 60, spreculmiid?
Match up the following OE and NE sentences:
1. wéne drincaé béor
a. no, not here
2. ic nat
b. isn’t he clever?
3. nafst bi minne cuculer?
c. don’t they eat at mid-day?
4. nis dis min cuculer
d. not I!
5. héo ne wasced minne cuculer
e. do you not have my spoon?
6. nis hé snotor?
f. absolutely not
denese
g. I don’t know
8. na, né hér
h. this isn’t my spoon
9. na ic!
i. she doesn’t wash my spoon
10. ne etad hie et middum dege?
j. we don’t drink beer
oF,

leornungdeel 6
13. Listen to the account of what’s happening
at this special time of year, then answer the
questions. Check the new vocabulary first.
VOCABULARY:
fearh (irreg m)
piglet
flotmenn (irreg m)
sea-raiders
flod (strong m)
flood
hdenan (weak m)
heathens
forhwy
why
cledersticca (weak m) | clapper / rattlestick
dryge
dry
cla6 (strong m)
cloth —
halig
holy
hér (strong n)
hair
fon (strong, class 7) catch
earmum mennum
to poor people
sculon gearu béon shall be ready
fét (irreg m)
feet. |
unblid
unhappy
swa dyde Crist
thus did Christ
altere (strong m)
altar
nan ding
nothing
onlicnes (str f)
image / statue
séodan
to cook -
1. Who loves the piglets, and who likes their meat?
2. Give two types of weather Leofwin describes.
3. Why is Freda unhappy?
4, What has Leofwin noticed about Golde?
5. What can Golde begin to make at this time of year?
6. Why aren’t people working?
4
8
9
0
. Give two ways Spreculmuth is passing his time.
. What two reasons does Ealhstan give for not fearing the Vikings?
. What will everyone see today in Church
. What will Leofwin and his family do on Holy Thursday?
Wi
fon (str7)
i:-
. TO COOK/BOIL
hé, héo, hit sieped
andswarian (weak 2)
TO ANSWER
TO CATCH
Ou féhst
hé, héo, hit féhd
wé, gé, hie £66
wé, gé, hie s€opab
98

mete, drenc and ml food, drink and meals
15.Belonging. In NE, words which show belonging are ‘my, your, his, her,
its, our, their? As you can see from the table, there are sometimes different
words in OE according to whether they refer to masculine or feminine things.
But his/its/her/their all refer to the gender of the owner (hence the gaps in the
table). It’s a rather tangled up system, even in NE. The second word given in
the table is used when you’re referring to more than one thing (plural).
| SUB JECT
MASCULINE
eg se cuculer
J
ee
oomin
YOUR piwan |eower/conere|
Leofwin asks Foxtail to whom some different things belong. Can you answer for Foxtail each
time? The first one is done for you.
nb you may have to check up some earlier vocabulary.
na, foxtegele,
pisis min cuculer
is pis ulfes
cuculer, feeder?
*bas sind = these are
In grammar books, these words are called possessive adjectives: adjectives because they are
describing things, and possessive because what they describe is ... possession!
99

leornungdel 6
Now it gets a little fiddly! In Chapter 3, Section 10, you read about ‘subjects’ and ‘objects’.
The table below shows how some of the words change (they’re in big, bold) if they’re being
the object in a sentence. Re-read the section in Chapter 3 if you’ve forgotten about this idea.
The neuter set is the easiest!
OBJECT
PMY
enim Tenine
f
i
m
YOUR
3
MASCULINE
eg done cuculer
MY
ue
fOUR | orme7are |
This time, Leofwin asks Clufweart if she has different things. She does — and she tells him to
whom they belong! Can you answer for her? The first one is done for you:
géa, feeder, ic heebbe
pinne cuculer!
hefst bi minne
cuculer, clifweart?
I have your cup
I have our apples
I have their beef
| have your nuts
I have our dishes
I have your spoon
I have his knife
I have our cheeses
I have her milk
I have my raspberries
oNMw
SoaRN
It’s worth going over these “belonging’ words several times, and testing yourself out loud until
you’re familiar with them: there’s been a lot of new material this chapter.
In many grammars, words which are the subject of a sentence are often said to be in the
nominative case, while objects are said to be in the accusative case. Cases are a characteristic
of OE, and you’ll meet more of them in Book 2. Sooner or later, you’! need to become
familiar with the whole idea of ‘case’
100

mete, drenc and me! food, drink and meals
m... cynn wunab hér.
u... wyrtgeard heefp béana, pisan, and manig
wyrt.—
m.. om hata clufweart and foxtegele.
m.. . modor, elfgifu, wunab éac hér. h..
ceorl isdéad.
goldes brdpor cab hwilum h.. . sweostor to
seonne.
m... hund hate6 haleo. h...
ic lufie m... hund!
nosu bib wet!
ic geheebbe m.. ae and sceap on bére
med.
menn brengad eac pider h... néat.
.. swin and cy bidan on 6&m holtum on
sumera, ac on wintra cumab hie innan.
scortban and blerig sind u... twégen
gafolgieldan.
h... has and land sind m..
m... 0éow hatep spreculmud.
. hus and land.
.. clapas stincap.
hi hatad 6... peowas?
m... hlaford hatep godweard. hé iis begn. for
him swince ic hwilum, and m... land ts h..
gifu. hé is welig — hé hefp €os and sylh,
sweord and byrnan.
we lufiap u... préost, hé hated ealhlstan.
hwér wunap p... hlaford?
sind pb... béowas hold?
lufast pti 0... préost?
Lastly, for this topic, the OE sentences on the left are
translated into NE on the right, but the ‘possessives’ — the
belonging words — are missing. First decide whether the
words are the subjects or the objects in each sentence, then
check if they are masculine, feminine or plural. godspéd!
This is my house.
My family lives here.
Our garden has beans, peas, and many
plants.
My children are called Clufweart and Foxtail.
My mother, Aelfgifu, lives here too. Her
husband is dead.
Golde’s brother comes sometimes to see his
sister.
My dog is called Haleth. His nose is wet!
I love my dog!
I keep my goats and sheep in the meadow.
People bring their animals there, too.
_ Our pigs and cows stay in the woods in
summer, but in winter they come indoors.
Scortban and Blerig are our two
tenants.
Their houses and land are my houses and land.
My slave is called Spreculmuth.
His clothes stink.
What are your slaves called?
My lord is called Godweard. He is a thane. I
work for him sometimes, and my land is his
gift. He’s rich — he has horses and ploughs, a
sword and a mail coat.
We love our priest, his name is Ealhlstan.
Where does your lord live?
Are your servants faithful?
Do you love your priest?
The main vocabulary section at the end of the book will give you details of all the new vocabulary here.
101

leornungdel 6
Read the bits from Ealhstan’s sermon this Good Friday.
They’re written in an Old English hand. We’ve seen this a
few times already, and you should start getting used to it.
phate
TE
aSnoe
{PFeS
RMB
LET
Today is Long Friday (‘langfrigedzg’), and here we are in Church.
Ealhstan brings the cross forward.
(WiperDuetHeep preyvonen
Golde has Easter bread, and the priest blesses it.
Tay)
We hang the bread in the house, for good luck.
The Communion! Only priests can turn the wine through
God’s will into Christ’s Blood, and the bread into his Body.
102

mete, drenc and mél_ food, drink and meals
Now the deacon holds up an image of Christ made from the
willow branches we brought in on Palm Sunday
(‘Palmsunnandeg’). Foxtegele will help put this Christ to bed
in an alcove in the wall, and will watch over Him until Sunday
morning with his friends. On Sunday morning, when Christ
arises, the Lenten fast ends, and we can celebrate.
This afternoon, meanwhile, we put out all the fires, and re-
kindle them from the Easter candle.
Ah, I wish Elfgifu would stop coughing, and I see
Clufweart has fleas again...
Ealhstan is right — we must be ready if Vikings come...

A fortnight after Easter,
Alms’, and during the ‘Rogation Days’ (‘gangdagas’), he leads everyone
in prayers for a good harvest. On the last Thursday in April, ‘Rogation
Thursday (‘gangdunresdzg’), we follow him in procession around the
fields as he blesses the fields. Now’s also the time for ‘beating the bounds’,
leornungdel 6
At last, the mass is over! We give eggs to the Curch, and then we go
home On Monday, Easter sports and games can begin — we call it
Hocktide. We wear new clothes, Godweard gives a feast, and there are
seven more holidays!
Ealhstan expects another tithe, called ‘Plough
when the young, like Foxtail and Clifweart, and older members of the
village walked around fields and the village/parish boundary so as to pass on knowledge of where
the borders lay. Members of the group would carry sticks with which they would beat boundary
markers such as trees and large stones. The children took turns in being ‘bumped’ at certain points.
Us ne licad gangdeg...
weaxan (str 7a)
lufian (wk class 2)
wunian (wk class 2)
TO GROW
TO LOVE
TO DWELL
ic weaxe
ic lufie
ic wunie
ou wiext
6u lufast
60 wunast
hé, héo, hit wiext
hé, héo, hit lufad
hé, héo, hit wunad
wé, ge, hie weaxad
wé, gé, hie lufiad
wé, gé, hie wuniad
Here are the phrases from my Easter sermon. There are some new
grammar constructions which look forward to Book 2, but for now,
just compare them with the OE script, and NE translations. You could
perhaps practise OE writing using a calligraphic pen... or even a
goose-feather quill! The new vocabulary in this section won’t be
found in the main vocabulary section at the end of the book, by the
way — it’s just a taste of things to come.
in uses Drihtnes Hzlendes Cristes nomen...
In the name of our Lord Saviour Christ...
on frymée wees word... and é6zt word wes mid Gode and God wees dzet word...
In the beginning was the Word... and the Word was with God, and God was the Word
104

mete, drenc and mé&1_ food, drink and meals
hér is séo Eostercandel
Here’s the Easter Candle
uton biddan...
Let us pray...
swa swide lufode Gode disne middangeard, dzet hé his ancennedan sunu sealde for iis
so much did God love this Middle Earth, that he gave his only begotten son for us.
hierap! béo6 wicingas nord — and wicingas sid
Listen! There are Vikings in the north, and Vikings in the South
hi fela scipa* — ic nat. ac manig scip
How many ships — I know not. But many ships.
This construction, and the unexpected ending of ‘scip’, will be dealt with in book 2
ac gif findan wé wicingas in Temese stzde, 64 scilon wé gearu béon, durh godes
fultum...
but if we find Vikings in the Thames Estuary, then we’ll be ready, by God’s grace.
uton biddan for godweardes gemyndes feeder, godfrid, and for godwearde selfum.
Let us pray for Godweard’s father, Godfrith, and for Godweard himself.
nii g40 gé in sibbe
now go ye in peace.
Congratulations! If you’ve got this far,
you must be serious about learning Old
English! It’s vital to go over the material
as many times as possible, reading out
loud, testing yourself, listening to the
audio and learning those verbs off by heart.
Try to name things in OE while you’re
out and about, or describe what you’re
doing in simple sentences. Learn with a
friend if you can. Buy other course-books
and see how they approach the same topics.
Good luck!

leornungdeel 6
17. Food and Drink
The basic diet of the average Anglo-Saxons would have been mostly bread and ale.
Of course, the story is more complicated than that! The Anglo-Saxons kept cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs, ducks, geese and chickens. These provided them with meat, eggs and milk, as well as
cheese and butter. Horse- and dog-meat, then as now, seem to have been taboo. They kept bees
for honey, which provided the only sweetener for all but the very rich.
They grew spelt, wheat, rye, barley and oats as the main cereal crops. Peas, beans, leeks,
carrots, onions and turnips were grown for vegetables, and a wide variety of herbs was
cultivated to flavour their food.
They gathered various fruits, nuts, berries and mushrooms in the ‘wild harvest’. They hunted,
trapped or shot* birds, wild deer, boar, hare, fox, beaver and squirrel.
They caught trout, salmon, eels, perch and pike, using nets, traps, or a rod and line, and they
harvested the sea for anything they could catch. At low tide, they collected cockles, scallops
and oysters, which were traded far inland.
They collected salt, and richer folk bought imported pepper and other delicacies such as olive
oil, dates, figs, raisins, almonds, even rice and sugar.
They drank mead (an alcoholic drink made from fermented honey), and imported wine,
although there may have been a few local vineyards, too. It’s been suggested that ale (‘ealu’’)
was perhaps a honey-sweetened barley-beer, while beer (‘beor’) was a long, bitter drink**. Hot
drinks were made with milk, honey, and possibly beer or herbal infusions. Of course, water
would have been available from the local stream or well.
Anglo-Saxons did without such things as tea, coffee, chocolate, bananas, potatoes, tomatoes
and many other things we take for granted today.
* with bow or sling!
** Peter Horn (Widowinde146, magazine of the English Companions)
106

mete, drenc and m&l food, drink and meals
Cooking and Eating
Food was cooked in pots with lids by the hearth, roasted on spits, stewed in an iron cauldron
suspended over the fire, grilled, boiled, fried, steamed or broiled.* There is documentary and
archaeological evidence for cookware such as jugs, kettles, pans, mortars and sieves. There was
probably always something stewing in the pot, which could be added to with whatever came to
hand, and which provided something to offer to guests, whenever they might appear at the doorway.
Ovens for baking bread or cooking meat seem to have been housed in communal baking-
houses, so that loaves and pies would have to be marked to indicate their owners. Richer
families had their own ovens, cooks and servants.
Food was eaten from wooden bowls or plates, or possibly from bread ‘trenchers’. It was eaten with
knives, fingers, spoons, and sometimes forks. People drank from wooden mugs, drinking horns
for the feast, or even glass goblets for those who could afford them.
The evidence suggests there were two main meal-times in the day, around noon, or a little later,
and in the evening. They were communal occasions, and snacking secretly on one’s own, or
between meals, was frowned upon. There were plenty of feast-days during the year, which
needed careful preparation. Some feast-days might be at the lord’s expense, where the whole
village ate and drank together, but there were also religious fast-days, which Ealhstan might
well check to see if they were being properly observed.
Grain could be stored in barns, and threshed and ground as needed through the year, but more
perishable food could be preserved by drying, smoking or salting.
For the typical Anglo-Saxon family, most daily work was directed towards having enough food
to get through the year. Skeletal remains suggest their diet was a healthy one — by necessity
rather than by choice - but if things went wrong, there was a real risk of starvation.
* cooked over hot coals
107

eee Boots aa a
Se cgee wt
Rewrtadets ager plete e820 ola:
iy
==
Pir 44. Belding, Bite ASAT ine ent bie
alles sin aia Sad ade
47ae|
sar
=e
we ercsucunns ae
Sr teil) He An nie: alii eesti coy abs evan terre jane hit
Behe = AES Se Vii Tae setts canyon (eiciede jes pylepty ohpo >
- foe: tatielnrwte 10 ars hint 6app erro pene ya egnitty'th ned,- Sod yd aod
sie re =i;
5
(eanet anna oes "
Sy'
7
;e
sino soi ey bavona *
a
|7
rs
hier doesphy 7
+_

Wordlist
New English to Old English
109

New English to Old English
A
ache - ece / ecas (strong m)
afternoon - ofermidddeg (irreg m)
again - eft
against - wid
ale - ealu / ealoo (irreg n)
all day long - andlangnedeeg
also - Gac
altar (in church) - altere / alteras (strong m)
and - and, ond
animal (domesticated) - neat / neat (strong n)
animal (wild) - déor / déor (strong n)
to answer - andswarian (weak, class 2)
apple - zeppel / zeppela (irreg m)
April - Aprelis / éasterm6nad
to arise, to get up - arisan (strong, class 1)
ash (cinders) - zesce / zescan (weak f)
attractive (of a person) - wilsunlic
August - Augustus / weodm6nad -
aunt (maternal) - mddrige / mddrigan (weak f)
aunt (paternal) - fade / fadan (weak f)
autumn - heerfest / heerfestas (strong m)
B
baby - cradolcild / cradolcildru (irreg n)
bad - yfel
badger - brocc / broccas (strong m)
barley - bere (m, no plural needed)
basket - binn / binnas (strong m)
bath - bzed / bed (strong n)
bathroom - beedern / bzedern (strong n)
bathroom, wash-room —
weescern/weescern (strong n)
to be - béon (anomalous verb)
to be - wesan (anomalous verb)
beach - strand / strandas (strong m)
bean - béan / béana (strong f)
bear - bera /beran (weak m)
beard - beard /beardas (strong m)
because - fordém de
bed - bedd/ bedd (irreg n)
bedroom - sl&pern / sl&pern (strong n)
bee - dora / doran (weak m)
beef - cuflé&sc / ciifl&sc (strong n)
beer - béor (strong n)
beetroot - béte / bétan (weak f)
to begin - onginnan (strong, class 3)
bench - benc / benca (strong f)
berry - berge /bergan (weak f)
berry - berig / berig (strong n)
best - betst
bird - fugol / fuglas (irreg m)
bird (young) - bridd / briddas (strong m)
birthday - gebyrddeg / gebyrddagas (irreg m)
‘happy birthday!’ - gleed gebyrddeg!
black - blzec
black, dark - swéart
blood - blid / bl6d-(strong n)
blue (also grey or green!) - h&wen
boar - eofor/eoferas (irreg m)
to boil - séodan (strong, class 2)
boring - ed6ryht
bowl - bléd / bléda (strong f) but plural
sometimes blédu’ and sometimes no macron!
boy - cnapa / cnapa (irreg m)
branch, twig - twig / twigu (strong n)
brave - rof
bread, loaf of bread - hlaf/ hlafas (strong m)
breakfast - morgenmete / morgenmetas (strong m)
breakfast - fastenbryce / fastenbrycas (strong m)
bridge - brycg / brycga (strong f)
bright (of a light) - beorht
to bring - brengan (weak, class 1c)
British - bryttisc
broom (for sweeping) - besma/besman (weak m)
broth - brod / brodu (strong n)
brother - brodor / brodor (irreg m)
brown - briin
brown - dunn
bucket - byden / bydena (strong f)
burden, load - hleest / hlzest (strong n)
burial-mound, barrow - béorg / béorgas (strong m)
busy - bisig
but-ac
butter - butere / buteran (weak f)
butterfly - buterfléoge / buterfléogan (weak f)
C
cabbage - cawel / cawelas (strong m)
to be called - hatan (strong, class 7b)
to calve - cealfian (weak, class 2)
can see - mot geséon
candle - candel / candela (irreg f)
carrot - more / moran (weak f)
cat - catt / cattas (strong m)
110

to catch - fon (strong, class 7)
cauldron - alfeet / alfatu (irreg n)
cauldron - citel / citlas (irreg m)
to celebrate - fréolsian (weak, class 2)
celebration - fréols / fréolsas (strong m)
chair, stool - st6l / stdlas (strong m)
cheese - ciese / ciesas (strong m)
cherry - cerse / cersan (weak f)
chicken - cicen / cicenu (irreg n)
chicken-meat - cicenflésc / cicenfl&sc (strong n)
child - bearn / bearn (strong n)
child - lytling /lytlingas (strong m)
child - cild / cildru (irreg n)
to chop - héawan (strong, class 7)
Christmas - Géol
church - cirice / cirican (weak f)
clapper, rattle-stick -
cledersticca / cleedersticcan (weak m)
to clean - clénsian (weak, class 2)
clever - snotor
cliff - clif/ cleofu (irreg n)
cloth - clad / cladas (strong m)
to clothe, to get dressed - scr¥dan (weak, class Ic)
clothes - clad / cladas (strong m)
clothes - hreegl / hregl (strong n)
cloud - wolcen / wolcen (strong n)
cloud - genip / genip (strong n)
cloudy - genipful
cockerel - coce / coccas (strong m)
cold - ceald
colour - déag / déaga (strong f)
colour - bléo / bléo (strong n)
colour - hiw / hiw (strong n)
comb - camb / cambas (strong m)
to come - cuman (strong, class 4)
to come to life - cwician (weak, class 2)
common property - gemana / gemanan (weak m)
to cook - séoéan (strong, class 2)
cooking-pot - alfeet / alfatu (irreg n)
cooking-pot - citel / citlas (irreg m)
corn - corn (strong n)
cow - ci'/ cy (irreg f)
cow-meat, beef - ciiflésc (strong n)
crop (planted in a field) - ernd / ernda (strong f)
cup - bune / bunan (weak f)
to cut up - héawan (strong, class 7)
New English to Old English
D
daily (adjective) - gedzeghwamlic
daily (adverb) - gedzeghwamlice
to dance - hléapan (strong, class 7)
Danish - denisc
dark - deorce
dark, black - swéart
daughter - dohtor/dohtor (irreg f)
dawn - dagung / dagunga (strong f)
day - deeg / dagas (irreg m)
all day long - andlangne deg
deacon (priest’s assistant) —
diacon/diaconas (strong m)
dead (adjective) - déad
dead (as in the dear departed dead) -
déadan (weak m plural)
December - December / zérra géola
deep speech - déopa spz&ce
deer - héorot / héoretas (irreg m)
dim, gloomy - dimm
dining-room - beodzern /beodzern (strong n)
dinner (evening meal) —
éfenmete / @fenmetas (strong m)
divided by (+) - todéled on
to do - din (anomalous verb)
dog - hund / hundas (strong m)
door - duru / dura (strong f)
dragon - draca / dracan (weak m)
to dress - scrydan (weak, class 1c)
drink - drincan (strong, class 3)
dry - drigge, dryge
to dry - drygan (weak, class 1c)
dung, poo - dost / dostas (strong m)
dusk - foranniht / foranniht (irreg f)
to dwell - wunian (weak, class 2)
E
ear - Gare / €aran (weak n)
earth, soil - molde / moldan (weak f)
east - east
Easter - Eostre
to eat - etan (strong, class 5)
egg - &g /€g (strong n)
eight (8) - éahta
eighteen (18) - éahtatiene
eighty (80) - hundéahtatig
eleven (11) - endleofon
111

New English to Old English
end - ende / endas (strong m)
to end - endian (weak, class 2)
English - englisc
entrance - ingang / ingangas (strong m)
evening - &fentid/2fentida (strong f)
evening meal (dinner) —
zfenmete / efenmetas (strong m)
everyone - gehwa
eye - Gage / Gagan (weak n)
F
fair (pale or good-looking) - feeger
family, kin - cynn / cynn (strong n)
fast (period of restricted eating) —
fasten / fasten (irreg n)
fat - fett
father - feeder/feederas (irreg m)
fern - fearn / fearn (strong n)
to fear - forhtian (weak, class 2)
feast - fréolstid/fréolstida (strong f)
feast - symbel / symbel (irreg n)
February - Februarius / solmdnad
to feed - afédan, féedan (weak, class 3)
fence - hege / hegeas (strong m)
festival - fréolstid/fréolstida (strong f)
festival - fréols / fréolsas (strong m)
to fetch - feccan (weak, class 1a)
field - zecer / zeceras (strong m)
fifteen (15) - fiftiene
fifty (50) - fiftig
finger - finger / fingras (irreg m)
to finish - endian (weak, class 2)
fire - f¥r / fyr (strong n)
fish - fisc / fiscas (strong m)
five (5) - fif
flax - fleax (strong n)
flesh - flz&sc / fl&sc (strong n)
flood - fldd / flodas (strong m)
floor - flet / flet (strong n)
floor - flor / flora (irreg f0
flour - melu (strong n)
fog - mist /mistas (strong m)
it’s foggy - hit is mistig
folk - folc / folc (strong n)
food - foda / fodan (weak m)
foot - fot / fét (irreg m)
for - for
forty (40) - feowertig
four (4) - feower
fourteen (14) - feowertiene
fox - fox / foxas (strong m)
fly (an insect) - fléoge / fléogan (weak f)
Friday - frigedaeg -
friend - fréond / friend (irreg m)
frog - frogga / froggan (weak m)
from - fram
frost - forst / forstas (strong m)
frosty - fréorig
fruit - weestm / weestmas (strong m)
funny, amusing - léohtmod, smeorcsum
future - fordsceaftlic
G
garden - wyrtgeard / wyrtgeardas (strong m)
to gather - gadrian (weak, class 1b)
to get dressed - scrydan (weak, class 1c)
ghost - gast / gastas (strong m)
gift - gifu / gifa (strong f)-(also giefu)
girl, woman - cwén / cwéne (irreg f)
girl - mézden / méden (strong n)
girl - mzegd / mzegda (strong f)
girl - wencel / wencel (strong n)
to give - giefan (strong, class 5)
to give birth - cennan (weak, class 1a)
glad - gleed
glass (container for drink) —
gleesfeet / gleesfeetu (irreg n)
gloomy, dark, murky - mirce
gloomy, dark, murky - wonn
to go - gan (anomalous verb)
goat - gat / gét (irreg m)
golden - gylden
good - god, til
grand-daughter - nefene / nefenan (weak f)
grand-daughter - nift / nifta (strong f) -
grandfather - ealdfzeder / ealdfeederas (strong m)
grandmother - ealdmddor / ealdmGdra (irreg f)
grand-son - nefa / nefan (weak m)
grape - winberge / winbergan (weak f)
grass - geers / garsu (irreg n)
graveyard - lictiin/ lictiinas (strong m)
greedy - frec
greedy - grédig
green - greéne
Hi2

New English to Old English
to greet - grétan (weak, class 1c)
grey - greg
to grind - grindan (strong, class 3)
to grow - growan (strong, class 7)
to grow, flourish - weaxan (strong, class 7)
H
hair - hér /hér (strong n) -
hall, living-room - héall/héalla (strong f)
ham, joint or flitch of - flicce / fliccu (strong n)
hare - hara / haran (weak m)
to hate - hatian (weak, class 2)
to have - habban (weak, class 3)
hay - hieg (strong n)
he-hé
to heal - h&lan (weak, class 1c)
hearth - heord / heordas (strong m)
heathen (a non-Christian) —
h&dena / hzdenan (weak m)
heathland - h#6 / has (strong m)
heaven, sky - heofon / heofonas (strong m)
heaven, sky - heofon / heofona (strong f)
heavy - hefig
hedge - hecg / hecga (strong f)
hello! - éala!
hemp - henep (strong m)
hen - hén / hennan (irreg f)
her (possessive adjective) - hire
her (personal pronoun, accusative case)-hie
herb - wyrt / wyrta (strong f) (also plant or
vegetable)
here - hér
high - héah
hill - diin / dina (strong f)
him - hine (accusative case)
his - his
to hold, to keep - healdan (strong, class 7)
holy - halig
home - ham
honey - hunig / hunig (strong n)
horn - horn / hornas (strong m)
horse - hors / hors (strong n)
hot - hat
hour - tid / tida (strong f)
hour - stund / stunda (strong f)
house - hiis / hiis (strong n)
hundred (100) - hund, hundred, hundtientig
hungry - hungrig
to be hungry - hyngrian (weak,class 1b)
husband - ceorl / ceorlas (strong m)
I
I-ic
Ican/ can’t - ic meg /ne meg
I think - mé 6énced -
ice - Is (strong n)
icy - Isig
if- gif
ill - adlig
image, likeness - onlicnes / onlicnesa (strong f)
impatient - ungedyldig
in-in,on
indoors - innan
to inhabit - oneardian (weak, class 2)
interesting - mynewyro
it- hit
it seems to me - mé dyncd, mé dinced
J
January - Ianuarius, zefterra Géola
Juice - séaw/ séaw (strong n)
juice - wos / wos (strong n)
July - Tulius, zefterra lida
June - Junius, &rra lida, midsumerm6nad
K
to keep - gehabban (weak, class 3)
to kill - Acwellan (weak, class 1a)
kind, gentle, considerate - mildelic
kitchen - cycene / cycenan (weak f)
knife, short sword - seax / seax (strong n)
to know - witan (pp verb)
L
ladder - hlzder / hleedera (strong f)
lady - hl@fdige /hléfdigan (weak f)
lady - ides / ideas (strong f)
land (ie ground) - land / land (strong n)
lamb - lamb / lambru (irreg n)
to laugh - hlihhan (strong, class 6)
lazy - Idelgeorn
leaf - léaf/ léaf (strong n)
learning-unit -
leornungdeel / leornungdeel (irreg m)
to lengthen - lengian (weak, class 1b)
113

New English to Old English
lightning - Iiget (strong n)
likeness, image - onlicnes / onlicnesa (strong f)
lip - smér /sméras (strong m)
little, small - lytel
to live (ie dwell) - eardian (weak, class 2)
to live (ie dwell) - wunian (weak, class 2)
to live (ie to be alive) - libban (weak, class 3)
living-room, hall - héall / héalla (strong f)
load, burden - hlest / hleest (strong n)
loaf of bread - hlaf/ hlafas (strong m)
long - lang
look! - 1a!
loom (weaving machine) —
webbéam / webbéamas (strong m)
lord - hlaford / hlafordas (strong m)
lord - dryhten / dryhtnas (strong m)
to love - lufian (weak, class 2)
luck - spéd / spéda (strong f)
lunch - middzegmete /middzegmetas (strong m)
M
mad, crazy - gemad
mad, crazy - wod
mail shirt - byrne / byrnan (weak f)
to make - wyrcan (weak, class Ic)
man - mon / men (irreg m)
man - wer / weras (strong m)
man - guma / guman (weak m)
man - secg / secgas (strong m)
many - manig (+ singular noun!)
March (the month) - Martius, hr¢6m6naé, hl¥da
married (adjective) - gehiwed
marsh - mersc / merscas (strong m)
mat (floor-covering) - meatte /meattan (weak f)
May (the month) — Maius, driemilcemdnad
me-me
mead - meodu / meoda (irreg n)
meadow - méd / méd (irreg f)
meal - mete / metas (strong m)
meal - mel / meel (strong n)
meat - fl&sc / fl&sc (strong n)
meat - fl&scmete / fl&éscmetas (strong m)
medicine - lacnung / lacnunga (strong f)
to mend - remian (weak, class 2)
mid-day - middzeg / middagas (irreg m)
mid-day meal —
middzgmete / middzegmetas (strong m)
mid-day / afternoon meal —
nonmete / nonmetas (strong m)
midnight - midniht (irreg f)
milk - meolc / mielc (irreg f)
to milk - amelcan (strong, class 3)
mist - mist / mistas (strong m)
moment - byrhtmhwil /byrhtmhwila (strong f)
Monday - mOnandzeg
Month - mGna6 / mGndas (strong m)
Moon - mona / mdnan (weak f)
morning (time of day) —
morgentid / morgentide (irreg f)
mother - mddor / médra (irreg f)
mouse - mis / mys (irreg f)
moustache - cenep / cenep (strong m)
multiplied by, times (x) - sidon
mushroom - swamm / swammas (strong m)
mutton, sheep-meat —
scéapflésc / scéapflésc (strong n)
my - min, mina, mine, minne
N
name - nama / naman (weak m)
news / information - spell / spell (strong n)
niece - brddordohtor / brddordohtor (irreg f)
niece - swustordohtor/swustordohtor (irreg f)
nephew - brddorsunu / brddorsuna (irreg m)
nephew - swustorsunu / swustorsuna (irreg m)
night - niht / niht (irreg f)
at night-time - nihterne
nine (9) - nigon
nine o’clock in the morning - undern
nine o’clock in the evening - nihtsang
nineteen (19) - nigontiene
ninety (90) - hundnigontig
no -na
no (emphatic) - nese, niese, nelle
noon - middeg
north - nord
nose - nosu / nosa (irreg f)
not-ne
not at all - nalles
to not have - nabban (weak, class 3)
nothing - nan ding
November - November / bldtminad
nut - hnutu / hnyte (irreg f) -
114

New English to Old English
O-
poor - earm
oats - atan (m plural)
pork, pig-meat - swinfl&sc / swinfl&sc (strong n)
October - October / winterfylled
pot - crocca / croccan (weak m)
officer / reeve - geréfa/geréfan (weak m)
pretty - cymlic
old - eald
pretty, comely - blachléor (‘fair-faced’)
on-on
priest - préost / préostas (strong m)
one(1)-an
property, held in common-
onion - hwitléac / hwitléac (strong n)
gemana / gemanan (weak m)
or - 006e
protection - weard (strong m or f)
orange-coloured - zeppelfealu, géoluréad
purple - basuréadan
our - ira, ure, tire
to put - lecgan (weak, class 1c)
outgoing, extrovert, bold - beald
outside - widiitan
Q
oven - ofen
quernstone —
ox - oxa /oxan (weak m)
cweornstan / cweornstanas (strong m)
quite, fairly, somewhat - sumes
P
pale-coloured - blac
R
Palm Sunday (week before Easter)-
rain - regn / regnas (strong m)
Palmsunnandzg / Palmsunnandagas (irreg m) _ to rain - rinan (strong, class 1)
parent - ealdor/ealdoras (strong m) -
rainbow - heofonlic boga / - bogan (weak m)
parsnip - feldmoru / feldmoran (weak f)
it’s raining - hit rined
pasture - lzs / lés (irreg f)
to rake - ecgan (weak, class Ic) -
patient, prepared to wait - gedyldig
raspberry - hindberge /hindbergan (weak f)
to pay - gieldan (strong, class 3)
rattle-stick, clapper —
pea - pise / pisan (weak f)
claedersticca / cleedersticcan (weak m)
pear - peru / pera (strong f) -
ready - gearu
penny - p&nig / p&nigas (strong m)
to reap - ripan (strong, class 1)
people - folc / fole (strong n)
red - read
person - mann / menn (irreg m)
reeve (an official) - geréfa / geréfan (weak m)
to pick (ie to gather) - gadrian (weak, class 1b) to remember - gemundgian (weak, class 2)
pig - swin / swin (strong n)
rent (something you pay) —
piglet - fearh / féaras (irreg m) (cf ‘farrowing’)
fearm / fearmas (strong m)
pig-meat, pork - swinfl&sc / swinflésc (strong n) _to rest - t6 reste gan (anomalous verb)
pink - rosen
rich - welig
pirate - flotmann / flotmenn (irreg m)
river - stréam / stréamas (strong m)
plant - wyrt / wyrta (strong f) —
road - stret / stréta (strong f)
also a herb or vegetable
Rogation Day (two weeks after Easter) -
to plant (eg vegetables) —
Gangdeg / Gangdagas (irreg m)
bewyrtan (weak, class Ic)
roof - hrof / hrdfas (strong m)
to play - plegian (weak, class 2)
room (in a house) - inn / inn (strong n)
plaything, toy - plegading /plegading (strong n)
plough - sulh / sylh (irreg f)
to plough - erian (weak, class 1b)
salmon - leax / leaxas (strong m)
plum - plyme / plyman (weak f)
Saturday - seeturnesdeeg
poet, singer - scop / scopas (strong m)
sausage - mearg / mearg (strong n)
poo, dung - dost / dostas (strong m)
to save - nerian (weak, class 2)
LS

New English to Old English
to say - secgan (weak, class 3)
scarecrow - tréowmann / tréowmenn (irreg m)
(conjectural)
sea - brim /brimu (strong n)
sea-food - sémete / sémetas (strong m)
seal (an animal) - seolh / séolas (irreg m)
season - tima / timan (weak m)
sea-watch (a duty) —
szewearde / séwearda (strong f)
to see - séon (strong, class 5)
seed - séd/szd (strong n)
September - September, haligm6nad
serious-minded - hefigmod
to set, to lay - settan (weak, class 1a)
seven (7) - seofon
seventeen (17) - seofontiene
seventy (70) - hundseofontig
sexy - giernendlic
shall (will, must) - sceal
to share equally - efengedélan (weak, class 1c)
she - héo
to shear (ie sheep) - bescieran (strong, class 4)
shed - byre / byras (strong m)
sheep - scéap / scéap (strong n)
sheep-meat, mutton —
scéapflésc / scéapfl€sc (strong n)
shellfish - sciellfisc / sciellfiscas (strong m)
shield, table - bord / bord (strong n)
to shine - scinan (strong, class 1)
ship - scip / scipu (strong n)
short - scort
shy - scéoh
to sing - singan (strong, class 3a)
singer, poet - scop / scopas (strong m)
sister - sweostor / sweostor (irreg f)
to sit - sittan (strong, class 5)
Six (6) - siex, Syx
six o’clock in the morning- prim
six o’clock in the evening- @fensang
sixteen (16) - siextiene
sixty (60) - siextig
sky, heaven - heofon / heofonas (strong m)
sky, heaven - heofon / heofona (strong f)
slave (female) - dow / d€owa (strong f)
slave (male) - 6&0w / d€owas (strong m)
to smell - stincan (strong, class 3)
snake, worm - wyrm / wyrmas (strong m)
snow - snaw/ snawas (strong m)
to snow - sniwan (weak, class 1c)
it’s snowing - hit sniw6
so, such as - swa
sometimes - hwilum
son - sunu / suna (irreg m)
son - magu / maga (irreg m)
son - éafora / éaforan (weak m)
soup - brod / brodu (strong n)
soup - briw /briwas (strong m)
south - sid
to sow - swan (strong, class 7)
spear - spere / speru (strong n)
special - sunderlic
spider - atorcoppe / atorcoppan (weak f)
spider - lobbe / lobban (weak f)
spin (eg wool) - spinnan (strong, class 3)
spoon - cuculer/cuculeras (strong m)
spring (the season) - lencten / lenctenas (strong m)
squirrel - Acweorna / 4cweornas (strong m)
stag - heort / heortas (strong m)
staircase - staeger/staegera (strong f)
star (heavenly body) - tungol / tunglas (strong n)
to start - onginnan (strong, class 3)
statue - onlicnes / onlicnesa (strong f)
to stay - bidan (strong, class 1)
stew (a cooked meal) - brod / broéu (strong n)
to stink - stincan (strong, class 3)
stool, chair - std] / stdlas (strong m)
storm - storm / stormas (strong m)
strawberry - eordberge / eordbergan (weak f)
stream - €a / Gan (irreg f)
strong - stid, strang
study-room —
leornungern / leornunggern (strong n)
stupid - dysig
summer - sumor/sumoras (strong m)
sun - sunne / sunnan (weak f)
Sunday - sunnandzg / heeligdeg
to swim - swimman (strong, class 3)
sword - sweord / sweord (strong n)
116

New English to Old English
T
table, shield - bord / bord (strong n)
to take - niman (strong, class 4)
to take away, carry off, destroy —
forniman (strong, class 4)
to teach - gel&ran (weak, class 1c)
to tell - gesecgan (weak, class 3)
ten (10) - tien, tyn
tenant - gafolgielda / gafolgieldan (weak m)
to tend, to look after - gieman (weak, class 1c)
thane — a nobleman - 6egn / degnas (strong m)
thatched roof - daca /dacan (weak m)
the - se, s&o, daet — but see grammar!
their - hiera -
there, (as in ‘to there, thither’) - dider
they - hie
thin - d6ynne
thing - ding / ding (strong n)
to think - hycgan (weak, class 3)
thirteen (13) - dréotiene
thirty (30) - dritig
this - dis (but see grammar)
three (3) - 6réo, drie, Sry
three o’clock in the afternoon - non
to thresh - derscan (strong, class 3)
thunder - dunor / dunras (irreg m)
Thursday - dunresdeg
time - tid / tide (irreg f)
what’s the time? - hweet is séo tid?
tired, weary - wérig
to-to
today - todeg
together - tosomne
tool - td] /tol (strong n)
town, village - tin / tiinas (strong m)
toy, plaything - plegading / plegading (strong n)
trap - treppe / treppan (weak f)
tree - béam / béamas (strong m)
tree - tréow / tréowa (strong f)
true - sod
Tuesday - tiwesdeg
turnip - n&p / népas (strong m)
twelve (12) - twelf
twenty (20) - twentig
twig, branch - twig / twigu (strong n)
to twinkle - twinclian (weak, class 2)
two (2) - twa, twégen, tu
U
ugly - unfeeger
uncle (maternal) - €am / €amas (strong m)
uncle (paternal) - feedera/feederan (weak m)
unhappy - unblid
unkind - unmildelic
unknown - ungecnawan
until - 06, od6et
untrue - unsod
us-Us
utensil - andloma /andloman (weak m)
Vv
vegetable —
wyrt / wyrta (strong f) (also a plant or herb)
very - swide, wel, ful
Viking - wicing / wicingas (strong m)
village, town - tin /tunas (strong m)
to visit - genéosian (weak, class 2)
wall - weall / weallas (strong m)
warm - wearm
to wash - wascan (strong, class 6)
wash-room - weescern / weescern (strong n)
to watch over - weardian (weak, class 2)
WwW
water - weeter / weeter (strong n)
we-We
weak - unmihtig
to wean - gewenian (weak, class 2)
weary, tired - wérig
weather - gewider (strong n), weder (strong n)
bad weather - unwider (strong n)
to weave - wefan (strong, class 5)
Wednesday - wodnesdeg
to weed - wéodian (weak, class 2)
week - wucu / wuca (strong f)
welcome - welcumen
well (hole in ground) - pytt /pyttas (strong m)
west - west
to the west - westrihtes
wet - wet
whale - hron / hronas (strong m)
what - hweet
wheat - hweete (strong m)
when (as a question) - hwonne
when (as in ‘when it’s raining’) - 6a
117

New English to Old English
where - hwér
Y
whistle (an instrument) —
year - géar / géar (strong n)
whistle / hwistla (strong f)
yellow (also brown or dark!) - fealu
white - hwit
yellow - geolu
who - hwa
yes - géa
why - forhwy (cf ‘wherefore’)
yes (emphatic) - giese
wife, woman - wif / wif (strong n)
you - 0i, 66, gé, Gow (but see grammar)
wind - wind / windas (strong m)
young - geong
window - €agdvrel / éagdyrel (strong n)
your (plural) —
windy - windig
Sower, Gowera, Eowere, Eowerne
it’s windy - hit is windig
(see grammar)
wine - win / win (strong n) -
your (singular) - 6in, dina, dine, dinne
winter - winter / wintras (strong m)
(see grammar)
wise man - wita / witan (weak m)
youth (a young man)- cniht, cnihtas (strong m)
with - mid
wolf - wulf/ wulfas (strong m)
woman - wif / wif (strong n)-
woman - wifmann / wifmenn, wimmen (irreg m)
wood (material) - wudu / wuda (irreg m)
wood (stand of trees) - holt /holt (strong n)
wool - wull / wulla (strong f)
wool-basket —
wullwindel / wullwindlas (irreg m)
to work (ie to labour) - swincan (strong, class 3)
worm, snake - wyrm / wyrmas (strong m)
118

Wordlist
Old English to New English
LES.

Old English to New English
A
ac-but
acwellan (wk 1a) - to kill, slaughter
acweorna / Acweornas (weak m) - squirrel
adlig - ill
eecer/zeceras (strong m) - field
zfenmete / @fenmetas (str m) - evening meal
efentid / tide (strong f) - evening
eefterra géola - January
eefterra lida - July
&g/eg(strn)-egg
eeppel / zeppela (irreg m) - apple
eeppelfealu - orange-coloured
érra géola - December
tra lida - June
ezesce / zescan (weak f) - ash (cinders)
zoryht - boring
afédan (weak, class 2) - to feed
ahiewan (str class 7) - to chop up
alfet / alfeetu - (str n) - cooking-pot
altere / alteras (str m) - altar (in church)
amelcan (str, class 3) - to milk (eg sheep or cows)
an-one(1)
and - and
andlangne deeg - all day long
andloma / andloman (weak m) - utensil
andswarian (weak verb, class 2) - to answer
Aprelis - April
arisan (str 1) - to arise, get up
atan (m, no singular needed) - oats
atorcoppe / atorcoppan (weak f) - spider
Augustus — August
B
bed /bze6 (strong n) - bathtub
baedern / - beedern (strong n) - bathroom
basuréadan - purple
beald - outgoing, extrovert, bold
béam / béamas (strong m) - tree
béan / béana (strong f) - bean
beard / beardas (strong m) - beard
bearn / bearn (strong n) - child
bedd / bedd (irreg n) - bed
benc / bence (strong f) - bench
béod / béodas (strong m) - table
beodzern / beodzern (strong n) - dining-room
béon (anomalous verb) - to be
béor (strong n) - beer
béorg / béorgas (strong m) - burial-mound, barrow
beorht - bright (of a light)
bera / beran (weak m) - bear (a big animal)
bere (m, no plural needed) - barley
berge / bergan (weak f) - berry
berig / berig (strong n) - berry
bescieran (str 4) - to shear (ie sheep)
besma / besman (weak m) - broom (for sweeping)
béte / bétan (wk f) - beetroot
betst - best
bewyrtan (weak, class 1c) - to plant (eg a vegetable)
bidan (strong verb, class 1) - to stay (cf ‘bide, ‘abide’)
binn / binnas (strong m) - basket
bisig - busy
blac - pale-coloured
blachléor - pretty (lit. ‘ fair-faced’)
blec - black
bled / bleda (str f) - bowl, dish
bléo / bléo (strong n) - colour
bléd / bl6d (strong n) - blood
bl6tm6nad - November
bord / bord (strong n) - table, shield
brengan (weak, class 1c) - to bring
bridd / briddas (strong m) - young bird
brim / brimu (strong n) - sea
briw / briwas (str m) - soup
brocc / broccas (strong m) - badger
brod / brodu (irreg n) - soup, broth
brddor / brddor (irreg m) - brother
brddordohtor / brddordohtor (irreg f) - niece
brddorsunu / brddorsuna (irreg m) - nephew
briin - brown
brycg / brycga (strong f) - bridge
bryttisc - British
bune / bunan (weak f) - cup
butere (weak f) - butter
buterfléoge / buterfléogan (weak f) - butterfly
byden / bydena (strong f) - bucket
byre / byras (strong m) - shed
byrhtmhwil / byrhtmhwil (strong f) - moment
byrne / byrnan (wk f) - mail shirt, byrnie
C
camb / cambas (strong m) - comb
candel / candela (irreg f) - candle
catt / cattas (strong m) - cat
cawel / cawelas (str m) - cabbage
ceac / ceacas (str m) - jug
ceald - cold
cealfian (weak, class 2) - to calve
cennan (weak verb 1a) - to give birth to
cenep / cenepas (strong m) - moustache
ceorl / ceorlas (strong m) - husband, freeman
cerse / cersan (weak f) - cherry
120

Old English to New English
cicen / cicenu (irreg n) - chicken
cicenflésc (str n) - chicken-meat
ciese / ciesas (strong m) - cheese
cild / cildru (irreg n) - child
cirice / cirican (weak f) - church
citel /citlas (irreg m) - cooking-pot
cleedersticca / cleedersticcan (wk m) —
clapper, rattle-stick
clénsian (weak verb, class 2) - to clean
clad / cladas (strong m) - cloth
clif / cleofu (irreg n) - cliff
cnapa / cnapa (irreg m) - boy
cniht / cnihtas (strong m) - youth (masculine)
cocce / coccas (str m) - cockerel
corn (strong n) - corn
cradolcild / cradolcildru(irreg n) - baby
crocca / croccan (weak m) - pot
cui /cy (irreg f)- cow
cuculer/cuculeras (str m) - spoon
cufl&sc (str n) - beef
cuman (strong verb, class 4) - to come
cwén / cwéne (irreg f) - woman, girl
cweornstan / cweornstanas (strong m) - quernstone
cwician (weak verb, class 2) - to come to life
cycene / cycenan (weak f) - kitchen
cymlic - pretty, good-looking
cynn / cynn (strong neuter) - family, kin
D
deeg/dagas (irreg m) - day
dzeghwamlice - daily, every day
dagung/dagunga (strong f) - daybreak, dawn
déad - dead (adjective)
déadan - dead (as in ‘the dear departed dead’)
déag / déaga (strong f) - colour
December - December
Denisc - Danish
déope sp&ce - deep speech, serious talk
déor / déor (strong n) - wild animal
deorc - dark
diacon / diaconas (strong m) —
deacon (priest’s assistant)
dimm- dim, gloomy
dohtor / dohtor (irreg f) - daughter
d6n (anomalous verb) - to do
dora / doran (weak m) - bee
draca / dracan (weak m) - dragon
drenc / drencas (str m) - drink (as a noun)
drincan (strong verb, class 3) - to drink
drygan (wk Ic) - to dry
dr¥ge - dry (adjective)
dryhten / dryhtnas (irreg m) - lord
diin / dina (strong f) - hill
dunn - brown
duru / dura (strong f) - door
dysig - stupid
E
&a /a (strong f) - river
Ga/ Gan (irreg f) - stream
€ac - also
eofor / eoferas (irregular m) - boar
€afora/- €aforan (weak m) - son
Gage / €agan (weak n) - eye
éagdyrel / Eagdyrel (strong n) - window
eahta - eight (8)
eahtatiene - eighteen (18)
éala! - hello!
eald - old
ealdféeder / ealdfaederas (strong m) —
grandfather (also ancestor)
ealdmGdor / ealdmGdra (irreg f) - grandmother
ealdor / ealdoras (strong m) - parent
ealu / ealodu (irreg n) - ale
éam / - amas (strong m) - maternal uncle
eardian (weak verb, class 2) - to live, dwell
éare / €aran (weak n) - ear
earm - poor
éast - east
éasterm6nad - April
ece / ecas (str m) - ache (noun)
ecgan (wk Ic) - to rake
efenged&lan weak verb, class 1c) - to share equally
eft - again
ende / endas (strong m) - end (noun)
endian (weak verb, class 2) - to end, finish
endleofon - eleven (11)
endlufon - eleven (11)
englisc - English
oh / Gos (irreg m) - horse
eordberge / eordbergan (wk f) - strawberry
Eostre - Easter
éower - your (plural)
éower - your (plural)
Eowere - your (plural)
Eowerne - your (plural)
erian (weak verb, class 1b) - to plough
ernd / ernda (strong f) - crop (field of ripe food)
etan (str 5) - to eat
121

Old English to New English
F
feeder / feederas (strong m) - father
feedera / feederan (weak m) - paternal uncle
feeger - fair (pale, good-looking)
feestenbryce / feestenbtycas (str m) - breakfast
féett - fat
fastan / fastenu (irreg n)
fast (a period of restricted eating)
fade / fadan (weak f) - paternal aunt
fealu - yellow (also brown or dark!)
fearh / féaras (irreg m) - piglet (cf ‘farrowing’)
fearm / fearmas (strong m) —
rent (ie something you pay)
fearn / fearn (str n) - fern
Februarius - February
feccan (weak verb, class 1a) - to fetch
fédan (weak verb, class 1c) - to feed
feldmore / feldmoran (weak f) - parsnip
féower - four (4)
féowertiene - fourteen (14)
féowertig - forty (40)
fif - five (5)
fiftiene - fifteen (15)
fiftig - fifty (50)
finger / fingras (irreg m) - finger
fisc / fiscas (strong m) - fish
fl&sc / flésc (str n) - meat, flesh
fléscmete / fléscmetas (irreg m) - meat
fleax (strong n) - flax
fléoge / fléogan (weak f) - fly (an insect)
flet / flet (strong n) - floor
flicce / fliccu (irreg n) - joint of ham
fldd / fldas (str m) - flood
flor / flora (irreg f) - floor
flotman / flotmenn (irreg m) - sea-pirate
foda / fodan (weak m) - food
folc / folc (strong n) - people, folk(s)
fon (stron verb, class 7) - to catch
for - for
foranniht / foranniht (irreg f) - dusk
forhtian (weak verb, class 2) - to fear
forhwy - why (‘wherefore’)
forniman (strong, class 4) —
to take away, carry off, destroy
forst / forstas (strong m) - frost
fordzm de - because
fordgesceaftlic - future (adjective)
fot / fét (irreg m) - foot
fox / foxas (strong m) - fox
fram - from
frec - greedy
fréols / fréolsas (strong m/n) - festival
fréolsian (weak verb, class 2) - to celebrate
fréolstid/fréolstida (strong f) - feast/festival
fréond / friend (irreg m) - friend
fréorig - frosty
frigesdeeg - Friday
frogga / froggan (weak m) - frog
fugol / fuglas (irreg m) - bird
ful - very
fyr / f¥r (strong n) - fire
gadrian (weak verb, class 2) - to gather, pick
geers / garsu (irreg n) - grass
gafolgielda / gafolgieldan (wk m) - tenant
gan (irreg verb) - to go
Gangdeg (irreg m) —
Rogation Day (two weeks after Easter)
gast / gastas (strong m) - ghost
gat / gét (irreg m) - goat
gé - you (plural, nominative)
géa - yes
géar / géar (strong n) - year
gearu - ready
gebyrddeg / gebyrddagas (strong m) - birthday
gedeghwamiic - daily (adjective)
gedzeghwamlice - daily (adverb)
gehabban (weak verb, class 3) - to keep
gehiwed - married (adjective
gehwa - everyone
geléran (wk 1c) - to teach
gemad - mad
gemana (wk m) - common property
gemundgian (weak verb, class 2) - to remember -
gemunndigian (weak verb, class 2) - to remember -
genéosian (weak verb, class 2) - to visit
genip / genip (strong n) - cloud
genipful - cloudy
Géol - Christmas (‘Yule’)
geolu - yellow
geoluréad - orange-coloured
geong - young
gerefa / gerefan (wk m) - reeve (an official)
gesecgan (weak verb, class 3) - to tell (eg a story)
gewenian (weak, class 2) - to wean
gewider (strong n) - weather
gedyldig - patient, prepared to wait
giefan (strong, class 5) - to give
gieldan (strong verb, class 3) - to pay
gieman (wk Ic) - to tend, look after
giernendlic - sexy
122

Old English to New English
giese - yes (emphatic)
gif- if
gifu / gifa (str f) - gift
gled - glad, happy
gleed gebyrddzg! - Happy Birthday!
glesfeet / gleesfeetu - glass (container for drinkO
god - good
grédig - greedy
greg - grey
gréne - green
grétan (weak verb, class Ic) - to greet
grindan (strong verb, class 3) - to grind
growan (strong verb, class 7) - to grow
guma / guman (weak m) - man
gylden - golden
H
habban (weak verb verb, class 3) - to have
hélan (weak verb, class 1c) - to heal
heeligdag - Sunday
hén / hennan (weak f) - hen
hér / hér (strong n) - hair
heerfest /hzerfestas (strong m) - autumn, harvest
hz6 / h&das (strong m) - heathland
hé&dena / h&denan (wk m) - heathen (a person)
héwen - blue (also grey-green!)
halig - holy
haligmonaé6 - September
ham - home
hara /haran (weak m) - hare
hat - hot
hatan (strong verb, class 7b) - to be called
hatian (weak verb, class 2) - to hate
hé-he
héah - high
healdan (strong verb, class 7) - to hold, keep
héall / héalla (strong f) - hall, meeting-house
héawan (strong verb, class 7) - to chop
hecg / hecga (str f) - hedge
hefig - heavy
hefigmGd - serious-minded
hege / hegeas (strong m) - fence
henep (strong m) - hemp
héo - she
heofon /heofonas (irreg m) - sky, heaven
heofon /heofona (strong f) - sky, heaven
heofonlic boga /bogan (weak m) - rainbow
héorot / héoretas (irregular m) - deer
heort / heortas (strong m) - stag
heord / heordas (strong m) - hearth
her - here
hie - her (pronoun, accusative case)
hie - they
hieg (str n) - hay
hiera - their
hierstepanne / hierstepannan (wk f) - frying-pan
hindberge / hindbergan (weak f) - raspberry
hine - him (accusative case)
hire - her (possessive adjective)
his - his (possessive adjective)
hiw / hiw (strong n) - colour
hleeder /hleedera (strong f) - ladder
hléfdige / hléfdigan (weak f) - lady
hist / hlest (str n) - burden, load
hlaf/ hlafas (strong m) - bread, loaf of bread
hlaford / hlafordas (strong m) - lord
hléapan (strong verb, class 7) - to dance
hlihhan (str 6) - to laugh
hl¥da - March (the month)
hnutu / hnyte (irreg f) - nut
holt / holt (strong n) - wood (a stand of trees)
horn / hornas (str m) - horn
hors / hors (strong n) - horse
hreegl (str n) - cloth, sheet, clothing, clothes
hrédm6na6 - March (the month)
hrof / hrofas (strong m) - roof
hron / hronas (strong m) - whale
hund / hundas (strong m) - dog
hund - hundred (100)
hundeahtatig - eighty (80)
hundnigontig - ninety (90)
hundred - hundred (100)
hundseofontig - seventy (70)
hundtéontig - hundred (100)
hungrian (wk class 2) - to be hungry
hungrig - hungry
hunig / hunig (str n) - honey
hiis / hiis (strong n) - house
hwa - who
hwer - where
hweet - what
hweete (str m) - wheat
hwilum - sometimes
hwistle / hwistlan (wk f) —
whistle (a musical instrument)
hwit - white
hwitléac / hwitléac (str n) - onion
hwonne - when
hycgan (wk class 3) - to think
hyngrian (weak verb, class 1c) - to be hungry
123

Old English to New English
I
lanuarius - January
ic-I
icmeg /icne meg - Ican /can’t
idelgeorn - lazy
ides / idesa (strong f) - lady
in-in
ingang / ingangas (strong m) - entrance
inn / inn (strong n) - room (in a house)
innan - indoors (going in)
inne - indoors (no sense of movement)
is(strn)-ice
Tulius - July
Tunius - June
L
1a! - look!
lacnung (str f) - medicine
l&s / l&s (irreg f) - pasture
lamb / lambru (irreg n) - lamb
land / land (strong n) - land
lang - long
langian (weak verb, class 2) - to lengthen
léaf/ léaf (strong n) - leaf
leax / leaxas (strong m) - salmon
lecgan (weak verb, class 1c) - to put
lencten / lenctenas (strong m) - spring (the season)
leohtmdd - funny, amusing
leornungzern / leornungzern (strong n) - study-room
leornungdéel / leornungdel (irreg m) - learning-unit
libban (weak verb, class 3) - to live (ie to be alive)
lictiin / lictiinas (strong m) - graveyard
liget (strong n) - lightning
lobbe / lobban (weak f) - spider
lufian (weak verb, class 2) - to love
lytel - little, small
lytling / lytlingas (strong m) - child
M
magu / maga (irreg m) - son
méd / méd (irreg f) - meadow
méden / méden (strong n) - girl
mego / meegda (irreg f) - girl
mel / meel (str n) - meal
Maius - May (the month)
manig (+ singular noun!) - many (a)
mann / menn (irreg m) - person (male or female!)
Martius - March (the month)
mé-me
mearg / mearg (str n) - sausage
meatte / meattan (weak f) - mat (a floor-covering)
melu (str n) - flour
meodu / meoda (irreg m) - mead (an alcoholic drink)
meole / mielc (irreg f) - milk
mersc / merscas (strong m) - marsh
mete / metas (str m) - meal
mé enced - I think (‘methinks’)
mé pinced - it seems to me
mid - with
middzeg / middagas (irreg m) - mid-day
middzegmete / - middzegmetas - (str m) - mid-day meal
midniht / midniht (irreg f) - midnight
midsumerm6nao - June
mildelic - kind, gentle, considerate
min-my
mina - my
mine - my
minne - my
mirce - gloomy, dark, murky
mddor / médra (irreg f) - mother
mddrige / médrigran (weak f) - maternal aunt
molde / moldan(weak f) - earth, soil
mon / men (irreg m) - man
mona / mOnan (weak m) - moon
moOnandzeg - monday
monad / mOndas (irreg m) - month
more / moran (wk f) - carrot
morgenmete / morgenmetas (str m) - breakfast
morgentid / -tide (strong f) - morning
mis / mys (irreg f) - mouse
mynewyroe - interesting
N
na-no
nabban (weak class 3) - not to have
nézp / n&pas (str m) - turnip
nalles - not at all
nama / naman (weak m) - name
nan ding (str n) - nothing
ne-not
néat / néat (strong n) - domesticated animal
nefa / nefan (weak m) - grand-son
nefene / nefenan (weak f) - grand-daughter
nelle - no (emphatic)
nerian (weak verb, class 2) - to save
nese - no (emphatic) -
niese - no (emphatic)
nift / nifta (strong f) - grand-daughter
nigon - nine (9)
nigontiene - nineteen (19)
niht / niht (irreg f) - night
nihterne - at night-time
124

Old English to New English
niman (strong 4) - to take
nonmete / nonmetas (str m) - mid-day / afternoon meal
noro - north
nosu / nosa (irreg f) - nose
November - November
O
October - October
ofen/ofnas (irreg m) - oven
ofermiddzeg / ofermiddagas (irreg m) - afternoon
on-on,in
ond - and
oneardian (weak verb, class 2) - to inhabit
onginnan (strong 3) - to begin
onlicnes / onlicnesa (str f) - statue, image, ‘likeness’
06 - until
oddeet - until
odde - or
oxa /oxan (weak m) - ox
P
pe&nig / pnigas (str m) - penny
Palmsunnandeg (irreg m) —
Palm Sunday (week before Easter)
peru / pera (str f) - pear (a fruit)
pise / pisan (weak f) - pea
plegading / plegading (str n) - toy, plaything
plegian (weak verb, class 2) - to play
plyme / plyman (weak f) - plum
préost /préostas (strong m) - priest
pytt / pyttas(str m) - well (hole in the ground)
R
réad - red
regn / regnas (strong m) - rain
rinan (strong verb, classs 1) - to rain
hit rine6 - it’s raining
remian (weak verb, classs 2) - to mend
ripan (strong verb, class 1) - to reap
rof - brave
rosen - pink
S
séed / sd (strong n) - seed
sé&mete / sémetas (irreg m) - sea-food
seeturnesdeeg - Saturday
swan (strong verb, class 7) - to sow (seed)
séwearde / s#wearda (str f) - sea-watch (a duty)
sceal - shall / will / must
scéap / scéap (strong n) - sheep
scéapfl&sc (str n) - sheepflesh, mutton
scéoh - shy
sciellfisc / sciellfiscas (str m) - shellfish
scinan (str 1) - to shine
scip / scipu (strong n) - ship
scop / scopas (strong m) - singer, poet
scort - short
scrydan (wk Ic) - to clothe, to dress
séaw / séaw (str n) - juice
seax / seax (strong n) - knife, short sword
secg / secgas (strong m) - man
secgan (wk class 3) - to say
seofon - seven (7)
seofontiene - seventeen (17)
seolh / s€olas (irreg m) - seal (an animal)
séon (strong verb, class 5) - to see
séodan (strong verb, classs 2) - to cook, boil (‘seethe’)
September - September
settan (wk 1a) - to set, lay
siex - six (6)
siextiene - sixteen (16)
siextig - sixty (60)
singan (strong verb, class 3a) - to sing
sidon - multiplied by, times (x)
sittan (strong verb, class 5) - to sit
slépern / sl@pern (strong n) - bedroom
smér /sméras (strong m) - lip
smeorcsum - funny
snaw / snawas (strong m) - snow
sniwan (weak verb, class 1c) - to snow
hit sniw6 - it’s snowing
snotor - clever
solmonaé - February
soo - true
spéd/spéda (strong f) - luck, fortune
spell / spell (strong n) - news, information
spere / speru (strong n) - spear
spinnan (str 3) - spin (as in wool, or a web)
steeger / steegera (strong f) - staircase
stincan (strong verb, class 3) - to smell (good or bad)
stid - strong
st6l / stdlas (strong m) - stool, chair
storm / stormas (strong m) - storm
strand / strandas (strong m) - beach
stréam / stréamas (strong m) - river
stret/stréta (strong f) - road
stund/ stunda (strong f) - hour
sulh / syth (irreg f) - plough
sumes - quite, fairly, somewhat
sumor/sumoras (strong m) - summer
sunderlic - special
sunnandeg - Sunday
125

Old English to New English
sunne (weak f) - sun
sunu / suna (irreg m) - son
sud - south
swa - so, such as
swamm / swammas (str m) - mushroom
swéart - black, dark
sweord / sweord (str n) - sword
sweostor / sweostor (irreg f) - sister
swimman (strong 3) - to swim
swin / swin (strong n) - pig
swincan (strong 3) - to work, to labour
swinflésc (str n) - pig-meat, pork
swide - very
swusterdohtor / swusterdohtor (irreg f) - niece
swustersunu / swustersuna (irreg m) - nephew
symbel / symbel (strong n) - feast, banquet
SyX - SIx (6)
T
tid / tide (strong f) - time, hour
tien - ten (10)
til - good
tima / timas (weak m) - season (of the year)
tiwesdzg - Tuesday
todzeg - today
todéled on - divided by (+)
t6l /tol (str n) - tool
td reste gan (see also gan) - to go to rest, bed
tdsomne - together
tr6owmann / tréowmenn (irreg m) -
scarecrow (conjectural)
treppe / treppan (wk f) - trap
tii - two (2)
tin / tinas (strong m) - village, town
tungol / tungol (strong n) - star (in astronomy)
twa-two(2)-
twégen - two (2)
twelf - twelve (12)
twentig - twenty (20)
twig / twigu (str n) - twig, branch
twinclian (weak verb, class 2) - to twinkle
tyn - ten (10)
0
6a - when (eg when it rains...)
6a - the (plural)
daca / dacan (weak m) - thatched roof
degn / degnas (str m) - thane, lord, nobleman
d€ow / - déowas (strong m) - slave, servant (male)
déow/ - d€owa (strong f) - slave, servant (female)
derscan (strong verb, class 3) - to thresh
dider - to there (cf ‘thither’)
6in - your (singular, cf ‘thy’)
dina - your
Oine - your
Ging / ding (str n) - thing (an object)
Oinne - your
dis - this
Gost / Gostas (str m) - dung, poo
6réo - three (3)
6réotiene - thirteen (13)
Orie - three (3)
OriemilcemGna6 - May (the month)
Oritig - thirty (30)
Ory - three (3)
6u - you (singular, nominative)
Ounor / Ounras (irreg m) - thunder
dunresdzeg - Thursday
dyncd mé - it seems to me
Oynne - thin
U
unblié - unhappy
unfzeger - ugly
ungecnawan - unknown
ungedyldig - impatient
unmiuhtig - weak
unmildelic - unkind
unso6 - untrue
unweder (strong n) - bad weather
ura - our
ure - our
ure - our
Us-us
Utan - outside (going outside)
lite - outside (no sense of movement)
Ww
wascan (str 6) - to wash
weescern / weescern (strong n) - bathroom, washroom
westm / weestmas (strong m) - fruit
weet - wet
weeter / weeter (str n) - water
We-we
weall / weallas (strong m) - wall
weard / wearda or weardas (strong m-f) - protection
weardian (weak verb, class 2) - to watch over
wearm - warm
weaxan (strong verb, class 7) —
to grow, flourish (‘to wax’)
webbéam / webbéamas (strong m) - weaving loom
weder (strong n) - weather
wefan (str 5) - to weave
wel - very
126

Old English to New English
welcumen - welcome
welig - rich
wencel / wencel (irreg n) - girl (‘wench’)
wéodian (weak verb, class 2) - to weed
wéodmonaé - August
wer / weras (strong m) - man
werig - weary, tired
wesan (anomalous verb) - to be
west - west
westrihtes - to the west
wicing /wicingas (strong m) - Viking
wif / wif (strong n) - wife, woman
wifmann / wifmenn, wimmen (irreg m) - wife, woman
wilsumlic - attractive, sexy
win /win (strn) - wine
winberge / winbergan (weak f) - grape
wind / windas (strong m) - wind
windig - windy
wine / winas (strong m) - friend
winter / wintras (strong m) - winter
winterfylled - October
wita / witan (weak m) - wise man, councillor
witan (pp verb) - to know
wid - against
widiutan - outside
wod - mad, crazy
wodnesdzeg - Wednesday
wolcen / wolcen (strong n) - cloud
wonn - dim, gloomy
wos / w6s (str n) - juice
wucu / wuca (strong f) - week
wudu / wuda (irreg m) - wood (the material)
wulf/ wulfas (strong m) - wolf
wull / wulla (strong f) - wool
wullwindel / wullwindlas (irreg m) - wool-basket
wunian (weak verb, class 2) - to live, dwell
wyrcan (weak verb, class Ic) - to make
wytm / wyrmas (strong m) - worm, snake
wyrt / wyrta (strong f) - vegetable, plant, herb
wyrtgeard / wyrtgeardas (strong m) - garden
Y
yfel - bad
127

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Transcripts and Answers
129

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Leornungdel 1
Transcript and answers to Unit 1
1 Ois is clifweart, dis is foxtegele, golde, leofwin, clifweart
4
hi hatest 60?
...1¢ hate fréda
hi eald eart 60?
...lc eom féower and Gritig gear eald.
eart 00 gehiwed?
.. ea.
hi hated 0in ceorl?
...min ceorl hated hwitstan
hi eald is hé?
...ha! hé is ful wel eald! fif and féowertig gear!
heefst 60 bearn?
...giese, ic heebbe 6réo bearn: twégen cnapan and
an mego.
heefst 6U brodor 066e sweostor? _...na, ac ic hebbe catt, de mistig hated.
She’s called Freda, she’s 34, she’s married to an old man of 45
called Hwitstan, she has two sons and a daughter, no brothers
or sisters, and a cat called Misty.
6 he asked your name. you would answer ‘ic hate...’
8 na /na/ géa/ géa/ géa
9a mélicad min brddor ford&m de hé is gid.
b ic hatie min sweostor ford#m de héo is yfel.
c ic lufie min mddor ford#ém de héo is mildelic.
d ne licaé mé min ceorl ford&m de hé is sumes zéryht.
e ne licad mé min feeder fordém de hé is swide dysig.
10 twégen
féower and twentig
tien
siextiene
6réotiene
seofon and twentig
11 surprises:
the words for ‘family’ are masculine and Woman from wifmann
neuter.
Queen from cwén
one of the words for ‘wife’ is masculine
Knight from cniht
the words for ‘baby’ and ‘child’ are neuter. Knave from cnapa
two of the words for ‘girl’ are neuter.
Wench from wencel
one of the words for ‘woman’ is neuter.
Werewolf from wer-wulf (= man-wolf)
12 Hello! I’m called Foxtegele (Foxtail). I’m 8 years old. I’m very clever! I have one
sister, who’s called Clufweart (Buttercup).I like Clufweart because she’s funny and
kind. Ilike my parents, too. They’re called Leofwin and Golde. I love my father
because he’s funny, and my mother because she’s patient.I also have a dog. He’s
called Haleth (Hero), and he’s stupid! He’s my best friend. My grandmother is 64. Her
name is AElfgifu (elf-gift). I don’t like my grandmother because she’s unkind and bad.
Eo

min his my house
Transcripts and answers to Unit 2
se feeder
séo duru
det bord
se tin
séo wif
det f¥r
se crocca
séo benc
Geet bearn
se hlaf
séo bune
Ozet bedd
se citel
séo sweostor
se wyrtgeard
se wullwindel
eala! ic eom golde, leofwines wifmann. ic eom nigon and twentig gear eald. ic eom scort, and
sumes geong. leofwin segp beet ic eom blachléor. ic hebbe lang, briin hér and grég Eagan.
leofwin is min ceorl. hé is 6ritig gear eald. hé is lang and dynne, and hé hef6 feeger hér. hé hefd
briin Gagan. hé is sumes snotor and swibe stid.
cliifweart and foxteegele sind tre bearn. clifweart hef6 feeger hér and h&wen éagan. foxtegele
heefd scort swéart hér and briin éagan. hé is beald and smeorcsum, ac sumes dysig!
leofwines médor hated £lfgifu. héo is feower and siextig gear eald. héo hef6 gr&ég hér and éagan.
héo is unmildelic and frec: ne licad tis €lfgifu, ac héo eardad mid tis.
Leofwin says so!
long and brown
Clufweart
Alfgifu
Leofwin
bold, funny, a bit stupid
DAUbwne
7. Spreculmid
8.
9.
1. 6€0w
1.Godweard
1. well — but hungry
2. stupid and lazy
2.Freda
2. to get her some bread
3. missing a finger
3. Agata
3. Foxtail
4. the three girls
4.Ulf
4. He’s helping his father
5. weak and shy
5. cheese
6. Spreculmtid’s wife
132

Leornungdel 2
Transcripts and answers to Unit 2 (cont.)
13.
—. ic oneardie prittewella.
. Sis is séo cycene.
. foxtegele hef6 scort, feger hr and bran éagan.
det brim in winter bid greg.
clifweart is swide hungrig,
hwér is se besma?
. séo benc is hér.
. spreculmid hef6 feower bearn.
NTaFe,
etSn. se heofon is blac todeg
_—So. ic doncie pé - se ciese is god!
133

Answers to Unit 3
ute outside
1. The patterns are given in section 4.
Ds
masculine feminine neuter
masculine — feminine
plural
plural plural
plural
plural
6a stolas 6a bydena 4 seax
6a besman 64 meattan
0a binnas 06a hledera 04 scipu
0a cambas
6a béamas
You had a 50-50 chance with the two neuter nouns — did you get them right?
6.
1 brada singed songas
2 hé genéosad us
3 hé h#l6 folc
4 bringed spell
5 wé growad foda
6 wé healdad néat
7 hé hefd diacon
8 hé heef6 wif and tu bearn.
9 hé hefd scop
7
TO BRING
TO HOLD
du bringst
ou healdest
wé, gé, hie
we, gé, hie
bringad
healdad
ep
1 strong neuter 2 weak feminine
hund — str masc
catt — str masc
éoh — irreg masc
cu — irreg fem
swin — str neuter
scéap — str neuter
cocc — str masc
cicen — str neuter
TO VISIT
6 genéosast
we, gé, hie
genéosiad
3 irregular masculine 4 weak masculine
134
mus — irreg masc
fiigol — str masc
bridd — str masc
wulf — str masc
wyrm—strm
bera — wk masc
fisc — str masc
5 weak feminine

leornunadel 3
Answers to Unit 3
10.
- hé h#l6 64 cwén
Subject ‘hé’, object ‘6a cwén’
- hé bringed det spell
Subject ‘hé’, object ‘daet spell’
- we growad done foda Subject ‘wé’, object ‘done foda’
- godweard hef6 6asulh Subject ‘godweard’, object ‘6a sulh’
- hé healdaé dzet land
Subject ‘hé’, object ‘det land’
1 done
56a
2 det, 6a
6 done det
364
7 done
4 done
in Q2, ‘bearn’ could mean one or more children, so there are two possible answers.
1 fiscas oneardia6 6a éa
2 gastas oneardiad done mersc
3 haran oneardiad done hep
4 fuglas oneardiaé 6et clif
5 swin oneardiad dzt holt
lla
se foda (the food)
WEAK
se leax (the salmon) STRONG
Ozet scéap (the sheep) STRONG
séo fléoge (the fly) WEAK
se draca (the dragon) WEAK
13.
SCOMOIDMKNAAWH
EH
ft
2b 3a 4a Se nGce/ii
géa, giese
Leofwin and Foxtégele
god niht
How she is
It depends on whether she’s speaking to one person or more than one.
I don’t know
Where you live
Brada
ic eom eahta wintra
If she may do something
eR)

timan, weder seasons, weather
Transcripts and answers to Unit 4
2
S
ihn
1 wé sittad in dere sunnan
een
2 hie héawad done wudu
on herfest
3 sewest 60 pet sed?
man sawed sad
4 leofwin riped pone herfest
man eee
5 ic drince win
man hiewed wudu
ge
6 hweet déd héo?
(hie hatad) winter, lencten, sumor and heerfest
4
1. hit bid ceald and isig.
7. on sumorende wé onginnaé pet cornheerfest.
2. sé sulhoxa wunad innan mid is.
8. fram dagunge oddeet foranniht.
3. wé dcwellad an swin od0e ane ci gif we hyngrad. —_-9.. ba dagas ne béop sw lange.
4. ac scinb hwilum séo sunne.
10. man gadred westm, hnyte and bergan fram 6m holte.
5. wé fréolsiad lenctentid on Eostre.
11. on dm géarende wé habbad fréolsdzg.
6. pat weder bid wearm and drigge
12. wé hlihhad and singad and gesecgaé spell
5
TO THRESH
TO SHINE
TO LENGTHEN
TO KILL
we, gé, hieacwellad
W8 , he erscad
wé, ge, hie langiad |
TO BE HUNGRY |
oa hyngrst |
we, gé, hie hyngrad
TO SHEAR
| 6 bescierst—_|
: du bescierst
We , gé, hie bescierad |
TO GRIND _
"we, g8, hie grindad
136

leornungdel 4
Transcripts and answers to Unit 4
6
7
10
14
(optional!)
Ib2g3d4f5hGiTe8a9j10c
an
&W
aABWN
ReABWN
MmBWN
Re
transcript:
: ala! ic hate cluifweart, and ic hebbe gebyrddeg on Kalendis Nouembre. ic hebbe tien wintra.
. gddne mergen! ic eom foxtegele. ic habbe gebyrddeg on nigon and twentig Easterm6nad.
ic eom éahta géar eald.
. hig! ichate leofwin. ic heebbe gebyrddzg on fiftiene Kalendis Augustes
. €ala! ic hate golde. min gebyrddeg bid seofon solmGnad
. godne deg! ic eom #lfgifu. min gebyrddeg is tdeg!
answers:
1 November
. 29 April
18 July
. 7 February
. today!
. fiftig (50)
. Siextig (60)
. siex and pritig
. nhigon and féowertig (49)
. fif and twentig (25)
. 68 hit sniw6, 64 plegap héo utan.
. 62 hit is mistig, 64 clénse6d héo (and mddor) pet his.
. 6a hit is renig weder, 64 ne gz héo it.
. 6a hit is ceald on wintra, 64 sitted héo et bem f¥re.
. 6a hit is windig, 64 gadrad héo westm fram bem holte.
E377

leornungdeel 5
Answers to Unit 5
2. DUN TUNGOL MAD EA BRYCG HOLT ACER STRAND CLIF MONA
3-1) se TEMES bi stréam.
2) hie plegiap and swimmad.
3) sé0 éa hatep pritta.
4) béop tiinas,
5) nese! godweard lifad!
6) séo brycg bib ofer pritta.
7) wé afédad cy and swin.
8) man m6t geséon done stréam, det brim, and cent.
9) hwilum.
10) pa tunglas
4 1)bpes
2) bas
3) pas
4) béos
5) pisne
6) pas
7) pas
6. *onmergen/ et dagung
* on dm ecerum
* hecga settan
* hie etad £Zfenmete tosomne
* hé wyrcep plegabing for cliifwearte
7. 1) Windig
2) In
3) Clufweart
4) Is
5) Nim6d
6) Golde
7) And
8) S#wearde
WICINGAS!
189

mete, drenc and mel _ food, drink and meals
Transcript and answers to Unit 6
as
Plurals:
e tubere - butere
* eordbeorgan (wk f)
e mudeo - meodu
* pera (str f)
© retwe - weter
* pisan (wk f)
e fiscw&nils - swinfl&ésc
* béana (str f)
e lodfrume — feldmoru
* hwitléac (str n)
* mearg (str n)
* gg(strn)
* swammas (str m)
Wordsnake
né&p win peru béte wos hlaf eg cufl&sc pise méolc
et dagung, etad wé morgenmete, odde feestenbryce. et middum dege,
etad wé nonmete. et &fentid, etad wé &fenmete. on sunderlicum dagum
habbad wé symbel, and hwilum healda6 wé fastan.
1) et dagung, etad wé festenbryce
SOD
2) et middum dege, etad wE morgenmete
UNSOD
3) €fenmete etad wé et &fentid
SOD
4) symbel etad wé zt dagung
UNSOD
5) wé healda6 oft fastan
UNSOD
6) nonmete etad wé tosomne
UNGECNAWAN
6.
morgenmete ....
wé habba6 hlaf mid weetere, meolc odde ealu. hwilum ne etad wé morgenmete.
nonmete...
gif leofwin swincep on b&m zcerum, ba hé nimp hlaf and ciese, and sumes flicces odde &g.
gif hé swincep for godwearde, pa se hlaford him giefp nonmete. gif wé sindon hamweardes,
we habba6 hlaf and ealu, and briw of 6&m citele. bid 4 Awuht in 6&m citele.
gfenmete...
Wé sittab ite gif bet gewider bib wearm, inne gif hit bib unweder. wé habbad hlaf and ealu,
and awuht of 6&m citele. hwilum bid swinfl&sc, 066e fisc. hwilum hebbe ic s#mete of pém
fiscerum on 6&m strande, and wé habbab sciellfisc. ic séode eft fugelas. tire henna giefab &g,
and wé nimab eft &g of nestum. modor bewyrtd manig wyrt swa pet mél wynsumes swacces
sindon. pa bearn lufiap hlaf and hunig.
140

leornungdel 6
Transcript and answers to Unit 6
1. Water, milk or ale
2. Leofwin
3. If Leofwin’s working for him
4. Bread, ale and soup
5. If it’s warm weather
6. Pork, fish or poultry (birds)
7. She adds herbs / vegetables
8. The children
ic eom fugol. ic ete
ic eom scéap. ic ete gers.
wyrmas and lobban
drince weter and ic giefe meole
ic eom bera. ic ete hunig
ic eom fisc. ic drince micel weter!
ic com catte. ic ete fuglas and mys
10. bled —bleda
buna — bunan
citel — citlas
hierstepanne — hierstepannan
ceac — ceacas
ofen — ofnas
cwearnstan — cwearnstanas
croccas — croccan
glesfet — glesfetu
seax - seax
cuculer — cuculeras
horn — hornas
11. Foxtail:
ic lufie hunig and hindbergan
I love honey and raspberries
mé licad swinfl&sc and ciese
I like pork and cheese
ne licaé mé ealu
I don’t like ale
ic hatie 4torcoppan
I hate spiders
Clufweart:
ic lufie lambru
I love lambs
mé licad eordbeorgan
I like strawberries
ne licad mé gastas
I don’t like ghosts
ic hatie cawel
I hate cabbage
(ett2Gae64H516B78A.9D10C
141

leornungdel 6
Transcript and answers to Unit 6 - continued
13. eostertide is hér! 64 swin cennab hiera féaras. cliifweart lufap ba féaras. mé licad swinflé&sc!
6a dagas weaxa6 lengran, and bet gewider bib oft dryge and wearm, ac hwilom hit rineo.
fréde land heefp fldd: héo is micel unblip, and hire bearn hyngrad. golde bewyrtp hire léac.
mé licad hwitléac ful wel. &lfgifu bewyrtb wyrta td s€odanne and td h&lanne, and man mot
lenctenwyrta gadrian. mé pinced zt golde is sumes feettre. ic nat forhwy.
golde and cliifweart amelca6 pa cy, and cliifweart fédad 64 cealf. golde dép ciese and butere.
wé wéodiab pa eceras. 64 holtas weaxad eft gréne: beop haran on b&m ecerum and fugelas
in p&m tréowum.
hit is Haligwucu, and menn ne swinca6. bas sind Haligedagas. spreculmi6 sited be p&re Ea
and drinced béor: ‘hweet dést 60?’ ic secge him:
‘ic f0 fiscas,’ andswarab hé, ac hé ne dep nan ding. ne mé licad fiscas and ne
mé licad spreculmio.
ealhstan seeg6, b&r béop wicingas nor, and on centlande. gif cumaé6 hiera scipu, 64 sculon wé
gearu béon. God is mid ts, and 64 flotmenn sindon hé&penan.
todag is wodnesdeg, and dm bearnum gief6 se préost claedersticcan: ba cumab menn td
cirican. hé fornimp pone clad fore done altere, and ba wé s€06 pa onlicnes Cristes. tomergen
bip scieranpunresdeg, and man him 6zt hér sciereb. earmum mennum sceol ealhstan giefan
hlaf and ealu, and hiera fét wascan, swa dyde Crist.
142

Grammaticcreeft / Staefcraeft
1 Gender
Nouns in OE are either masculine, feminine or neuter. There are three words, therefore,
for NE ‘the’:
se - masculine
séo - feminine
Ozet - neuter
As you learn new vocabulary, you must also learn the gender of the word. Things, as well
as people or animals, may be masculine or feminine, while ‘people’ words you may
expect to be logically masculine or feminine, can sometimes surprise you!
‘the’ is called in grammar books ‘the definite article’ . ‘a’ or ‘an’ is called the ‘indefinite
article. In OE, there’s no need to use the indefinite article at all.
When you are talking about more than one thing or person (‘plural’), OE uses the same
word for all three genders: 64
2 Nouns
As well as having to remember the gender of nouns as you learn them, you must also
know if they are ‘weak’ or ‘strong’ nouns. This affects the way their plurals are formed,
and how they behave in other situations as well.
Strong masculine nouns : plurals end with-as
Weak masculine nouns : most singulars end with - a. Plurals end with- an
Strong feminine nouns : plurals end with-a
Weak feminine nouns : most singulars end with-e. plurals end with-an
Strong neuter nouns : plurals are either the same as the singular, or end with - u.
Weak neuter nouns : plurals end with - an. Eyes and ears are only
two nouns of this type!
Some nouns seem not to follow the rules, but in fact belong in groups called ‘minor
declensions’. For the moment they are all treated as irregular, and should be learned by heart.
3 Verbs
These are ‘action’ words, which describe what you are doing, or what’s happening. The
words ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’ etc are called personal pronouns.
ic-I
6u - you (singular)
hé, héo, hit - he, she, it (grouped together because they always work the same way)
wé, gé, hie - we, you (plural), they (grouped together for the same reason as above)
The ending of the verb changes, as in NE, according to what particular job it’s doing. In
Book One, the endings show whether J’m doing something, or you, or us ete.
We also need to have one form of the verb which stands for all its variations, and which
we can look up in the dictionary. This form of the verb is called the ‘infinitive’.
Not all verbs work the same way, but there are patterns, so that groups of verbs behaving
the same way can be put into different ‘classes’.
143

Grammar Summary
Weak verbs.
:
These follow the rules, no matter what job they’re doing: know the patterns, and you can
predict how any weak verb works!
class la
These have a short vowel in the infinitive, and a double consonant which disappears in
the ‘Oi’ and ‘hé’ forms. Here are two examples:
feccan (wk la)
~TOFETCH
icfecce
TO GIVE BIRTH
ic cenne
>) Ot cenest
hé, héo, hit cened
cennan (wk la) |
Ou fecest
hé, héo, hit feced
we, gé, hie feccad
class 1b
These end with a short vowel, plus ‘-rian’ in the infinitive. The ‘i’ disappears in the ‘dt’
and ‘hé’ forms. Here are two examples:
nerian (wk Ib)
TO SAVE
ic nerie
Ou nerest
hé, héo, hit nered
we, gé, hie neriad
erian (wk 1b)
TO PLOUGH
1C Cre
hé, héo, hit ered
class Ic
These lose the ‘e’ in the ‘Oi’ and ‘*hé’ forms. Here are two examples:
gel&éran (wk Ic)
144

class 2
The infinitives all end with ‘-ian’. They lose the ‘i’ in the ‘da’ and ‘hé’ forms, and the
Grammar Summary
expected ‘e’ is replaced with ‘a’. Here are two examples:
| twinclian (wk 2)
class 3
There are just four verbs in class 3, and it’s best just to learn them all off by heart:
habban (wk3)
secgan (wk 3)
-wunian (wk 2)
libban (wk3)
*sometimes ‘leofad’
hyegan (wk 3)
TO THINK
ic hycge
ou hygst
hé, héo, hit hyged
we, gé, hie hycgad
145

Strong verbs.
Grammar Summary
These follow the patterns some of the time, but aren’t reliable. Some of them don’t fit into
any pattern at all, and are sometimes called ‘anomalous’, or ‘irregular’. They all behave a
bit oddly in the past tense, particularly, and they are divided into classes like the weak
verbs: but these are problems for Book 2. Here are some of the most common ones, which
you should just learn by heart.
hatan (class 7b)
TO BE CALLED
Ou hatest
hé, héo, hit hated
we, ge, hie hatad
gan (irreg)
.
cuman (class 4)
giefan (class 5)
béon (irreg)
TO BE
niman (class 4)
146

Grammar Summary
4 Negatives
e ‘na’ is the word for ‘no’. You can emphasise your no by saying ‘niese!’ or ‘nelle’ instead.
e ‘ne’ is placed in front of a verb to make it negative — even with questions.
e ‘nan’ means ‘not one’ — it’s the two words ‘ne n’ squashed into one.
e A few verbs have a special ‘negative’ form — eg né wesan, nabban, né witan:
_newesan (irreg)
NOT TO BE
ie neom
hé, héo, hit nis
né witan (irreg)
| nabban (wk class 3) |
NOT TO HAVE
hé, héo, hit naefo
we, ge, hie nabbad
5 Subjects and Objects
With verbs, the person or thing doing the action is called the ‘subject’. The person or
thing on the receiving end of the action is called the ‘object’. If a dog bites a man, then
the dog is doing the action (subject), and the man is on the receiving end (object). OE is
very sensitive to this idea, and the word for ‘the’ often changes according to whether it’s
the subject or the object of a verb.
oS subject
masculine
feminine |
neuter —
all plurals |
Note - when weak nouns are being the object of a verb, they add the same ending
as if they were plural — which is rather annoying!
147

Grammar Summary
6 This, that, these, those
f
These words do the same job as ‘the’, but they emphasise particular things or people. In
some grammars, they’re called demonstrative adjectives.
|__|
subject | object_|
masculine
| pes | bisne
peos
jnenter
all plurals
7 My, your, his, her, its, our, their
These words, again, do the same job as ‘the’, but they show to whom particular things (or
people!) belong. In some grammars, they’re called possessive adjectives.
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
his
sioner [omar|at Onc
mine
masculine
mina
feminine
min
neuter
dine
masculine
dina
feminine
din
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
éowere
masculine
éowra
feminine
Gower
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
*Changes from the ‘subject’ words shown in bold italics
148

Some of our other titles
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An Introduction to the Old English Language and its Literature
Stephen Pollington
The purpose of this general introduction to Old English is not to deal with the teaching of Old English but to dispel some
misconceptions about the language and to give an outline of its structure and its literature. Here you will find an outline
of the origins of the English language and its early literature. Such knowledge is essential to an understanding of the
early period of English history and the present form of the language. This revised and expanded edition provides a useful
guide for those contemplating embarking on a linguistic journey.
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First Steps in Old English
An easy to follow language course for the beginner
Stephen Pollington
A complete and easy to use Old English language course that contains all the exercises and texts needed to learn Old
English. This course has been designed to be of help to a wide range of students, from those who are teaching
themselves at home, to undergraduates who are learning Old English as part of their English degree course. The author
has adopted a step-by-step approach that enables students of differing abilities to advance at their own pace. The course
includes practice and translation exercises, a glossary of the words used in the course, and many Old English texts,
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£16-95
Old English Poems, Prose & Lessons 2CD s
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This CD contains lessons and texts from First Steps in Old English.
Tracks include: 1. Deor. 2. Beowulf — The Funeral of Scyld Scefing. 3. Engla Tocyme (The Arrival of the English).
4. Ines Domas. Two Extracts from the Laws of King Ine. 5. Deniga Hergung (The Danes’ Harrying) Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle Entry AD997. 6. Durham 7. The Ordeal (Be don de ordales weddigab) 8. Wid Dweorh (Against a Dwarf)
9. Wid Wennum (Against Wens) 10. Wid Weteralfadle (Against Waterelf Sickness) 11. The Nine Herbs Charm
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Wordcraft Concise English/Old English Dictionary and Thesaurus
Stephen Pollington
Wordcraft provides Old English equivalents to the commoner modern words in both dictionary and thesaurus formats.
The Thesaurus presents vocabulary relevant to a wide range of individual topics in alphabetical lists, thus making it
easily accessible to those with specific areas of interest. Each thematic listing is encoded for cross-reference from the
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The two sections will be of invaluable assistance to students of the language, as well as those with either a general or a
specific interest in the Anglo-Saxon period.
£9.95
Plain English — A Wealth of Words
Bryan Evans
Plain English has its roots in the language spoken by the English 1000 years ago. It is a beautiful language which fosters
clear thought and speech. It is a language for those who like to say much with few words.
This wordbook outlines the story of English then it offers ‘A hundred words to start you off (shorten rather than abbreviate,
speed up instead of accelerate, drive home rather than emphasize, and so on). In the main part of the book will be found over
10,000 English words that are still alive and well, then a list of some 3,600 borrowed words, with suggestions about English
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Leechcraft: Early English Charms, Plantlore and Healing
Stephen Pollington
An unequalled examination of every aspect of early English healing, including the use of plants, amulets, charms, and
prayer. Other topics covered include Anglo-Saxon witchcraft; tree-lore; gods, elves and dwarves.
The author has brought together a wide range of evidence for the English healing tradition, and presented it in a clear and
readable manner. The extensive 2,000-entry index makes it possible for the reader to quickly find specific information.
The three key Old English texts are reproduced in full, accompanied by new translations.
Bald’s Third Leechbook; Lacnunga; Old English Herbarium.
£25 28 illustrations 536 pages
A Guide to Late Anglo-Saxon England
From Alfred to Eadgar II 871-1074
Donald Henson
This guide has been prepared with the aim of providing the general readers with both an overview of the period and a
wealth of background information. Facts and figures are presented in a way that makes this a useful reference handbook.
Contents include: The Origins of England; Physical Geography; Human Geography; English Society; Government and
Politics; The Church; Language and Literature; Personal Names; Effects of the Norman Conquest. All of the kings from
Alfred to Eadgar II are dealt with separately and there is a chronicle of events for each of their reigns. There are also
maps, family trees and extensive appendices.
£9.95 6 maps & 3 family trees
The English Elite in 1066 - Gone but not forgotten
Donald Henson
The people listed in this book formed the topmost section of the ruling elite in 1066. It includes all those who held office
between the death of Eadward III (January 1066) and the abdication of Eadgar II (December 1066). There are 455
individuals in the main entries and these have been divided according to their office or position.
In addition to the biographical details, there is a wealth of background information about English society and
government. A series of appendices provide detailed information about particular topics or groups of people.
£18.95
Looking for the Lost Gods of England
Kathleen Herbert
Kathleen Herbert sifts through the royal genealogies, charms, verse and other sources to find clues to the names and
attributes of the Gods and Goddesses of the early English. The earliest account of English heathen practices reveals that
they worshipped the Earth Mother and called her Nerthus. The tales, beliefs and traditions of that time are still with us
and able to stir our minds and imaginations.
£5.95
Anglo-Saxon Food & Drink
Production, Processing, Distribution, and Consumption
Ann Hagen
Food production for home consumption was the basis of economic activity throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. Used as
payment and a medium of trade, food was the basis of the Anglo-Saxons’ system of finance and administration.
Information from various sources has been brought together in order to build up a picture of how food was grown,
conserved, distributed, prepared and eaten during the period from the beginning of the 5th century to the 11th century.
Many people will find it fascinating for the views it gives of an important aspect of Anglo-Saxon life and culture. In
addition to Anglo-Saxon England the Celtic west of Britain is also covered.
This edition combines earlier titles - A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and A Second Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food
& Drink.
Extensive index.
£25 512 pages

Anglo-Saxon Riddles
Translated by John Porter
This is a book full of ingenious characters who speak their names in riddles. Here you will meet a one-eyed garlic seller,
a bookworm, an iceberg, an oyster, the sun and moon and a host of others from the everyday life and imagination of the
Anglo-Saxons.
John Porter’s sparkling translations retain all the vigour and subtly of the original Old English poems, transporting us
back over a thousand years to the roots of our language and literature.
Contains all 95 riddles of the Exeter Book in Old English with Modern English translations.
£5.95
An Introduction to Early English Law
Bill Griffiths
Much of Anglo-Saxon life followed a traditional pattern, of custom, and of dependence on kin-groups for land, support
and security. The Viking incursions of the ninth century and the re-conquest of the north that followed both disturbed
this pattern and led to a new emphasis on centralised power and law, with royal and ecclesiastical officials prominent as
arbitrators and settlers of disputes.
The diversity and development of early English law is sampled here by selecting several law-codes to be read in
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out of all, and short codes from the reigns of Edmund and Ethelred the Unready.
£5.95
Peace-Weavers and Shield-Maidens: Women in Early English Society
Kathleen Herbert
The recorded history of the English people did not start in 1066 as popularly believed but one thousand years earlier.
The Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus noted in Germania, published in the year 98, that the English (Latin Angiii),
who lived in the southern part of the Jutland peninsula, were members of an alliance of Goddess-worshippers. The
author has taken that as an appropriate opening to an account of the earliest Englishwomen, the part they played in
the making of England, what they did in peace and war, the impressions they left in Britain and on the continent,
how they were recorded in the chronicles, how they come alive in heroic verse and jokes.
£5295
Dark Age Naval Power
A Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity
John Haywood
In the first edition of this work, published in 1991, John Haywood argued that the capabilities of the pre-Viking
Germanic seafarers had been greatly underestimated. Since that time, his reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon
shipbuilding and seafaring has been widely praised and accepted.
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F. H. Van Doorninck, The American Neptune
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important part of European history.’
Arne Emil Christensen, The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
In this second edition, some sections of the book have been revised and updated to include information gained from
excavations and sea trials with sailing replicas of early ships. The new evidence supports the author’s argument that early
Germanic shipbuilding and seafaring skills were far more advanced than previously thought. It also supports the view
that Viking ships and seaborne activities were not as revolutionary as is commonly believed.
5 maps & 18 illustrations
£18.95 hardback

The English Warrior from earliest times to 1066
Stephen Pollington
“An under-the-skin study of the role, rights, duties, psyche and rituals of the Anglo-Saxon warrior. The author combines
original translations from Norse and Old English primary sources with archaeological and linguistic evidence for an in-
depth look at the warrior, his weapons, tactics and logistics.
A very refreshing, innovative and well-written piece of scholarship that illuminates a neglected period of English
history”
Time Team Booklists - Channel 4 Television
This is not intended to be a bald listing of the battles and campaigns from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and other sources,
but rather it is an attempt to get below the surface of Anglo-Saxon warriorhood and to investigate the rites, social
attitudes, mentality and mythology of the warfare of those times.
Revised Edition
An already highly acclaimed book has been made even better by the inclusion of additional information and illustrations.
£16.95 50 illustrations hardback
English Martial Arts
Terry Brown
Sixteenth century English martial artists had their own governing body, the Company of Maisters, which taught and
practised a fighting system that ranks as high in terms of effectiveness and pedigree as any in the world.
Experienced martial artists, irrespective of the style they practice, will recognise that the techniques and methods of this
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I found the historical accounts of these martial artists amazing...If you have any interest in martial arts at all, be it
weapons or empty hand combat, then this book is a must, not only for the practical depiction of the techniques but for
the in-depth historical facts surrounding our own island’s martial discipline.
Pat O'Malley, Martial Arts Illustrated, U.K.
£18.95 220 photos
Anglo-Saxon Burial Mounds
Princely Burials in the 6" & 7" centuries
Stephen Pollington
This is the first book-length treatment of Anglo-Saxon Barrows in English. It brings together some of the evidence from
Sutton Hoo and elsewhere in England for these magnificent burials and sets them in their historical, religious and social
context.
The first section comprises the physical construction and symbolic meaning of these monuments. The second offers a
comprehensive listing of known Anglo-Saxon barrows with notes on their contents and the circumstances of their
discovery. The five appendices deal with literary and place-name evidence.
£18.95 21 illustrations
Sixty Saxon Saints
Alan Smith
A useful concise guide which contains biographical details of most of the better known English saints and a calendar of
their feast days. The purpose of this booklet is to see some justice done to the English saints of the Anglo-Saxon period
who took with them from the secular into the religious life the native English ideals of loyalty to one’s Lord and, if
necessary, sacrificial service to his cause.
£3.50
The Hallowing of England
A guide to the saints of Old England and their places of pilgrimage
Father Andrew Phillips
In the Old English period we can count over 300 saints, yet today their names and exploits are largely unknown. They
ae of a forgotten England which, though it lies deep in the past, is an important part of our national and spiritual
istory.
An alphabetical list of 260 saints cross referenced to an alphabetical list of over 300 places with which the saints are
associated; brief biographical details of 22 patriarchs of the English Church; a calendar of saint’s feast days.
£5195

The Battle of Maldon - Text and Translation
Translated and edited by Bill Griffiths
The Battle of Maldon was fought between the men of Essex and the Vikings in AD 991. The action was captured in an
Anglo-Saxon poem whose vividness and heroic spirit has fascinated readers and scholars for generations. The Battle of
Maldon includes the source text; edited text; parallel literal translation; verse translation; notes on pronunciation; review
of 103 books and articles. This new edition (the fourth) includes notes on Old English verse.
£5.95
Note: The Battle of Maldon and Beowulf have been produced with edited Old English texts and parallel literal modern
English translations which will be of help to those learning Old English.
Beowulf: Text and Translation
Translated by John Porter
The verse in which the story unfolds is, by common consent, the finest writing surviving in Old English, a text which all
students of the language and many general readers will want to tackle in the original form. To aid understanding of the Old
English, a literal word-by-word translation is printed opposite the edited text and provides a practical key to this Anglo-
Saxon masterpiece. The literal translation is very helpful for those learning or practicing Old English, however, it is not a
good way to read the story. For that, we recommend Beowulfby Kevin Crossley-Holland — published by Penguin.
£6.95
The Rebirth of England and English: The Vision of William Barnes
Fr. Andrew Phillips
English history is patterned with spirits so bright that they broke through convention and saw another England. Such was the
case of the Dorset poet, William Barnes (1801-86), priest, poet, teacher, self-taught polymath, linguist extraordinary and that
rare thing — a man of vision. In this work the author looks at that vision, a vision at once of Religion, Nature, Art, Marriage,
Society, Economics, Politics and Language. He writes: ‘In search of authentic English roots and values, our post-industrial
society may well have much to learn from Barnes’.
For the first time Saxon-English words created and used by Barnes have been gathered together and listed next to their
foreign equivalents.
£6.95
English Heroic Legends
Kathleen Herbert
The author has taken the skeletons of ancient Germanic legends about great kings, queens and heroes, and put flesh
on them. Kathleen Herbert’s encyclopaedic knowledge of the period is reflected in the wealth of detail she brings to
these tales of adventure, passion, bloodshed and magic.
The book is in two parts. First are the stories that originate deep in the past, yet because they have not been hackneyed
they are still strange and enchanting. After that there is a selection of the source material, with information about where
it can be found and some discussion about how it can be used. The purpose of the work is to bring pleasure to those
studying Old English literature and, more importantly, to bring to the attention of a wider public the wealth of material
that has yet to be tapped by modern writers, composers and artists.
Kathleen Herbert is the author of a trilogy, set in sixth century Britain, which includes a winner of the Georgette Heyer
prize for an outstanding historical novel.
£9195
The Anglo-Saxon Monastic Sign Language
Monasteriales Indicia
Edited with notes and translation by Debby Banham
The Monasteriales Indicia is one of very few texts which let us see how life was really lived in monasteries in the early
Middle Ages. Written in Old English and preserved in a manuscript of the mid-eleventh century, it consists of 127 signs
used by Anglo-Saxon monks during the times when the Benedictine Rule forbade them to speak. These indicate the
foods the monks ate, the clothes they wore, and the books they used in church and chapter, as well as the tools they used
in their daily life, and persons they might meet both in the monastery and outside. The text is printed here with a parallel
translation. The introduction gives a summary of the background, both historical and textual, as well as a brief look at the
later evidence for monastic sign language in England. Extensive notes provide the reader with details of textual relationships,
explore problems of interpretation, and set out the historical implications of the text.
sey
95

Anglo-Saxon FAQs
Stephen Pollington
125 questions and answers on a wide range of topics.
Are there any Anglo-Saxon jokes? Who was the Venerable Bede? Did the women wear make-up? What musical
instruments did they have? How was food preserved? Did they have shops? Did their ships have sails? Why was
Ethelred called ‘Unready’? Did they have clocks? Did they celebrate Christmas? What are runes? What weapons and
tactics did they use? Were there female warriors? What was the Synod of Whitby?
£9.95
Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Magic
Bill Griffiths
Magic is something special, something unauthorised; an alternative perhaps; even a deliberate cultivation of dark, evil
powers. But for the Anglo-Saxon age, the neat division between mainstream and occult, rational and superstitious,
Christian and pagan is not always easy to discern. To maintain its authority (or its monopoly?) the Church drew a formal
line and outlawed a range of dubious practices (like divination, spells, folk healing) while at the same time conducting
very similar rituals itself, and may even have adapted legends of elves to serve in a Christian explanation of disease as a
battle between good and evil, between Church and demons; in other cases powerful ancestors came to serve as saints.
In pursuit of a better understanding of Anglo-Saxon magic, a wide range of topics and texts are examined in this book,
challenging (constructively, it is hoped) our stereotyped images of the past and its beliefs.
Texts are printed in their original language (e.g. Old English, Icelandic, Latin) with New English translations. Contents
include:— twenty charms; the English, Icelandic and Norwegian rune poems; texts on dreams, weather signs, unlucky
days, the solar system; and much more.
£16.95 hardback
Anglo-Saxon Runes
John M. Kemble
Kemble’s essay On Anglo-Saxon Runes first appeared in the journal Archaeologia for 1840; it draws on the work of
Wilhelm Grimm, but breaks new ground for Anglo-Saxon studies in his survey of the Ruthwell Cross and the Cynewulf
poems. It is an expression both of his own indomitable spirit and of the fascination and mystery of the Runes themselves,
making it an attractive introduction to the topic.
For this edition new notes have been supplied, which include translations of Latin and Old English material quoted in the
text, to make this key work in the study of runes more accessible to the general reader.
£5.95
The Mead-Hall
The feasting tradition in Anglo-Saxon England
Stephen Pollington
This new study takes a broad look at the subject of halls and feasting in Anglo-Saxon England. The idea of the
communal meal was very important among nobles and yeomen, warriors, farmers churchmen and laity. One of the aims
of the book is to show that there was not just one 'feast' but two main types: the informal social occasion gebeorscipe and
the formal, ritual gathering symbel.
Using the evidence of Old English texts - mainly the epic Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, Stephen Pollington
shows that the idea of feasting remained central to early English social traditions long after the physical reality had
declined in importance.
The words of the poets and saga-writers are supported by a wealth of archaeological data dealing with halls, settlement
layouts and magnificent feasting gear found in many early Anglo-Saxon graves,
Three appendices cover:
e _ Hall-themes in Old English verse;
e Old English and translated texts;
e The structure and origins of the warband.
£18.95

Tastes of Anglo-Saxon England
Mary Savelli
These easy to follow recipes will enable you to enjoy a mix of ingredients and flavours that were widely known in
Anglo-Saxon England but are rarely experienced today. In addition to the 46 recipes, there is background information
about households and cooking techniques.
S05
English Sea Power 871-1100 AD
John Pullen-Appleby
This work examines the largely untold story of English sea power during the period 871 to 1100. It was an age when
English kings deployed warships first against Scandinavian invaders and later in support of Continental allies.
The author has gathered together information about the appearance of warships and how they were financed, crewed,
and deployed.
£14.95 hardback
Anglo-Saxon Attitudes — A short introduction to Anglo-Saxonism
J.A. Hilton
This is not a book about the Anglo-Saxons, but a book about books about Anglo-Saxons. It describes the academic discipline
of Anglo-Saxonism; the methods of study used; the underlying assumptions; and the uses to which it has been put.
Methods and motives have changed over time but right from the start there have been constant themes: English
patriotism and English freedom.
£5.95 hardback 64 pages
The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons
Donald Henson
This book has three great strengths.
First, it pulls together and summarises the whole range of evidence bearing on the subject, offering an up-to-date
assessment: the book is, in other words, a highly efficient introduction to the subject. Second — perhaps reflecting
Henson’s position as a leading practitioner of public archaeology (he is currently Education and Outreach Co-ordinator
for the Council for British Archaeology) — the book is refreshingly jargon free and accessible. Third, Henson is not
afraid to offer strong, controversial interpretations. The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons can therefore be strongly
recommended to those who want a detailed road-map of the evidence and debates for the migration period.
Current Archaeology
£18.95 296 pages
The Elder Gods — The Otherworld of Early England
Stephen Pollington
The purpose of the work is to bring together a range of evidence for pre-Christian beliefs and attitudes to the Otherworld drawn
from archaeology, linguistics, literary studies and comparative mythology. The rich and varied English tradition influenced the
worldview of the later mediaeval and Norse societies. Aspects of this tradition are with us still in the 21* century.
£35 70 illustrations 528 pages
A Departed Music — Readings in Old English Poetry
Walter Nash
The readings of this book take the form of passages of translation from some Old English poems. The author
paraphrases their content and discuses their place and significance in the history of poetic art in Old English society and
culture.
The author’s knowledge, enthusiasm and love of his subject help make this an excellent introduction to the subject for
students and the general reader.
£9.95 hardback 240 pages
Tolkien’s Mythology for England - A Guide to Middle Earth
Edmund Wainwright
You will find here an outline of Tolkien’s life and work. The main part of the book consists of an alphabetical subject
list which aims to give the reader a greater understanding of Tolkien’s Middle-Earth, the creatures that inhabited it and
the languages they spoke. The focus is on the Lord of the Rings and how Tolkien’s knowledge and enthusiasm for
Anglo-Saxon and Norse literature and history helped shape its plot and characters.
£9.95 hardback

Rudiments of Runelore
Stephen Pollington
The purpose of this book is to provide both a comprehensive introduction for those coming to the subject for the first
time, and a handy and inexpensive reference work for those with some knowledge of the subject. The Abecedarium
Nordmannicum and the English, Norwegian and Icelandic rune poems are included as are two rune riddles, extracts from
the Cynewulf poems and new work on the three Brandon runic inscriptions and the Norfolk ‘Tiw’ runes.
Include: The Origin of the Runes; Runes among the Germans; The Germanic Rune Row and the Common Germanic
Language; The English Runic Tradition; The Scandinavian Runic Tradition; Runes and Pseudo-runes; The Use of
Runes; Bind Runes and Runic Cryptography.
£5.95 Illustrations
Woden’s Warriors
Paul Mortimer
This book explores some of the resources available to warriors in Anglo-Saxon England and northern Europe during the
6" and 7" centuries. In this time of great change, the remains of old empires were still visible but new ideas and methods
of organisation were making possible the growth of centralised kingdoms which became the nation states that dominated
Europe for the next thousand years.
It was also a time of great artistry and wealth, much of which was devoted to the creation of works of art devoted to war
and warfare. It is a time when traditional symbols of identity and the old gods were mingling with new patterns of belief.
This book provides the reader with glimpses of what it was like to be part of a warrior society.
Over 300 illustrations
£45 305 illustrations large format hardback 304 pages
Wayland’s Work — Anglo-Saxon Art 4" to 7" century
Stephen Pollington
Not only was there considerable artistry in the output of early Anglo-Saxon workshops, but it was vigorous, complex
and technically challenging.
The designs found on Anglo-Saxon artefacts are never mere ornament: in a society which used visual and verbal signals
to demonstrate power, authority, status and ethnicity, no visual statement was ever empty of meaning.
The aim of this work is to prompt a better understanding of Anglo-Saxon art and the society which produced it. Nothing
like this has been published for nearly 100 years.
£70 548 pages 62 colour plates, 226 illustrations
Anglo-Saxon Books
Order online at www.asbooks.co.uk
Check website for changes in prices and availability

Organisations
Centingas
Centingas is a living history group exclusively devoted to the Anglo-Saxon way-of-life. The core of
our membership is in the South East of England but it is constantly expanding. We have set ourselves
the task of gaining expertise in the widest possible range of period crafts and skills. Our specialist
areas include textiles, language and weapons.
We provide displays and information for schools and museums, and take part in re-enactment events
around England.
For latest details and information visit www.centingas.co.uk
Pa Engliscan Gesidas
ba Engliscan Gesidas is a historical and cultural society exclusively devoted to Anglo-Saxon history.
The Fellowship publishes a quarterly journal, Widowinde, and has a website with regularly updated
information and discussions. Local groups arrange their own meetings and attend lectures, exhibitions
and events. Members are able to share their interest with like-minded people and learn more about the
origins and growth of English culture, including language, literature, archaeology, anthropology,
architecture, art, religion, mythology, folklore and material culture.
For further details see 9www.tha-engliscan-gesithas.org.uk or write to:
Membership Secretary, The English Companions, PO Box 62790, London, SW12 2BH, England
Regia Anglorum
Regia Anglorum is an active group of enthusiasts who attempt to portray as accurately as possible the
life and times of the people who lived in the British Isles around a thousand years ago (late Anglo-
Saxon period). We investigate a wide range of crafts and have a Living History Exhibit that
frequently erects some thirty tented period structures.
Our site at Wychurst has a large Anglo-Saxon hall — defended manor house - which has been
reconstructed using the best available evidence. Members can learn weapon skills with accurate copies
of weapons of the period. We own and operate six full scale vessels ranging from a 6 metre Faering to
a 15 metre ocean-going trader!
We have a thriving membership and 40 branches in the British Isles and United States - so there
might be one near you. We especially welcome families with children.
For up to date information visit www.regia.org
The Sutton Hoo Society
Our aims and objectives focus on promoting research and education relating to the Anglo Saxon Royal
cemetery at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk in the UK. The Society publishes a newsletter SAXON twice a year,
which keeps members up to date with society activities, carries resumes of lectures and visits, and
reports progress on research and publication associated with the site.
If you would like information about membership see website: www.suttonhoo.org
Wuffing Education
Wuffing Education provides those interested in the history, archaeology, literature and culture of the
Anglo-Saxons with the chance to meet experts and fellow enthusiasts for a whole day of in-depth
seminars and discussions. Day Schools take place at the historic Tranmer House overlooking the burial
mounds of Sutton Hoo in Suffolk. For details of events visit -
website www.wuffings.co.uk email education@wuffings.co.uk

Places to visit
Bede’s World at Jarrow
Bede’s world tells the remarkable story of the life and times of the Venerable Bede, 673-735 AD. Visitors can explore
the origins of early medieval Northumbria and Bede’s life and achievements through his own writings and the
excavations of the monasteries at Jarrow and other sites.
Location — 10 miles from Newcastle upon Tyne, off the A19 near the southern entrance to the River Tyne tunnel.
Bus services 526 & 527
Bede’s World, Church Bank, Jarrow, Tyne and Wear, NE32 3DY
Tel. 0191 489 2106; Fax: 0191 428 2361; website: www.bedesworld.co.uk
Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge, Suffolk
Sutton Hoo is a group of low burial mounds overlooking the River Deben in south-east Suffolk. Excavations in 1939
brought to light the richest burial ever discovered in Britain — an Anglo-Saxon ship containing a magnificent treasure
which has become one of the principal attractions of the British Museum. The mound from which the treasure was dug is
thought to be the grave of Redwald, an early English king who died in 624/5 AD.
This National Trust site has an excellent visitor centre, which includes a reconstruction of the burial chamber and its
grave goods. Some original objects as well as replicas of the treasure are on display.
2 miles east of Woodbridge on B1083 _—Tell. 01394 389700
West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village
An early Anglo-Saxon Settlement reconstructed on the site where it was excavated consisting of timber and thatch hall,
houses and workshop. There is also a museum containing objects found during the excavation of the site. Open all year
10am (except Christmas) Last entrance summer 4pm; winter 3-30pm. Special provision for school parties. A teachers’
resource pack is available. Costumed events are held on some weekends, especially Easter Sunday and August Bank
Holiday Monday. Craft courses are organised.
For further details see www.weststow.org or contact:
The Visitor Centre, West Stow Country Park, Icklingham Road, West Stow,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP286HG Tel. 01284 728718

Lightning Source UK Ltd.
Milton Keynes UK
UKHW052023290520
364058UK00005B/38

Learn Old English
with Leofwin
This is a new approach to learning old English — as a living language.
Leofwin and his family are your guides through six lively,
entertaining, topic-based units. New vocabulary and grammar are
presented in context, step by step, so that younger readers and
non-language specialists can feel engaged rather than intimidated.
The author has complemented the text with a wealth of illustrations
throughout. This volume is the first part of the course.
Listening, speaking, reading and writing skills addressed in each unit
Quick-reference Grammar Guide
New English to Old English Vocabulary
Old English to New English Vocabulary
Audio soundtrack available free from the Anglo-Saxon Books website
Background information on the Anglo-Saxon way-of-life.
The author, Matt Love, was born long ago in Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex.
He graduated from Sussex University in 1977, and ‘has taught Modern
Languages for many years. He is usually quite poor company, but brightens
up somewhat should the conversation turn to language or history.
ISBN9781898281672
9 "781898 281672