//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305HTL.3D i [1--2] 17.8.2007 3:21PM
The International Atlas of Lunar
Exploration
Bringing together a wealth of information from many
sources, including some material never before published,
this atlas is a comprehensive reference on lunar
exploration. It tells the story of every spacecraft mission
to the Moon since the dawn of the space age,
illustrating each account with a unique combination of
maps and annotated photographs. Many of the
illustrations were created especially for this atlas,
including panoramic photographs from every lunar
mission. The missions are listed in chronological order,
providing readers with an easy-to-follow history of lunar
missions.
Special attention has been given to describing the
processes involved in choosing landing sites for Apollo
and its precursors. The atlas also includes missions that
were planned but never flown, before looking ahead to
future missions as the world's space agencies prepare for
a new phase of lunar exploration.
PHILIP STOOKE is Associate Professor in the
Department of Geography at the University of Western
Ontario. He is also a planetary cartographer and has
won the National Geographic Society Award in
Cartography. He has contributed numerous maps and
data to NASA's Planetary Data System, and helped
locate the Viking Lander 2 on Mars and several
spacecraft on the Moon.

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//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305TTL.3D iii [3--3] 13.8.2007 5:18PM
The International Atlas
of Lunar Exploration
PHILIP J. STOOKE

//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305IMP.3D iv [4--4] 13.8.2007 5:17PM
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sa˜ o Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,
New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521819305
# P. Stooke 2007
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2007
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-521-81930-5 hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305EPI.3D v [5--6] 13.8.2007 5:17PM
Passus uno homini parvus
Humanitati gradus magnus
NASA: Apollo 11 image AS11-40-5877

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//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305TOC.3D vii [7--8] 13.8.2007 5:18PM
Contents
Foreword
page ix
Lunar missions and events -- chronological list
x
Lunar missions and events -- topical list
xiii
Preface and acknowledgements
xvii
Moon reference maps
xx
International atlas of lunar exploration:
1 The Moon at the dawn of the space age
1
2 Chronological sequence of missions and events 7
Bibliography
429
Index
437
vii

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//FS2/CUP/3-PAGINATION/IAL/2-PROOFS/3B2/9780521819305FWD.3D ix [9--9] 17.8.2007 2:35PM
Foreword
Exploration of the Moon had long been a dream, then
became reality in the 1950s through advances in rocketry
and motivation by the East--West Cold War. Both the
United States and the Soviet Union made early moon-
ward moves but the Soviets got there first when Luna 2
scored a direct hit in September 1959. Then successes
and failures were traded in a one-upmanship contest
between more Soviet Lunas and Zonds and American
Rangers, Surveyors and Lunar Orbiters. This space race
culminated in December 1968 when Apollo 8 carried
three Americans into lunar orbit and in July 1969 when
Apollo 11 landed the first two Moon walkers. The
United States figured it had won the race, so allowed
Apollo exploration to expire after five more landings of
two men each. Robotic Luna orbiters and landers con-
tinued to fly until August 1976. In the ensuing lull,
astronauts, engineers, scientists, journalists and sundry
historians wrote of the spirited contest from their respec-
tive viewpoints. Some have written about what was
learned from it all, for example, my 1993 book, To a
Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration.
But there remained much more to tell.
A major topic missing from all these histories, includ-
ing mine, has been a full account of the maps that are
vital guides and documents for the exploration of any
new territory. Now this gap has been filled by a magni-
ficent volume chock-full of maps expertly assembled by
Canadian geographer and cartographer Philip Stooke.
By an obviously determined effort, Stooke has pried rare
treasures from obscure archives and personal collec-
tions, including mine. Traveling to Russia, he has recon-
structed the target zones of Soviet missions whose fates
have been obscure. If certain maps were not clear in their
original form he has redrawn, annotated or reprojected
them himself. He has traced the operations of landed
Lunas, Surveyors and Apollos and illustrated them with
personally mosaicked photographs as well as maps.
But the book is much more than an atlas, and this
lunar geologist and historian stands in awe of it. Stooke
has given us an extraordinarily thorough history of the
planning and execution of some 100 (!) missions through
1976 that included 43 successes. He lays them out in a
steady chronological march interspersed with early mus-
ings and stillborn programs, historical punctuations
such as President Kennedy's May 1961 call to land a
man on the Moon, more mundane but essential planning
and site selection meetings, and post-mission analyses.
Maps and photographs show intended or actual impact
or landing sites. A series of otherwise unpublished tables
somehow unearthed by Stooke documents the steps
leading to the choice of targets for orbital imaging and
surface landings -- an important element of lunar
exploration that I wish I could have covered in To a
Rocky Moon as thoroughly as Stooke has.
You are unlikely ever to find a more complete, better
documented, and better organized history of lunar explo-
ration than this one. Stooke also looks beyond the inten-
sive first wave of lunar interest to a renewal since 1990 by
Japan, the United States, and Europe (ESA), and towards
plans for the future by China, India and Russia as well.
Anyone who has wondered how it was all done and how
it is developing owes a huge debt to Philip Stooke and
Cambridge University Press for investing the time, labor,
and expense finally to put it all together.
Don E. Wilhelms
San Francisco
ix

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Lunar missions and events -- chronological list
Early lunar mission concepts
page 7
17 August 1958: Thor-Able 1
7
23 September 1958: Luna 1958A
9
11 October 1958: Pioneer 1
11
11 October 1958: Luna 1958B
11
8 November 1958: Pioneer 2
12
4 December 1958: Luna 1958C
12
6 December 1958: Pioneer 3
12
2 January 1959: Luna 1
13
3 March 1959: Pioneer 4
13
9 June 1959: Project Horizon
14
18 June 1959: Luna 1959B
14
12 September 1959: Luna 2
15
4 October 1959: Luna 3
16
26 November 1959: Pioneer P3
18
1960: Khlebtsevich's Tankette
19
1960: ABMA Lunar Program
19
15 February 1960: Pioneer
21
15 April 1960: Luna 1960A
21
19 April 1960: Luna 1960B
21
23 June 1960: Lunar Flyby Project
21
25 September 1960: Pioneer P-30
22
15 December 1960: Pioneer P-31
22
20 April 1961: Prospector
22
25 May 1961: Kennedy's goal
22
26 May 1961: Lunex report
22
June 1961: Early thoughts about landing sites
23
26 January 1962: Ranger 3
23
23 April 1962: Ranger 4
25
16 May 1962: N-1 Lunar Project
28
July 1962: Surveyor Lunar Orbiter
29
18 October 1962: Ranger 5
30
4 January 1963: Luna 1963A (Sputnik 25)
30
1963: Sonett Report
30
3 February 1963: Luna 1963B
31
2 April 1963: Luna 4
31
23 September 1963: Revised Soviet Lunar Project 31
23 November 1963: AWP 1100 -- Apollo site
selection
33
30 January 1964: Ranger 6
36
21 March 1964: Luna 1964A
36
20 April 1964: Luna 1964B
37
1964: Early Surveyor site planning
37
4 June 1964: Zond 1964A
37
28 July 1964: Ranger 7
37
3 August 1964: Official Soviet Lunar Project
42
17 February 1965: Ranger 8
44
12 March 1965: Luna (Cosmos 60)
49
21 March 1965: Ranger 9
49
10 April 1965: Luna 1965A
52
9 May 1965: Luna 5
52
8 June 1965: Luna 6
55
1965: US landing site planning
55
1965: Bellcomm defines the Apollo zone
58
1965: Geological traverse planning
59
1965--1966 Surveyor site planning
63
18 July 1965: Zond 3
68
4 October 1965: Luna 7
71
3 December 1965: Luna 8
72
31 January 1966: Luna 9
74
1 March 1966: Luna (Cosmos 111)
79
16 March 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
79
31 March 1966: Luna 10
79
30 April 1966: Luna 1966A
82
30 May 1966: Surveyor 1
82
1 June 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
84
1 July 1966: Explorer 33
85
10 August 1966: Lunar Orbiter 1
86
24 August 1966: Luna 11
88
20 September 1966: Surveyor 2
88
1966: Lunar Orbiter 1 Site Screening
89
22 October 1966: Luna 12
93
x

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6 November 1966: Lunar Orbiter 2
101
1966: Extended exploration planning
101
1966: Lunar Orbiter 2 site screening
101
15 December 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board 102
21 December 1966: Luna 13
105
1967: Advanced mission proposals
107
1967: Space accidents
108
5 February 1967: Lunar Orbiter 3
108
30 March 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board
111
1967: Lunar Orbiter 3 site screening
111
17 April 1967: Surveyor 3
113
4 May 1967: Lunar Orbiter 4
117
14 July 1967: Surveyor 4
122
19 July 1967: Explorer 35 (IMP-E)
123
1 August 1967: Lunar Orbiter 5
127
August 1967: Santa Cruz Study
129
1967: Lunar Orbiter 5 site screening
134
1967: Apollo EVA planning
134
1967: Hypothetical Flamsteed mission plan
136
8 September 1967: Surveyor 5
137
27 September 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
139
22 November 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
141
7 November 1967: Surveyor 6
141
1967: Later Apollo Site Planning
143
15 December 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board 144
1968: Bellcomm Lunar Exploration Program
146
1968: Barmingrad
147
7 January 1968: Surveyor 7
152
7 February 1968: Luna 1968A
157
12 March 1968: Zond 4
160
26 March 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board
160
7 April 1968: Luna 14
160
1968: Apollo site screening
162
4--5 June 1968: GLEP
163
25 July 1968: GLEP
168
15 September 1968: Zond 5
168
26 September 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board 170
10 November 1968: Zond 6
175
19 December 1968: Rover mission planning
178
21 December 1968: Apollo 8
179
1968: Soviet landing site planning
181
1968: Advanced mission planning
185
20 January 1969: Soyuz circumlunar mission
186
19 February 1969: Luna 1969A
187
21 February 1969: First N-1 launch
187
27 March 1969: GLEP
187
15 April 1969: Luna 1969B
189
18 May 1969: Apollo 10
189
1969: Advanced Apollo planning
198
3 June 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
199
14 June 1969: Luna 1969C
202
3 July 1969: Second N-1 launch
202
10 July 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
202
13 July 1969: Luna 15
206
16 July 1969: Apollo 11
207
7 August 1969: Zond 7
216
23 August 1969: GLEP
217
23 September 1969: Luna (Cosmos 300)
217
22 October 1969: Luna (Cosmos 305)
219
16--17 October 1969: GLEP
219
30 October 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board 221
14 November 1969: Apollo 12
222
6 February 1970: Luna 1970A
233
6 February 1970: GLEP
233
19 February 1970: Luna 1970B
236
6 March 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
236
11 April 1970: Apollo 13
236
7 May 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
249
12 September 1970: Luna 16
252
24 September 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board 255
20 October 1970: Zond 8
257
10 November 1970: Luna 17/Lunokhod 1
261
31 January 1971: Apollo 14
265
3 February 1971: Science Working Panel
290
3 June 1971: Apollo Site Selection Board
290
6 June 1971: Soyuz 11
294
27 June 1971: Third N-1 Launch
294
26 July 1971: Apollo 15
294
2 September 1971: Luna 18
311
28 September 1971: Luna 19
314
1971: Science Working Panel
317
11 February 1972: Apollo Site Selection Board 317
Lunar missions: chronological list
xi

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14 February 1972: Luna 20
318
16 April 1972: Apollo 16
321
1972: Science Working Panel
333
23 November 1972: Fourth N-1 launch
333
7 December 1972: Apollo 17
334
1972: Apollo Orbital Data: Lunar Consortium 348
1973: Harvest Moon
349
8 January 1973: Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2
350
10 June 1973: Explorer 49 (RAE-B)
358
3 November 1973: Mariner 10
358
29 May 1974: Luna 22
359
28 October 1974: Luna 23
360
16 October 1975: Luna 1975A
361
9 August 1976: Luna 24
362
30 September 1977: ALSEPs turned off
369
1980s: Lunar mission plans (Soviet Union)
369
28 January 1986: Challenger accident
371
1990: Luna Incognita
372
24 January 1990: Hiten and Hagoromo
372
8 December 1990: Galileo
374
8 December 1992: Galileo
377
25 January 1994: Clementine
382
7 January 1998: Lunar Prospector
393
3 July 1998: Nozomi
396
Glimpses from other spacecraft
397
1 February 2003: Columbia accident
399
27 September 2003: SMART 1
401
Lunar gravity assists
402
Future missions
404
Lunar A
404
Selene
405
Chang'e-1
405
Chandrayaan-1
406
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
406
Luna-Glob
406
Mission proposals
407
Moonrise
407
MORO
408
LEDA
408
EuroMoon 2000
408
Discovery missions
410
Commercial lunar missions
412
LunaCorp
412
Transorbital
413
Applied Space Resources
414
Observatories and other studies
414
Lunar base studies
417
Future goals
420
The vision for space exploration
422
xii International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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Lunar missions and events -- topical list
Soviet Union planning
1960: Khlebtsevich's Tankette
page 19
23 June 1960: Lunar Flyby Project
21
16 May 1962: N-1 Lunar Project
28
23 September 1963: Revised Soviet Lunar
Project
31
3 August 1964: Official Soviet Lunar Project
42
1968: Barmingrad
147
1968: Soviet landing site planning
181
20 January 1969: Soyuz circumlunar mission
186
1980s: Lunar mission plans
369
Luna
23 September 1958: Luna 1958A
9
11 October 1958: Luna 1958B
11
4 December 1958: Luna 1958C
12
2 January 1959: Luna 1
13
18 June 1959: Luna 1959B
14
12 September 1959: Luna 2
15
4 October 1959: Luna 3
16
15 April 1960: Luna 1960A
21
19 April 1960: Luna 1960B
21
4 January 1963: Luna 1963A (Sputnik 25)
30
3 February 1963: Luna 1963B
31
2 April 1963: Luna 4
31
21 March 1964: Luna 1964A
36
20 April 1964: Luna 1964B
37
12 March 1965: Luna (Cosmos 60)
49
10 April 1965: Luna 1965A
52
9 May 1965: Luna 5
52
8 June 1965: Luna 6
55
4 October 1965: Luna 7
71
3 December 1965: Luna 8
72
31 January 1966: Luna 9
74
1 March 1966: Luna (Cosmos 111)
79
31 March 1966: Luna 10
79
30 April 1966: Luna 1966A
82
24 August 1966: Luna 11
88
22 October 1966: Luna 12
93
21 December 1966: Luna 13
105
7 February 1968: Luna 1968A
157
7 April 1968: Luna 14
160
19 February 1969: Luna 1969A
187
15 April 1969: Luna 1969B
189
14 June 1969: Luna 1969C
202
13 July 1969: Luna 15
206
23 September 1969: Luna (Cosmos 300)
217
22 October 1969: Luna (Cosmos 305)
219
6 February 1970: Luna 1970A
233
19 February 1970: Luna 1970B
236
12 September 1970: Luna 16
252
10 November 1970: Luna 17/Lunokhod 1
261
2 September 1971: Luna 18
311
28 September 1971: Luna 19
314
14 February 1972: Luna 20
318
8 January 1973: Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2
350
29 May 1974: Luna 22
359
28 October 1974: Luna 23
360
16 October 1975: Luna 1975A
361
9 August 1976: Luna 24
362
Future missions: Luna-Glob
406
Zond
4 June 1964: Zond 1964A
37
18 July 1965: Zond 3
68
27 September 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
139
22 November 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
141
12 March 1968: Zond 4
160
xiii

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15 September 1968: Zond 5
168
10 November 1968: Zond 6
175
21 February 1969: First N-1 launch
187
3 July 1969: Second N-1 launch
202
7 August 1969: Zond 7
216
20 October 1970: Zond 8
257
27 June 1971: Third N-1 Launch
293
23 November 1972: Fourth N-1 launch
333
United States early planning
Early lunar mission concepts
7
9 June 1959: Project Horizon
14
1960: ABMA Lunar Program
19
20 April 1961: Prospector
22
25 May 1961: Kennedy's goal
22
26 May 1961: Lunex report
22
Pioneer
17 August 1958: Thor-Able 1
7
11 October 1958: Pioneer 1
11
8 November 1958: Pioneer 2
12
6 December 1958: Pioneer 3
12
3 March 1959: Pioneer 4
13
26 November 1959: Pioneer P3
18
15 February 1960: Pioneer
21
25 September 1960: Pioneer P-30
22
15 December 1960: Pioneer P-31
22
Ranger
26 January 1962: Ranger 3
23
23 April 1962: Ranger 4
25
18 October 1962: Ranger 5
30
30 January 1964: Ranger 6
36
28 July 1964: Ranger 7
37
17 February 1965: Ranger 8
44
21 March 1965: Ranger 9
49
Surveyor
July 1962: Surveyor Lunar Orbiter
29
1964: Early Surveyor site planning
37
1965--1966 Surveyor site planning
63
30 May 1966: Surveyor 1
82
20 September 1966: Surveyor 2
88
17 April 1967: Surveyor 3
112
14 July 1967: Surveyor 4
122
8 September 1967: Surveyor 5
137
7 November 1967: Surveyor 6
141
7 January 1968: Surveyor 7
152
Lunar Orbiter
10 August 1966: Lunar Orbiter 1
86
6 November 1966: Lunar Orbiter 2
101
5 February 1967: Lunar Orbiter 3
108
4 May 1967: Lunar Orbiter 4
117
1 August 1967: Lunar Orbiter 5
127
Apollo landing site selection
June 1961: Early thoughts about landing sites
23
1963: Sonett Report
30
23 November 1963: AWP 1100 -- Apollo site
selection
33
1965: US landing site planning
55
1965: Bellcomm defines the Apollo zone
58
1965: Geological traverse planning
59
16 March 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
79
1 June 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
84
1966: Lunar Orbiter 1 Site Screening
89
1966: Extended exploration planning
101
1966: Lunar Orbiter 2 site screening
101
15 December 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board 102
1967: Advanced mission proposals
107
30 March 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board
111
1967: Lunar Orbiter 3 site screening
111
August 1967: Santa Cruz Study
129
xiv International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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1967: Lunar Orbiter 5 site screening
134
1967: Apollo EVA planning
134
1967: Hypothetical Flamsteed Mission Plan
136
1967: Later Apollo Site Planning
143
15 December 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board 144
1968: Bellcomm Lunar Exploration Program
146
26 March 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board
160
1968: Apollo site screening
162
4--5 June 1968: GLEP
163
25 July 1968: GLEP
168
26 September 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board 170
19 December 1968: Rover mission planning
178
1968: Advanced mission planning
185
27 March 1969: GLEP
187
1969: Advanced Apollo planning
198
3 June 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
199
10 July 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
202
23 August 1969: GLEP
217
30 October 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board 221
6 February 1970: GLEP
233
6 March 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
236
7 May 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
249
24 September 1970: Apollo Site Selection
Board
255
3 February 1971: Science Working Panel
290
3 June 1971: Apollo Site Selection Board
290
1971: Science Working Panel
317
11 February 1972: Apollo Site Selection Board 317
1972: Science Working Panel
333
Apollo
21 December 1968: Apollo 8
179
18 May 1969: Apollo 10
189
16 July 1969: Apollo 11
207
14 November 1969: Apollo 12
222
11 April 1970: Apollo 13
236
31 January 1971: Apollo 14
265
26 July 1971: Apollo 15
293
16 April 1972: Apollo 16
321
7 December 1972: Apollo 17
334
1972: Apollo Orbital Data: Lunar
Consortium
348
1973: Harvest Moon
349
30 September 1977: ALSEPs turned off
369
US return to the Moon
25 January 1994: Clementine
382
7 January 1998: Lunar Prospector
393
Future missions: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 406
Mission proposals: Moonrise
407
The vision for space exploration
422
Other missions and events
1 July 1966: Explorer 33
85
1967: Space accidents
108
19 July 1967: Explorer 35 (IMP-E)
123
6 June 1971: Soyuz 11
293
10 June 1973: Explorer 49 (RAE-B)
358
3 November 1973: Mariner 10
358
28 January 1986: Challenger accident
371
1990: Luna Incognita
372
8 December 1990: Galileo
374
8 December 1992: Galileo
377
Glimpses from other spacecraft
397
1 February 2003: Columbia accident
399
Lunar gravity assists
402
Discovery missions
410
Observatories and other studies
414
Lunar base studies
417
Future goals
420
Asian missions
24 January 1990: Hiten/Hagoromo
374
3 July 1998: Nozomi
396
Future missions: Lunar A
404
Lunar missions: topical list
xv

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Future missions: Selene
405
Future missions: Chang-e 1
405
Future missions: Chandrayaan-1
406
European Space Agency
27 September 2003: SMART 1
401
Mission proposals: MORO
408
Mission proposals: LEDA
408
Mission proposals: EuroMoon 2000
408
Commercial missions
Harvest Moon
412
Lunacorp
412
Transorbital
413
Applied Space Resources
414
xvi International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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Preface and acknowledgements
Preface
When I was young, people first flew to the Moon. But
the Moon is a big place, so where on it did they go, and
why did they choose those places, and what did they see
and do there? Here I attempt to answer these questions,
using maps and photographs to answer them in a gra-
phic format appropriate to an atlas. People were pre-
ceded and followed by robotic spacecraft, so the stories
of those machines are also told and illustrated. Behind
the scenes thousands of engineers and geologists drea-
med and designed and planned to make these voyages
of exploration possible, and some of their dreams and
plans which never came to fruition are also illustrated
here. Above all, this atlas is a book about places, places
where things happened or might have happened on this
new world.
Inevitably, other topics are touched on, but this is not
the place for a detailed exposition of space technology,
the history of space flight, or the politics of Apollo and
the 'space race'. It is also not a book about lunar astron-
omy or geology, or about the people who contributed to
all these areas. In a few places I stray from this scheme to
fill in the history a little more, as in the case of early
Soviet lunar plans, but I have tried to keep these excur-
sions to a minimum. I keep the text brief, allowing tables,
maps and photographs to answer my fundamental ques-
tions -- where, why and what? I have used contemporary
maps in many places. In fact one of my aims has been
to illustrate this facet of cartographic history. Elsewhere
I have redrawn maps, especially where the originals were
line drawings, or annotated images taken by various
spacecraft.
Much of the material I present here has been gleaned
from existing but obscure sources. Perhaps my most
important goal for this atlas was to collect information
from scattered sources, often difficult to find, into one
convenient reference work. This is perhaps especially
important for the Apollo site selection process. Some
other material is new, generated specifically for this
project. In particular I present panoramic images from
xvii

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landed spacecraft to illustrate the nature of each site.
Many of these views are unique to this book, notably the
Surveyor images which I assembled from scanned mosaic
prints and cleaned of their numerous visual defects. Some
landing and impact sites are identified or their positions
refined here for the first time.
In these four hundred pages I have not been able to
cover every aspect of this epic story. I concentrate on
older missions as more recent material is easier to locate,
and on missions actually flown at the expense of every
unfulfilled plan. Although some unrealized plans are
described, many are not, so I apologize in advance if
something a reader particularly hoped to see is not
included. Only in one area is something missing which
I would have liked to include. Some of the Apollo plan-
ning materials from the Branch History collection at the
US Geological Survey in Flagstaff, Arizona, were not
available at the time I needed them. They would add
extra details for the later Apollo flights. I hope a future
edition will be able to include them.
A few points of a technical nature should be made at
the outset. Latitude and longitude coordinates differed
from document to document as mapping data and meth-
ods improved. Those used here are taken from contem-
porary materials and no attempt has been made to convert
them into a single modern coordinate system, so there
are many discrepancies. On Earth we take it for granted
that map coordinates and physical locations are inter-
changeable, so if you know one you can find the other.
This was made possible by geodetic surveying and more
recently the Global Positioning System, and we have
neither for the Moon. Until lunar maps become as pre-
cise as those of Earth the most useful description of a
lunar landing or impact site is its position relative to
nearby hills and craters, not its coordinates in one map
or another. For instance, in Figure 96 (page 109) the
locations of the potential Apollo landing sites (ellipses)
on the image are more important to us than their coor-
dinates as they were calculated at the time. Accordingly
I have illustrated sites by ''zooming in'' with maps of
increasing scale to define unambiguous locations. My
model for this was the Ranger Lunar Charts produced
by the US Air Force's Aeronautical Chart and Informa-
tion Center in the 1960s and the less systematic but
equivalent sets of maps of early Surveyor landing sites.
All those maps are reproduced in this atlas.
I show longitudes measured east and west from the
center of the lunar disk as seen from Earth, as was always
done in Apollo documents. The units may be given as
degrees and minutes or decimal degrees, as again the
sources are inconsistent throughout the literature and I
have not brought everything into one common format.
Almost all of the sources I have drawn from used metric
units, but where they did not I have converted appro-
priately as this seems to me necessary to avoid confusion.
I have not indicated the north direction on maps or
images. Usually a labeled grid or context map will make
directions clear, and in any case all non-polar figures are
oriented with north at or near the top unless specifically
noted in a caption. I capitalize 'Moon' following the
usage of Spudis (1996).
Most of the basic mission descriptions in this atlas
are adapted from two important internet resources, the
National Space Science Data Center and Mark Wade's
Encyclopedia Astronautica (websites are identified on
page 435). They are not cited separately in the text, but
should be considered the twin foundations on which the
text is built. Only where other sources add new infor-
mation do I give additional citations. This descriptive
text does not contain much that is new. The most
important parts of this book are its collection of more
obscure material and its cartographic portrayal of this
information.
Acknowledgements
This work was made possible by the generous assis-
tance of people around the world. In the United States,
NASA, the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) and the
US Geological Survey (USGS) all helped with access to
materials, facilities, and answers to numerous questions.
The universal access to NASA lunar data via the Plane-
tary Data System and the Regional Planetary Image
Facilities was especially important. I particularly thank
Don Wilhelms, who provided Apollo-era lunar maps
from the collection at Menlo Park and deposited unique
Apollo site selection materials in the Branch History
Collection at Flagstaff. Here I should also thank Fran
Waranius, long the librarian at the Lunar Science
Institute in Houston, who told me how she personally
salvaged a great deal of Apollo material which was
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stacked for disposal at the Johnson Space Center after
the last landing. The historical parts of the collection at
LPI in Houston were greatly enriched by her foresight.
Let us hope that future lunar and planetary exploration
will be properly documented without having to rely
merely on chance and generosity. The best documenta-
tion is contemporary with a project, not an afterthought.
Ewen Whitaker provided both hospitality and infor-
mation on Ranger site selection and the locations of the
Surveyor landers. The library staff at LPI in Houston,
notably Stephen Tellier, helped throughout this project,
as did Maria Schuchardt at the Lunar and Planetary
Laboratory (LPL), University of Arizona, and Adrienne
Wasserman at USGS Flagstaff. The original prints of
the Surveyor panoramas used in this book were found
and scanned at LPI, LPL and Flagstaff thanks to the
efforts and assistance of those three individuals.
Historians at NASA HQ, the Marshall and Johnson
Space Centers, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Boeing,
the US Army and Air Force have all helped find materials
or answer questions. Don P. Mitchell, Ted Stryk, Doug
van Dorn and Bruce Moomaw used their seemingly
boundless knowledge of the subject, and research and
technical skills, to provide me with, or help me present,
very useful information. Doug Ellison helped me locate a
raw Deep Impact lunar image. David Schrunk provided
material related to his ideas on lunar colonization. John
Westfall graciously provided his Luna Incognita map.
Similarly, in Russia, nothing could have been accom-
plished without assistance from many colleagues. The
staff of the Moscow State University of Geodesy and
Cartography (MIIGAiK, which still uses its older Russian
acronym for the Moscow Institute for Engineers of
Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography) were
early supporters, providing invaluable information, advice,
maps,imagesandfacilitiesforstudy.TamaraP.Nyrtsova
provided work facilities and hospitality, Valery V. Nyrtsov
provided transportation, and Maxim V. Nyrtsov helped
with translation and arrangements in Moscow. Staff
of the Sternberg State Astronomical Institute and
the Vernadsky Institute also helped in many ways.
I specifically thank Kira B. Shingareva, Bianna
V. Krasnopevtseva, Vladislav V. Shevchenko, Jeanna
F. Rodionova, Alexander T. Bazilevsky, and George
A. Burba. In Europe the Bodleian Science Library
provided access to some European Space Agency
(ESA) documents. From Japan, Ai Inada provided
access to Nozomi images. Frank Arku and Emilie
Sauks helped compile some of this material in the early
stages of data collection. Jennifer Ann Stenson helped
with the final editing.
The latin couplet ''passus uno homini parvus, huma-
nitati gradus magnus'' is, of course, a translation of Neil
Armstrong's words as he stepped off the footpad of the
lunar module Eagle onto the dusty surface of the Sea of
Tranquillity. For it I am indebted to Preston Henley, a
neighbor in Victoria, British Columbia, during the late
1970s, who at my request had the famous words trans-
lated by a classical scholar, unfortunately unknown to
me, at the University of Victoria.
Images in this book come from many sources. Images
taken by US spacecraft and astronauts are provided cour-
tesy of NASA and JSC (Apollo) or JPL (Ranger,
Surveyor), with additional credits indicated in the text
(e.g. Figure 360). US maps are from the US Army
and Air Force mapping agencies, and the US Geological
Survey. A very small number of maps from other sources
are cited separately. Soviet images and maps were made
available to me primarily by Kira B. Shingareva at MII-
GAiK, with the permission of Cosmonaut and MIIGAiK
Rector Victor P. Savinykh, and also Jeanna F. Rodionova
and Vladislav V. Shevchenko at the Sternberg State Astro-
nomical Institute. All panoramic surface images were
compiled by P. Stooke except those from the Lunokhods.
Finally, I would like to thank my editors at Cambridge
University Press, first Jacqueline Garget and then Vince
Higgs, for taking on this project, and also Lindsay Barnes,
Dawn Preston and Mairi Sutherland, whose hard work
has greatly improved my manuscript.
I would be pleased to receive any corrections or addi-
tional information, which might enhance future addi-
tions to this atlas.
I gratefully acknowledge funding from the University
of Western Ontario (Agnes Cole Dark fund of the
Faculty of Social Science, UWO; Academic Develop-
ment Fund) and the Government of Canada's Natural
Science and Engineering Research Council.
Philip Stooke
London, Ontario
Preface and acknowledgements
xix

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Moon reference maps
The Moon: nearside
These reference maps provide context for
the remainder of the book. Some major
features are named to help locate the
many places referred to in the text.
The original relief drawing was cre-
ated by the US Geological Survey
and was reprojected by P. Stooke.
In all these maps the grid lines are
ten degrees apart. The 108 spacing
represents approximately 300 km
(200 miles) on the lunar surface,
measured north to south or along
the equator. The map projection is
Azimuthal Equidistant.
The Moon's diameter is
3476 km, 27% that of Earth. The
nearside (also called the earthside)
always faces Earth. Lunar longitude
is defined so that 08 longitude is, on
average, at the centre of the lunar
disk as seen from Earth. The earthside
is dominated by the dark basalt plains
called maria, easily visible from Earth
without a telescope. The western half of
the nearside is dominated by Oceanus
Procellarum, the largest mare area, roughly
1500 km across. The first robotic landings
took place in this region.
xx

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The eastern half of the near-
side contains several smaller
maria, including Mare
Tranquillitatis, site of the first
Apollo landing in 1969. It also
includes the region where three
small samples of lunar soil were
acquired by Russian spacecraft
in the 1970s. Further south and
around the edge of the map
area, the landscape is domi-
nated by rugged uplands cov-
ered with impact craters.
These maps or sections of
them are used throughout the
atlas to provide global or regio-
nal context for maps of smaller
areas.
Moon reference maps
xxi

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The Moon: farside
The farside always faces away from
Earth, and was almost completely
unknown before the space age. An
apparent wobbling motion of the
Moon, called libration, allows the
fringes of the farside to be glimpsed
through telescopes on Earth, though
not very clearly because of the severe
foreshortening at the limb (edge of the
disk). The gradual unveiling of the far-
side can be followed through the
sequence of missions depicted in this
atlas. The lack of large maria on the
farside is readily apparent here.
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The eastern half of the farside
contains one of the most dramatic
features on the Moon, the
Orientale basin, a small dark
mare area surrounded by con-
centric mountain ranges and
inward-facing scarps. This was
the last of the great impact basins
formed on the Moon, and so is the
best preserved. The word 'basin' is
used for the largest craters, espe-
cially those showing concentric
ring structures like Orientale. The
whole surface is covered with cra-
ters of all sizes, showing that
impact has been by far the domi-
nant geological process on the
Moon.
Moon reference maps xxiii

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1 The Moon at the dawn of the space age
The Moon has been scrutinized for thousands of years,
but by the middle of the twentieth century this dead gray
world had long ceased to interest most professional
astronomers. Maps already showed as much detail as
telescopes could reveal, the lunar landscape never chan-
ged, and its light interfered with observations of more
scientifically stimulating objects in the deeper sky. But
opinions change. The Moon became the goal of a great
technological and political competition, not for its own
sake but to show which of two competing superpowers
would, in President John F. Kennedy's words, ''become
the world's leading space-faring nation,'' and to impress
people around the world who were ''attempting to make
a determination of which road they should take.''
Inevitably, as this new world was studied more closely,
scientists -- often geologists rather than astronomers --
found much to interest them. Lunar science was reborn
during the Space Age.
From the perspective of 2005, as this book was taking
shape, it is easy to forget how little was known half a
century earlier. The Moon had never been seen at close
range. Its farside had never been seen at all, beyond almost
useless glimpses of the libration zone, the area just beyond
the edges of the nearside. This can be glimpsed intermit-
tently as the Moon appears to ''wobble'' slightly during its
orbit around the Earth. Scientific measurements of its
composition, spectral characteristics, internal structure,
magnetism and gravity had never been made. Moon
rocks already on Earth in the form of meteorites were
not recognized as such because there was nothing to
compare them with. All these advances became possible
as a direct result of the last fifty years of exploration,
most of which really took place over a mere two decades.
The nearside had been mapped by astronomers for
over three hundred years, more if we consider attempts
to portray its markings before the invention of the tele-
scope (Whitaker 1999). Nevertheless, the lunar maps
available in the first half of the twentieth century were
far from adequate for detailed exploration. Features
smaller than one kilometer across were not reliably
shown, systematic information on heights of hills or
depths of craters was not available, and only the most
rudimentary geological mapping had been attempted.
Many geological interpretations of this period (e.g. that
most craters were volcanic, that the nearside was scribed
with a rectilinear grid of tectonic structures, that crater
rays were sites of condensed gases emanating from
impact-induced fractures) have been abandoned. There
was widespread disagreement over the level of volcanic
activity. Were lunar craters produced by impact or vol-
canic activity? Were the flat plains lava or dust deposits?
This began to change as a handful of geologists, most
notably Eugene Shoemaker, compared lunar craters and
the few craters then known on Earth with artificial
explosion craters, including those produced in nuclear
tests (Wilhelms 1993).
The farside was almost completely unknown. The
libration zones had been glimpsed only under conditions
which made them very difficult to study. Nevertheless, a
few hints emerged. None of the large maria extended
across the limb (the edge of the disk) into the farside.
This suggested that the distribution was not random or
uniform, and that there were few or no large maria on
the farside. Fresh craters such as Tycho and Copernicus
were surrounded by rays, long bright streaks made of, or
caused by, debris thrown out of the craters as they
formed. A few could be traced over the limb, suggesting
where fresh craters might be found on the farside (p. 3).
The history of lunar mapping is described by Kopal
and Carder (1974) and Whitaker (1999). The following
figures (1 to 5) illustrate some of the maps available in
the early years of the Space Age.
All Lunar Astronautical Charts (LACs) except those
at the edge of the mapped region included elevation
contours estimated from measurements of the lengths
of shadows cast by hills and crater rims.
The Apollo Intermediate Charts (AICs) (Figure 3)
represented the limits of effective telescopic mapping at
the time and covered only the primary zone of interest
for early Apollo landings.
1

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Figure 1 Lunar Astronautical Chart.
Lunar chart LAC 74 (Grimaldi), 1st edition, April 1962, original
scale 1: 1 000 000 (one millimeter represents one kilometer). It
was produced by the US Air Force Aeronautical Chart and
Information Center (ACIC).
Figure 2 Lunar Reference Mosaic.
ACIC chart LEM-1A, Lunar Earthside Hemisphere, 3rd edition,
July 1967, original scale 1: 10 000 000. The area inside the black
outline was mapped on 44 sheets of LACs (Figure 1). The white
outline shows the area covered by 20 sheets of Apollo
Intermediate Charts (AIC) at 1: 500 000 scale.

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Figure 3 Apollo Intermediate Chart.
ACIC Lunar Chart AIC 58D (Reinhold), 1st edition, March 1965,
original scale 1: 500 000.
Figure 4 Glimpses of the farside.
Based on information from Wilkins and Moore (1955) and Fielder
(1959).

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Figure 5 Lunar maps of the 1960s.
Figure 5A A pioneering geological analysis in support of US Army lunar planning was made by US Geological Survey (USGS)
scientists Robert Hackman and Arnold Mason (Engineer Special Study of the Surface of the Moon, USGS Map I-351, 1961). This
is a detail of the Physiographic Divisions map. The study assessed landing and operational conditions over the nearside.
Figure 5B Example of USGS geologic mapping (Eggleton 1965).
Figure 5C Gerard Kuiper took two Lick Observatory photographs to Moscow, where a group of military cartographers working under
Lev Bugaevsky combined them with other images to create this photomap. Professor Yurii N. Lipsky and colleagues at several
institutes in Moscow also contributed to this and other lunar maps including the first farside maps (Figures 21 and 65). (Photomap
of the Visible Side of the Moon, Original scale 1: 5 000 000. Sternberg State Astronomical Institute, 1967).
Figure 5D part of the US Army Map Service Topographic Lunar Map, Sheet 2, stock No. LUNAR2T2MILPR, original scale
1: 2 000 000, 1st edition, February 1967.
4
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The very limited knowledge of the farside shown in
Figure 4 is a composite of the only sources of informa-
tion available before the first spacecraft missions: the
libration zone around the edge, and crater ray extrapo-
lations into the unseen region (Wilkins and Moore 1955;
Fielder 1959). A little later Alika Herring at the Lunar
and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona, made a
more detailed study of the libration zone. This was
quickly superseded by spacecraft imaging, leaving only
a very small area near the south pole unmapped until
1990 (page xxiii).
Gerard P. Kuiper of the University of Arizona was a
pioneer of lunar and planetary studies in the years lead-
ing up to the Space Age. In 1960, while professional
interest in the Moon languished, he published the first
of a series of important photographic lunar atlases. His
assistants included D. W. G. (Dai) Arthur and Ewen A.
Whitaker, and later others including William Hartmann.
One important innovation of Kuiper's was the recti-
fication of limb photographs by projection onto a blank
globe. This made possible an undistorted view of the
limb regions for the first time, and resulted in the dis-
covery of the great concentric ring structures of the
Orientale basin (Hartmann and Kuiper 1962).
When the United States Army and Air Force were
considering lunar military outposts (pages 14, 22), the
US Army Topographic Command and the Aeronautical
Chart and Information Center (ACIC) respectively pro-
duced maps to support their studies. Later they sup-
ported NASA's Apollo planning. ACIC maps are
shown on the preceding pages. Some from other sources
are shown in Figure 5. At the same time stratigraphic
mapping at USGS attempted to dissect the visible sur-
face into its constituent layers of different materials
based on photointerpretation methods devised by
Eugene Shoemaker and his colleagues (Wilhelms 1990).
The Moon at the dawn of the space age
5

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2 Chronological sequence of missions
and events
Early lunar mission concepts
A variety of possible lunar missions were described,
some in considerable detail, in the decade preceding
Sputnik 1. Those which specified landing points are
summarized in Table 1 and in Figures 6 and 7.
The British Interplanetary Society was one of several
amateur rocket and spaceflight clubs set up in various
countries between the World Wars. A paper by H. E.
Ross read to the Society on 13 November 1948 detailed a
plausible lunar landing mission. Three spacecraft would
enter Earth orbit, each carrying one pilot. The crew
would transfer to one ship which would refuel from the
other two. One would then be discarded while the other
was fueled with the surplus not needed by the first. The
crewed spacecraft would travel to the Moon, enter orbit,
detach its fuel tanks and descend to the surface. To
return to Earth the vehicle would rendezvous with the
fuel tanks, refuel, and enter a trans-Earth trajectory. The
returning spacecraft would rendezvous with the remain-
ing vehicle in Earth orbit and the crew would transfer to
that vehicle to land.
In 1946 M. H. Wholey proposed a landing near the
craters Archimedes, Aristillus and Autolycus. In 1951
the film Destination Moon, based on a story by Robert
A. Heinlein, placed its landing site at the crater
Harpalus. Two years later Wernher von Braun and
Willy Ley proposed landing slightly to the west of
Harpalus in Sinus Roris. Also in that year, 1953,
G. V. E. Thompson and H. P. Wilkins proposed a list
of candidate sites including six craters and eleven mare
sites (Table 1, Figure 6). In 1954 A. C. Clarke and R. A.
Smith suggested landing in Mare Imbrium 8 km west of
Mons Piton. These proposals are summarized by
Parkinson and Smith (1979).
In another paper Wilkins (1954) proposed that lunar
expeditions land in any of several large flat-floored cra-
ters. They were smooth enough for a safe landing but
were surrounded by interesting features. The maria were
mostly seen as too bland to be interesting. Wilkins
thought that crews would make the final site selection
based on orbital observations after they arrived. He sug-
gested the craters Sto¨ fler, Schomberger, Pontecoulant,
and Schickard in the south, Ptolemy, Grimaldi, Billy,
and Vendelinus near the equator, and Plato, Endymion,
Anaximander, Meton, Archimedes, Otto Struve, Euler,
and Condorcet in the north. The only mare site he now
considered was Sinus Medii. The scenario developed
by Stewart (1961) called for a landing and extensive sur-
face traverses from Piazzi Smyth, just north of Piton in
Mare Imbrium (Figure 7). Stewart also mentions a sug-
gestion by Eric Burgess in 1952 for a landing in Palus
Putredinis.
Stewart's mission (Figure 7, plotted on a detail of
Figure 2) would begin with supplies and a return vehicle
soft-landed ahead of the crew, in 1968 or 1969. In 1970
the crew would land in several rockets and in the first
lunar day set up a base in Piazzi Smyth crater, an obser-
vatory, and a radar beacon and radio relay on top of
Mons Piton. During the second and third lunar days two
teams would use large tracked vehicles to undertake
geological expeditions to Plato and the Alpine Valley,
and to Cassini, Aristillus and Archimedes craters, pick-
ing up extra supplies landed previously along the route.
Some travel would be by Earthlight during the lunar
night.
17 August 1958: Thor-Able 1 (United States: US
Air Force)
Thor-Able 1, built by Space Technology Laboratories
(TRW) and sometimes called Pioneer 0, was designed to
orbit the Moon carrying a payload for the International
Geophysical Year (IGY) research program. It was
part of the US Air Force's Operation Mona, conducted
by the Air Research and Development Command's
Ballistic Missile Division under the direction of the
Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA). Subsequent
missions were turned over to the newly formed National
7

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Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The
spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral at 12:18
UT, but was destroyed 77 seconds after launch at
16 km altitude over the Atlantic when its Thor booster
exploded.
The lunar observations would have been the first
photographs of the farside, and information on the
magnetic field and dust environment of near-lunar
space. The illuminated area available for photography
(Figure 8) would have included nearly half of the farside,
if images had been taken soon after arrival.
The spin-stabilized, battery-powered spacecraft was
cylindrical with a wide conical cap on each end, the
whole structure 76 cm long and 70 cm in diameter,
weighing 38 kg. The instruments were an infrared ima-
ging system, a magnetometer, a micrometeorite detector
and engineering sensors. The scanning camera built up
an image one line at a time as spacecraft rotation swept
the sensor field of view across the target. Each line was
displaced across the target by the spacecraft's motion
along its path. The spacecraft was sterilized to avoid
contaminating the Moon in the event of an accidental
impact.
At the farthest point of its very elongated orbit about
the Earth, roughly 65 hours after launch and 300 000 km
from Earth, while travelling roughly parallel to the
Moon's orbit but slower than the Moon, a small solid-
fuel rocket was to fire on command from Earth on 20
August at 02:18 UT. This would increase the spacecraft
velocity to match that of the Moon, putting it in an
erratic and ill-defined high lunar orbit with a period of
up to seven days (Anonymous 1958a; Clark 1958a).
Table 1. Early suggestions of possible landing sites (including only sites with specified coordinates in
Parkinson and Smith [1979, p. 60] and Stewart [1961]).
Date Proposer
Number
on Fig. 6 Description
Location
1946 Wholey
1
Archimedes, Aristillus, Autolycus
338N,28W
1951 Destination Moon film 2
Harpalus
538N,438W
1953 von Braun and Ley
3
Sinus Roris, overland trek to Harpalus 548 N, 468 W
1953 Thompson and Wilkins 4
Mare Crisium
188N,588E
5
Mare Fecunditatis
48S,518E
6
Mare Nectaris
148S,348E
7
Mare Tranquillitatis
98N,308E
8
Mare Serenitatis
308N,178E
9
Mare Frigoris
568N,48E
10
Mare Imbrium
368N,168W
11
Mare Vaporum
148N,58E
12
Mare Humorum
238S,388W
13
Oceanus Procellarum
108N,478W
14
Sinus Iridum
458N,328W
15
Grimaldi
68S,688W
16
Schickard
448S,538W
17
Schiller
528S,408W
18
Tycho
438S,118W
19
Clavius
598S,158W
20
Maginus
508S,58W
1954 Clarke and Smith
21
8 km west of Piton, Mare Imbrium
418N,28W
1961 Stewart
22
Piazzi Smyth, Mare Imbrium
428N,38W
8
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23 September 1958: Luna 1958A (Soviet Union)
This first Luna spacecraft was designed by Sergei
Pavlovich Korolev's Experimental Design Bureau
No. 1 and launched from Baikonur at 07:03 UT. It
was destroyed when its launch vehicle broke up 93
seconds after liftoff due to severe vibrations caused
by its strap-on boosters. The goal was to achieve the
first spacecraft impact on the Moon. The target was
near the center of the lunar disk as seen from the
approaching spacecraft (Figure 9). The approach
path, from the north and to the east of the Earth--
Moon line, dictated the approximate target area,
which moved north or south with the changing decli-
nation of the Moon (a more southerly declination
giving a more northerly target point). Soviet spacecraft
were not assigned mission numbers unless they were
launched successfully, so an official designation was
Figure 6 The
earliest landing sites.
Numbers are from Table 1,
circles are other sites mentioned
on page 7.
Chronological sequence of missions and events
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saved for the first successful deep-space flight in 1959
(page 13).
Soviet lunar probes had been authorized by an official
decree ''Concerning work on automated lunar probes
and three-stage launch vehicles for them'' issued on 20
March 1958. Rumours had surfaced earlier in the wes-
tern press concerning an attempt to impact a probe on
the Moon on 1 May 1958, a public holiday in the Soviet
Union. Launch would have been about two days earlier
(Anonymous 1958a). No other details are available, and
the report may have derived from preliminary plans
which were later rescheduled, without any launch
attempt having being made at that time. Aviation Week
later reported (Clark 1959a) that such launch attempts
were conducted almost monthly during 1958, with some
probes being equipped with warheads to create an explo-
sion visible on Earth as a means of proving that the
mission had succeeded. The reports of launches were
incorrect, an example of faulty intelligence common
during the Cold War, but the idea of causing a nuclear
explosion on the Moon was initially considered by both
superpowers.
The Luna spacecraft was a pressurized 360 kg sphere
120 cm in diameter with four antennae protruding from
one side. Internal air circulation cooled the instruments
to about 20 8C. Instrument ports also projected from the
surface of the sphere. It had no propulsion system. Like
Luna 1 it probably carried several metallic emblems with
the Soviet coat of arms to be deposited on the lunar
surface. The spacecraft instruments probably consisted
of a magnetometer, two radiation detectors, micrometeo-
rite and interplanetary gas detectors, and engineering
sensors.
Figure 8 Illumination conditions for Thor-Able 1 imaging.
Figure 7 Stewart's expedition.
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11 October 1958: Pioneer 1 (United States:
USAF, NASA)
Pioneer 1, manufactured by TRW, was almost identical
to Thor-Able 1 and was the first spacecraft launched by
NASA. Following the loss of the earlier spacecraft,
ARPA had transferred control of the Army and Air
Force lunar programs back to the two separate armed
services, to be operated for NASA. Pioneer 1 was
intended to study radiation, cosmic rays, magnetic fields
and micrometeorites near Earth and in lunar orbit, and
to photograph the Moon. It would have entered a very
high (60 000 km) lunar orbit and made images intermit-
tently over ten days or about three orbits. If it had
succeeded, about two thirds of the farside could have
been photographed at the time of arrival (Figure 10).
Launch was from Cape Canaveral at 08:42 UT, but a
programming error in the Thor launcher's upper stage
resulted in insufficient velocity and the spacecraft fol-
lowed a sub-orbital trajectory, reaching a maximum
altitude of 114 000 km.
Pioneer 1 returned some data on the extent of the
Earth's radiation belts and made the first measurements
of micrometeorite numbers and the interplanetary mag-
netic field. It re-entered over the South Pacific Ocean after
43 hours at 03:46 UT on October 13. Pioneer 1's instru-
ment package weighed 18 kg and contained a scanning
infrared television camera to photograph the lunar
farside, a radiation detector, a micrometeorite detector,
a magnetometer and engineering sensors to record the
spacecraft's internal conditions, slightly improved from
the Thor-Able 1 package (Anonymous 1958b).
11 October 1958: Luna 1958B (Soviet Union)
The goal of this mission was again a lunar impact. The
launch was from Baikonur at 21:42 UT, but the launcher
disintegrated 104 seconds later due to vibrations caused
by the strap-on boosters. The spacecraft and instruments
were identical to the previous launch. This Luna was
launched only a few hours after Pioneer 1 but, because
Luna was on a faster trajectory, it would have reached
the Moon first. The intended impact site was again near
the center of the lunar disk as seen from the approaching
spacecraft (Figure 11).
Figure 10 Illumination conditions for Pioneer 1 imaging.
Figure 9 Luna 1958A target area.
Base map: the base map for Figure 9 and all similar figures
is a detail of Sheet 2 of the Soviet chart Polnaya Karta Luny
(Nauka, Moscow, 1979), original scale 1 : 5 000 000, courtesy
of MIIGAiK.
Figure 11 Luna 1958B target area.
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8 November 1958: Pioneer 2 (United States:
USAF, NASA)
Pioneer 2, was launched from the Atlantic Missile Range
on a Thor-Able booster at 07:30 UT, by the Air Force for
NASA. The spacecraft, intended to study the Moon and
nearby space, failed to reach escape velocity because the
third stage did not fire after an apparently successful
separation. It flew a sub-orbital trajectory reaching a
maximum altitude of 1550 km, and re-entered the atmo-
sphere at 28.78 N, 1.98 E over NW Africa 6 hours 52
minutes after launch. Some measurements were obtained,
including the radiation flux and energy and the microme-
teorite density above the equatorial region. Pioneer 2 was
almost identical to Pioneer 1. The instrument package
weighed 16 kg and consisted of an improved television
system, two radiation counters, a micrometeorite detec-
tor, a magnetometer and engineering sensors. The camera
aperture was moved from the cylindrical instrument
section to the aft conical cap. The lunar observations
would have been photographs of most of the farside
(Figure 12), and radiation and magnetic field measure-
ments (Anonymous 1958c).
4 December 1958: Luna 1958C (Soviet Union)
This Luna spacecraft, identical to the previous vehicle,
was intended to impact the Moon. The launch from
Baikonur at 17:18 UT was unsuccessful. The booster's
core engines shut off 245 seconds after liftoff because of
a loss of lubrication to the oxidizer pump. The intended
impact site was again near the center of the lunar disk as
seen from the approaching spacecraft (Figure 13).
6 December 1958: Pioneer 3 (United States:
US Army)
Pioneer 3 was a lunar probe built by the US Army under
the direction of NASA. It was launched from the
Atlantic Missile Range, Cape Canaveral, at 05 : 45 UT
on a Juno II rocket. It was intended to carry a scientific
payload close to the Moon 34 hours after launch, and
then enter solar orbit. Plans to impact the lunar surface
were also considered. The mission failed when the boos-
ter's first stage shut down too early. Pioneer 3 reached an
altitude of approximately 110 000 km and returned data
showing that Earth's radiation belt consisted of at least
two distinct bands. It re-entered the atmosphere over
northern Africa at 19 : 51 UT on 7 December at an
estimated location of 16.48 N, 18.68 E.
The spacecraft was conical with a height of 58 cm and
a base 25 cm in diameter. The fibreglass cone was coated
with gold to conduct electricity and was painted with
white stripes to help maintain moderate internal tem-
peratures. Batteries at the base of the cone powered the
instruments and a small antenna at the tip of the cone.
Twin light sensors at the centre of the base would indi-
cate when the probe passed about 30 000 km from the
Moon. In the original design, they would have triggered
a camera to take a single 30 km resolution film image of
the farside which would be developed, scanned and
transmitted to Earth. The camera was later replaced
with a 6 kg scientific payload containing a radiation
meter, but the light sensor was retained. The spacecraft
Figure 12 Illumination conditions for Pioneer 2 imaging.
Figure 13 Luna 1958C target area.
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was spin-stabilized at 400 rpm after launch, but its rota-
tion would be slowed to 6 rpm ten hours after launch
when two small weights were spooled out to the ends of
two wires, each 1.5 m long. The weights and wires would
then be released (Clark 1958b).
2 January 1959: Luna 1 (Soviet Union)
The first nearly successful lunar probe, Luna 1, was
launched from Baikonur at 16:41 UT. It was intended
to hit the lunar surface, but passed about 6000 km from
the Moon at 02:57 UT on 4 January after 34 hours of
flight because it had a slightly excessive velocity and a
small directional error. At 00:57 UT on 3 January,
113 000 km from Earth, the launch vehicle's upper
stage released a cloud of sodium gas which was visible
for several minutes in the constellation Virgo with the
brightness of a sixth-magnitude star, allowing astrono-
mers in Kazakhstan to track the spacecraft. It also
allowed study of the behavior of gases in space. Luna 1
entered an orbit around the Sun with a period of 443
days, mostly between the orbits of Earth and Mars, and
was tracked for 62 hours out to about 600 000 km. The
booster's third stage stayed close to Luna 1 and shared
its fate.
Luna 1 was also called the Cosmic Rocket and
Mechta (''Dream''), and in the west ''Lunik 1'' (a pho-
netic allusion to Sputnik), and was referred to by some
Soviet scientists as ''Planet Ten'' after entering solar
orbit. Its target area on the Moon was at the center of
the disk as seen from the approaching spacecraft
(Figure 14). The spherical Luna 1 carried several metallic
emblems with the Soviet coat of arms which it was
supposed to deposit on the lunar surface. The launch
was dedicated to the upcoming 21st Congress of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The spacecraft
instruments consisted of a magnetometer, two radiation
detectors, a micro-meteorite detector, and engineering
sensors. The measurements obtained by Luna 1 pro-
vided data on the Earth's radiation belt, showed that
the Moon had no magnetic field and detected the solar
wind, a flow of ionized particles from the Sun which
pervades interplanetary space (Anonymous 1959a,
1959b).
Luna 1 is usually said to be the first artificial object
to exceed Earth's escape velocity, though there was a
possible precursor (Clark 1959a). Two small aluminium
pellets propelled by a shaped explosive charge carried
on a US Air Force Aerobee rocket launched from
Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, may have
exceeded escape velocity on 16 October 1957, though
they carried no instruments and the rocket reached an
altitude of only about 90 km. This was a test of a
concept in which projectiles would strike the Moon at
high velocity in order to obtain data on surface com-
position from the spectrum of the resulting flash
(Zwicky 1961).
3 March 1959: Pioneer 4 (United States: US Army,
NASA)
Pioneer 4, identical to Pioneer 3 in configuration, was a
joint project of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and
Jet Propulsion Laboratory under the direction of
NASA. It was launched at 17:11 UT from the Atlantic
Missile Range on a Juno II rocket. Intended to pass
about 25 000 km from the Moon, it instead missed by
60 000 km before entering a solar orbit with a period of
395 days. Pioneer 4 measured high-intensity radiation
and provided a valuable tracking exercise. Its light sen-
sor was unable to detect the Moon as it passed because of
the unexpectedly large miss distance. The probe's closest
approach to the Moon was over the location 5.78 S,
7.28 E on 4 March 1959 at 22:25 UT (5:25 p.m. EST) at
Figure 14 Luna 1 target area.
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a speed of 7230 km/h. The probe was tracked for 82
hours to a distance of 655 000 km and reached perihelion
on 18 March 1959 at 01:00 UT. The cylindrical fourth
stage casing (173 cm long, 15 cm diameter, 4.65 kg) went
into solar orbit with the probe (Anonymous 1959b,
1959c).
09 June 1959: Project Horizon (United States:
US Army)
A lunar outpost was proposed by the US Army on this
date to protect potential United States interests on the
Moon. It would develop techniques for surveillance of
Earth and space, for communications and for lunar sur-
face operations. It would also serve as a base for explora-
tion of the Moon, scientific investigations, more distant
exploration and military operations if required.
Initially the outpost would be designed for a crew of
10 to 20 people on a sustained basis. It would be
designed for simple expansion and re-supply, and rota-
tion of personnel to ensure maximum extension of sus-
tained occupancy, and to be self-sufficient for as long as
possible without outside support. In the location and
design of the base, consideration would be given to its
operation as part of a space surveillance system, as a
node for communication with and observation of Earth,
as a station supporting travel between Earth and
the Moon or to more remote locations, for scientific
exploration, and for the defence of the base against
attack if required.
The primary objective was to establish the first per-
manent manned installation on the Moon. Incidental
to this mission would have been the investigation of
the scientific, commercial, and military potential of
the Moon. The first piloted landing by two soldier-
astronauts was targeted for April 1965 near a cluster of
pre-landed cargo landers.
The exact location of the outpost site could not be
determined until an exploratory probe and mapping
program had been completed. However, for a number
of technical reasons such as temperature and rocket
energy requirements the area within 208 of the centre of
the nearside seemed favourable. Within this area, three
particular sites were chosen which appeared to meet the
more detailed requirements of landing space, surface
conditions, communications, and proximity to interest-
ing features of different types. The report states that
''suitable sites for the outpost exist in the northern part
of Sinus Aestuum, near Erastothenes, in the southern
part of Sinus Aestuum near Sinus Medii, and on the
southwest coast of Mare Imbrium, just north of the
[Apennines]'' (US Army 1959). These areas are circled
in Figure 15.
18 June 1959: Luna 1959B (Soviet Union)
This spacecraft was a modified version of the previous
Luna design, and like its precursors it was intended to
impact on the Moon. It was launched from Baikonur at
08:08 UT. The booster's inertial guidance system failed
153 seconds after launch and the vehicle was destroyed
by the launch site safety officer. The intended impact
site was near the center of the lunar disk as seen from
the approaching spacecraft (Figure 16). Impact target
latitudes varied with the position of the Moon in its
orbit.
Figure 15 Project Horizon lunar outpost locations (circles).
Base map: a detail of ACIC's Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1),
original scale 1 : 5 000 000, 1st edition, January 1970.
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12 September 1959: Luna 2 (Soviet Union)
The first probe ever to impact the lunar surface, the
390 kg Luna 2 was launched from Baikonur at 06:39
UT. Like Luna 1, the spacecraft's upper stage rocket
released an orange cloud of sodium gas to assist space-
craft tracking by telescope. Sodium metal was mixed
with an explosive to create this discharge, which
occurred 156 000 km from Earth at 18:39 UT on 12
September, appearing in the constellation Aquarius.
The cloud expanded at 1 km per second and grew to
400 km diameter before fading to invisibility. The
Soviet news agency Tass predicted in advance that the
impact would occur in the region between the Maria
Tranquillitatis, Serenitatis and Vaporum (Figure 17).
Luna 2 struck the Moon at 21:02 UT on 13 September
in the area of Palus Putredinis after 33.5 hours of flight.
Radio tracking from the United States, Japan, the
United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, and the abrupt
end of radio transmissions, indicated it had impacted on
the Moon. Luna 2 delivered a Soviet pennant to the
surface of the Moon and confirmed that the Moon had
no appreciable magnetic field or radiation belts (Clark
1959b).
Luna 2 was similar in design to Luna 1, a 0.9 m
diameter spherical spacecraft with protruding antennae
and instrument parts. The instrumentation was also
similar, including radiation detectors, a magnetometer,
and micrometeorite detectors. There were no propulsion
systems on Luna 2 itself. Luna 2 was also called the
Second Cosmic Rocket and the Moon Rocket in the
USSR, and Lunik 2 in the west. The official Luna des-
ignation was applied retrospectively after the flight of
Luna 3.
When tracking confirmed that Luna 2 would strike
the Moon, a press release announced the expected time
and location. Mission directors wanted to be sure the
claim of an impact would be accepted around the world,
so they provided the radio transmission frequency and
encouraged visual and radio observations. The ability of
Earthbound observers to see lunar impacts has been
controversial. No Ranger or Apollo impacts were
observed despite many attempts, and most western
scientists doubted claims that the Luna 2 and Luna 5
impacts were seen.
Figure 18 shows the Luna 2 impact area. The impact
point is often given as latitude 29.108 N, longitude 0.008
(Figure 18B), but independent visual and possible
photographic sightings of a dark dust cloud which
expanded and faded (Anonymous 1960) suggest impact
occurred at 26.428 N, 2.088 E (Figure 18D). An area near
the impact site was named Sinus Lunicus (Zaliv
Lunnikus on Russian maps) to commemorate this first
direct contact with the Moon.
Figure 16 Luna 1959B target area.
Base map: detail of Sheet 2 of the Soviet chart Polnaya Karta
Luny (Nauka, Moscow, 1979), original scale 1: 5 000 000.
Figure 17 Luna 2 target area.
Base map: as for Figure 16.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 15

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About 30 minutes after Luna 2 struck the Moon the
third stage of its rocket crashed at an unknown location.
If the rocket followed essentially the same trajectory as
the spacecraft, but slightly slower because of the separa-
tion procedure, the impact point would have been dis-
placed by the Moon's orbital motion, suggesting an
impact near 258 N, 708 E.
4 October 1959: Luna 3 (Soviet Union)
Luna 3 was the first spacecraft to return images of the
lunar farside. The 278 kg spacecraft was launched from
Baikonur on an 8K72 booster at 02:24 UT on 4 October
1959. The spacecraft was spin-stabilized in flight, but
photoelectric cells and thrusters maintained orientation
with respect to the Sun and Moon during photography.
Its figure-eight trajectory passed over Earth's north pole,
Figure 18 Luna 2 impact area.
A: Overview map. B: Luna 2 impact site from spacecraft
tracking. C: Site suggested by observers. D: Possible impact
point reported by observers.
Base maps. Figures 18A and 18B: ACIC Lunar Chart LAC 41
(Montes Apenninus), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition,
September 1963. Figures 18C and 18D: Lunar Topographic
Orthophotomap LTO41B4(250) (Hadley), Defense Mapping
Agency Topographic Center, original scale 1 : 250 000, 2nd
edition, April 1975.
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then 6200 km from the Moon near the south pole at
14:16 UT on 6 October 1959, and out over the farside.
On 7 October 1959, 29 photographs taken over 40 min-
utes revealed 70% of the farside. The first was taken at
03:30 UT at a distance of 63 500 km, the last 40 minutes
later from 66 700 km. The spacecraft resumed spinning,
passed over the Moon's north pole and returned towards
Earth. The images, taken on film, were developed, fixed
and dried, and then 17 were scanned and successfully
transmitted to Earth on 18 October 1959 as Luna 3 again
approached Earth. Contact with the probe was lost on
22 October. The probe may have burned up in the
Earth's atmosphere in March or April 1960 (possibly
on 20 April), but might have survived in orbit until
1962 or later. The Luna 3 images were sufficient for the
creation of the first useful map of the farside and the
allocation of several placenames (Academy of Sciences
of the USSR 1960). The sophistication of the mission
was remarkable for this early date.
The spacecraft was cylindrical with hemispherical
ends, 130 cm long and 95 cm in diameter, 120 cm at a
flange near the top. It was sealed and pressurized to 0.23
atmospheres. Solar cells on the exterior provided power
to internal batteries. Thermal control flaps opened to
radiate heat. The upper hemisphere held the cameras.
Four antennas extended from the top of the probe, two
from the bottom. Micrometeoroid and cosmic ray detec-
tors were situated on the outside of the spacecraft, and
attitude control thrusters outside at the lower end. The
spacecraft had no maneuvering rockets. The interior
held the camera, film processor and scanner, radio
equipment, batteries, gyroscopes for attitude control,
and fans for temperature control.
Luna 3 was referred to at the time as the Third Cosmic
Rocket, and the Automatic Interplanetary Station. The
Luna designation began to be applied retroactively to
the first three Luna spacecraft soon after this flight.
The Luna 3 images were timed to cover about two
thirds of the farside and part of the Earthside, so that
feature positions could be estimated. The lunar phase as
seen from the spacecraft was nearly full, emphasizing
albedo markings. About a third of the farside remained
unseen (Figures 19, 20).
At this time the only farside map was that by Wilkins
and Moore (Figure 4). Soviet scientists used it for com-
parison with the new images. One of the predicted ray
craters was found to correspond to the new feature
Giordano Bruno (Figures 21, 22).
Several features were given names. Most prominent is
the dark-floored crater named after Konstantin
Tsiolkovskiy, the Russian pioneer of cosmonautics.
Astronaut Bay (Zaliv Astronavtov on Russian maps)
was named before any astronaut had flown in
space. The term ''cosmonaut'' was not used here. The
Montes Sovieticii (Soviet Mountains) were later
found to be bright crater rays, not a mountain range,
though the bright streaks are superimposed on an old
basin rim. The Mechta Sea commemorates Luna 1,
which was first named Mechta (Dream). The name is
often translated misleadingly as ''Sea of Dreams.'' It was
later identified as the low-albedo interior of the South
Pole-Aitken basin (Chikmachev and Shevchenko 2000).
This name is still used today on Russian maps for Mare
Ingenii.
Figure 19 Region photographed by Luna 3.
Figure 20 Composite of Luna 3 images.
Composite by P. Stooke; images provided by V. Shevchenko.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 17

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Figure 21 (Academy of Sciences of the USSR 1960)
records the discoveries made in Luna 3 images and
includes the first farside feature names (page 19).
Figure 22 corresponds exactly to the farside map on
pages xxii and xxiii. The Figure 20 composite has been
reprojected to fit that map. The progress of farside
exploration can be followed through this atlas as one
mission after another adds details to the photomap.
26 November 1959: Pioneer P3 (United States:
NASA)
Pioneer P3, also called Able IV, was launched from the
Atlantic Missile Range at 07:26 UT on an Atlas-Able
booster. An intended lunar orbit mission, it disintegrated
about 45 seconds later when the protective shroud cover-
ing the payload split open and broke up. The probe was
sponsored by NASA, developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, built by TRW and launched by the Air
Force Ballistic Missile Division.
The spacecraft was initially designed for flight to
Venus, but was designated for a lunar mission after
the Soviet success with Luna 1 in an attempt to be
first in lunar orbit. It carried a scanning television
camera, magnetometers and radiation detectors. The
spacecraft was 1 m in diameter, roughly spherical with
four solar panels and weighed 169 kg. Circular heat-
activated blades resembling propellers, distributed
over the body, acted as a thermal control system. If it
had succeeded in photographing the Moon from
orbit, about three quarters of the farside (Figure 23)
Figure 21 First map of the farside.
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could have been photographed at the time of arrival
(Anonymous 1959e.)
1960: Khlebtsevich's Tankette (Soviet Union)
A Soviet concept for a tracked 500 kg rover for lunar
exploration was considered at about this time. The
vehicle, controlled from Earth, would carry a camera
and a soil sample drill with analytical instruments. A
searchlight would allow operations in shadowed areas
or at night. The lunar poles were identified as interesting
potential landing areas. The vehicle would have been
powered by an internal combustion engine in this early
design. The proposal was made by Yuri S. Khlebtsevich
as early as 1954, but now seemed closer to reality than
when first considered. The concept of automatically
returning lunar soil to Earth was also mentioned in this
report (Clark 1960; Kreiger 1958).
1960: ABMA Lunar Program (United States:
US Army)
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California
and the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) in
Huntsville, Alabama (which launched JPL's Explorer
1, the first US satellite, on 31 January 1958) devised a
lunar exploration program at NASA's request.
The Army had previous experience planning a lunar
base (page 14), and this remained their ultimate goal,
Figure 23 Illumination conditions for Pioneer P3 imaging.
Figure 22 Luna 3 photomap.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 19

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Table 2. ABMA Rover landing sites.
Location
Comments
Stadius and Copernicus
Land in Stadius, explore the crater chains to the northeast, possible lunar base location.
Straight Wall
Land on lower side of the scarp, observe slope with cameras, take samples from foot of slope.
Alphonsus
Land on floor, use color TV to study central peak, dark spots and floor fractures. Carry
instruments for volcanic gas analysis (page 49) and mineralogical studies.
Mare Imbrium
Land in Palus Putredinis, drive from plains to nearby Apennine mountains. Similar sites are
found on the northern edge of Mare Imbrium near the Teneriffe Mountains.
Plato
Land on lava-flooded floor, examine small post-mare craters.
Mare Frigoris
Land near Aristoteles, observe possible lava tubes.
Alpine Valley
Traverse length of valley, observe north and south walls, examine differences between them.
Harpalus
Site suggested for human exploration by Wernher von Braun (page 7).
Figure 24 ABMA rover landing sites.
but it would be attained via several intermediate steps.
First would be a series of four to six robotic circumlunar
flights carrying cameras. Later flights would carry ani-
mals, and finally people by late 1966. Next, one or more
landers and a series of rovers would explore the lunar
surface. The conical lander (''stationary packet'') would
touch down protected by airbags, stabilized by eight
projecting arms. The large (1000 kg) rover would consist
of a payload package suspended from an axle linking
two 5 m diameter tires. The vehicle would be driven by a
small wheel on an arm trailing behind the main wheels. It
would use solar heating to drive a liquid mercury turbine
generator for electrical power, and would have had a
minimum range of about 80 km over a full lunar day.
Imaging during the final descent was considered to help
plan safe routes. Both lander and rovers would carry
television cameras and sample collection and analysis
systems. ABMA planned two landers in 1965 and two
rovers in late 1965 or early 1966. Human landings would
follow.
ABMA suggested several possible landing sites
(Table 2; Figure 24). Thermal control would be easier
if landings took place at mid-latitudes. The first robotic
lander would be sent to the early Ranger area in Oceanus
Procellarum, near the craters Kepler and Lansberg, to
take advantage of a vertical descent (page 25). Rover
targets would be areas containing several interesting
features within driving range. Several of these sites
were proposed by Clyde Tombaugh, discoverer of the
planet Pluto, in an address to the American Rocket
Society in March 1958. His preferred site, west of
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Aristoteles at 11.08 E, 50.58 N, was described at a collo-
quium held at JPL on 29 October 1958 (ABMA 1960;
Tombaugh 1958).
15 February 1960: Pioneer (United States: NASA)
A lunar spacecraft identical to Pioneers P-30 and P-31
was destroyed when its booster exploded during a static
firing test. It was intended to enter lunar orbit carrying
radiation sensors. It was not given a Pioneer number
designation.
15 April 1960: Luna 1960A (Soviet Union)
This Luna spacecraft was similar to Luna 3. It was
launched from Baikonur at 15:07 UT, but the third
stage RO-5 engine failed to provide sufficient thrust
and the spacecraft reached an altitude of 200 000 km
before falling back to Earth. Its trajectory would have
allowed it to photograph the part of the farside not
observed by Luna 3, but with an improved camera and
at closer range, giving higher-resolution images
(Figure 25).
19 April 1960: Luna 1960B (Soviet Union)
This Luna spacecraft was identical to the Luna launched
only 4 days earlier. The launch date is sometimes given
as 16 April. Its mission was also the same, to photograph
the part of the farside not observed by Luna 3 at higher
resolution than that spacecraft had achieved (Figure 25).
After launch at 19:07 UT a strap-on booster failed to
reach full thrust, and after less than a second of flight it
broke away from the main rocket. The vehicle continued
on its trajectory but without sufficient thrust to attain
escape velocity.
The areas illuminated and able to be photographed by
these two Luna missions are shown in Figure 25. If either
one had succeeded, most of the farside would then have
been observed by the combined results of these missions
and Luna 3.
23 June 1960: Lunar Flyby Project (Soviet Union)
A letter from Sergei P. Korolev to the Central
Committee of the Communist Party in January 1960
outlined an extensive program of Soviet space develop-
ments. They would be made possible by the development
of a new heavy launcher. Among these plans, in the
period 1963 to 1965, was a spacecraft able to carry two
or three men to the Moon, to orbit it and return to Earth.
Korolev followed up on the letter by meeting with Soviet
leader, Nikita Khrushchev, on 3 March 1960 to discuss
this subject. However, the plans were not yet mature and
had not been agreed among the Chief Designers of the
various organizations involved. Khrushchev sent the
matter back to the Designers for a consensus plan.
Various projects were approved for further study or
development in the Government decree 715--296 of 23
June 1960, ''On the Production of Various Launch
Vehicles, Satellites, Spacecraft for the Military Space
Forces in 1960--1967'', including lunar soft landers and
rovers, and cosmonaut landings. Although human visits
to the Moon were being considered at this time, it was
premature to consider specific landing sites.
Figure 25 Illumination conditions for Luna 1960A and 1960B imaging.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 21

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25 September 1960: Pioneer P-30 (United States:
NASA)
This attempt to place a satellite in lunar orbit failed when
the second stage of the launch vehicle failed to ignite.
Launch was from the Atlantic Missile Range at 15:13 UT
on an Atlas-Able V booster. The spacecraft, known as
Pioneer VI at the time, was identical to Pioneer P3 except
that the television camera of the previous mission was
replaced with radiation detectors to learn more about the
structure of Earth's radiation belts and radiation in the
vicinity of the Moon. Its mass was 176 kg. The probe was
sponsored by NASA, developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, built by TRW, and launched by the Air
Force Ballistic Missile Division. The lunar orbit would
have been near-polar with a perilune (low point) of about
6000 km and apolune (high point) of about 9500 km.
15 December 1960: Pioneer P-31 (United States:
NASA)
The last Pioneer program attempt to place a satellite in
lunar orbit failed when the Atlas-Able booster rocket
went out of control and exploded 70 seconds after
launch at a height of 12 km off Cape Canaveral.
Launch was from the Atlantic Missile Range at 08:40
UT on an Atlas-Able IV booster. The spacecraft and
mission plan were identical to Pioneer P-30. The probe
was sponsored by NASA, developed by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, built by Space Technology
Laboratories (TRW), and launched by the Air Force
Ballistic Missile Division.
20 April 1961: Prospector (United States: NASA)
Prospector was a proposed NASA/JPL unmanned lunar
rover of the early 1960s (Anonymous 1961). It would be
able to soft-land 1100 kg of payload within one kilo-
meter of a target anywhere on the nearside. A primary
payload for Prospector would be a rover weighing
680 kg designed to undertake a detailed reconnaissance
of the lunar surface throughout a radius of 80 km. It
could also deposit landing aids or logistic material in
support of a manned lunar landing. Walking, tracked
and wheeled designs were considered, and a sample
return version was contemplated. A seismometer could
have been one of the instruments. On 20 April 1961 a
conference was held at NASA Headquarters on the
relationship between Prospector and Apollo. JPL repre-
sentatives suggested modifying Prospector to offer more
direct support to the manned lunar program. In the end,
NASA needed precursor flights sooner than Prospector
could be readied, and Surveyor evolved as a faster and
cheaper alternative. In 1963 JPL briefly considered add-
ing mini-rovers to Surveyor to recover some of the
mobility of Prospector (Anonymous 1963). Critics
might have argued that Prospector could replace
Apollo at much lower cost, a factor that may have
hastened its demise.
25 May 1961: Kennedy's goal
In the context of the Cold War, the flights of Sputnik 1
(4 October 1957), the early Luna probes, and especially
Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1 (12 April 1961), US President
John F. Kennedy accepted the need to act boldly to
regain the geopolitical and technological lead over the
Soviet Union. In a speech to the US Congress on this
date he announced: ''I believe this nation should commit
itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of
landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to
the Earth. No single space project in this period will be
more impressive to mankind, or more important for the
long-range exploration of space, and none will be so
difficult or expensive to accomplish.'' This did not
mark the beginning of Apollo, which had been under
consideration since 1959, but it did signal the transition
from a mere concept to a funded program (Murray and
Cox 1989).
26 May 1961: Lunex report (United States: US
Air Force)
The day after Kennedy's speech the US Air Force
released a previously compiled report detailing its
already well-developed plans for a lunar base. 'Lunex',
the Lunar Expedition, had the objective of a first
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manned landing and return in late 1967, and a full-scale
expedition to build a permanent base in 1968. A large
three-stage booster would propel the Lunex spacecraft
to the Moon. This would include a landing stage, a
launching stage, and the crew vehicle. Terminal gui-
dance using pre-positioned beacons would be required
for landing at a pre-selected site. The launching stage
would propel the winged crew vehicle back to Earth
where it would land on a runway like the later Shuttle.
A cargo vehicle without a crew was also included in the
Lunex plan. This would use the same booster and lunar
landing techniques, but would not return to Earth.
Before a landing site could be chosen, high-resolution
photographs of the lunar surface would be needed, and
contemporary NASA plans for Ranger and Prospector
or related spacecraft were expected to provide this infor-
mation. Surveyor, then in the early planning stage, could
have been modified to deploy radio beacons before the
astronaut landings. This notion of pre-positioned bea-
cons was a common feature of US and Soviet plans at
this time, though in the event they were not needed. Also,
a drill-core sample of lunar material provided by an
automatic lander was suggested as a useful contribution
to the design process for lunar landing systems and lunar
facilities.
The Air Force's Lunex proposal and the US Army's
Project Horizon (p. 14) were soon abandoned in favour
of the civilian lunar landing project, Apollo. The lack of
a realistic military objective contributed to their demise
(Miller 1961; Stone 1961). The Lunex report was avail-
able at the time of writing at the Encyclopedia
Astronautica website (www.astronautix.com/project/
lunex.htm).
June 1961: Early thoughts about landing sites
Cosmochemist Harold C. Urey (then at the University of
California) was asked by NASA's Homer Newell which
areas he would like to see explored on the Moon. In a
letter to Newell dated 19 June 1961 he suggested the
following: near-polar regions where the cold might
allow ice to exist; the interior of a large crater; two
different maria; one of the large ''wrinkle ridges'' in the
maria; and a mountainous region (Compton 1989,
Chapter 3).
Polar ice has always been attractive to mission plan-
ners, but it is interesting now to note omissions from
Urey's list: no volcanic domes, no sinuous valleys, no
crater rays, and no indication that material of different
ages might be sampled to help define the chronology of
lunar geological evolution. Urey believed the Moon was
primitive and undifferentiated, and therefore had no
geological history to study. The geological emphasis
was only just emerging as a result of work by the pio-
neering lunar geologist Eugene Shoemaker and collea-
gues at the US Geological Survey.
Shoemaker (1962) took a different approach, point-
ing out that operational constraints would outweigh
purely scientific preferences. He foresaw a sequence
beginning with several Ranger missions photographing
the Moon from close range before impacting. The first
Surveyor soft-lander would touch down at one of those
Ranger sites, while orbiters searched for suitable Apollo
landing sites. Then most of the remaining Surveyors
would be sent to inspect the candidate Apollo sites,
with one or two others perhaps going to particularly
interesting non-Apollo sites.
Another geologist with an interest in the Moon was
Jack Green, then at North American Aviation. His ideas
about lunar geology diverged strongly from those of
Shoemaker's group at the US Geological Survey
(Wilhelms 1993), and he did not participate directly in
later detailed mission planning.
Nevertheless, at this early stage his ideas about
exploration had been worked out in great detail, reflect-
ing a volcanic interpretation of surface features. His
scheme is summarized in Table 3 and Figure 26 (Green
and Van Lopik 1961).
26 January 1962: Ranger 3 (United States: NASA)
Rangers 1 and 2 were engineering tests intended to oper-
ate in high Earth orbit. On 23 August 1961 Ranger 1 was
launched from the Atlantic Missile Range on an Atlas-
Agena B booster, but was placed in a lower orbit than
intended and re-entered on 29 August after 111 orbits.
On 18 November 1961 Ranger 2 was stranded in a
parking orbit after a failed gyro prevented the upper-
stage burn intended to place it on a higher orbit as a
systems test.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 23

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Table 3. Exploration scheme outlined by Green and Van Lopik (1961).
Location
Comments
Location
Comments
Agarum Prom.
View of Mare Crisium, reported mist
Liebnitz Mts
Very high mountains, block faults?
Alpetragius
Complex central mountain
Linne
Reported changes
Alphonsus
Central ridge, reported volcanic activity,
dark vent deposits, base site?
Lyot (Ptolemaeus A) Very bright under high Sun
Alpine Valley
Craterlets; compare with rifts on Earth Maclaurin
Concave floor, part of crater chain
Altai Mountains Major scarp, regional viewpoint
Maclear
Linear walls, dark floor, central peak
Archimedes
Smooth floor material
Naumann
Bright ejecta, radial dykes?
N of Aristarchus Reported colour changes
Newton
Very deep, eternal shadow on floor
S of Nicolai
Smooth light plains area
Aristillus
Radially grooved ejecta
Nubium, Mare
Centre of mare
Atlas A
Central peak, ''glitter'' on crater floor Petavius
Complex central peaks
Bartlett
Reported changes in appearance
Philolaus
Extensive terracing
Bellot
Smooth floor, high albedo
Picard
Bright walls, largest crater in Crisium
Bessel
On ray crossing Mare Serenitatis
E of Pickering
Traverse across unusual double ray
Blancanus
Bright walls, craters on rim
Pico
Crevasses, high albedo material
Brayley
Radial dyke-like structures
Piton
Summit pits, reported eruption clouds
Bullialdus
Terracing, internal ridge ring
Plato
Smooth floor, reported changes
Cassini
Unusual central pit
Proclus
Rays, possible sulphur deposit,
base site?
Cauchy
Bright crater, reported changes
Pytheas
Unusually shaped crater
Censorinus
Very high albedo crater, rays
Rheita Valley
Crater chains on floor and flanks
Cleomedes
NE part of floor; central peaks
Ro¨ mer
Central peak with summit pit
Copernicus
Central peaks, ejecta and rays, base site Rothmann
Ravine between wall and central peak
Crisium, Mare
Central mare, deepest mare basin
NW of Sacrobosco Crater alignments
Dawes
Radiating dyke-like structures
Sasserides
Crater chains radiating from Tycho
Eratosthenes
Central peak with summit pit
Schickard
Mottled dark areas, light spots
Firmicius
Dark floor, low central peak
Schneckenberg
''Spiral'' hill north of Hyginus
Franklin
Dark spots, possible changes reported Schro¨ ter
Reported emissions, collapsed walls
Grimaldi
Dark floor, greenish hue
Serenitatis border
Subsidence faults?
Hainzel
Intersecting craters
Serpentine Ridge
Basaltic pressure ridge in Serenitatis
Hansteen
Observed flash (impact?)
Somnii, Palus
Traverse from light to dark areas
S of Harding
Possible release of steam
W of Stevinus
Crater chains
Herodotus
White streak on floor
Straight Wall
100 km fault scarp (Rupes Recta)
Hevelius
Fault and peaks on crater rim
Taruntius
Dark inner ring on floor
Hipparchus
Large ''ruined'' crater
Thales
Reported ''mist,'' ray system
Humboldtianum Centre of Mare Humboldtianum
Theaetetus
Reported ''steam'' emission
Hyginus
Crater on complex fracture system
Theophilus
Peaks with summit pits, base site?
Imbrium basin
Supposed impact centre near Iridum
Timocharis
Ray system, central crater (vent?)
Julius Caesar
Central peak, summit pit, dark floor
Tralles
Central peaks cut by ravines
Kant
Reported ''steam'' emission
Tycho
Terraces, rays, crater chains, base site?
Kepler
Rays and radial dyke-like structures
NE of Ukert
Radial structures centred on Imbrium
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Ranger 3 was the first of the series to be targeted at
the Moon. The 330 kg sterilized spacecraft had a 1.5 m
diameter hexagonal base supporting two solar panels with
a total span of 5.2 m, and carried a camera for imaging
during descent to the Moon, a gamma-ray spectrometer
on a 1.8 m arm, a radar altimeter, and a seismometer
floating in oil in a 27.5 cm diameter spherical capsule
encased in a 67 cm balsawood shock-absorbing sphere.
The lunar capsule would be ejected near the surface,
when it would be slowed by a small retrorocket. It was
designed to survive impact on the Moon at up to 160 km/h,
using batteries to operate its seismometer and radio
equipment for 30 days. The radar altimeter would mea-
sure the height of the spacecraft above the Moon and was
also intended for reflectivity studies. The 200 scan line
images would be taken at 10-second intervals, inter-
spersed with gamma-ray spectrometer data on lunar sur-
face composition. The first image was to be taken from
300 km to show an area 28 (60 km) across. The last would
cover an area 2 km across at a resolution of 10 m per pixel.
After launch at 20:30 UT from the Atlantic Missile
Range, a booster guidance error caused excessive speed
which could not be fully corrected by the mid-course
correction system. Ranger 3 was intended to impact on
the Moon (Figures 27, 29), but missed by 36 800 km on
28 January and entered a 406-day period solar orbit. The
spacecraft was oriented for photography during the
flyby in the hope that it would reveal part of the farside
not seen by Luna 3 (Figure 27), but it then began to
tumble, losing reliable camera pointing and communica-
tion. Several pictures were obtained but did not show the
Moon. Some cosmic gamma-ray measurements were
partially completed. Attempts to bounce radar signals
off the Moon were unsuccessful.
23 April 1962: Ranger 4 (United States: NASA)
Ranger 4's spacecraft and mission were identical to
Ranger 3. It was intended to transmit pictures of the
lunar surface in the last 10 minutes before striking the
Moon, to land a seismometer capsule on the Moon, to
make gamma-ray studies, to measure the Moon's radar
reflectivity and to build engineering experience for lunar
and interplanetary flights.
It was launched at 20:50 UT from the Atlantic
Missile Range on an Atlas-Agena B booster, entered a
parking orbit, and was placed on its lunar trajectory by
a second burn of the upper stage. The failure of a timer
in the spacecraft caused loss of both internal and
ground control over the vehicle, so no photographs or
other data were obtained. Transmissions from the
battery-powered transmitter in the landing capsule
were tracked until Ranger 4 passed behind the western
limb of the Moon on 26 April. It crashed on the farside
at 130.78 W, 15.58 S with a speed of 9617 km per hour at
12:49 UT after 64 hours of flight, becoming the first
American spacecraft to reach the lunar surface. The
Agena upper stage missed the Moon and entered a
solar orbit.
Rangers 3, 4 and 5 were all aimed at a small area just
south of the equator in Oceanus Procellarum, which was
dictated by the trajectory design and the desire for a
vertical descent to the surface (Figures 28, 29). A vertical
descent would allow the images to ''nest'' properly, each
within the area of the previous image, to help locate the
landing site precisely. Although there would be some
scientific value in the images, their main function was
to locate the landing site. US Army and Air Force carto-
graphers each prepared experimental maps of the area at
Table 3. (cont.)
Location
Comments
Location
Comments
E of Kies
Dome with summit pit
Vogel
Three ''fused'' craters
Lameche
Split crater
Wallace
Lava-flooded crater
SW of Langrenus Mountain with crater on summit
Wargentin
Extreme case of crater infilling
Prom. Laplace
Viewpoint across Sinus Iridum
Wo¨ hler
Smooth floor
Le Monnier
Very level surface, base site?
Zach
Floor resembling crater lake
Lichtenberg
Rays, reported red glow
Zupus
Dark mottled floor, reported changes
Chronological sequence of missions and events 25

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1 : 250 000 scale in preparation for the missions. In
Figure 29, the two lines show how the 'nominal landing
point', the predicted vertical descent point, moved across
the surface for different launch dates in the planned
four-day launch periods for Rangers 3 and 4. Launch
was restricted to a few days each month when lighting
would be acceptable for photography in the desired
target region.
Ranger 4 crashed on the farside at 130.78 W, 15.58 S,
about 300 km south of the rim of the giant Hertzsprung
basin. Figure 30 shows the rugged cratered terrain in this
region, which includes the highest elevations on the lunar
surface. The 108 grid lines are 300 km apart, north to
south. Figure 31 shows the impact area itself, just south-
west of the 80 km diameter crater Ioffe. Figure 31B is a
Clementine image (page 382) of the impact area. Small
Figure 26 Exploration sites
proposed by Green and Van
Lopik (1961).
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bright spots are fresh impact craters. Figure 31C is a
Clementine infrared image mosaic, possibly including
the impact point. In this infrared image a fresh impact
might appear as a dark spot. It is not possible to associate
any specific point with the impact. Another view of this
area from Zond 8 is shown in Figure 239.
This section includes material from NAS-NRC (1962)
and Adamski (1962).
Figure 27 Ranger 3 target region and potential farside photographic coverage.
Figure 28 Western lunar hemisphere, showing Ranger 4
target and impact sites.
Figure 29 Ranger 3 And 4 nominal landing points For
launches on successive days in the four-day launch period.
Ranger 5 would have had similar landing points.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Chart AIC 75B (Wichmann), 2nd edition,
May 1962, original scale 1 : 500 000.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 27

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16 May 1962: N-1 Lunar Project (Soviet Union)
A draft project for human lunar exploration was com-
pleted by Korolev's team on 16 May 1962. The design
was defended before the other Chief Designers from 2 to
16 July 1962. The large three-stage N-1 booster would be
used, with the following lunar objectives:
(1) Circumnavigation of the Moon with a crew of two or
three people, and lunar orbit operations by people
Figure 31 The Ranger 4 impact site.
Base maps. Figure 31A: as Figure 30. Figure 31B: Clementine
UV-VIS image lub3021h-084. Figure 31C: Clementine LWIR
image mosaic.
Figure 30 Ranger 4 impact area. Also shown is the
uncorrected impact point for Ranger 7, the impact point if no
trajectory correction had occurred (page 37).
Base map: details of US Geological Survey map I-1218-A, Map
Showing Relief and Surface Markings on the Lunar Far Side,
original scale 1 : 5 000 000, 1980.
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and automated vehicles for scientific study of the
lunar surface;
(2) Lunar landings for geological studies and the selection
of a suitable site for a scientific base on the Moon;
(3) Establishment of the lunar base and regular travel
between Earth and the Moon.
July 1962: Surveyor Lunar Orbiter (United States:
NASA)
High-resolution imaging of potential landing sites would
soon be needed for Apollo site selection and mission
planning. The Ranger program would provide high-
resolution images for very small areas only, and was
not an efficient method to certify a large number of
sites. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was developing
a lunar landing vehicle to be called Surveyor, and
now began to consider it for an orbital mission with
cameras in place of its surface experiments and landing
rockets.
An original plan envisioned photographing the whole
surface at visible and thermal infrared wavelengths from
a polar orbit, with emphasis on the farside. Global reso-
lution would be 100 m, with spot coverage at 10 m or
better. As the needs of Apollo grew, this plan was mod-
ified to photograph the area between 208 north and
south of the equator and between 508 east and west
(Figure 32). This is somewhat larger than the Apollo
landing zone as later defined (page 58).
Landing was easier in the western half of the zone, and
return was easier from the eastern half, so either would be
suitable for Apollo, but the west was favored because
Ranger and Surveyor data would be easier to obtain. The
larger latitude extent reflected the possibility of mission
architectures involving direct flights from Earth orbit to
the lunar surface without a lunar orbit phase. When lunar
orbit rendezvous was selected for Apollo in 1962, early
near-equatorial landings were mandated. The area consid-
ered for landings (Sullivan 1962, page 90) then extended
from about 08 to 708 Wand108 Nto108 S (Figure 32).
Six Surveyor Orbiters would be built, of which five
would fly, with one as a spare. The spacecraft had
Surveyor's triangular frame, without landing legs but
with two large solar panels similar to Ranger's. The
flights would occur in the 1964 to 1965 period, with
spacecraft operating from a 100 km orbit. Images
would have a resolution of 100 m over most of the
area, with 10 m resolution over specific sites of interest
and stereoscopic imaging capability for accurate topo-
graphic mapping. Apollo planners soon demanded
wider coverage at still higher resolution, and it became
apparent that the Surveyor Orbiter could not produce
the necessary data. The mission was eventually replaced
by the much more capable Lunar Orbiter spacecraft
(Miller 1962; NAS-NRC, 1962).
Figure 32 Surveyor Orbiter coverage and Apollo planning area, 1962.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 29

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18 October 1962: Ranger 5 (United States: NASA)
The Ranger 5 spacecraft, mission and target on the
Moon were identical to Rangers 3 and 4. Ranger 5 was
launched at 16:59 UT from the Atlantic Missile Range
on an Atlas-Agena B. The vehicle entered its parking
orbit and after 25 minutes the booster re-ignited to place
Ranger 5 on a lunar trajectory. A guidance system mal-
function caused excessive velocity and an unknown fail-
ure caused a loss of power, but the spacecraft was
tracked for 8 hours, 44 minutes, before its battery went
dead. Problems similar to those of Ranger 3 prevented
television imaging, but cosmic gamma-ray data were
collected for 4 hours before battery failure. Ranger 5
missed the Moon by 725 km and entered solar orbit.
4 January 1963: Luna 1963A (Sputnik 25) (Soviet
Union)
This mission was the first flight for a new series of lunar
spacecraft which eventually triumphed with the suc-
cessful landing of Luna 9 (page 74). Its goal was an
attempted lunar soft-landing near the equator in wes-
tern Oceanus Procellarum, with the intention of return-
ing images and data on the mechanical and radiation
characteristics of the lunar surface in preparation for
possible future human landing missions. The 3 m high,
1500 kg spacecraft consisted of a cylindrical section
containing landing rockets and fuel, side-mounted atti-
tude control systems and sensors, and a spherical top
section containing the 100 kg lander. The side-mounted
units were to be discarded to save braking fuel as the
vehicle prepared for its final descent and would fall in
the vicinity of the landing site. The lander would be
ejected onto the surface as the main body touched
down, carrying a camera and devices to measure
radiation.
The spacecraft was launched into an Earth parking
orbit at 07:12 UT by the SL-6/A-2-e launcher but failed
to enter a lunar trajectory. The payload escape stage
failed to separate due to a power system failure. The
stage with payload remained in Earth orbit until it
re-entered on 5 January 1963 after one day. In accordance
with Soviet practice the Luna identification was not
announced at the time. Sputnik 25 was originally desig-
nated Sputnik 33 by the US Naval Space Command.
1963: Sonett Report (United States)
NASA's Office of Space Science (OSS) appointed a
group headed by physicist Charles Sonett and including
Gene Shoemaker, Gerard Kuiper, Thomas Gold, and
Harold Urey to develop scientific proposals for Apollo.
Their draft report, informally called the Sonett Report,
was prepared in July 1962 and formally distributed late
in 1963. This was the first official document to call for
extensive lunar scientific exploration rather than the
single landing mandated by President Kennedy.
The group proposed that landing sites should be
photographed by robotic orbiters. Planning field work
in advance would save time during surface activities.
They indicated a need for a rover with a range of tens
of kilometers, the automated landing of supplies before
astronauts arrived, a geophysical experiment package to
be left on the Moon, and surface stay times of up to 120
hours on later missions. A particular emphasis was
placed on the need for landings outside the narrow
equatorial zone. The report included two sets of pro-
posed sites (Table 4, Figure 33), one compiled by Gene
Shoemaker and Dick Eggleton (USGS), the other by
Duane Dugan (NASA Ames Research Center).
Dugan's Aristarchus and Theophilus positions were
intended to sample ejecta rather than the crater itself.
The final report recommended that the first landing take
place at 38 N, 288 W, near the early Ranger target area
southwest of Copernicus (Figure 29), and that orbital
photography would be needed to certify other sites
(Sonett 1963).
The Flamsteed and ''SE of Copernicus'' sites were
also suggested in Apollo Working Paper 1100 (page
33), and the sites at Aristarchus, Tobias Mayer,
Copernicus, Gassendi, and Alphonsus were considered
later by the Apollo Site Selection Board.
In a meeting at about this time, participants were
asked if they would travel to the Moon even if it was
certain they could never return. Only Urey and
Shoemaker said they would undertake the one-way
trip, according to an anecdote originally told by Urey
to Jafar Arkani-Hamed.
30 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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3 February 1963: Luna 1963B (Soviet Union)
This spacecraft is thought to have been another
attempted lunar lander, targeted for the same region of
Oceanus Procellarum as Luna 1963A (Figure 34). It was
launched from Baikonur, but 105 seconds after launch
the gyro of the onboard trajectory tracking system began
to deviate from the expected values. Attitude control was
lost at 295 seconds, following second stage separation.
The upper stages and payload broke up on re-entry into
the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean.
2 April 1963: Luna 4 (Soviet Union)
The 1422 kg Luna 4 is thought to have been intended to
achieve a landing on the Moon as were its two predeces-
sors and the future Lunas 5 to 9.
A program entitled ''Hitting the Moon'' was sched-
uled to be broadcast on Radio Moscow at 7:45 p.m. on
the evening of 5 April but was cancelled. Luna 4 was
launched from Baikonur at 08:04 UT. The spacecraft,
rather than being sent directly toward the Moon as
Lunas 1 and 2 had been, was placed in an Earth parking
orbit from which it was propelled towards the Moon by
a later burn of its booster upper stage. Luna 4 achieved
nearly the desired trajectory but failed to make a neces-
sary midcourse correction and missed the Moon by
8336 km at 13:25 UT on 5 April 1963. It entered a
90 000 km 700 000 km Earth orbit and was later per-
turbed into a solar orbit. The spacecraft transmitted at
183.6 MHz at least until 6 April but returned no scien-
tific data. Its close pass by the Moon resulted in its
official ''Luna'' designation. Unconfirmed reports from
Italian sources on 8 April that images were received from
Luna 4 (Kolcum 1963) are erroneous, probably referring
to non-imaging transmissions and suggestions that the
lander carried a camera.
The early Luna landers were targeted for a broad
region near the equator in Oceanus Procellarum
(Figure 34) dictated by the Luna trajectory design. A diff-
erent flight profile produced a somewhat different vertical
descent point for the Lunas than for the early Rangers
(page 27). Specific target points for individual missions
were chosen on the basis of albedo (K. Shingareva,
personal communication). Dark areas were expected to
be smoother on the assumption that crater rays repre-
sented areas disrupted by debris thrown out of craters.
Therefore areas without rays should be safer for landing.
This idea also guided Ranger, Surveyor and early Apollo
site planning.
23 September 1963: Revised Soviet Lunar Project
On 23 September 1963 Korolev submitted a new plan for
a human lunar landing program, revised from the earlier
N-1 circumlunar project (page 28). It incorporated new
spacecraft to allow reconnaissance from orbit, landing
Table 4. Sonett Report: proposed landings.
Shoemaker and Eggleton (USGS)
SE of Hortensius 5.68 N, 26.68 W
Rimless pit
Copernicus floor 9.88 N, 20.18 W
Near central peaks
SE of Copernicus 5.18 N, 14.28 W
Dark mare material
Floor of Hyginus 7.78 N, 6.38 E
Volcanic crater
Rim of Parry A 9.18 S, 16.18 W
Unusual ejecta
T. Mayer dome 13.18 N, 31.08 W Volcanic dome
Alphonsus floor 12.68 S, 2.08 W
Volcanic features
Mt. Huygens
20.48 N, 3.08 W
Apennines, mare
Ru¨ mker hills
41.78 N, 57.58 W Volcanic hills
Tycho crater rim 40.98 S, 11.18 W Highland ray crater
Mare Imbrium 37.98 W, 16.48 W Lava flow features
N of crater Billy 12.78 S, 49.88 W Bright plateau
Spitzbergen Mts 35.38 N, 5.58 W
Mare, ridge, hills
Wargentin crater 50.68 S, 60.88 W Filled crater
Amundsen floor 858 S, 458 E
Ice in shaded area
Dugan (NASA Ames)
SE of Copernicus 58 500 N, 148 300 W Dark mare, dome
Riphaeus Mts 58 000 S, 288 100 W Old craters, mare
Flamsteed ring 38 000 S, 448 000 W Ghost crater, mare
Ptolemaeus floor 98 000 S, 28 000 W Crater plains fill
Alphonsus floor 138 000 S, 28 300 W Vents, fractures
Aristarchus
238 400 N, 438 300 W Fresh ray crater
Herodotus floor 238 000 N, 518 450 W Crater, venting?
Mt. Huygens
208 300 N, 38 400 W Apennines, mare
Linne crater
288 000 N, 128 000 E Reported activity?
Plinius crater
158 000 N, 228 000 E Crater, dome, mare
Gassendi crater 198 300 S, 408 200 W Fractures, peak
Mare Humorum 248 300 S, 438 400 W Mare, faults
Theophilus
48 500 S, 258 500 E Mare, crater
Chronological sequence of missions and events 31

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and extended human exploration of the Moon's surface
with a large rover. The plan was described briefly by first
cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin at the 14th International
Astronautical Federation Congress in Paris in October
1963.
The sequence would begin by sending two men on a
circumlunar flyby mission (L-1). Six launches of the
Soyuz booster would be used to orbit a lunar rocket
stage, four tankers to fully fuel the rocket, and the
crew, who would not leave the ground until everything
else was ready. The rocket would then place the space-
craft on its lunar trajectory. The crew would use movie
cameras and scientific instruments to study the Moon's
surface during the flyby, which would be at 1000 to
20 000 km from the lunar surface. Total flight time was
7 to 8 days. The return capsule would re-enter the
Figure 33
Landing sites
suggested in the
Sonett Report.
White circles: USGS sites.
Black circles: NASA Ames sites.
White square: proposed first
landing site.
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Earth's atmosphere at 11 km/s and land by parachute.
Total mass in Earth orbit would be 23 000 kg, of which
the Soyuz capsule mass was to be 5100 kg.
Next came a project to land a remote-controlled
nuclear-powered rover (L-2) on the Moon. This was a
forerunner of the Lunokhod rovers of the 1970s. It
would use components developed for the N-1 project,
and was intended to study the lunar surface and to help
select suitable landing sites for later human flights. The
rover would carry a radio beacon to guide pilots for
precision landings. Data to be returned would include
panoramic images, regolith relief, microscopic structure
and mechanical properties, magnetic fields, cosmic rays
and solar insolation. The rover would have a maximum
speed of 4 km/hour and a range of 2500 km. It would
brake to a direct landing at a speed of only 2 to 4 m/s on
the surface of the Moon without using a lunar parking
orbit.
Korolev's lunar lander (L-3) was designed to make a
direct lunar landing following assembly in Earth orbit.
The 200 tonne L-3 spacecraft used three N-1 launches
and one Soyuz launch to assemble in orbit. The first N-1
launch would orbit the main spacecraft, partly fueled.
Two more launches would carry tankers to complete
the fueling. Then the Soyuz booster would deliver the
crew in the L-1 Earth-return capsule. They would dock
automatically, and when all was ready the lunar voyage
would commence. The lunar landing stage would have a
mass of 21 tonnes. The stage would use variable-thrust
engines to make a soft landing at 2--4 m/s on the sur-
face. As with Apollo, the descent stage would be left on
the Moon. The L-3 mission would last from 10 to 17
days, with 5 to 10 days on the Moon. Unfortunately
for Korolev the L-3 was not authorized in this form.
One year later it was resurrected belatedly in a last
attempt to beat the Americans to the Moon (page 42),
but the version redesigned for this program would need
only a single N-1 launch and carried just a one person
lander.
The lunar orbit mission (L-4) would have carried two
to three cosmonauts into lunar orbit for an extended
survey and mapping program. The 75 tonne L-4 com-
plex would be placed into orbit in a single N-1 launch.
The heavy lunar rover (L-5) would allow extended
human exploration of the Moon's surface. It would
provide living accommodation for three cosmonauts
and 3500 kg of supplies, and would have a maximum
speed of 20 km/hour. The crews would be landed using
the L-3 system. The L-5 would have a mass of 5.5 tonnes
and would be guided to a precision landing by a beacon
on a previously landed L-2 rover.
23 November 1963: AWP 1100 -- Apollo site
selection
The Apollo hardware design evolved during the early
1960s, settling on a two-spacecraft, lunar orbit rendez-
vous system. As planning for Apollo moved beyond
purely engineering matters, landing site selection
emerged as an important but complex issue. Early delib-
erations (Table 5, Figure 35) are described in Apollo
Working Paper 1100 (MSC 1963).
Safety was the overriding concern. A site had to be
level and smooth enough for a safe landing, and the
approach had to be free of obstacles. For the early land-
ing missions a fundamental requirement was for a ''free-
return'' trajectory, which would allow crew recovery if a
system failure prevented entry into lunar orbit. The
spacecraft would loop around the Moon, using lunar
gravity to direct the craft back to Earth. The dynamical
limitations imposed by this rule restricted landings to
within 58 north or south of the lunar equator. Another
constraint arose from the lunar orbit rendezvous mission
Figure 34 The target region for early Luna landing
missions.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 33

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design. For the landed module to rendezvous with its
orbiting counterpart, the orbit had to cross the landing
site. Lunar rotation would carry the lander away from
the orbit track if the site was too far from the equator.
This constraint was relaxed for later missions.
Longitude constraints derived from navigation dur-
ing the final approach and descent to the landing site.
The crew would observe lunar surface landmarks during
final approach to provide data from which the precise
orbit and any necessary corrections could be calculated
back on Earth.
This required that five sightings on prominent fea-
tures east of the landing site be taken after the spacecraft
emerged from the eastern limb during the farside radio
blackout. Both uncertainty in feature positions on the
maps (which was worse near the limbs) and the time
needed to obtain and process the sightings meant that
early landings could take place no farther east than
408 E. A similar argument applied in the west, since
after lunar take-off the ascending Lunar Module (LM)
had to determine its orbit to join up with the orbiting
Command Service Module (CSM). These considerations
gave an Apollo landing zone extending 300 km north to
south and about 2400 km east to west.
Within this zone, geology became an important factor
in the choice of landing sites (MSC 1963; Cappellari 1972;
Compton 1989). At first, landing ''areas'' about 18 across
(30 km diameter) were chosen from the best lunar maps
available at the time (primarily the early Lunar
Astronomical Charts sheets, page 2). These areas lacked
prominent craters and appeared to have acceptable slopes.
In mid-1963 the Space Environment Division at the
Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston (MSC, later to
become the Johnson Space Center) chose four scientifi-
cally interesting areas in the landing zone from a list put
together by lunar scientists (A, B, C, D in Table 5).
Shortly afterwards five more areas were picked for further
study (I, III, VI, VII, IX; the order is that given in Table
IV of Apollo Working Paper 1100). Finally an additional
six sites were examined late in 1963. The lettered sites were
dropped, and the remaining ten sites (roman numerals)
were ''recommended .. . subject to reconnaissance
Table 5. Apollo Working Paper 1100: Apollo landing sites.
Map
designation Position
Description
Concerns
First set of four sites
A
2.668 N, 3.668 E
Sinus Medii near Triesnecker
Too rough
B
5.18 N, 14.28 W
Mare area near Gambart with Copernicus rays Too rough
C
3.08 S, 36.08 W
Oceanus Procellarum with mare ridges
Too rough, few landmarks
D
3.08 S, 44.08 W
Mare-filled crater near Flamsteed
Too far west
Second set of five sites
I
1.758 N, 36.98 E
Eastern Mare Tranquillitatis, near highlands None
III
1.28 N, 28.48 E
Mare Tranquillitatis near Maskelyne
Few landmarks
VI
0.58 S, 1.58 W
Sinus Medii
None
VII
2.758 N, 13.258 W Mare area near Gambart with Copernicus rays None
IX
1.18 S, 31.58 W
Oceanus Procellarum near Lansberg
None
Third set of six sites
E
2.88 S, 8.58 W
Mare area near Lalande
None
II
0.08 N, 31.08 E
Mare Tranquillitatis west of Censorinus
None
VIII
2.48 N, 28.258 W Oceanus Procellarum near Lansberg
None
IV
0.28 N, 24.28 E
Mare Tranquillitatis near Moltke
None
V
0.338 N, 12.88 E
Smooth area in highlands, only highland site Too rough
X
1.28 S, 41.58 W
Oceanus Procellarum near Flamsteed
Few landmarks
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Figure 35 Apollo candidate landing sites from Apollo Working Paper 1100. Numbers are explained on page 34.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1 : 5 000 000, 1st edition, January 1970.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 35

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verification''. The numerals are ordered from east to west,
and all fifteen sites are shown in Figure 35.
The Apollo candidate landing sites are depicted as
follows in Figure 35. Small irregular outlines (roman
numerals) delineate the ten sites approved at that time,
pending further study. Solid black circles (letter designa-
tions) are other sites considered but rejected. Three sites
(M1, M2, M3, the last shown as an open circle) were also
considered at an early stage and are illustrated in a paper
by astronaut Alan B. Shepard (1964).
30 January 1964: Ranger 6 (United States: NASA)
Following the failures of the earlier Rangers, the space-
craft was redesigned to impact on the Moon while trans-
mitting high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface.
The landing capsule was replaced by a cluster of more
capable cameras. Whereas Rangers 3 to 5 would have
photographed only a small area each, missions 6 to 9
were designed to cover a much larger area with increased
high-resolution coverage just before impact. Additional
Rangers were considered for a time but were abandoned
in favour of more capable orbiting spacecraft.
The 381 kg ''Block 3'' spacecraft comprised a hexago-
nal aluminum base 1.5 m across topped by a truncated
cone which held the cameras and a cylindrical low-gain
antenna. Two solar panels, each 74 cm by 154 cm,
extended from opposite edges of the base, with a high-
gain dish antenna at one of the other corners of the
base. The overall height of the spacecraft was 3.6 m.
Propulsion for the mid-course trajectory correction was
provided by a hydrazine engine. Attitude control was
enabled by nitrogen gas jets coupled to gyros and Sun
and Earth sensors. Power was provided by the solar cells
and several batteries.
Ranger 6 was launched at 15:49 UT on an Agena
booster. After a partial parking orbit the Agena
re-ignited to send the spacecraft to the Moon. A successful
mid-course trajectory correction was commanded from
the ground early in the flight. At 9:25 UT on 2 February
1964, 65.5 hours after launch, Ranger 6 struck the Moon
at roughly 21.58 E, 9.48 N, close to its target in the wes-
tern part of Mare Tranquillitatis. Everything but the
cameras worked perfectly, but no images were taken,
probably because of a failure in the TV power system
when it was accidentally turned on about 2 minutes after
launch during the booster separation event. The loss of
Ranger 6 resulted in considerable criticism of NASA and
JPL. Images would have extended from Copernicus cra-
ter to the impact point (Figure 36).
Rangers 3, 4 and 5 had been targeted purely on dyna-
mical grounds (page 25). For this new Ranger, Apollo
officials were consulted about appropriate targets, but
showed no interest. An unsolicited letter from an inter-
ested member of the public proposed a number of scien-
tifically interesting sites (E. A. Whitaker, personal
communication). They were considered but rejected.
The task of impact site selection fell to Ewen Whitaker
of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of
Arizona. In deference to Apollo a mare site was selected,
since a mare would inevitably be the first landing site.
Launch timing and illumination conditions made Mare
Tranquillitatis the preferred target (E. A. Whitaker, per-
sonal communication). There were probably backup
sites further west to accommodate launch delays, but
details of these are not known.
21 March 1964: Luna 1964A (Soviet Union)
Luna 1964A was an attempted lunar landing mission
similar to Luna 9. The spacecraft on a SL-6/A-2-e
launcher took off from Baikonur but the first-
stage burn terminated prematurely. The upper stages
Figure 36 Ranger 6 planned image coverage
(E. Whitaker, personal communication).
36 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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were destroyed on re-entry into the atmosphere. The
landing target would have been in the area shown in
Figure 34.
20 April 1964: Luna 1964B (Soviet Union)
Luna 1964B was another in the series of attempted lunar
landing missions. The spacecraft again failed to reach
Earth orbit. The booster's upper stage control system
failed 340 seconds after launch from Baikonur and the
engine cut off prematurely due to an electrical system
failure. The upper stages were destroyed on re-entry. The
landing target would have been in the area shown in
Figure 34.
1964: Early Surveyor site planning (United States)
As the Surveyor soft-landing program took shape, land-
ing sites began to be considered. The Surveyor approach
path would give vertical descent profiles (the easiest to
deal with) over an elliptical area in the western parts of the
nearside (Figure 38). In any one month the vertical des-
cent point moved from southwest to northeast across this
ellipse, and over the year that line swept north and south
across the ellipse. The first landing would be in this ver-
tical descent area. According to Wilhelms (1993, p. 139),
Gene Shoemaker suggested some sites to JPL in January
1964, and a year later he and Elliot Morris proposed a list
of five sites. Figure 38 shows several areas proposed as
Surveyor targets, probably from that source.
Surveyors which were mobile, or capable of deploying
small rovers, were also considered in this period.
4 June 1964: Zond 1964A (Soviet Union)
This flight was intended as a lunar flyby to test the
design of the Zond spacecraft for future Mars missions.
The SL-6/A-2-e launcher failed during launch from
Baikonur and the spacecraft did not achieve Earth orbit.
28 July 1964: Ranger 7 (United States: NASA)
After a long series of increasingly controversial failures,
this was the first successful Ranger mission. The Atlas-
Agena B launcher lifted off at 16:50 UT and placed the
365.7 kg Ranger 7 and its Agena upper stage in a 192 km
Earth parking orbit. After 30 minutes the Agena injected
the spacecraft into its lunar trajectory and then separated.
The solar panels opened and the spacecraft began to con-
trol its attitude and switched from the low-gain to the high-
gain antenna. A trajectory correction was performed at
10:27 GMT the next day. Without it, impact would have
occurred on the farside at 12.38 S, 156.08 W (Figure 30).
Ranger 7 reached the Moon on 31 July. The first image
was taken at 13:08 UT at an altitude of 2110 km. The six
television cameras took 4308 excellent photographs dur-
ing the final 17 minutes before impact, the last one having
a resolution of 0.5 m. Pictures were taken from roughly
1800 km to 480 m above the surface. The spacecraft
struck the lunar surface 68.6 hours after launch at 13:25
Figure 37 Ranger 6 impact site.
Figure 37A: The Ranger 6 impact target was 8.58 N, 21.08 Ein
western Mare Tranquillitatis, between craters Ross and Arago.
Figure 37B: the target area in more detail. Tracking indicated an
impact about 30 km northeast of the target at 9.48 N, 21.58 E, with
uncertainties of about one degree (30 km). Ranger 6 could have
crashed anywhere within the circle.
Figure 37C: the central portion of this circle in more detail. Bright
spots are fresh impact craters. Any one could be the Ranger 6
impact site.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 37

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UT with a speed of 2.62 km/s at 10.358 S, 20.188 W, in an
area between Mare Nubium and Oceanus Procellarum.
The previously unnamed mare area acquired the des-
ignation Mare Cognitum (Known Sea) after the mission,
to highlight the fact that it was the first lunar area to be
seen at high resolution.
The target was chosen primarily to help characterize
the lunar surface at high resolution to assist planning for
Figure 37D: map C with Clementine long wavelength infrared (LWIR) images superimposed. In LWIR, fresh bright debris appears
dark because it is cooler. The arrow indicates a triangular patch at 9.58 N, 21.38 E with the shape expected for an oblique impact,
which may be the Ranger 6 impact site.
Figure 37E: enlargement of D.
Base maps. Figures 37A and 37B: Lunar Chart LAC 60, Julius Caesar, original scale 1:1 000 000, ACIC, 1st edition, September 1962.
Figure 37C: Lunar Topographic Orthophotomap LTO60B4, original scale 1:250 000, Defense Mapping Agency, 1st edition,
December 1979.
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the Surveyor landers and later Apollo landings, though
it was outside the area then being considered for the first
landings. To provide adequate lighting for photography,
the terminator was about 208 east of the chosen impact
point (JPL 1964).
The Ranger 7 target selection was performed by Ewen
Whitaker (Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University
of Arizona (Figure 39, Table 6). Again, Apollo officials
showed little interest in the selection. Despite this,
Whitaker and Kuiper decided that mare sites would be
most useful for Apollo. Whitaker plotted the position of
the lunar terminator at the predicted impact times for
launches on each day of the seven-day launch period.
The desired Sun angle in the highest-resolution images
was about 208 above the horizon, so for each terminator
position Whitaker sought sites about 208 further west as
targets. In that narrow longitude range for each day he
identified sites which lacked visible obstacles, were dar-
ker than their surroundings, hence were expected to be
relatively free of crater ejecta (referred to here as rubble),
and also were large enough that the spacecraft had a
reasonable chance of impacting within them. The targets
submitted to the Ranger project are shown in Table 6,
data courtesy of Ewen Whitaker. Figure 39 shows these
targets and the full extent of Ranger 7's photographic
coverage.
Figure 38 Surveyor landing
site constraints and the first
suggested targets.
Most of the suggested targets
are well outside the Apollo zone:
1, Oceanus Procellarum; 2, Mare
Humorum; 3, Copernicus floor;
4, Copernicus ejecta; 5, Alphonsus;
6, highlands surrounding Ptolemaeus
and Alphonsus (Beilock 1964a, 1964b).
Chronological sequence of missions and events 39

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Another early suggested target for Ranger 7 was the
Ranger 6 site, since it might be possible to see the crater
produced by the impact. The size of a crater produced by
an impact of known energy might reveal useful informa-
tion on surface strength. The problem here was that only
the very last, highest-resolution images could possibly
show such a small crater, and the difficulty of hitting
such a small target made this an unrealistic choice. The
final selected target was that at 218 W, 118 S in part of
Mare Nubium.
The crater Olbers A, referred to in Table 6, is now
called Glushko, commemorating the prominent Soviet
rocket designer Valentin Petrovich Glushko (1908--1989),
designer of the rocket engines which launched the early
Sputniks and head of the Soviet space program while it
developed its Mir space station in the 1980s.
The US Air Force Aeronautical Chart and
Information Center (ACIC), which produced the LAC
series (page 2) published a set of maps based on the
Ranger 7 images. They are used here to locate and
characterize the impact site (Figures 40, 41, 42). This
sequence of nested maps at progressively larger scales
is the model for all site mapping in this atlas, as it allows
for unambiguous location of a site at all scales.
Figure 40 illustrates the Ranger 7 impact area at
progressively larger scales.
Figure 42A is a composite of a detail from ACIC's
last Ranger VII Lunar Chart (lower half) and an Apollo
16 panoramic camera image of the area (upper half). The
map detail is based on the highest-resolution Ranger 7
frames, which did not cover the impact site, but the area
of the impact was seen in earlier images clearly enough to
Table 6. Ranger 7 targets proposed by Ewen Whitaker.
Launch
date
Location
Solar
altitude Remarks
(BEST: the preferred site for that launch date)
27 July
218N,78W2
0
8
Medium sized area. Eratosthenes and Copernicus rubble. BEST
128 N, 7.58 W2
1
8
Rather small area, Eratosthenes and Copernicus rubble
9.58 S, 118 W2
5
8 Small area, probably relatively free of rubble
148S,78W2
0
8 Small area, probably free of rubble
28 July
288 N, 208 W1
9
8
Large area, probably relatively free of Copernicus rubble
238 N, 218 W2
1
8
Medium sized area, Copernicus, Pytheas and Lambert rubble
198 N, 218 W2
2
8
Rather small area. Copernicus and Pytheas rubble
28 S, 19.58 W2
1
8
Rather small area. Copernicus rubble
118 S, 218 W2
2
8
Fairly large area. Probably free of rubble. BEST
29 July
198 N, 338 W2
2
8
Rather small area. Copernicus rubble
11.58 N, 328 W2
1
8
Rather small area. Some Copernicus and Kepler rubble
38N,288W1
8
8
Medium sized area. Some Copernicus and Kepler rubble
38 S, 35.58 W2
5
8
Large area, free of rubble. ''Surveyor'' site, but rather high
solar altitude. BEST
30 July
158 N, 458 W2
1
8
Large area. Some Aristarchus and Kepler rubble
8.58 N, 458 W2
2
8 Small area between Kepler rays. Some Kepler rubble
38N,448W2
1
8
Medium sized area. Some Kepler rubble
38S,448W2
1
8
Medium sized area in old ring. Probably free of rubble
98S,428W1
9
8
Fairly large area, free of rubble. BEST
31 July
188 N, 558 W1
9
8
Large area. Some Aristarchus rubble
08N,558W2
0
8
Very large area, free of rubble and obstacles. BEST
1 Aug.
178 N, 688 W2
0
8
Large area. Rubble from Olbers A
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be certain that the prominent 10 m diameter crater did
not, in fact, exist.
Figure 42B shows the surrounding area in the same
Apollo 16 image (panoramic camera frame 5435), show-
ing that the crater has a bright rim and dark ejecta
(Whitaker 1972). The dark patch resembles topographic
shadowing in a crater, but it is not.
Figure 42C shows a larger area around the impact
site in Clementine long-wavelength infrared images. The
impact site is indicated by the arrow. There is no obvious
sign of the Ranger impact, except possibly a slightly
brighter (warmer) patch extending westwards from the
impact site. At 1 km in diameter this is much larger than
the dark ejecta deposit seen in Figure 42B.
Figure 39 Landing site candidates for Ranger 7, chosen by Ewen Whitaker.
Figure 40 The Ranger 7 impact site.
Figure 40A shows the photographic coverage from Ranger 7's
wide-angle cameras, and the location of Figure 40B. Ranger
mosaic by P. Stooke.
Figure 40B is an enlarged view of Mare Cognitum, the ''known
sea'' in which Ranger 7 obtained the first close-up images of the
lunar surface. The ''limits of effective image coverage'' (dark
outline) show the area inside which Ranger 7 images exceeded
the resolution of telescopic images. A crater near the impact
point commemorates Kuiper.
Figure 40C is a closer view of the impact site. Each map shows
the location of the next illustration in the sequence as they close
in on the impact site.
Base maps. Figure 40B: ACIC Ranger VII Lunar Chart RLC-1
(Mare Cognitum), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition,
October 1964. Figure 40C: ACIC Ranger VII Lunar Chart RLC-2
(Guericke), original scale 1:500 000, 1st edition, October 1964.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 41

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The three images in Figure 43 were taken by Ranger
7 as it descended, from heights of 1335 km (left),
14.7 km (centre) and 1.0 km (right) respectively. The
dark lines are reseau marks, intended to help make
accurate measurements from hardcopy images. The
image on the right was one of the last pictures taken
before impact.
3 August 1964: Official Soviet Lunar Project
Despite earlier planning by Korolev and the other
Chief Designers (pages 21, 28, 31), the Soviet Union
had not officially sanctioned the proposed lunar mis-
sions. As it became clear that Apollo was progressing
on schedule and might very well succeed, a belated
Soviet response was put together. On 3 August 1964
Command number 655--268 issued by Central
Committee of the Communist Party authorized both
Korolev and his rival Vladimir N. Chelomei to proceed
with their separate Moon projects.
Chelomei was to develop a new three-stage UR-500 K
launcher and the LK-1 circumlunar spacecraft. The
advanced design had already been completed informally.
Twelve LK-1s would be built in 1965 and 1966 and
would first fly in 1967. The 17 tonne capsule looked
similar to the Apollo Command Module, but at 2.8 m
diameter was smaller than the 3.9 m diameter Apollo
module. LK-1 would be launched into an Earth parking
orbit by the new launch vehicle. The LK-1's rocket
engine would burn to put it on a translunar trajectory
and perform any mid-course corrections. The spacecraft
would loop around the Moon and return to Earth.
On 13 October 1964, only two months after the
decree, Khrushchev was ousted from office and
Figure 40 (cont.)
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Brezhnev took his place. This immediately led to a shift
of political forces. Some of Chelomei's other projects
were cancelled, but his lunar plan was allowed to con-
tinue. However, on 25 October 1965 Korolev regained
sole responsibility for human lunar flights. The constant
infighting and lack of a settled program were major
factors in the Soviet Union's failure to land cosmonauts
on the Moon.
Figure 41 The Ranger 7 impact site.
Figure 41A: The target point and location of the next map. Between them is a crescent-shaped cluster of secondary impact craters.
Figure 41B: The immediate vicinity of the impact site. Letters identify individual craters. One crater, Bonpland PQC, contains a
cluster of large rocks.
Figure 41C: The Ranger 7 impact site. The predicted impact site was based on motion observed between the last few images.
Base maps. Figure 41A: ACIC Chart RLC-3 (Bonpland H), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, October 1964. Figure 41B: ACIC Chart
RLC-4 (Bonpland PQC), original scale 1:10 000, 1st edition, October 1964. Figure 41C: Composite of RLC-4 and ACIC Chart RLC-5,
original scale 1:1000, 1st edition, October 1964.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 43

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17 February 1965: Ranger 8 (United States:
NASA)
The second successful Ranger flight was launched at
17:05 UT. The Atlas-Agena B launcher placed the
Agena and Ranger 8 in a 185 km parking orbit, then
after 14 minutes the Agena made a 90 second burn to
put the spacecraft on its lunar trajectory. Several min-
utes later the Ranger and Agena separated. The space-
craft deployed its solar panels, began its attitude control
functions and switched from the low-gain to the high-
gain antenna by 21:30 UT. On 18 February at
160 000 km from Earth a trajectory correction was per-
formed. An intended maneuver to point the cameras
more in the direction of flight shortly before imaging
began was cancelled so that the cameras would photo-
graph a greater area of the surface.
Ranger 8 reached the Moon on 20 February. The first
image was taken at 9:34 UT at a height of 2510 km. Over
the last 23 minutes before impact 7137 excellent photo-
graphs were obtained. The final image was taken at a
height of about 160 m and had a resolution of 1.5 m.
Impact occurred at a speed of 2.6 km/s at 09:57 UT
after 64.9 hours of flight. Ranger 8 crashed less than
20 km from its target point in Mare Tranquillitatis at
2.678 N, 24.658 E. Excellent photographs of the craters
Delambre, Sabine, and Ritter, long fault-bounded val-
leys, and the southern edge of Mare Tranquillitatis were
obtained. The images (Figure 49) also showed that a
second mare surface was smooth enough to contemplate
landing on.
Ranger 8 impact site selection was more complex than
for Ranger 7 (Figure 44, Table 7). Project Apollo offi-
cials showed little interest in the targeting of Rangers 6
and 7, but with the success of the latter they paid more
attention to Ranger 8. Their initial suggestions (white
boxes in Figure 44) were (A) a ray-free mare region, (B)
the Ranger 7 impact crater and (C) a highland region
(Hall 1977). The Ranger 7 impact crater was an unrea-
listic target, as that of Ranger 6 had been for Ranger 7
(page 40).
NASA's Homer Newell proposed a list of sites on 19
January 1965 (Table 7), one for each launch date during
the February launch period. Impact had to be near the
terminator to assure good relief definition, so the site
changed each day if launch had to be delayed. George
Figure 41 (cont.)
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Mueller of the Office of Manned Space Flight noted that
many of those sites were outside the near-equatorial
Apollo zone of interest, and submitted his own list of
sites, mostly close to those from Apollo Working Paper
1100 (pages 34, 35).
Newell and colleagues responded with a compromise
list (Table 7) which included some from each of the
previous sources, with minor modifications in two
cases. Ranger 8 was launched towards the first target
on this list on 17 February. The intrusion of Apollo
Figure 42 Ranger 7 impact crater.
Figure 43 Ranger 7 images.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 45

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planners into the Ranger site selection process was con-
troversial, and considerable pressure was applied for
Ranger 9 to be targeted primarily for scientific purposes.
Ranger 8 images (Figure 45) covered the southwes-
tern maria (Nubium, Humorum, southern Oceanus
Procellarum) at low resolution, and increased in resolu-
tion across the highlands east of Ptolemaeus. ACIC
again produced a series of maps to document the
Ranger 8 mission, which are shown in Figures 46, 47,
48. Ranger 8 approached the Moon more obliquely than
Ranger 7 and did not photograph its impact area. A
terminal (pre-impact) maneuver to point the cameras at
the impact site was rejected because of the inherent risk
of failure and because it would decrease surface
coverage.
Examples of Ranger 8 images are shown in Figure 49.
The image at left shows craters Schmidt, Sabine and
Ritter and the nearby highlands. The other two images
from lower altitudes show the nature of the surface in
this area of Mare Tranquillitatis. There was now little
doubt that the surface was safe for landings.
The Ranger 8 crater (Figure 48C) was the first space-
craft impact crater photographed from orbit. By ana-
logy with natural impacts a bright crater and ejecta
deposit were anticipated, so initially the small bright
crater shown in Figure 48C was misidentified as the
Table 7. Ranger 8 target selection.
Map
designation Launch date
Description
Location
Newell's list of 19 January 1965
1
2/17
Mare Tranquillitatis
13.58 N, 24.08 E
2
2/18
Mare patch near Mare Vaporum
14.58 N, 12.08 E
3
2/19
Sinus Medii
0.58 N, 1.08 E
4
2/20
Secondary craters near Copernicus
4.08 N, 15.08 W
5
2/21
Candidate Surveyor landing site
number 5
15.08 S, 30.58 W
6
2/22--23
Gassendi
18.08 S, 40.08 W
7
2/24
Volcanic domes near Marius
12.08 N, 56.08 W
Mueller's suggestions, suitable for Apollo
8
2/17
Mare Tranquillitatis
0.58 N, 24.08 E
9
2/18
Highland region
0.08, 13.08 E
3
2/19
Sinus Medii
0.58 N, 1.08 W
10
2/20
Mare region
1.58 N, 14.58 W
11
2/21
Mare region
3.08 N, 28.258 W
12
2/22--23
Ray-free mare area
1.08 S, 42.08 W
13
2/24
Oceanus Procellarum
3.08 S, 57.08 W
Compromise list
14
2/17
Mare Tranquillitatis
3.08 N, 24.08 E
2
2/18
Mare Vaporum
14.58 N, 12.08 E
15
2/19
Sinus Medii
0.08, 1.08 W
4
2/20
Near Gambart
4.08 N, 15.08 W
16
2/21
Near Reinhold
3.08 N, 28.258 W
17
2/22--23
Oceanus Procellarum
3.08 S, 44.08 W
7
2/24
Oceanus Procellarum
12.08 N, 56.08 W
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Figure 44 Ranger 8 target points.
A, B and C are the first target areas suggested by Apollo planners (page 44). B is the Ranger 7 impact crater. The numbered points
are the sites suggested during three steps in the selection process, as outlined in Table 7.
A comparison of this map with Figure 35 reveals several common targets. Points 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16 and 17 are all included in the
earlier list of potential Apollo sites. Most are dark mare areas, thought to be smooth. Point 9 is a smooth highland site.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1: 5 000 000, first edition, January 1970.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 47

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Figure 45 Ranger 8 photographic coverage.
Figure 46 The Ranger 8 impact site.
In Figure 46A the area covered by the cameras is outlined.
Figure 46B shows the target point and the future landing site of Apollo 11.
Base maps: ACIC Ranger Lunar Charts. Figure 46A: RLC-6 (Hypatia), original scale 1:1 000 000. Figure 46B: composite of RLC-7
(Sabine) and RLC-8 (Sabine D), original scales 1:250 000 and 1:100 000 respectively, 1st edition, March 1966.
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Ranger 8 impact crater. Subsequent imaging of Ranger
and Apollo impact craters by the Apollo 16 panoramic
camera (Whitaker 1972) showed that artificial impact
craters are often surrounded by dark rays, possibly
resulting from residual fuel in the tanks or metallic frag-
ments in the ejecta. This led to the identification of the
larger crater as the true Ranger 8 impact crater. Its size is
also more in keeping with expectations.
12 March 1965: Luna (Cosmos 60) (Soviet Union)
Cosmos 60 was intended to be a lunar soft-landing mis-
sion with a design similar to that of Lunas 4 and 9. The
6530 kg spacecraft was launched from Baikonur at 09:36
UT, but the upper-stage engine failed to ignite because
of an electrical failure. The stage with the payload
remained in Earth orbit and was given the designation
Cosmos 60. The lunar target area would have been near
the equator in western Oceanus Procellarum (Figure 34).
21 March 1965: Ranger 9 (United States: NASA)
This was the last of the Ranger missions. The spacecraft
was identical to Rangers 6, 7 and 8. Rangers 7 and 8 had
provided data useful for Apollo mission planning, so
Ranger 9 was used to advance basic lunar science. At a
very early stage a target in Sinus Medii was considered
for Apollo planning purposes, but a highland or large
crater site was preferred for its science value (page 51).
A prime candidate was the geologically complex crater
Alphonsus, in part because on the night of 3--4
November 1958, Nikolai A. Kozyrev at the Crimean
Observatory recorded a possible emission of molecular
hydrogen at the central peak. This was one of the
Figure 46 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 49

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best-documented cases of a transient lunar phenomenon
(TLP), controversial but possible evidence of a low level
of ongoing internal activity. TLPs had also been
reported at Aristarchus.
Launch from Cape Canaveral was at 21:37 UT. The
Atlas-Agena launcher placed Ranger 9 into a parking
orbit at 185 km altitude. A 90 second burn of the Agena
placed the spacecraft on its lunar trajectory. A 31-second
mid-course correction was made at 12:30 UT on 23
March. Ranger 9 reached the Moon on 24 March. The
first image was taken at 13:49 UT at a height of 2363 km.
During the final 19 minutes of flight, 5814 photographs
were transmitted, the last one having a resolution of
0.3 m from 600 m height.
Figure 47 Approaching the Ranger 8 impact site.
The three maps lead in towards the impact site, just off the right edge of each map. Superimposed on Figure 47C is the example
of astronaut traverse planning presented by Harrison Schmitt at the Falmouth Conference (p. 56). LEM is the hypothetical landing
point of the lunar excursion module. The walking traverses visit features of geological interest, craters of different sizes and a
boulder field. The LEM position was given as 2.668 N, 24.758 E.
Base maps: ACIC Ranger Lunar Charts. Figure 47A: RLC-9 (Sabine DM), original scale 1: 50 000. Figure 47B: RLC-10 (Sabine
EF), original scale 1:15 000. Figure 47C: RLC-11 (Sabine EB), original scale 1: 5000.
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After 64.5 hours of flight, impact occurred at 14:08
UT at approximately 12.838 S, 2.378 W in the crater
Alphonsus, with a speed of 2.67 km/s. Some of the
images were broadcast live on television in the United
States during the final descent. The Ranger 9 impact
crater (Figure 53) has bright ejecta in Apollo 16 images,
whereas Rangers 7 and 8 had dark ejecta. Ranger 6
ejecta may also be bright (Figure 37). The differing
appearance is probably due more to viewing and illumi-
nation angle variations than ejecta properties.
Ranger 9 target selection began with discussions at JPL
among scientists and Surveyor and Apollo representatives
on 27 February 1965. The scientists, including Eugene
Shoemaker, Hal Masursky, Gerard Kuiper and Ewen
Whitaker, unanimously agreed that ''Ranger D'' (as it
was called before launch) should view a non-mare target,
either highlands or a site of special scientific interest, closer
to the terminator than the earlier Ranger targets to give
better shading for topographic interpretation.
Surveyor planners initially preferred an impact in the
vertical landing region to be visited by Surveyor 1
(Figure 38), but this would have been another mare
target. Apollo planners supplied a list of sites for each
launch date, some outside the Apollo zone if they were
scientifically interesting. On 2 March, Ray Heacock,
Ewen Whitaker and Don Willingham met at JPL to
choose preliminary targets, which were then reviewed
by Kuiper, Shoemaker and Harold Urey to arrive at a
final target. The candidate sites are listed in Table 8 and
illustrated in Figure 50.
The Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF) had
suggested several rough highland targets, or points at
the outer edge of crater ejecta deposits. The scientists
preferred smoother highland sites or crater interiors.
Figure 47 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 51

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Alphonsus was by far the preferred target, so the first
two launch dates were dropped from consideration.
There had been no agreement on a target for those
days. Aristarchus was the second priority target but
Copernicus or Kepler would not be bypassed if launches
were possible on those days. These targets are illustrated
in Figure 50 (Schurmeier 1965 and coverage is shown in
Figure 51).
Figures 52A, B and C show the descent to the impact
site. Ranger 9 crashed in a flat area among linear valleys
which probably formed over deep fractures. Those frac-
tures may have provided routes for gas and ash to erupt
from greater depths, and some small craters lying along
the fractures are thought to be volcanic (e.g. Alphonsus
MD). Figures 53 and 54 show further images of the
impact site and crater.
10 April 1965: Luna 1965A (Soviet Union)
Luna 1965A was another attempted lunar lander, essen-
tially identical to Lunas 4 and 9. After launch from
Baikonur the stage 3 engine failed and the vehicle was
destroyed as it re-entered the atmosphere. The target
would have been in western Oceanus Procellarum
(Figure 34).
9 May 1965: Luna 5 (Soviet Union)
Luna 5 was another in the series of attempted lunar
landing missions essentially identical to Lunas 4 and 9.
Each flight contributed to spacecraft design and lunar
flight experience.
Figure 48 Ranger 8 impact site and crater.
Base map (Figure 48A): ACIC Ranger Lunar Chart RLC-12 (Sabine EBF), original scale 1 : 2000, 1st edition, March 1966.
Figure 48A: Area photographed during the final part of the descent. Figure 48B: A composite of part of Figure 48A, the last
two Ranger 8 images, and Lunar Orbiter 2 image 70-H. Figure 48C: A detail of the same Lunar Orbiter image. The 14 m diameter
Ranger 8 impact crater, discussed on page 49, is indicated.
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Launch from Baikonur was at 07:55 UT. As the
1474 kg spacecraft approached the Moon the retro-
rocket system failed and the spacecraft impacted the
lunar surface at 19:10 UT on 12 May, at 1.68 S,
25.08 W, southwest of Copernicus (Figure 55). The
upper stage rocket apparently struck the Moon at
19:15 UT southeast of the crater Pitatus somewhere
near 328 S, 88 W. Alternate locations sometimes reported
are 318 S, 88 W, and the northern rim of Pitatus at about
288 S, 138 W, perhaps based on tracking data. The first of
these locations is the center of the reported impact cloud
(Figure 55B).
A possible expanding cloud at the location near
Pitatus was photographed at the Rodewisch tracking
station in East Germany (Anonymous 1965). The
cloud (Figure 55B) grew to about 200 km by 80 km,
reportedly rising about 90 km high (the basis for the
latter figure is uncertain) and had fully dissipated within
Figure 49 Ranger 8 images.
Figure 48 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 53

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ten minutes. If this event was caused by the rocket
impact, the size suggests that a substantial amount of
residual propellant was released and helped raise and
spread the dust. Earth-based impact observations are
not universally accepted as real.
Figure 55B shows the area covered by the possible
cloud, with an approximate location for the impact
added at its center. The target area would have been in
western Oceanus Procellarum, 1000 km to the west.
Other impacts reported to have been seen from Earth
are Luna 2 (Figure 18), Luna 7 (Figure 67) and Hiten
(Figure 347).
Figures 55C and 55D show the reported Luna 5 impact
site based on spacecraft tracking. More realistically,
Figure 50 Ranger 9 proposed targets.
Table 8. Ranger D (Ranger 9) preliminary targets, 2 March 1965.
Launch date Target point
Distance
from
terminator Notes
19 March 17.58 S, 18.58 E 14.58
East end of crater chain (Catena Abulfeda) near Altai scarp, highland target.
Not acceptable to Urey, who had no interest in highlands. Shoemaker
preferred a highland basin at 3.08 S, 19.38 E for consideration as an Apollo
site
20 March 4.38 S, 9.08 E
11.258
Saunder, a smooth highland basin. Alternate highland site: 3.58 S, 8.08 E.
Preferred by Shoemaker for Apollo planning but others would like a more
interesting target
21 March 13.38 S, 3.08 W 10.58
Alphonsus, a large highland crater with suspected volcanic activity (page 49).
Shoemaker preferred a simpler site in Flammarion at 3.08 S, 3.88 W
22 March 10.08 N, 19.58 W 14.38
Interior of Copernicus crater
23 March 8.28 N, 37.88 W 20.08
Kepler crater, the most scientifically interesting site available for this date but
small, with little chance of hitting the crater interior
24--25 March 24.58 N, 49.08 W 19.08
The tip of Schro¨ ter's Valley near Aristarchus, a site reported as showing signs
of volcanic activity
26 March 7.08 S, 61.58 W 19.08
Highlands east of Grimaldi, recommended by NASA's Office of Manned
Space Flight (OMSF) but of little interest to the scientists
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considering the many uncertainties, Luna 5 could have
struck the surface anywhere within the area of map C.
8 June 1965: Luna 6 (Soviet Union)
Luna 6 was another in the series of attempted lunar land-
ing missions. Launch of the 1440 kg spacecraft from
Baikonur was at 07:41 UT. Initial reports were that
everything was functioning normally, but two days after
launch the rocket engine failed to shut down at the end of
a mid-course correction. This resulted in Luna 6 missing
the Moon by 160 000 km and entering solar orbit.
1965: US landing site planning
Landing site planning took a back seat to technical
issues and general scientific questions in the early years
of the Apollo program. NASA's initial position was that
any site would provide important new data. A 1962
Space Science Board meeting in Iowa (NAS-NRC
1962) briefly highlighted the obvious need to study high-
lands as well as maria.
This began to change in 1965. The Space Science
Board met at Woods Hole and compiled a list of scien-
tific questions to be addressed by lunar exploration,
repeating the Iowa opinion in the process (NAS-NRC
1966). No specific landing sites were indicated, but the
Woods Hole study pointed out that effective geophysical
and geochemical studies demanded several landings at
sites up to 1000 kilometers apart.
At a conference on lunar exploration in Falmouth,
Massachusetts, immediately following the 1965 Woods
Hole study, scientists stressed the need for detailed study
by orbiting satellites as well as human landings (NASA
1965a). This took into account the operational limita-
tions of Apollo and the resulting restrictions on landing
sites. The scientists urged development of surface and
flying vehicles to increase the range of exploration from
a specific site, assuming that landings would eventually
be extended beyond the Apollo zone to higher latitudes,
Figure 51 Ranger 9 image coverage and impact site.
Figure 51A: Ranger 9 image coverage (mosaic by P. Stooke).
Figure 51B: Region around the target crater Alphonsus.
Figure 51C: Alphonsus, showing the target and impact points.
The prelaunch target point was modified by the trajectory
correction to reduce the likelihood of impacting in the shadow of
the central peak. The line shows the position of Kozyrev's
spectrometer slit during his 1958 observations (p. 49). (Smith
et al. 1966; Vegos et al. 1968)
Base maps: ACIC Ranger Lunar Charts, 1st edition, May 1966.
Figure 51B: RLC-13 (Ptolemaeus), original scale 1:1 000 000.
Figure 51C: RLC-14 (Alphonsus), original scale 1: 250 000
Chronological sequence of missions and events 55

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rugged highlands and large craters. At this time, better
information on the lunar surface was needed before the
scientific merits of specific sites could be weighed.
Presentations at Falmouth included Harrison
Schmitt's example of EVA (extra-vehicular activity)
planning on high-resolution Ranger images (Figure 47C)
and the long traverses illustrated in Figure 56 (NASA
1965a; JPL 1966a; base map from Figure 44). These
examples of possible traverses showed how up to six
successive Apollo missions could employ reusable long-
range vehicles to establish geological relationships over
large areas. The indicated points were described but the
routes were not illustrated in the report, and are
conjectural.
Ranger photographs encouraged NASA with their
generally benign-appearing views of lunar topography,
though the fractures in the floor of Alphonsus worried
some geologists. The Space Environment Division of
NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) felt that
Ranger images alone were inadequate to certify lunar
landing sites. Orbiters would be more efficient than
multiple Ranger-style impacts, and landers were needed
to provide data on the physical characteristics of the
surface. MSC offered advice to the Surveyor project
staff at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory concerning sites
of maximum use to Apollo. MSC also advised Langley's
Lunar Orbiter project on the use of its high-resolution
cameras to validate sites for the lunar landing mission.
The Ranger scientists had been irritated by pressure
from Apollo officials to direct Rangers 8 and 9 to bland
sites suitable for human landings. NASA's Homer
Newell, hoping to avoid similar problems with
Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter, established the ad hoc
Surveyor/Orbiter Utilization Committee on 22 June.
On 6 August George Mueller established the Apollo
Site Selection Board in the Office of Manned Space
Flight, to evaluate and select landing sites (Compton
1989.)
A variety of plans for future lunar operations were
developed at about this time, including thoughts about
programs after Apollo itself. Although President
Kennedy had called for just one landing, few people
involved in space planning expected that lunar explora-
tion would end after one flight. The vast expense seemed
Figure 51 (cont.)
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to demand a reasonable period of exploration if only to
obtain a sufficient return on the investment.
A 1965 report from NASA's Office of Space Science
and Applications (OSSA) outlined such a plan, illustra-
ting a possible exploration sequence rather than a
specific proposal (NASA 1965b). The report included
a suggestion that the micrometeoroid hazard in lunar
orbit be investigated by a ''Lunar Pegasus'' orbiter
equipped with large extendable panels.
The OSSA plan foresaw a small number of Apollo
landings followed by a more capable Apollo Exten-
sion System (AES), using advanced hardware and
Figure 52 Ranger 9 impact site.
Base maps: ACIC Ranger Lunar Charts, 1st edition, May 1966.
Figure 52A: RLC-15 (Alphonsus GA), original scale 1: 50 000.
Figure 52B: RLC-16 (Alphonsus GP), original scale 1:10 000.
Figure 52C Chart RLC-17 (Alphonsus GLH), original scales
1: 2000 and 1: 400.
Base map (Figure 53A) as Figure 52C.
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capabilities to increase science return (Figure 57,
Table 9). Orbital photography flights with ejected
robotic landing probes were added to the sequence of
astronaut landings. Both soft- and hard-landing probes
were to be used.
1965: Bellcomm defines the Apollo zone
Bellcomm, Inc. was established by American Telephone
and Telegraph Co. and Western Electric Co. in early
1962 to provide technical support to NASA for the
Apollo program, including the site selection process. It
was closed down on 1 April 1972 after the last Apollo site
selection work was completed.
The notion of an Apollo zone of interest, a region of
the Moon's Earthside which was easiest and safest to
reach and return from, was established early (pages 29,
Figure 53 The Ranger 9 impact site and crater.
Figure 53A: Map based on the final images from Ranger
9. A few large boulders seen in the last images provided
evidence that the surface could support at least the weight of a
person. The impact point was estimated from motion between
the images.
Figure 53B: Comparison of A with an Apollo 16 image taken
seven years later. The Ranger 9 impact crater can be clearly
seen, exactly where it was expected (Whitaker 1972). Ranger 9
approached from the west, and a deposit of bright ejecta lies to
the east of the crater. The photograph is Apollo 16 Panoramic
Camera frame 4658, reprojected to match the Ranger map.
Base map (Figure 53A)asFigure52C.
Figure 52 (cont.)
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30). Bellcomm performed detailed trajectory studies for
numerous possible mission plans and in 1965 defined a
more formal Apollo zone, extending now from 458 Eto
458 Wand58 Nto58 S. There was some variation in the
way the Apollo zone was defined in published docu-
ments, partly because of the informal usage of earlier
reports and partly because it was not intended to be
more than a planning guide.
Latitudinal extents of 408,468 and 508 in each direc-
tion were also mentioned.
In practice, for any given mission date and orbital
inclination there would be an operationally defined
accessible area on the Moon, in which the landing site
would have to lie (Cappellari 1972). For early Apollo
missions this took the form of a ''bow tie'' shape, as
shown in Figure 58 for Apollo 11. Later missions were
permitted greater orbital inclinations and had wider
accessible areas (Figure 58). Here too the shape depends
on various assumptions and may vary significantly. For
instance, the shape shown in Figure 58 does not include
either Gassendi, Tycho or the Marius Hills, long favour-
ites for a later landing.
1965: Geological traverse planning
Apollo planning extended beyond the selection of safe-
landing sites towards considering true geological
exploration during the mid-1960s. The first geological
map sheet produced by the US Geological Survey at
1:1 000 000 scale included the craters Kepler and
Encke, so this area was used for early exploration stu-
dies. Numerous alternate plans for mobile surface mis-
sions were considered between 1964 and 1966 at NASA
centers and aerospace companies. Several examples are
shown in Figures 59 and 60. Most of them required a
Figure 54 Ranger 9 images of Alphonsus.
large pressurized rover able to carry two astronauts and
landed with other supplies before the crew arrived.
Figure 59 shows four different conjectural missions in
the Kepler region. They were based on the geology
depicted by Hackman (1962), but are plotted here on
ACIC lunar chart LAC 57 (Kepler), original scale
1:1 000 000, 2nd edition, May 1962.
Large-scale explorations like these, analogous to
many Antarctic expeditions, went far beyond the limited
goals officially endorsed for NASA.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 59

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Figure 60 parts A and B are taken from Evans (1964),
Figures 7 and 9 respectively. They show two different
concepts for lunar mobility. ALSS (Apollo Logistic
Support System) involved landing a rover and a crew
on separate flights. The rover would be capable of oper-
ating by remote control or with a crew. The second
traverse would use a second rover and crew, requiring
four landings at this site. LESA (Lunar Exploration
System for Apollo) involved three flights, one to deliver
cargo including a rover, one to bring the crew, and a
Figure 55: Luna 5 impact sites.
Figure 55A: Regional setting.
Figure 55B: Upper stage impact area.
Figure 55C and D: Luna 5 impact site.
Base maps. Figure 55B: composite of ACIC Charts LAC 94
(Pitatus), 95 (Purbach), 111 (Wilhelm) and 112 (Tycho), original
scales 1:1 000 000. 1st editions, May 1964, December 1964,
October 1967 and July 1967 respectively. Figure 55C: Detail
from Karta Luny, Sheet 3 (Reinhold), original scale 1:1 000 000,
1968, Sternberg State Astronomical Institute, Moscow. Figure
55D: ACIC Chart AIC 76 A (Euclides P), original scale 1:500 000,
1st edition, June 1966.
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third to take the crew home. Various sampling goals
over a 90-day trip are indicated.
The exploration schemes illustrated in Figures 59
and 60 were based on a model involving intensive
exploration of one site with multiple Saturn V launches.
Suitable sites would be those in which many different
types of feature of geological interest were found
within a small area, accessible to the types of rover
Figure 56 Traverses described at the Falmouth meeting.
Figure 57 OSSA lunar exploration sites.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 61

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Table 9. OSSA Illustrative Lunar Flight Mission Assignment Plan, 1965.
Mission
Landing site
Major scientific activities Most significant scientific return
1st Apollo
Sinus Medii, 28 N, 18 W Samples, instrument
package, geological
observations,
photography
First unambiguous knowledge of lunar surface,
age estimate, lunar surface processes, internal
structure, field measurements
2nd Apollo
Mare Tranquillitatis,
28N,208E
As for first landing
Study of a new area, improved geophysical
(fields, internal structure) measurements
from simultaneous observation with first
mission instruments
Orbiter, low
inclination (108) Probes: Alphonsus,
farside, candidate
3rd landing sites
Monitoring remote sensing
instruments, probes
Repeat coverage of equatorial belt under
varying lighting conditions, first surface data
from farside, possible volcanic gas analysis,
gravity profiles
3rd Apollo
Return to a previous
site, or new mare
site, or a highland or
crater interior site
As for first landing
Confirm previous results, or study a new type of
surface, with age estimate of older material
and instruments in different geophysical
environment
1st AES
Hyginus Rille, 78 N,
58E
Mapping from rover,
samples, drilling,
instrument package, in
situ sample analysis
Study of a larger area from rover (200 km2),
ground truth support for orbital surveys,
samples from depth (2--3 m) using drill,
possibly including bedrock, deep seismic
data, heat flow data
Orbiter,
308--408 inclination Probes: Aristarchus,
Linne, farside, future
landing sites
Monitoring remote sensing
instruments, probes
Wide sensor coverage from orbit, possible
volcanic gas analysis, gravity profiles
2nd AES
Interior crater --
Alphonsus, 128 S,
48W
As for first AES
Similar to first AES but in very different area
with possible volcanic gas emissions
Orbiter, polar
Probes: farside, polar
regions, future
landing sites
Monitoring remote sensing
instruments, probes
As for previous orbiter, with global coverage,
and possible composition data from
perpetually shadowed areas
3rd AES
SW Archimedes 298 N,
68W
As for first AES, and deploy
radio telescope
Similar to AES flights 1 and 2, with first radio
astronomy experiments
4th AES
Highlands N of Kant
98S,208E
As for 3rd AES, and deploy
optical telescope
Similar to AES flight 3, with first optical
astronomy studies. Telescopes operated
remotely after crew departure
Orbiter, polar
Probes: concentrated
farside coverage
Monitoring remote sensing
instruments, probes
As for previous polar orbiter
5th AES
Farside site
As for 3rd AES
As for 3rd AES
1st advanced mission,
extended stay time. SW Copernicus 78 N,
238 W, or old site
near equator (Sonett
report, see page 30)
Simultaneous surface and
low inclination orbital
operations, long distance
rover
Ground check of orbital data, radio and optical
astronomy (1 m optical telescope), evaluation
of long life laboratories and observatories,
advanced measurements and surveys
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considered here. Figure 61 shows fifteen areas with the
desired characteristics, adapted from Figure 9 of de Fries
(1967).
1965--1966 Surveyor site planning
Surveyor landing site planning began in 1964 with the
selection of a few scientifically interesting targets (page
39). As launch approached the demands of the Apollo
program began to encroach on Surveyor. The US
Geological Survey was asked to compile a list of suitable
targets, and its internal report (USGS 1965) describing
74 sites is summarized here. The authors were not
identified in the report, but according to Wilhelms
(1993) they were J. McCauley, E. Morris, L. Rowan,
J. O'Conner and H. Holt.
These sites were relatively obstacle-free circular areas
within 108 of the equator. Targeting accuracy was
Figure 58
Bellcomm's
Apollo Zone
and accessible
areas for Apollo.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 63

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Figure 59 Early geological traverse
plans.
Figure 59A: A plan developed by Northrop
Aviation. The first traverse would visit various
sites of scientific interest before returning to
the base. If time and fuel permitted, a
second traverse could also be attempted
(Lee 1966). The jagged outlines result from a
grid-based route planning strategy.
Figure 59B: A plan described by Lassen
and Park (1964). It shows routes and
features for detailed study by a remote-
controlled rover supporting human
explorers.
Figure 59C and D: schemes similar to the
Northrop study (Carr and Romano 1965;
Schaefer and Yarbrough 1964). The first
shows science stations (dots) along two
traverses. The second includes a loop to be
driven during the lunar night, using
Earthlight or artificial light as necessary.
Base map: ACIC lunar chart LAC57
(Kepler), original scale 1:1 000 000, 2nd
edition, May 1962.
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difficult to assess without flight experience, so the sites
included circles of different sizes to reflect different
assumptions. There were 74 sites in all: 37 circles of
25 km radius, 28 circles of 50 km radius and 9 circles of
100 km radius (Figure 62, Table 10). Smaller circles tend
to be nested in larger ones, not always concentrically if
obstacles interfered with placement, but some others are
isolated. A reduced and revised version of this list was
prepared only a month later (Figure 63).
Table 10 lists all 74 sites described in the USGS
report. The site numbers indicate the radius of the cir-
cular site: 25, 50 or 100 km. They are listed from west to
east for each size range. The terrain evaluation indicates
estimated suitability for a safe landing, based on tele-
scopic data. In general an A ranking means the site
shows no visible obstacles or rays, B means that the
area appears smooth but rays are present, and C means
that small craters or ridges are visible.
The scientific evaluation is an estimate of the value of
knowledge to be gained at that site. An A ranking was
given to sites with interesting surface materials (floors of
Grimaldi and Ptolemaeus, sites 1-25 and 32-25), possible
views of rilles or highlands (e.g. Julius Caesar, site 35-25)
or unusual features such as Reiner Gamma, a very bright
spot in Oceanus Procellarum (site 3--50). B sites are fairly
typical mare surfaces, and C sites are bland.
A few of these sites became Surveyor targets:
Surveyor 1 landed near site 14-25, Surveyor 3 at site
24-25, and Surveyor 6 at site 33-25.
The Surveyor/Orbiter Utilization Committee (SOUC)
began work on 20 July 1965, evaluating landing sites
and planning orbital observations. SOUC recommended
that early Lunar Orbiter missions give priority to Apollo
Figure 60 Early geological traverse plans.
Base map: as in Figure 59.
Figure 59 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 65

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Table 10. Surveyor landing sites suggested by USGS in July 1965.
Site
number Location
Terrain
evaluation Scientific
evaluation Site
number
Location
Terrain
evaluation Scientific
evaluation
1-25
68100S,688300WA
A
1-50
68100S,688300WB A
2-25
28100N,628350WB
B
2-50
28100N,628350WB
B
3-25
58350N,598150WB
B
þ
3-50
58400N,598150WB
A
4-25
18050N,598100W B
B
4-50
18050N,598100WB
B
5-25
28200S,598100WA B
þ
5-50
28200S,598100WB
þ
Bþ
6-25
38200S,568000WA B
þ
6-50
38400S,568050WB
þ
Bþ
7-25
88150S,568450WA
Bþ
7-50
88000S,568000WB
þ
Bþ
8-25
18400N,538300W B
C
8-50
18420N,538300WB
C
9-25
68250S,538000WA B
þ
9-50
68200S,538250WB
þ
B
10-25 18300S,528150W A
B
10-50
18050S,528250WB
þ
B
11-25 88000S,508000W A
B
11-50
88000S,508000WB
þ
B
12-25 08 550 S, 468 450 WB
þ
Cþ
12-50
08550S,468450WB
Cþ
13-25 38 250 N, 448 100 WB
B
13-50
38250N,448100WB
B
14-25 38 150 S, 438 500 WB
þ
Bþ
14-50
18400S,388100WC
þ
Cþ
15-25 48 300 S, 398 450 WB
C
þ
15-50
08100S,338300WB
B
16-25 18 000 S, 378 400 WC
þ
Cþ
16-50
58200S,318250WB
Cþ
17-25 48 000 S, 368 500 WB
þ
Cþ
17-50
38000N,288200WC
B
þ
18-25 08100S,338300W B
B
18-50
88100S,258000WB
B
þ
19-25 18 050 S, 318 250 WB
þ
Cþ
19-50
38450S,228450WB
B
20-25 58 500 S, 318 250 WB
C
þ
20--50
88500S,218400WC
B
21-25 38 000 N, 288 200 WC
þ
B
21--50
18200S,198500WC
B
þ
22-25 48 300 S, 278 450 WC
B
22--50
18000N,138050WC
A
23-25 98 400 S, 278 000 WB
þ
Bþ
23--50
98150S,108100WB
þ
B
24-25 48 100 S, 238 050 WB
C
þ
24--50
18250S,98200WB B
25-25 88 550 S, 218 400 WB
C
þ
25--50
28350N,48250WB B
26-25 18 200 S, 198 500 WC
þ
Bþ
26--50
98400S,18500WC A
27-25 08 100 N, 138 300 WC
þ
B
27--50
08000N,08400WB
þ
B
28-25 98 500 S, 128 500 WB
þ
B
28--50
28400N,248350EB A
29-25 98150S,98350W
A
B
1--100
28500N,618300WB
B
þ
30-25 18 150 S, 98 050 WB
þ
Cþ
2--100
38450S,558100WB
þ
Bþ
31-25 28350N,48250W
B
B
3-100
08500N,488150WB
C
þ
32-25 98 400 S, 18 500 WC
þ
A
4-100
18550S,398000WC
B
33-25 08250S,18200W
A
B
5-100
08100S,338300WC
C
þ
34-25 18150N,28300E
A
B
6-100
98400S,248250WB
C
þ
35-25 88 550 N, 158 000 EB
þ
A
7-100
78350S,118500WC
B
36-25 58 250 N, 198 050 EB
þ
A
8-100
18000N,08050EB
þ
B
37-25 28400N,248350EB B
þ
9-100
28400N,248350EB
B
þ
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site certification, postponing a scientifically desirable
global survey to later missions after Apollo needs were
satisfied (Byers 1977).
For Surveyor, 24 circular sites with 50 km radius were
proposed by JPL and USGS on 29 July 1965, and 20
more 25 km circles were added in August 1965 (Table 11,
white circles in Figure 63). The Mission A (Surveyor 1)
site, number 9--50, was chosen to be in the Apollo zone
at a longitude permitting a near-vertical descent, and in
the smoothest available area. Mission B (Surveyor 2)
had similar criteria except that the descent angle could
be as large as 258. It was targeted to site 21--50 (Sinus
Medii). The descent angle was called the ''unbraked
impact angle,'' the angle between the approach before
braking began and the local vertical, equal to zero for a
vertical approach. Surveyor could accommodate angles
as high as 458, permitting landings as far east as Mare
Tranquillitatis.
Apollo managers required Surveyor landings in east-
ern and western mare areas and in Sinus Medii before
any more interesting science sites were targeted. SOUC
met again on 15 December 1966 to plan later landings,
using a new list of 40 sites with 30 km radius, all in or
west of the Apollo zone (Table 12, black circles in
Figure 63).
Surveyor managers at JPL resisted having their
science goals subordinated to those of Apollo. SOUC
approved 14 of the proposed sites for future planning (12
are shown as black triangles on Figure 63). Surveyor
staff complied reluctantly, fearing that in some cases
less suitable sites would be favoured to appease Apollo
managers.
JPL agreed to target the first Surveyor according to
SOUC wishes, but if they had any trouble they made it
clear they would demand that the next mission be sent to
a better location. SOUC required successful landings in
eastern, central and western mare areas before they
would release a spacecraft for a purely scientific (non-
Apollo-related) mission.
The strategy in late 1966 for later landings would have
put Surveyor 3 in Sinus Medii and Surveyor 4 at the site
actually used for Surveyor 3. Surveyor 5 would be tar-
geted for a highland basin or other science target because
Mare Tranquillitatis was not reachable at the expected
launch date. Surveyor 6 would go to Mare
Tranquillitatis and Surveyor 7 would be free to go to
any other science site. The targets for Surveyors 3 and 4
were later reversed, and when Surveyor 4 was lost the
sequence had to be changed again.
Tables 11 and 12 list the two groups of possible
Surveyor sites considered in 1965 and 1966 (Filice et al.
1967.) The 1965 site numbers indicate the circle size (last
two digits, 25 km or 50 km radius), and distinguish the
highland and science sites with prefixes H and S.
The 1966 sites are identified by their latitudes and
longitudes rounded to the nearest degree. Most of the
Figure 61 Areas suitable for Apollo rover missions.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 67

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1966 highland or highland basin sites were not plotted
on the map accompanying the report, but have been
added to Figure 63. In these tables the coordinates are
given longitude first, the reverse of the format used else-
where, to match the original sources and for consistency
with the site designation codes in Table 12.
18 July 1965: Zond 3 (Soviet Union)
Zond 3 was initially designed to fly past Mars during the
1964 launch window as a companion to Zond 2.
Technical problems caused the Mars opportunity to be
missed, and the spacecraft was instead launched into
Figure 62 Surveyor sites listed by USGS, July 1965.
Base map: as in Figure 44.
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deep space as an engineering test. The 960 kg Zond 3,
3.5 m long and 4 m across its solar panels, was launched
from Baikonur at 14:38 UT into a parking orbit, then
placed on a lunar flyby trajectory. The spacecraft was
equipped with a film camera system and scanner more
advanced than that of Luna 3 (page 17), a mag-
netometer, ultraviolet and infrared spectrographs,
radiation sensors, a radio telescope and a micrometeor-
oid detector. It also carried an experimental ion engine.
The lunar flyby occurred on 20 July, 33 hours after
launch at a closest approach distance of 9200 km. The
images covered much of the region not seen by Luna 3, in
effect fulfilling the missions of Lunas 1960A and 1960B.
Each of the 25 scanned frames had 1100 by 860 pixels.
Good-quality images were taken of the lunar farside
from distances of 11 570 km to 9960 km over a period
of 68 minutes, as well as three ultraviolet images. The
images were transmitted from distances of 2.2 million
km, and later from 31.5 million km to demonstrate the
ability of the communications system at planetary dis-
tances. After the flyby, Zond 3 continued into a helio-
centric orbit.
The new images (Figure 64) revealed the large multi-
ringed basins Hertzsprung (initially named Kibal'chich)
Figure 63 SOUC Surveyor sites.
Base map: as in Figure 44.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 69

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Table 11. Proposed Surveyor landing sites, JPL and USGS, August 1965 (50 km and 25 km
radius sites).
Terrain type
Site number
Location
Rating*
Terrain
Scientific interest
Mare
1-50
688300W,68100SA A
2-50
628350W,28100NC C
3-50
628300W,78000NB C
4-50
578400W,18000NB B
5-50
568050W,38400SA B
6-50
538300W,18420NA C
7-50
508000W,88000SA B
8-50
468450W,08550SB C
9-50
438500W,38150SB A
10-50
418100W,78000SB C
11-50
368500W,48000SB C
12-50
338300W,08100SC B
13-50
318250W,58200SC C
14-50
288200W,38000ND B
15-50
248450W,88000SB B
16-50
228450W,38450SC C
17-50
198500W,18200SD B
18-50
138050W,18000ND A
19-50
98200W,18250SC B
20-50
48250W,28350NC B
21-50
08400W,08000NA B
22-50
218300E,88250NB B
23-50
248350E,28400NC A
24-50
278000E,38200SD C
highland
H-1-25
38400W,38100SD B
H-2-25
08500E,28250SC B
H-3-25
38450E,58000SD B
H-4-25
88400E,48200SD B
H-5-25
108100E,18300SD B
H-6-25
128500E,08000NC A
H-7-25
168000E,48000NC A
science
S-1-25
478200W,238400ND B
S-2-25
528400W,268400NB B
S-3-25
598200W,68300NC B
S-4-25
508000W,138450SA A
S-5-25
288250W,38000ND C
S-6-25
208000W,98500ND A
S-7-25
158000W,58450NC A
S-8-25
88200W,58400ND B
S-9-25
48000W,138400SD B
S-10-25
58000E,78000ND B
S-11-25
68100E,28000ND B
S-12-25
158000E,88550NB A
S-13-25
178000E,18000NC B
* Ratings for the 1965 sites are on a four-point scale in which A is best, D is worst.
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and Korolev, and gigantic crater chains which the
Soviets named after their rocket research institutes
(GDL, GIRD, RNII). Korolev's identity as the architect
of the Soviet Union's space program had been concealed
prior to his death on 14 January 1966, but when maps
made from Zond 3 images were produced in the follow-
ing year his name appeared on them. The names shown
in Figure 65 were not recognized by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) at the time but some became
official in 1970, though most were applied to different
features.
Figure 66 reproduces the equatorial section of the
first complete map of the Moon, compiled under the
direction of Yurii N. Lipsky and incorporating Luna 3
and Zond 3 data (Polnaya Karta Luny, Sternberg State
Astronomical Institute, 1967).
4 October 1965: Luna 7 (Soviet Union)
Luna 7 was another lunar soft-landing attempt. The
1504 kg spacecraft, identical to its precursors, was
launched from Baikonur at 7:55 UT, targeted for the
western part of Oceanus Procellarum (Figure 34) near
108 N, 628 W. A trajectory correction was made on 5
October. A premature firing and cutoff of the retrorock-
ets resulted in the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface
at 22:08 UT on 7 October at 9.88 N, 47.88 W, in the
general vicinity of its target area.
Rumours that Luna 7 transmitted for 3 seconds after
landing were probably based on a mistranslation of
statements about the cessation of signals. The early
braking would result in impact slightly later than the
predicted time. The impact location is probably uncer-
tainbyatleast20km, so108N,488Wwouldbe a more
realistic statement of the impact position.
US scientists, alerted by the reported Luna 5 impact
observation (page 60), observed the expected impact
area closely. A small marking at 98 N, 518 W (map A in
Figure 67) was seen in photographs made at the Pic du
Midi Observatory, but the observations were not con-
sidered conclusive (Musgrove 1965). Johnson (1979)
gives an impact location of 98 N, 498 W. The impact
site lies south or southeast of the crater Marius in
Oceanus Procellarum (Figure 67).
Figure 67 shows the Luna 7 impact site.
Table 12: Surveyor equatorial sites, October 1966
(30 km radius sites).
Terrain type
Site number
Location
Mare
58W-2N
578300W,18400N
56W-1S
558550W,18250S
53W-1N
538050W,08450N
52W-2S
528000W,18550S
49W-1S
488550W,18000S
46W-1S
468200W,18250S
44W-3N
438550W,38200N
SC-1
438500W,28200S
42W-2S
418550W,18300S
39W-1S
398100W,08300S
37W-4S
378000W,38500S
35W-2N
348550W,28250N
28W-3N
288200W,38050N
28W-5S
278400W,48300S
23W-3S
238100W,38200S
1W-1N
08500W,08350N
20E-3N
208150E,38200N
22E-0N
218300E,08200N
24E-1N
248000E,18000N
30E-2S
298400E,28150S
31E-0N
308550E,08250N
34E-3N
348000E,28450N
37E-2N
368550E,28050N
39E-3N
398000E,28450N
Highland basin
4W-3S
38400W,38200S
4E-5S
48050E,48450S
16E-5N
168100E,48300N
Highland
22W-1N
228050W,18100N
21W-3N
208400W,38100N
18W-3S
178300W,38200S
17W-1S
168400W,08400S
17W-4N
178000W,48250N
10W-5S
108200W,48300S
6E-2S
58300E,28100S
9E-3N
88550E,38100N
13E-2N
138250E,18300N
17E-1N
178150E,08550N
21E-2S
218000E,28000S
24E-3S
238350E,28550S
36E-1S
358500E,08500S
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3 December 1965: Luna 8 (Soviet Union)
Luna 8 was another failed lunar soft-landing attempt.
The 1552 kg spacecraft was launched from Baikonur at
10:48 UT and followed its planned trajectory closely,
everything functioning normally. Unfortunately, on the
final approach the braking burn was initiated too late.
The spacecraft impacted the lunar surface very close to
its target at 21:52 UT on 6 December within about 20 km
of 9.68 N, 62.08 W in western Oceanus Procellarum.
Johnson (1979) gives 98 080 N, 638 180 W.
This mission was the last in the long run of failed
landing attempts. With growing experience and successive
improvements to the flight systems following each failure,
the stage was now set for the first successful landing.
Tragically, Luna 8 was the last lunar flight observed by
Korolev before his unexpected death on 14 January 1966.
Luna 8 crashed in Oceanus Procellarum, just south of
the crater Galilaei and west of the Marius hills, a cluster
of volcanic mounds which were considered a possible
Apollo target in later years (Figure 68).
Figure 64 Zond 3 images of the Moon.
Figure 64A: a mosaic of the farside
coverage. The jagged boundary at lower left
is formed by a photometric target, which
covers different areas of the lunar surface in
each frame and has been omitted here.
Figure 64B: an image showing part of
Oceanus Procellarum at right and Mare
Orientale left of centre. The small dark spot
southwest of Orientale was informally named
Mare Pacificus (More Mirnoe) in Russian
maps of the time. It was later recognized as a
central vent volcanic plume deposit similar to
some seen on Jupiter's moon Io (Figure 352).
Zond 3 images hint at South Pole-Aitken
basin ring structures better than any
subsequent views, though this seems not to
have been noted at the time. Images
courtesy Sternberg State Astronomical
Institute, mosaic (A) by P. Stooke.
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Figure 65 Composite of
Luna 3 and Zond 3 images.
Figure 66 First complete map of the Moon.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 73

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31 January 1966: Luna 9 (Soviet Union)
Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to achieve a lunar soft
landing and to transmit photographic data to Earth. The
long series of failures now gave way to a spectacular suc-
cess and a major propaganda coup for the Soviet Union.
The whole Luna 9 spacecraft including navigation
equipment and retrorocket weighed 1580 kg, but the
60 cm diameter landing module or ''automatic lunar sta-
tion'' (ALS), Luna 9 itself, weighed only 99 kg. It was a
sealed, pressurized egg-shaped vessel containing radio
equipment, a timing control device, heat control systems,
scientific apparatus, batteries and a television system.
The spacecraft was launched from Baikonur at 11:45
UT and propelled toward the Moon by a fourth-stage
rocket that later separated itself from the payload. The
upper stage probably missed the Moon and continued
into heliocentric orbit. There was one trajectory correc-
tion 233 000 km from Earth at 19:29 UT on 1 February.
Landing occurred on 3 February at 18:45 UT. The main
spacecraft crash-landed at about 6 m/s after braking
almost to a standstill just above the lunar surface, but
the ALS separated from it, bouncing in a padded pro-
tective shell which was then discarded. Neither the main
spacecraft hardware nor the padded shell can be seen in
the surface photographs, suggesting the capsule rolled
some distance before stopping.
Figure 67 Luna 7 impact site.
Figure 67A illustrates the impact region, showing the reported
dust cloud location and the area of Figure 67B.
Figure 67B enlarges the impact site and shows an alternate
reported location.
Figure 67C is a composite of Clementine UVVIS images
lua2374j_186 and lua2405k_186, showing the impact location.
Figure 67D is a mosaic of Clementine long wavelength infrared
images crossing the impact area.
Base maps. Figure 67A: Composite of ACIC lunar charts LAC
56 (Hevelius), 1st edition, May 1963, and LAC 57 (Kepler), 2nd
edition, May 1962, original scales 1:1 000 000.
Figure 67B: Detail of LAC 57.
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The egg-shaped battery-powered lander unfolded
four petals on its upper half, exposing its instruments
and assuming the correct orientation in the process.
Four spring-loaded antennae and three narrow dihedral
mirrors erected themselves, and the scanning television
camera began a photographic survey of the surrounding
landscape. Seven radio sessions totalling 8 hours and 5
minutes were held, including the transmission of panora-
mic images. The pictures included views of nearby rocks
and the horizon, and finally laid to rest fears that dust
would engulf a lander. To the chagrin of Soviet scien-
tists, some images were received by British scientists at
the Jodrell Bank radio telescope and released to the
world prematurely, in a distorted format (this event is
sometimes associated incorrectly with Luna 3).
Activities ended at about 10:55 UT on 6 February
when the batteries were exhausted.
The landing site was near 88 N, 648 W in western
Oceanus Procellarum (Figure 69). The location often
given, 7.088 N, 64.378 W, is misleadingly precise. The
Luna 9 target was a region of dark (ray-free) mare
centered near 88 N, 628 W. Wilhelms (1993) gives the
target position as 78 N, 648 W.
Figure 68 Luna 8 impact site.
Figure 68A shows the Luna 8 impact region. The darker mare
area around Galilaei crater was the target for this mission and for
Luna 9. An approximate target ellipse is shown in Figure 69A,
but the dimensions of the target area are not certain and could
include most of the broad dark area shown here. Ray-free
areas were assumed to be smoother and safer to land in.
Figure 68B shows more detail of the Luna 8 landing site, and
also identifies the alternate position quoted by Johnson (1979).
Figure 68C is part of Lunar Orbiter 3 image 214-M, rectified
from the original highly oblique view. The impact could have
occurred anywhere in the upper right part of 68 C.
Base maps. Figures 68A and 68B are details from ACIC lunar chart
LAC 56 (Hevelius), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, May 1963.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 75

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Because of the nature of the landing region it has been
unclear whether Luna 9 landed in the mare or in an
upland (highland) area. The flatness of the horizon
strongly supports a mare area. At any location in or
near the uplands in this vicinity large hills would be
visible on the horizon.
The landing occurred near the highland/mare bound-
ary northeast of the 60 km crater Cavalerius (Figure 69A).
The coordinates derived from tracking place the lander
between or just north of several prominent mountains,
each about 800 m high, which form part of the rim of an
ancient crater (Figure 69B). However, the surface panor-
amas include more than half of the horizon, from south
through west to north. No mountains can be seen.
The landing region was named Planitia Descensus
(Plain of Landing) by the International Astronomical
Union, shown as Zaliv Priluneniya on contemporary
Russian maps, Ravnina Posadki on current maps.
The horizon (Figure 72) is slightly irregular in some
places, suggesting relief resembling a mare ridge or small
crater rim. In other parts it is perfectly flat. Therefore
Luna 9 landed in a mare area, far enough from the
highlands that mountains are not visible over the hori-
zon. One small hill is visible to the southwest, but it is not
clear whether this is minor local relief, perhaps 1 km
away, or a larger mountain at a considerable distance.
It cannot be unambiguously identified, so the exact
landing point remains unknown. These considerations
suggest a site closer to 88 N, 648 W (circled in
Figure 69B).
Figure 70, part of Lunar Orbiter 3 image 214-M,
shows the landing site. It has been rectified from its
original very oblique geometry. Clementine images do
not provide a better view of this area. The rugged nature
of the landscape is apparent. High mountains at the
bottom (south) are part of the rim of an ancient pre-
mare crater. A fractured plateau left of center is prob-
ably part of the old crater floor. Elongated craters and
depressions crossing the image obliquely from top to
bottom are secondary craters produced by ejecta from
Cavalerius. The probable landing area is within the
white circle.
Figure 71A is a shaded relief map of the Luna 9
landing site. See also Shoemaker et al. (1966).
Approximate contours on the original have been
omitted. A plan of the spacecraft, to scale, has been
added to this portrayal.
The camera rotated through 3608, pointing down-
wards to the east and upwards to the west because of
the tilt of the lander. The foreground, visible in the east,
spans only two or three meters. North and south of the
Figure 69 The Luna 9 landing site.
Figure 69A depicts the Luna 9 landing region, showing the
Luna 8 impact site and the location of Figure 69B. The true size
of the target ellipse (black outline) is unknown.
Figure 69B shows the landing site in more detail, including the
tracking location and a more likely landing location.
Base map. Figures 69A and 69B: ACIC lunar chart LAC 56
(Hevelius), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, May 1963.
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Figure 70 The Luna 9 landing area.
landed spacecraft, rocks and craters extend out to the
horizon a few tens of meters away. In the west, where
detail is washed out by the sun angle, the horizon extends
to an unknown distance, perhaps several kilometers.
One obvious hill is seen to the southwest, but its
distance cannot be determined. It is tempting to equate
it with a hill just below left of center in Figure 70, but
there is no way to confirm this tentative identification.
No existing orbital imagery is capable of identifying the
lander or nearby craters seen in the panoramas.
Figure 71B is a rough sketch map based on the panor-
amas, showing a different interpretation of the topo-
graphy out to the horizon. This map differs from
Figure 71A in that it interprets horizon features north
and south of the lander as larger, more distant craters
than those shown in the original map. Craters identified
by letters A--E are identified in the panorama
(Figure 72). No true scale can be shown, but this map
probably extends less than 100 m from north to south.
Three nearly complete panoramas were transmitted
by Luna 9 and a fourth was commencing when the
lander batteries failed. Glare from the rising sun inter-
fered with visibility in the east, but this was reduced by
the higher sun angle in the third panorama. The space-
craft moved slightly between each of the panoramas.
The composite view shown here (Figure 72) combines
parts of all available panoramas to fill several data gaps
and areas lost in glare, and to maximize coverage as the
Chronological sequence of missions and events 77

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Figure 71 Luna 9 site plan.
Figure 71A: based on a map at 1:40 scale in Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1966).
Figure 71B: map by P. Stooke.
camera shifted. Three two-sided mirrors reflected six
narrow strips of the terrain to permit triangulation for
cartographic purposes. Three areas seen only in the
mirrors have been added to the bottom of the composite
panorama. Several others cannot be located accurately.
The original images (Academy of Sciences of the USSR
1966) were processed, compiled to create this composite
and annotated by P. Stooke.
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Before the first panorama was made, a small test
image was transmitted at a sun angle of only 3.58. The
last partial panorama was degraded by low power levels.
These images were never released. Soviet statements
described the horizon as being 1.5 km from the lander.
This was merely a general statement based on the curva-
ture of the lunar surface. Most of the horizon is no more
distant than a few tens of meters, as shown by the clearly
resolved rocks visible against the black sky. Only in the
southwest and west is more distant topography visible.
The bottom images on page 81 are attempts to project
thepanoramaintoanoverheadview.Northisatthetop.
Horizon relief is exaggerated in this projection. The
absence of large mountains, especially to the south, is
obvious in the full reprojection. Reprojection by P. Stooke.
1 March 1966: Luna (Cosmos 111) (Soviet Union)
This mission was intended to orbit the Moon, similar to
the later Luna 10 mission. The spacecraft was launched
from Baikonur at 11:02 UT. The upper-stage engine
burn, intended to place the spacecraft on its lunar tra-
jectory, was cancelled after the vehicle lost attitude con-
trol while in its parking orbit. It re-entered the
atmosphere after two days. The failed mission was desig-
nated Cosmos 111 to conceal its original purpose.
16 March 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
Before the fatal Apollo 1 fire of 27 January 1967, it
seemed possible that the first landing might happen as
early as 1968. At this first meeting of the Apollo Site
Selection Board (ASSB) the site selection process began
by considering which areas on the Moon would be
accessible during that year. The accessible area varied
from month to month as the illumination conditions and
position of the Moon in its inclined orbit changed. For
any one month it also depended on the location on Earth
(Atlantic or Pacific Oceans) above which the trans-lunar
injection (TLI, the rocket burn to send the vehicle to the
Moon) would occur. This determined the inclination of
the subsequent lunar orbit.
Figure 73 shows the narrow area accessible most fre-
quently in 1968 and the broader region accessible occa-
sionally during the year. This accessibility map was
compiled from calculations for individual months
(Figure 74), based on diagrams presented at the follow-
ing ASSB meeting on 1 June 1966.
31 March 1966: Luna 10 (Soviet Union)
Luna 10, the first spacecraft to enter lunar orbit, was
launched from Baikonur at 10:48 UT. It entered a
Figure 71 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 79

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parking orbit and was then placed on a lunar trajectory
by a burn of its upper stage. A trajectory correction was
made on 1 April. The 540 kg (Johnson [1979] gives a
mass of 245 kg, probably not including fuel) battery-
powered spacecraft was a cylinder 80 cm in diameter
and 150 cm long, tapering eccentrically at one end, with
four antennae at one end and instrument ports distrib-
uted over its body. It travelled to the Moon on a module
like that which carried the earlier landers (page 74) but
separated from it in orbit. Both components are prob-
ably still in orbit (Powell 2003).
Luna 10 entered a 350 km by 1015 km lunar orbit with
a period of 178 minutes, inclined 728 to the lunar equa-
tor, at 18:44 UT on 3 April. Scientific instruments
included a gamma-ray spectrometer, a magnetometer
on a 1.5 m boom, a meteorite detector, solar plasma
detectors, a lunar infrared emission monitor and radia-
tion detectors. Luna 10 may have carried a camera which
failed to work. The lunar gravity field was studied by
spacecraft tracking. The spacecraft transmitted the revo-
lutionary anthem Internationale during the Twenty-third
Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Figure 72 (both pages) Luna 9 panorama.
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Figure 72 (cont.)
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Luna 10 functioned for 460 lunar orbits with 219
transmission sessions before its batteries failed on 30
May 1966. Its orbit height at that time was 378 km by
985 km. Valuable information was obtained, including
the first compositional data on the lunar surface (sug-
gesting the maria consisted of basalt and the highlands
of ultrabasic rocks, as substantially confirmed by later
missions), and detection of Earth's extended magneto-
sphere as the Moon passed through it. Trapped radia-
tion belts similar to those of Earth were shown not to
exist around the Moon, and tracking of the orbit
revealed unexpected irregularities in the Moon's gravita-
tional field.
30 April 1966: Luna 1966A (Soviet Union)
Luna 1966A is thought to have been intended as a lunar
orbiter similar to Luna 10. It was launched from
Baikonur but the SL-6/A-2-e launch vehicle failed and
did not place the payload in orbit.
30 May 1966: Surveyor 1 (United States: NASA)
The Surveyor spacecraft were designed to achieve con-
trolled lunar landings. Surveyor 1 was launched at 14:41
UT from Cape Canaveral on an Atlas-Centaur booster.
The spacecraft approached the Moon at 9700 km/h,
began braking 3200 km above the surface, slowed to
5.6 km/h at 4 m high and fell from there to the surface,
landing at 13 km/h. It landed near the crater Flamsteed
in Oceanus Procellarum at 06:18 UT on 2 June at
28 32.00 S, 438 22.60 W (JPL 1966b, 1969).
The spacecraft performed flawlessly for a lunar day,
then was shut down for the lunar night following some
battery-powered operations after sunset, and was
revived for a second day on 7 July, ending routine opera-
tions on 14 July. It transmitted 11 240 images and data
on the strength, temperature and radar reflectivity of the
Moon. Radio contact with the spacecraft was main-
tained until January 1967, surviving eight day--night
cycles, though no further science data could be obtained.
The spacecraft mass was 1000 kg at launch and about
275 kg at landing. It consisted of a tetrahedral tubular
aluminium frame with three legs having circular foot-
pads, topped by a mast holding a solar panel and high-
gain antenna. Surveyor stood 3 m high and 3.5 m wide at
the base. A spherical retrorocket assembly underneath
the spacecraft braked it during the descent. It was ejected
at about 14 km altitude and fell within a few kilometers
of the landing site. The descent continued using three
small variable-thrust vernier engines.
Surveyor 1 carried a television camera intended to per-
form a detailed survey of the landing site, capable of
operating in wide-angle and narrow-angle modes. It also
carried a descent imaging camera which would have trans-
mitted images between 1500 km and 140 km altitude dur-
ing the descent to the landing site, sufficient to locate the
site fairly accurately though not providing extremely
Figure 73 Apollo accessible areas in 1968.
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Figure 74 Monthly accessibility diagrams for 1968.
Plotted on the same base as Figure 73, this shows accessible areas for Atlantic TLI (white outlines) and Pacific TLI (black outlines).
An Atlantic TLI makes southern areas more accessible, while a Pacific TLI favors the north.
The small black rectangles are the areas designated as Lunar Orbiter 1 prime sites, imaging targets for that mission (Figure 82) which
were considered potential Apollo landing sites in June 1966. Note that some sites are only marginally accessible, if at all, from August
to October.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 83

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high-resolution images. Concerns about the complexity of
operations and the interruption of flow of vital engineering
data in what was viewed primarily as an engineering test
flight led to the descent camera not being turned on during
flight. An attempt was made to use it after landing to test
the electronics, but it failed. Other than these cameras the
spacecraft carried only engineering sensors.
The Surveyor 1 target before launch was a 50 km-radius
circle in Oceanus Procellarum centered at 3.258 S,
43.838 W, within the 100 km ring of hills and ridges called
Flamsteed P (Figure 75). After launch the accuracy of the
trajectory allowed the target to shrink to a 29 km by 39 km
ellipse, whose centre (2.338 S, 43.838 W) was moved north-
wards from the original target by a mid-course correction
to avoid the larger craters nearby, such as Flamsteed K
(Figure 76). If no correction or braking had occurred
Surveyor 1's initial trajectory would have caused it to
crash at 11.438 S, 54.158 W. Tracking suggested a landing
15 km east of the target at 2.498 S, 43.328 W.
Luna 9 did not provide data suitable to locate its
landing site precisely (page 77). Surveyor 1 images of
the northern horizon revealed the hills Flamsteed Theta
and Flamsteed Phi in the distance. These made a search
for its location possible, and so the Surveyor 1 landing
site became the first to be identified on another world.
Tracking suggested where Surveyor 1 had landed. To
locate the site precisely, the Surveyor Scientific
Evaluation and Analysis Team (Jaffe et al. 1966) tried
to match observed hills on the horizon with features
drawn on the ACIC chart of the area, and found two
possible matches.
One coincided with the tracking position, but did not
fully account for the observed hills. The other, at 2.158 S,
43.358 W, gave a better match to the hills but was 10 km
north of the tracking point and 5 km outside the uncer-
tainty ellipse around that point.
Ewen Whitaker attempted to clarify this uncertainty
by using the best original telescopic images of the area
rather than the LAC used by Jaffe et al. (1966). The
images allowed a better match to the horizon features,
giving a new location of 2.578 S, 43.348 W, very close to
the tracking point (Whitaker 1966). Comparison of these
positions on Figures 76 and 77 reveals inconsistencies
caused by errors in fitting the map features to the grid in
the older map.
The points are plotted in Figure 76 according to their
coordinates, but the Figure 77A outline is matched to
landscape features in the background image.
Improvements in mapping moved the surface features
about 4 km westwards relative to the grid after the older
map was drawn. This explains why the tracking position
is found inside Figure 77A, but appears outside it in
Figure 76. This problem is common in lunar and plane-
tary cartography. Later the spacecraft was unambigu-
ously located in a Lunar Orbiter 3 image (Figure 79;
Spradley et al. 1967).
The Army Map Service also documented the
Surveyor 1 landing site (Figure 78).
01 June 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
With the launch of the first Lunar Orbiter mission imma-
nent, site selection moved into the phase of targeting
high-resolution observations in order to assess and cer-
tify potential sites. Before launch the Orbiters were
referred to as Mission A, B and so on. Areas chosen
for photography were identified as prime sites -- those
of most interest to Apollo -- and supplementary sites, of
lesser interest to Apollo but with broader scientific or
future planning value.
This meeting considered accessibility and launch
dates for the prime sites for missions A and B (black
rectangles in Figure 80, with site numbers taken from the
ASSB minutes). Exact coordinates and site designations
changed frequently in this period. Apollo Working
Paper 1100 sites (Table 5, Figure 35), some of which
Figure 75 The Surveyor 1 landing region.
Base map: ACIC lunar chart AIC 75A (Flamsteed), original
scale 1 : 500 000, first edition, August 1966.
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correspond to the new set of prime Orbiter sites, are
shown in gray in Figure 80. Candidate Surveyor sites
which were also being considered for Apollo by the time
of the next meeting (Table 13, p. 93) are shown as white
circles. The word site was used here to describe an area
50--100 km across in which targets might be located, not
a specific target point.
1 July 1966: Explorer 33 (United States: NASA)
This spacecraft was intended to orbit the Moon in order
to study interplanetary plasma, charged particles, mag-
netic fields and solar X-rays. It was launched from Cape
Canaveral on a Delta booster at 16:04 UT. The 212 kg
spacecraft was a spin-stabilized eight-sided prism with
Figure 76 The area around the Surveyor 1 landing site.
Base map: ACIC lunar map ORB-I-9.2(100), original scale 1:100 000, first edition, April 1967.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 85

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four tilted solar panels, eight antennas and an orbit-
insertion rocket engine. It failed to enter lunar orbit
but did achieve its main mission objectives with data
collection from widely varying elliptical orbits about
Earth, out to and beyond lunar distances. Data collec-
tion continued until 21 September 1971.
10 August 1966: Lunar Orbiter 1 (United States:
NASA)
The Lunar Orbiter program was managed by NASA's
Langley Research Center. The spacecraft was launched
from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 13 at 19:26 UT on
an Atlas-Agena D booster. Its goal was to photograph
possible Surveyor and Apollo landing sites from orbit at
resolutions sufficient to certify safe sites. The Atlas put
the 386 kg spacecraft in its parking orbit, then the upper
stage placed it on a 92.1-hour lunar trajectory at 20:04
UT. A mid-course correction was made at 20:00 on 11
August. A planned second correction was not needed. A
temporary failure of the star tracker orientation system
was worked around by navigating using the Moon as a
reference. Another problem with overheating was solved
by reorienting the spacecraft relative to the Sun to lower
the temperature.
An orbit-insertion burn on 14 August placed Orbiter
1 in its initial orbit, 189.1 km by 1866.8 km, inclined
12.28 to the equator with a period of 217 minutes. This
was the first successful US lunar orbital mission. On 21
August the spacecraft lowered its perilune to 58 km and
Figure 77 Surveyor 1 landing site.
ACIC produced maps of the landing region for Apollo site
studies (Figures 77A and B), and also to support the Surveyor
1 mission, based on high-resolution Lunar Orbiter images
(Figures 77C and D). Note the significant differences between
coordinates on the two sets of maps, a problem present in all
lunar literature of this period. Figure 77C shows the predicted
landing point based on Ewen Whitaker's identification of hills
seen on the horizon (page 90). Improved map control brought
that point into Figure 77C despite being plotted
outside it in Figure 76.
Base maps. Figures 77A and 77B: ACIC lunar map
ORB-I-9.2g(25), original scale 1:25 000, 1st edition,
May 1967. Figures 77C and 77D: ACIC maps, Surveyor
1 Site, original scales 1 : 2 000 (E) and 1 : 500 (F), 1st edition,
January 1968.
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on 25 August to 40.5 km. From 18 to 29 August, Lunar
Orbiter 1 imaged nine candidate Apollo sites, including
the Surveyor 1 site, as well as seven other potential
Apollo sites, the east limb of the Moon and 11 areas on
the farside. All the main targets were imaged as intended,
except for sites I-4, I-6, and I-8.1. Orbiter 1 also took the
first images of Earth from the vicinity of the Moon.
A total of 207 pairs of medium-resolution and high-
resolution frames were taken, 38 from the initial higher
orbit, the rest from the final low orbit. Most of the high-
resolution images were badly smeared because an image
motion compensation system failed, but otherwise the
cameras and spacecraft performed well. Data transmis-
sion continued until 14 September.
After the end of the image transmissions the spacecraft
was deliberately crashed onto the Moon to avoid inter-
ference with future flights. Impact occurred on the farside
at 78 N, 1618 E on 29 October 1966 during the 577th orbit
(Figure 83). Radio tracking, used to study the lunar grav-
itational field, suggested a slightly pear-shaped Moon. No
micrometeorite impacts were detected. Radiation inten-
sity was also monitored (Hansen 1970).
The Lunar Orbiter spacecraft body (''bus'') was a trun-
cated cone, 1.65 m high with 1.5 m base diameter. The
equipment deck held the battery, a star tracker, flight
control electronics and the camera system. Images were
recorded on film, which was processed on board and the
resulting negatives scanned and transmitted to Earth.
Four solar panels extended from this deck with a 3.72 m
total span, as well as a dish antenna on a 1.32 m boom and
an omnidirectional antenna on a 2.08 m boom. The solar
panels provided 375 W of power to operate the spacecraft
and to charge the battery, which was used while the
Figure 77 (cont.)
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Orbiter was in shadow. Above this another deck held the
orbit control engine and fuel tanks, sun sensors and
micrometeoroid detectors. A heat shield protected the
spacecraft from the rocket exhaust, the nozzle of the
engine passing through the centre of the shield. Four
nitrogen gas attitude control thrusters were mounted
around the perimeter of the heat shield.
Figure 81 shows part of a typical Orbiter 1 image
from site IP-5 showing the characteristic division into
narrow framelets for transmission. The largest crater is
Oppolzer A, 3 km in diameter.
Figure 82 shows the areas photographed by Lunar
Orbiter 1 in the equatorial region of the nearside.
Figure 83 shows areas on the farside covered by Lunar
Orbiter 1, and the impact site.
Figure 84 shows the farside as it was known at the end of
the Lunar Orbiter 1 mission. Coverage by Luna 3 and Zond
3 is now augmented by the first high-resolution coverage.
24 August 1966: Luna 11 (Soviet Union)
The 3616 kg automatic station Luna 11 was similar to
Luna 10 in its appearance and mission. It was launched
at 08:09 UT from Baikonur and entered a parking orbit.
After a trajectory correction at 19:02 UT on 26 August it
entered a 164 km by 1194 km, 178-minute period lunar
orbit inclined 278 to the equator at 21:49 UT on 27
August (28 August by Moscow time). Where Luna 10's
orbital module detached from its carrier spacecraft in
orbit, Luna 11 may not have done. Scientific investiga-
tions included measuring lunar gamma-ray and X-ray
emissions to estimate the Moon's surface composition,
studying the lunar gravitational field, micrometeorites,
and particle radiation near the Moon. A camera would
have returned pictures of the surface, but attitude con-
trol problems prevented successful imaging operations.
Luna 11 also tested in vacuum conditions the wheels to
be used on future rovers. Before the batteries failed at
about 02:03 UT on 1 October 1966 277 orbits and 137
radio transmissions were completed.
20 September 1966: Surveyor 2 (United States:
NASA)
This second US soft-landing attempt ended in failure. The
292 kg Surveyor 2 was launched on an Atlas-Centaur
booster from Cape Kennedy at 12:32 UT. Surveyor 2
was to return images of its landing site, engineering data
on landing dynamics, and radar reflectivity and thermal
data on the lunar surface. Following injection from a
parking orbit into its lunar trajectory, the spacecraft
operated perfectly up to its trajectory correction at 05:00
UT on 21 September. This failed when one of the three
vernier engines failed to ignite, causing the spacecraft to
tumble. Repeated efforts were made to restore control,
but Surveyor 2 crashed at 9:35 UT on 22 September,
southeast of Copernicus at about 48 S, 118 W.
Figure 78 Surveyor 1 landing site.
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The pre-launch target was a 50 km radius circle in
Sinus Medii around 0.08 N, 0.668 W (Figure 85). A site
at 38 S, 238 W (later used for Surveyor 3) was the backup
in case of a launch delay. The launch was so precise that
a smaller target ellipse was designated after launch, with
its center at 0.558 N, 0.838 W (Figure 85C). If no trajec-
tory correction or braking had occurred impact would
have been at 0.0528 S, 5.298 W (JPL 1967a.) Figure 85C
also shows the uncorrected impact point of Surveyor 4
(Figure 124).
1966: Lunar Orbiter 1 Site Screening
Lunar Orbiter 1 images were screened at MSC in
Houston and at NASA's Langley Research Center in
Hampton, Virginia, for suitable Apollo landing sites as
soon as good prints became available. The first step was
to identify areas on the new images which were relatively
smooth, large enough to contain the 7.9 km by 5.3 km
landing ellipse, and had a clear approach from the east
(no large hills or craters to complicate use of the landing
Figure 78 (cont.)
Figure 78A is a pictorial map, suggestive
of the local terrain but not reliable in its
smaller details.
Figure 78B shows the central part of
Figure 78A in more detail. The position of
the camera at the grid intersection (origin
of the local coordinate system) is
indicated. The camera faced east, so
some areas to the west are partly hidden
behind the spacecraft frame.
Figure 78C is a more accurate portrayal
of the site from a post-mission report (JPL
1969), showing selected rocks and
craters which can be identified in the
Surveyor 1 panoramic images (Figure 79).
Base maps. Figures 78A, 78B: Army Map
Service Pictorial Lunar Map (Surveyor 1
Site), original scale 1:100, 1st edition,
October 1967. Figure 78C: based on Fig.
III-16 of JPL (1969). Relief rendition by
P. Stooke.
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Figure 79 (cont.)
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Figure 79 (both pages) Surveyor 1 images.
View A (across both pages): full panorama taken shortly before sunset.
The terrain is undulating with subdued craters. Several hills were visible above
the horizon (views B and C). The fresh (blocky-rimmed) crater (view D, seen just
before sunset) and the subdued crater (view E) are identified in Figure 77D.
Other craters and rocks are identified by letters here and on Figures 77D and
78C. The block field (view F) is probably the rocky rim of a crater, as shown in
Figure 77C. View G: part of Lunar Orbiter 3 frame 183-H1 covering the same
area as Figure 78A, showing Surveyor 1 as a bright spot casting a 10 m-long
shadow. The spot was also seen in an Orbiter 1 medium-resolution image,
but could not be conclusively identified until Orbiter 3 showed it clearly.
The length of the shadow was one of the deciding factors.
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Figure 80 ASSB candidate sites considered in 1966.
Black rectangles: prime sites for missions A, B. Gray outlines: Apollo Working Paper 1100 sites. White circles: candidate
surveyor sites.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1: 5 000 000, 1st edition, January 1970.
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radar). When suitable ellipses had been located a more
detailed analysis could be undertaken, involving thor-
ough analysis of the highest-resolution frames. For each
ellipse, statistics were gathered for craters, blocks and
areas deemed too rough for landing. The ellipses could
then be ranked for landing safety.
This procedure was hampered by the poor quality of
the high-resolution frames from Lunar Orbiter 1, but the
medium-resolution images were adequate to begin the
process.
Figure 86 show the results of this site screening for the
nine Orbiter 1 prime sites (Lunar Orbiter Photo Data
Screening Group 1966). These images have been repro-
duced from the original materials, with cosmetic
enhancements, but image quality reflects the nature of
the originals.
22 October 1966: Luna 12 (Soviet Union)
The 1620 kg Luna 12 was launched from Baikonur at
08:38 UT and placed in a parking orbit. It consisted of a
Table 13. ASSB Set A, potential sites, 1 June 1966.
Lunar Orbiter 1
Lunar Orbiter 2
Lunar Orbiter 3
Surveyor
08500S,428200E*
48100N,368550E (tobe selected) 38200N,438550W
08100S,368000E2
8450N,348000E*
28200S,438500W
08200N,248500E*
48200N,218200E1
8300S,418550W
08 000 ,128 500 E4
8450N,158450E0
8300S,39810W
08 250 S, 18 200 (250)W
28360N,248480E*
38500S,378000W
48000S,28500W0
8450N,248100E*
28250N,348550W
38450S,228450W*
28100N,28000W3
8050N,288200W
38 000 (360)S, 368 300 W0
8050N,18000W4
8300S,278400W
38 150 (210)S, 438 220 (500)W*
18000N,138000W3
8200S,258100W
38280N,278100W0
8230N,08500W
08050S,198550W3
8200N,208150E
28250N,348400W0
8200N,218300E
18300N,428200W2
8150S,298400E
08250N,308550E
28450N,348000E
28050N,368550E
28450E,398000E
* Sites with greatest potential
Figure 81 Lunar Orbiter 1 image.
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Figure 82 Lunar Orbiter 1 nearside coverage.
Candidate Apollo landing sites (Figure 80) are now designated prime sites (IP, using the roman numeral I to designate the
spacecraft Lunar Orbiter 1) and are shown with heavy outlines in Figure 82. Other imaging targets, called supplementary sites,
were exposures made necessary by a requirement to move the film at regular intervals, and are shown in subdued tones.
One original version of the photography plan had ten prime sites. Site A-10 (top section of Figure 82) was dropped, and after
Surveyor 1 landed site A-9 was moved and renamed first 9.1 and then 9.2 (here IP-9.2) in an attempt to image the landing site.
Similarly site IP-8.1 was a modified target location.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1 : 5 000 000, first edition, January 1970.
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Figure 83 Lunar Orbiter 1 photographic coverage and impact site.
Figure 83A shows the areas on the farside covered by Lunar Orbiter 1 images. These views, including very high-resolution frames in
the centre of each large medium-resolution frame, gave the first detailed look at the terrain seen indistinctly by Luna 3 and Zond 3
(Figures 20 and 64). Several images of the western limb of the farside showed the crescent Earth above the horizon.
Figures 83B and 83C identify the impact site of Lunar Orbiter 1 at approximately 78 N, 1618 E in Mandel'shtam crater. The exact
location would depend on local topography under the obliquely descending spacecraft, and as this was unknown the location was
calculated assuming a smooth spherical surface.
Base maps. Figure 83B: detail of US Geological Survey map I-1218-A, Map Showing Relief and Surface Markings on the Lunar Far
Side, 1980. Figure 83C: part of Lunar Orbiter 1 image I-116M.
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carrier spacecraft like that of Lunas 9 and 10, and a re-
designed instrument module. A trajectory correction
was made on 23 October. Luna 12 entered a 100 km by
1740 km, 205 minute-period lunar orbit inclined 208 to
the lunar equator at 20:47 UT on 25 October. The mass
in orbit was 1136 kg.
The spacecraft was equipped with an experimental ima-
ging system (mounted on the carrier spacecraft) that
obtained and transmitted pictures of the lunar surface.
The pictures were taken on film, processed and scanned
for transmission, as on Luna 3 and Zond 3. They contained
1100 scan lines with a maximum resolution of about 5 m/
pixel, revealing craters as small as 15--20 m in diameter.
Pictures of the lunar surface in the vicinity of
Aristarchus crater were returned on 27 October, and of
Mare Imbrium on 29 October (Figures 87, 88). The
Figure 84 Farside photographic
coverage up to and including Lunar Orbiter 1.
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number of images taken was small, probably about 20,
and photography may have been delayed for two days
after entering orbit by an initial attitude control pro-
blem. These images would have been adequate to plan
human surface exploration, if there had been more of
them, and in areas closer to the equator.
Luna 12 also carried other instruments similar to
those of Luna 10, including a gamma-ray spectro-
meter which strengthened the findings of that mission
regarding the composition of the lunar surface
(Figure 89). Electric motors for use on later Lunokhod
rovers were tested during the mission. Contact ceased on
Figure 85 Surveyor 2 target and impact points.
Base maps. Figure 85A: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1 : 5 000 000, 1st edition, January 1970. Figure 85B:
ACIC Chart AIC 76B (Fra Mauro), original scale 1 : 500 000, 1st edition, July 1966. Figure 85C: composite of parts of ACIC Charts AIC
59C (Triesnecker), 59D (Pallas), 77A (Flammarion) and 77B (Hipparchus), original scales 1 : 500 000, 1st editions, March 1966, March
1966, August 1965 and June 1966 respectively.
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19 January 1967 after 602 lunar orbits and 302 radio
transmissions.
The Luna 12 images were taken over the area shown
in Figure 87, but the precise locations of the images and
the total area covered are not known. Four images are
displayed in Figure 88, each covering an area approxi-
mately 5 km across.
Figure 89 shows the general pattern of variations
which emerged at low resolution from the gamma-ray
measurements of Lunas 10, 11 and 12 combined.
Higher-latitude areas were covered only by Luna 10.
The gamma-ray fluxes were used to estimate the amounts
of radioactive elements in the crust. The results were con-
sistent with a basaltic composition for the maria and an
ultrabasic (very low silica) composition for the high-
lands and farside. Increased radioactivity over the wes-
tern maria hinted at compositional variations among
the mare basalts. No evidence for granite-like materials
was seen. The spatial resolution of the observations is not
known.
Figure 86 (both pages) Lunar Orbiter 1 site screening results.
Ellipses show the specific sites studied. The black ellipses were preferred. White ellipses are too rough or have poor approaches.
The association between Apollo sites and Surveyor targeting is clear in site A-7, where the Surveyor 3 target was the A-7-1 ellipse.
Scale is indicated by the ellipse size (7.9 km by 5.3 km).
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Figure 86 (cont.)
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Figure 87 Luna 12 orbital photographic coverage.
Base map: part of Polnaya Karta Luny, original scale 1 : 5 000 000, Nauka, Moscow, 1979.
Figure 88 Luna 12 images.
The two images at left are of areas about 250 km apart within the ray system of the crater Aristarchus. The two images at right are
in southern Mare Imbrium. Each image covers an area approximately 5 km across. These images were made available by MIIGAiK.
Figure 89 Luna 10, 11 and 12 lunar gamma-ray data.
Adapted from Figure 2.1.29 of Surkov (1990). Base map: USGS shaded relief, simple cylindrical projection.
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6 November 1966: Lunar Orbiter 2 (United
States: NASA)
Lunar Orbiter 2, essentially identical to Orbiter 1, was
launched at 23:21 UT from Cape Kennedy Launch
Complex 13 on an Atlas-Agena D booster, put in a park-
ing orbit and 14 minutes later placed on its 94-hour flight
to the Moon. A trajectory correction was made on 8
November, 265 485 km from Earth. The spacecraft
entered lunar orbit at 7:26 UT on 10 November. The
initial orbit was 196 km by 1850 km with an inclination
of 11.88. Perilune was lowered to 49.7 km at 9:58 UT on
15 November after 33 orbits. The imaging phase of the
mission began on 18 November (Hansen 1970).
Thirteen potential Apollo landing sites and seventeen
supplementary sites were targeted. The final image was
taken on the afternoon of 25 November. A total of 209
high-resolution and 208 medium-resolution frames were
taken over 40 orbits, with resolutions down to 1 m.
Readout began on 26 November. It terminated one day
early, 6 December, when a transmitter failed. Three
medium-resolution and two high-resolution photos of
primary site 1 were lost, though full low-resolution cove-
rage of the site was obtained and other data continued to
be transmitted.
On 8 December 1966 the orbit inclination was
increased to 17.58 to provide new lunar gravity data.
Three meteoroid hits were detected while in lunar orbit.
The spacecraft was tracked until it was commanded to
impact on the lunar surface at 3.08 N, 119.18 Eo
n11
October 1967.
Lunar Orbiter 2's photographic coverage is shown in
Figures 90, 91 and 92. Comparison with Orbiter 1 farside
coverage (Figure 83) shows that these new images extend
the earlier coverage and provide a bridge to the nearside.
Figure 93 shows the combined farside coverage of all
missions up to and including Orbiter 2. Because Lunar
Orbiter 2's image motion compensation mechanism
worked correctly, this mission provided the first very-
high-resolution images for Apollo site selection.
Nearside photography from Lunar Orbiter 2 covered
the areas shown in Figure 90. Prime sites are shown with
black outlines, supplementary sites with gray outlines.
Coverage of the Apollo zone was extended, and some of
the high-resolution coverage lost by Lunar Orbiter 1
(p. 87) was made up. These Orbiter 2 (Mission B)
prime sites differ slightly from those considered by the
Apollo Site Selection Board on 1 June 1966 (Figure 80).
Four images were taken with the camera tilted towards
the horizon, including one of Copernicus which became
famous as the ''picture of the century'' (Figure 94).
1966: Extended exploration planning
While the first landing sites were being sought in Orbiter
images, planning continued for larger-scale lunar opera-
tions. NASA's Lunar Exploration Working Group
(LEWG), set up in February 1966, prepared a detailed
plan (NASA 1966) involving robotic and human explora-
tion including long 90-day traverses in a large pressurized
rover called MOBEX (Mobile Excursion Vehicle). The
sequence would begin with three Apollo landings in 1968
and 1969. Then five advanced Lunar Orbiters would
photograph the entire Moon, and ten advanced
Surveyors, possibly carrying rovers, would land between
1970 and 1975. Three more Orbiters with advanced
instruments would map surface composition, possibly
on film to be retrieved by a crew in an Apollo CSM.
During this period, advanced Apollo landings would
continue in a program called Saturn-Apollo
Applications (SAA). Once a year, two Saturn Vs would
be launched, one with a remote-controlled LM shelter
and supplies, the second with the landing crew and a
smaller Lunar Scientific Survey Module (LSSM) rover
(page 129). The surface missions would last for 14 days,
using the LSSM to explore within 8 km of the landing
site (Figure 95A). Five SAA sites were identified
(Figure 95B). The next stage involved three expeditions
using the MOBEX rover on long traverses (candidate
routes are shown in Figure 95B). Finally, six-month
stays in temporary stations, using wholly re-designed
vehicles and a crew of six, would be undertaken during
the late 1970s as a prelude to the development of a
permanent lunar base.
1966: Lunar Orbiter 2 site screening
Lunar Orbiter 2 provided excellent high-resolution
images for Apollo site selection work. The procedure
described for Lunar Orbiter 1 (page 87) could now be
fully implemented. Figure 96 shows all candidate landing
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sites identified on Orbiter 2 images (ellipses). The sites
preferred after detailed screening are shown in black. The
white ellipses were too rough or had poor approach paths.
Site IIP-4 was too rugged for landing and is not illu-
strated. The word ''site'' was used both for Orbiter ima-
ging sites and potential landing ellipses, creating
potential confusion in the literature of the time (Lunar
Orbiter Photo Data Screening Group 1967a).
15 December 1966: Apollo Site Selection Board
This was the first meeting of the Apollo Site Selection
Board at which Lunar Orbiter images could be used for
detailed site analysis. A procedure was put in place to
shape the Board's deliberations over the next two years.
A ''reservoir'' of about thirty sites would be established,
consisting of the Lunar Orbiter prime sites (Figures 80,
Figure 90 Lunar Orbiter 2 nearside coverage.
Black outlines: prime sites. Gray outlines: supplementary sites.
Base map: as Figure 82.
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82, 90, 136) and a list of candidate Surveyor sites
(Table 13). This would form Set A, the ''potential
sites'', initially chosen from telescopic data but now
capable of being scrutinized in detail in the new high-
resolution images.
From these potential sites a shortlist of about ten
''candidate sites,'' Set B, would be selected for early
mission planning. For an actual mission and specific
launch window, one prime and two backup sites would
be chosen, forming Set C, the ''selected sites.'' Set A
locations were to be specified to the nearest degree of
latitude and longitude, or 30 km, and Sets B and C to the
nearest minute or 500 m. Despite that statement, from
the start Set A was also specified to the nearest minute in
Apollo documents.
Backup sites were needed in case a technical problem
caused a launch delay. It would take two days to restart
the launch process, causing unsatisfactory lighting
conditions at the prime site, so a new site would be needed
further west. Furthermore, because of the differing acces-
sibility areas at different seasons (pages 82, 83) it would
be necessary to select two sets of three sites for the first
mission to ensure that three useable sites were always
available. One set would be slightly north of the equator,
one set slightly south, with a common site in Sinus Medii
which was always accessible. Therefore a minimum of five
sites would be selected as Set C.
At this meeting a list of 37 sites was presented as Set A
potential sites (Table 13, mapped previously in
Figure 80). Exact coordinates differ slightly in different
presentations, and some alternative values are included
in the table. The likelihood of adding some Lunar
Orbiter 3 prime sites to the list was recognized. Sites
marked with an asterisk in Table 13 were judged to
have the greatest potential at this early stage in the
evaluation.
30° N
0°
30° S
90° E
0°
Figure 91 Extension of Orbiter 2 farside
coverage (Figure 92) onto the nearside.
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Attention then turned to the Lunar Orbiter images.
Apollo planners thought that they could land within an
ellipse 5.3 km wide and 7.9 km long to a high degree of
certainty, but thought that they could land close to the
center with less certainty. Site planners searched for
areas of this size with clear approaches and relatively
smooth surfaces free of large craters and ridges
(Figures 86, 96).
An evaluation of Lunar Orbiter 1 images was pre-
sented at this meeting (Table 14). In the nine prime
imaging sites, 23 potential ''landing areas'' (specific
ellipses) were identified, as listed in the table. The eight
most promising candidates were recommended for more
detailed analysis in the priority order indicated in the
''further study'' column of Table 14.
Two other candidates, A-2-1 and A-6-2, seemed
favorable in the available Orbiter 1 images, but were
Figure 92 Lunar Orbiter 2 farside coverage and impact point.
Figure 92A illustrates Lunar Orbiter 2 farside photographic coverage.
Figure 92B identifies the Lunar Orbiter 2 impact area at 3.08 N, 119.18 E.
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thought likely to prove too rough when better images
were obtained later. They were omitted from further
consideration. ''A'' in Table 14 refers to Orbiter mission
A (Orbiter 1), not the Set A of Table 13. The use of
decimal degrees in some tables and degrees and minutes
in others follows the original source documents.
21 December 1966: Luna 13 (Soviet Union)
A modified version of the Luna 9 lander, the Luna 13
1700 kg spacecraft was launched from Baikonur at 10:19
UT and made a trajectory correction on 22 December. Its
150 kg landing capsule reached the lunar surface on 24
December at 18:01 UT, 6.5 hours before local sunrise, at
approximately 198 N, 628 W in Oceanus Procellarum (the
often-cited position of 18.878 N, 62.058 Wismisleadingly
precise). The landing sequence was identical to that of
Figure 92C is part of Lunar Orbiter 2 image II-196M showing
the impact point on the terminator.
Base map for Figure 92B: detail of US Geological Survey
map I-1218-A, Map Showing Relief and Surface Markings on the
Lunar Far Side, 1980.
Table 14. ASSB: Potential landing areas evaluated.
Site
number
Ellipse
number
Location
Further
study*
Site
number
Ellipse
number
Location
Further
study*
A-1
1
0.78 S, 42.18 E
No
A-5
1
0.88 N, 2.58 WN
o
2
1.08 S, 42.78 E
3
3
0.78 N, 2.18 WN
o
A-2
1
0.78 N, 35.08 E
No
4
0.28 N, 1.68 WN
o
2
0.58 N, 35.98 E
No
A-6
1
3.48 S, 3.98 WN
o
A-3
1
0.28 N, 24.58 E
1
2
3.38 S, 3.88 WN
o
5
0.48 N, 25.18 E
No
A-7
1
3.08 S, 23.28 W8
9
0.88 N, 26.98 E
5
3
3.28 S, 23.18 W7
10
0.58 N, 26.88 E
6
A-8.1
1
3.58 S, 36.28 WN
o
12
0.58 N, 27.68 E
2
2
3.48 S, 36.88 WN
o
A-4
1
0.18 N, 12.88 E
No
A-9.2b
1
2.28 S, 44.28 W4
2
0.38 S, 12.98 E
No
4
2.58 S, 43.28 WN
o
5
2.68 S, 43.38 WN
o
* Numbers show priority order for further study; other sites would not be studied.
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Luna 9. The petals of the near-spherical body opened
after landing to right the spacecraft and expose the instru-
ments and antennas. Radio transmissions to Earth began
four minutes after the landing. On 25 and 26 December
the television system transmitted panoramas of the
nearby lunar landscape at five different sun angles from
68 to 328. Each panorama required approximately 100
minutes to transmit. The spacecraft carried two cameras,
but it seems that images were obtained from only one
of them. It was also equipped with four radiometers,
and a soil penetrometer and a gamma-ray instrument,
which were mounted on two long folding arms to place
them on the surface. They obtained data on the mechan-
ical and physical properties of the lunar surface material.
Transmissions from the spacecraft ceased on 31
December 1966 (Academy of Sciences of the USSR 1969.)
The Luna 13 landing area (Figure 97) was a smooth
mare region south of the craters Seleucus and
Figure 93 Composite of
farside images obtained
up to and including
Lunar Orbiter 2.
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Schiaparelli. It has not been imaged at high resolution.
The target (Figure 34) was probably the relatively ray-
free dark mare area indicated in Figure 98A.
Figure 98 shows the Luna 13 landing site in more
detail. The site is a very smooth area adjacent to several
mare ridges.
Figure 99 shows the landing site. The central portion
is based on a Soviet map of the immediate vicinity
of the lander (Figure 100). Here, features seen in the
panoramas near the horizon are added schematically.
Their true distance cannot be determined. Two very
subtle hills lie to the northeast and southeast. North of
the lander, several rocks appear on the horizon. They
must be relatively close to be resolved. Here the area is
interpreted as the rim of a shallow crater.
Luna 13 landed in a crater roughly 8 m in diameter
containing an apparent terrace or concentric inner crater
(Figure 100). Five fragmentary panoramas (Academy of
Sciences of the USSR 1969) were taken with a camera
which faced downwards to the west, showing the space-
craft shadow cast by the rising Sun. The second camera,
intended to provide overlapping images for stereoscopic
analysis, faced upwards into the Sun, and apparently
either failed to operate or was damaged by solar glare.
No images from it have ever been released. The panor-
ama in Figure 101 is a composite view assembled from
sections of the five individual panoramas by P. Stooke.
1967: Advanced mission proposals
Numerous proposals for the future of lunar exploration
emerged from NASA offices and contractors during the
mid-1960s. Two are illustrated here.
Benjamin Milwitzky, the Surveyor Program Manager
at NASA Headquarters in Washington, argued in
favor of a new program of automated landers, building
on the success of Surveyor. This would augment
Apollo by visiting places deemed too dangerous
for astronauts. Figure 102 shows six sites he proposed
for visits by advanced landers: four major craters
and two broad regions of geological interest, the
surface of Mare Nubium near the Straight Wall and
the mare--highland boundary, and the broad area of
Figure 94 Part of Lunar Orbiter 2's ''picture of the century,'' image II-162H3, showing the central peaks of Copernicus,
which were later considered as an Apollo landing site.
Figure 95 SAA site near Moltke B, and LEWG
exploration plan.
Figure 95A shows surface operations at an SAA site near the
crater Moltke B. The crew would use a rover to visit three
sampling objectives (dots), each 8 km from the landing site, on
three separate excursions during a 14-day stay. The
background map is a detail of Figure 46A.
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tectonically disrupted highland plains around Hyginus
and Ariadaeus (Milwitzky 1967).
At the same time the Aerospace Systems Division of
Bendix Corporation was planning sophisticated arrays
of scientific instruments to be deployed on the lunar
surface. These geophysical and environmental monitor-
ing systems would be installed during multiple excur-
sions from a central landing site (Bendix Corporation
1967). The example illustrated (Figure 103) would be set
up in the northeastern floor of the crater Alphonsus to
monitor possible volcanic activity (page 49).
1967: Space accidents
1967 saw the first space fatalities (but see also p. 293).
Apollo 1 (originally designated Apollo 204), a spacecraft
countdown test at the Kennedy Space Center, failed cata-
strophically on 21 January 1967. The command module sat
on its unfueled Saturn 5 on the launch pad. If all had gone
well the spacecraft would have been launched with its crew
on 21 February for an Earth-orbital test flight. At 23:31 UT
a fire started in a bundle of wiring with worn insulation and
spread rapidly in the capsule's pure oxygen atmosphere.
The crew, Edward White(the first American to ''walk'' in
space), Virgil ''Gus'' Grissom (one of the seven original
Mercury astronauts) and Roger Chaffee, died before the
awkward hatch could be opened. The fire caused a delay of
over a year in the first lunar landing as the spacecraft was
re-designed and work procedures were improved. In 1970
the International Astronomical Union assigned the names
of the astronauts to craters near a large farside impact basin
which received the name Apollo (Figure 178).
The Soviet Union suffered the first in-flight fatality
three months later. The new Soyuz capsule was designed
for the lunar cosmonaut program but became a space
station crew transfer vehicle for the rest of the century.
Soyuz 1, the first piloted test flight, was launched on 23
April 1967. Technical problems necessitated a return to
Earth after only 18 orbits and about 27 hours. Vladimir
M. Komarov died when the main parachute failed to
deploy and the reserve parachute became tangled. His
ashes were buried in the Kremlin wall. A crater near
Mare Moscoviense was named after him (Figure 104).
Nearby craters commemorate other early cosmonauts.
5 February 1967: Lunar Orbiter 3 (United
States: NASA)
Lunar Orbiter 3 was intended primarily to confirm
safe landing sites for the Surveyor and Apollo missions,
Figure 95B illustrates the LEWG exploration plan. The five SAA sites are Moltke B (1), the Ranger 8 site (2), Hyginus (3), a site southwest
of Kepler crater (4) and a highland site, Capella M (5). The report suggested landings in the order 2, 1, 3, 4, 5. The MOBEX routes allow
sampling of many types of material during 90-day excursions. Locations for sampling and instrument deployment are shown as dots
along the traverses. The set of three loop traverses between Copernicus and Aristarchus was referred to as the Northwest Cloverleaf.
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Figure 96 (two pages) Lunar Orbiter 2 site screening results.
All ellipses mapped are 7.9 km by 5.3 km, giving an indication of scale for these images. The differing apparent sizes of the ellipses
reflect the different sizes of the Orbiter sites, which are adjusted here to fit onto the page. Faint lines extending eastwards from the
black ellipses show the range of possible approach azimuths (Lunar Orbiter Photo Data Screening Group 1967a.)
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and to provide more data on radiation intensity, micro-
meteoroid impacts and the shape and gravity of the
Moon. The spacecraft was launched into a parking orbit
at 01:17 UT from Cape Canaveral on an Atlas-Agena
booster. It was placed on a lunar trajectory soon after
launch and entered an elliptical lunar orbit at 21:54 UT
on 8 February. To enable passes over both Apollo mission 1
and 2 primary sites with suitable lighting conditions, the
orbit inclination was increased to 20.98. The orbital altitude
was 210 km by 1802 km with a period of 205 minutes. After
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four days and 25 orbits of tracking, the orbit was chan-
gedto55kmby1847km.
Imaging was carried out as planned except for small
changes in some site locations, an additional pass over
the Surveyor 1 landing site, and the dropping of the final
supplementary site. The spacecraft took images over 54
orbits from 15 to 23 February, and transmitted them
back to Earth until March 4, 1967 when the film advance
motor burned out, leaving about 25% of the unread
film stuck on the reel. In all, 211 medium- and
high-resolution image pairs were taken, of which 157
medium- and 172 high-resolution frames were returned.
These high-quality images had resolutions as good as
1 meter. Images of the Surveyor 1 landing site showed
the spacecraft and its shadow on the surface (Figure 79).
The spacecraft was tracked for engineering and gravity
studies until it crashed on command at 14.38 N, 97.78 W
(Figure 107) on 9 October 1967 (Hansen 1970).
Nearside photographic coverageisshowninFigure105.
Prime sites are outlined in black, supplementary
Figure 97 The Luna 13 landing area.
Base map: ACIC lunar chart LAC 38 (Seleucus), original scale
1:1 000 000, 1st edition, March 1965.
sites in gray. The prime sites are numbered to corre-
spond with the Apollo Site Selection Board nomenclature.
All prime sites were potential Apollo landing sites. The
number of oblique views was increased, providing a differ-
ent perspective for geological studies and offering an astro-
naut's perspective on some sites to assist in training and
target recognition. Some images were taken to replace the
lost Lunar Orbiter 1 high-resolution coverage.
Farside photographic coverage is shown in Figure 106.
Figure 107 shows the impact site. Figure 108 is a compo-
site showing all imaging coverage up to and including
Lunar Orbiter 3.
Figure 109 is a sample of Lunar Orbiter 3 photography.
30 March 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board
The Lunar and Earth Sciences Division at MSC evalu-
ated Lunar Orbiter 2 images and screening results (pages
109, 110) and presented a shortlist of candidate landing
sites at this meeting. Of the 13 Orbiter 2 imaging sites,
five were placed on the shortlist. Sites IIP-5 and IIP-6
were both suitable, but so close together that site 5 was
dropped. The best Orbiter 3 sites (not yet available for
this meeting) would be added to this shortlist later in the
year to create the Set B candidate sites for the first
Apollo landing. Orbiter 1 sites were not included because
of the lack of useful high-resolution frames from that
mission.
Figure 110 shows the Orbiter 2 primary sites and
identifies those considered most suitable. Table 15 lists
coordinates and characteristics of all sites considered at
this meeting. The inconsistent use of decimal degrees in
some tables and degrees and minutes in others reflects
the disorganized nature of the original documents.
Thermal anomalies were measured during lunar eclipses
and indicate areas which change temperature more or less
rapidly than average during an eclipse. Rocky sites, which
wouldbeexpectedtoremainwarmerthanaverageduring
an eclipse, might be too rough for a landing.
1967: Lunar Orbiter 3 site screening
The Lunar Orbiter 3 photography extended Orbiter 2
coverage and recovered some Orbiter 1 data lost to the
image smear problem (page 87). Eight of the thirteen
prime sites were screened in detail for landing sites, as
shown on these pages (Figure 111).
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Figure 98 The Luna 13 landing area.
Base map for Figure 98A: as Figure 97.
Figure 98B is a composite of Lunar Orbiter 4 images 162-H2
and 162-H3 showing the landing area. Figure 98C is an
enlargement of the landing area. Luna 13 could lie anywhere
in Figure 98C. Clementine images of this area do not show
more useful details.
Figure 99 Luna 13 landing site.
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17 April 1967: Surveyor 3 (United States: NASA)
Surveyor 3 was identical to Surveyors 1 and 2 except that
the unused descent imaging camera was removed and a
sampling arm was added. This could be controlled from
Earth to dig trenches and obtain surface properties data.
Two mirrors were mounted on the spacecraft frame to
provide views underneath the spacecraft.
Figure 100 The Luna 13 landing site.
I indicates a triangular impression made by the spacecraft as it landed, rolling and bouncing before coming to rest. S indicates
several spacecraft fragments, presumably parts of the carrier stage from which the landing capsule was ejected at the moment of
contact with the surface. T indicates a possible track made by a rolling rock.
Figure 100 is based on a plan at a scale of 1 : 40 (Academy of Sciences of the USSR 1969). Shaded relief version by P. Stooke.
Distances are very hard to estimate in surface images without stereoscopic viewing, so objects at a distance may be larger and more
distant than suggested here, and even more so in Figure 99. It might be possible to interpret Rock A as part of the body of the carrier
rocket (larger and more distant than shown here) and the track as a mark left by the rolling lander.
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Launch was at 07:05 UT from Pad 36B at Cape
Kennedy (JPL, 1967b; NASA 1967a). Following a mid-
course correction 22 hours after launch the spacecraft
landed close to its target at 04:53 UT on 20 April.
Telemetry from Surveyor 3 showed that it touched
down on the lunar surface and lifted off again twice before
coming to rest because the vernier (final descent) engines
did not shut down as expected at the moment of landing.
The spacecraft hopped westwards (downhill) between
15 m and 22 m between the first and second surface con-
tact and from 11 m to 14 m between the second and third
contacts. The verniers were shut down by command from
Earth just before the third touchdown. Because it landed
on the sloping wall of a crater, it also slid about 30 cm
Figure 101 (both pages) Luna 13 panorama.
Luna 13 obtained five panoramas over several days of operation (Academy of Sciences of the USSR 1969). Two consisted of only
small fragments, and the other three each have gaps. They show a surface flatter than the Luna 9 site, scattered with rocks and
several fragments of the vehicle which carried it to the Moon. The spacecraft shadow was portrayed shrinking as the Sun rose higher.
A folding arm carrying a gamma-ray instrument to determine the bulk density of the soil is visible above. A second folding arm carried
a penetrometer instrument, which may be just visible to the right of the second camera at top left above.
The image at bottom right opposite is a projection of the full composite panorama into a view approximating an overhead perspective.
Directions are indicated around the projection. The exact shape of the horizon is distorted by the projection process and is not
indicative of relief.
This figure is a composite view consisting of the best parts of the five original panoramas, made by P. Stooke.
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Figure 101 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 115

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downhill following the final landing. The footpad
imprints in Figures 115B, 116 and 119 show the last
motion before the spacecraft came to rest. Three small
(2 cm) rock fragments were apparently blown across the
surface by vernier engine exhaust (pages 132, 136).
The landing site was in eastern Oceanus Procellarum,
in an area with many hills, which was later named
Mare Insularum (Sea of Islands), at 2.948 S, 23.338 W
(Figure 113). The original target was at 3.338 S, 23.178 W,
with a 99% chance of landing within 30 km of that point. If
no mid-course correction or braking had been attempted,
impact would have occurred at 10.078 S, 36.998 W. Only a
small correction was needed, and the accurate trajectory
allowed a smaller landing ellipse to be defined, 15 km by
10 km with a revised target point at 2.928 S, 23.258 Wto
avoid two craters to the south. Tracking suggested a land-
ing at 3.008 S, 23.438 W. The actual landing point was
eventually located by Ewen Whitaker of the University
of Arizona by comparing features seen in the first
Surveyor 3 images with Lunar Orbiter 3 views of the area.
Surveyor 3 returned 6315 images of its landing site,
dug four trenches, performed 22 soil mechanics tests,
and survived a lunar eclipse on 24 April. Spacecraft
condition was excellent at the end of the first lunar
day, on 4 May. Throughout the next lunar day, from
23 May to 2 June, many attempts were made to regain
contact with Surveyor 3, but all were unsuccessful.
Surveyor 3 was visited by the Apollo 12 astronauts on
20 November 1969 (page 222). The three images in
Figure 112 show the sample arm in operation, with a
footpad imprint at far left.
Surveyor 3's target and landing points are illustrated
in Figure 113. Surveyor 3 landed inside a 200 m diameter
crater. Two block fields on the rims of small fresh craters
shown in Figure 114B were visible in Surveyor 3 panor-
amas (Figure 116). Apollo 12 (page 222) landed within
the area of Figure 114B on 19 November 1969. The
Army Map Service documented the landing with these
maps, which show the nature of the landing area.
Figure 115 shows detailed plans of the Surveyor 3 land-
ing site, based on Figures 3.8 and 3.9 in NASA (1967a).
Surveyor 3 landed with its vernier engines still firing
(page 112). Dust thrown up by the verniers either coated
parts of the camera mirror or pitted and eroded the
mirror in places, causing some loss of quality in the
images. Dust may also have clogged the mirror pointing
mechanism, limiting its motion range. These effects
reduced the number, coverage and quality of images.
One nearly complete panorama can be assembled to
show the interior of the crater in which the spacecraft
landed (Figure 116A, both pages).
Features in this area were used by Ewen Whitaker
(University of Arizona) to locate the spacecraft in Lunar
Orbiter images. Immediately after landing, Surveyor 3
transmitted several wide-angle images of this area lit by a
very low Sun. The height of the horizon suggested the
landing site was inside a crater a few hundred meters in
diameter. The double rock at upper center, a crater just
below it and a rock-rimmed crater nearer the horizon
were thought likely to be visible in Orbiter images.
Whitaker examined numerous craters in the vicinity of
the expected landing point (Figure 113C), eventually find-
ing a set of features which matched those seen in surface
pictures. Additional matches were quickly found to con-
firm the location. Whitaker's finding was confirmed when
Apollo 12 landed on the crater rim to the left of
Figure 117 and the astronauts later saw Surveyor 3 sitting
in its crater (page 256). This method of matching surface
and orbital images has been used to locate landed space-
craft on the Moon and Mars ever since.
A single image (Figure 118) from the Surveyor 3
panorama shows part of the block field indicated in
Figure 116C. The regularly spaced dots (reseau marks)
were common on all NASA spacecraft images until the
1980s. They were intended to help correct distortions in
photographic prints of the images. A diffuse dark patch
near the horizon is an artifact caused by dust on the
camera mirror.
The area accessible to the surface sampler is shown in
Figure 119. A rock near the footpad at upper left is
visible in the panorama (Figure 116A, left). Table 16
lists the daily surface sampler activities.
In Table 16 the days are dates in April and May 1967.
Trenches, surface contact points (c1 to c4) and soil
test sites are numbered in chronological order. Impact
tests (i1 to i13) involved allowing the arm to fall from a
height to indicate depth of penetration. Bearing tests
(b1 to b7) involved pushing down with the arm until the
motor stalled. Trenches 1 and 4 were dug with a single
sweep of the arm. Trenches 2 and 3 were made with
multiple passes, digging to a depth of 15 cm or more. At
point c1 a small clod of soil, thought to be a rock, was
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picked up in the scoop, but was crushed. The soil was
dropped onto the nearby footpad. At c2 soil and a small
rock were picked up and dropped on the footpad. At c3 a
rock was picked up and photographed through colour
filters. It was dropped and not seen again.
4 May 1967: Lunar Orbiter 4 (United States:
NASA)
The previous Lunar Orbiters had completed the Apollo
site certification imaging, so Orbiter 4's objective was
Figure 102 Advanced landers.
Figure 103 Alphonsus mission proposed by Bendix.
A2 is a large Block II Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package
(ALSEP), deployed near the landing site. At points labelled A1
three smaller Block 1 ALSEPs would be set up. A smaller version
of these instrument packages was eventually adopted for use
on Apollo. Flying traverses would use a Lunar Flying Unit (LFU,
page 129).
Base map: composite of parts of Figures 51C and 52A.
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changed. It was to provide systematic imaging of the
entire nearside at ten times the resolution available
from Earth, and to extend farside coverage. This would
aid later Apollo site selection as ASSB looked beyond
the Apollo zone. Radiation and micrometeoroid data
were also collected, and tracking provided gravity data
beyond the equatorial regions for the first time. The
385.6 kg spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral
at 02:25 UT, placed on a lunar trajectory and injected
into a near-polar elliptical lunar orbit on 8 May. The
orbit was 2706 km by 6111 km, inclined 85.58 to the
equator with a period of 12 hours.
Photography began on 11 May, but the camera's ther-
mal door had trouble responding to commands from
Earth to open and close. The door was left open so that
it would not stick in the closed position, which would
prevent photography. This required careful pointing
maneuvers through each orbit to stop light leaking into
the camera and fogging the film. On 13 May light leakage
was observed, so the door was tested again and partially
closed. The low temperatures caused by closing the door
led to condensation of moisture, perhaps released from
the film processing system. Solar heating, controlled by
adjusting the attitude, eliminated the fogging.
Further problems with the film drive mechanism
began on 20 May, so imaging ended on 26 May after
30 orbits. Despite all these problems the entire film was
successfully processed and transmitted, though fogging
spoiled some images. Readout ended on 1 June. The
orbit was then lowered to gather gravity data to assist
planning for Lunar Orbiter 5 (Hansen 1970).
The 140 high-resolution and 127 medium-resolution
frames covered most of the Moon's nearside. Resolution
varied from 58 m to 134 m, compared with roughly 1 km
which was typical of Earth-based telescopes at the time.
Lower-resolution images of the farside, especially the limb
and southern hemisphere, were also taken. Radiation data
showed that solar particle events were producing low-
energy protons. The spacecraft was tracked for gravity
studies until it impacted the lunar surface due to the
natural decay of the orbit no later than 31 October 1967,
between 228 and 308 W, probably within 308 of the equa-
tor where its orbital low point was situated.
Figure 120 shows the areas imaged by Lunar Orbiter 4.
Areas with a lighter shade portray the high-resolution
coverage, mostly on the nearside (left) but with
Figure 104 Craters named after early cosmonauts.
Base map: part of Polnaya Karta Luny (Nauka, Moscow,
1979), original scale 1: 5 000 000.
Table 16. Surveyor 3 sampler operations.
Day Actions
21 Sampler released, tested, left above point b1
22 b1, trench 1, trench 2, sampler left in trench 2
23 Two more passes through trench 2, sampler left at the
end of trench 2
24 Solar eclipse. Too hot to operate sampler
25 Too hot to operate sampler
26 Clod of soil picked up at contact 1 (c1), moved to
footpad, scoop lowered to surface short of footpad,
repositioned over footpad, soil deposited on the
footpad
27 b2, b3, trench 3
28 High albedo object picked up at contact 2 (c2), placed
on footpad, two more passes through trench 3 to
widen it, b4
29 i1, i2, i3, i4, i5, i6, arm motors tested
30 b5, sampler touches and moves an object at contact 3
(c3), b6, b7, i7, i8, i9, i10
1
Object at c3 picked up, photographed in color,
dropped and not seen again, three more passes in
trench 2, four impacts in trench before last pass to
loosen material
2 i11, i12, trench 4, i13, arm left extended beyond
trench 4
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Figure 105 Lunar Orbiter 3 nearside photographic coverage.
Base map: as Figure 82.
Black outlines: prime sites. Gray outlines: supplementary sites.
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Figure 107 Lunar Orbiter 3 impact site.
Figure 107A shows the region of the spacecraft impact, and Figure 107B is a mosaic of Clementine UV-VIS images of the impact site.
The impact occurred about 600 km north of the edge of the Orientale basin (Clementine Basemap sections bi17n261 and bi10n261).
Base map: as Figure 92.
Figure 106 Lunar Orbiter 3 farside photographic coverage.
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small extensions into the farside. The intermediate
shading is medium-resolution coverage, which is of very
poor quality in many areas. Darker areas were not imaged
by Orbiter 4. The approximate impact area is shown at left.
All Lunar Orbiters took both roughly square medium-
resolution images and long narrow high-resolution
frames (Figure 121). Orbiters 1, 2 and 3 mapped Apollo
landing areas with multiple strips of high-resolution
coverage. Orbiter 4 flew a mission profile in which each
high-resolution frame covered a latitude range of 308.
Polewards of 608 north and south, 13 frames spanned
the width of the nearside. Between 308 and 608 in each
hemisphere, 27 frames spanned the nearside, and between
the equator and 308 in each hemisphere 29 images were
needed. Taken together, these images revealed the near-
side more clearly than ever before.
Figure 108 Farside
image coverage up to
Lunar Orbiter 3.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 121

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Alternate missions were proposed for Orbiter 4 by
NASA's Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, which had
little interest in global mapping. They are described in a
memorandum from Owen E. Maynard to Dr. L. Reiffel
on 19 January 1967, in the JSC Archives. One option, best
for Apollo zone mapping, was to cover the entire Apollo
zone in medium-resolution frames (about 50 m resolu-
tion) with spot coverage throughout at higher resolution.
The other option, better for late Apollo planning, was
medium-resolution (100 m) stereoscopic coverage of the
entire zone between 408 N and S, and 508 or 608 EandW,
and spot coverage with high-resolution frames.
Figure 122 shows the coverage of the farside up to and
including Lunar Orbiter 4. The latest images were mostly
of lower resolution, but helped to fill in the southern
hemisphere. Figure 123 is part of Orbiter 4 frame
IV-195-H1 showing complex tectonic structures in the
Orientale basin.
14 July 1967: Surveyor 4 (United States: NASA)
Surveyor 4 was identical to Surveyor 3, including the addi-
tion of a surface sampler. It was launched at 11:53 UT from
Cape Kennedy. The lunar transfer trajectory was very
accurate. A mid-course trajectory correction was made
38.6 hours after launch. A normal landing sequence
began 68 hours after launch, and appeared to function
flawlessly until about the time the retrorocket (main brak-
ing rocket) should have burned out. This was at an altitude
of about 15 km, after which the spacecraft should have
Figure 109 Lunar Orbiter 3 image of a possible landing site.
This oblique view looks west across the potential Apollo landing site IIIP-10 (page 119). Lunar Orbiter 3 image III-161-M.
Figure 110 Orbiter 2 preferred sites.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original scale 1: 5 000 000, first edition, January 1970.
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continued its descent controlled by its small vernier
engines. At that moment the radio signals from the space-
craft abruptly ceased. No explanation could be found for
the failure.
The target was Sinus Medii, also the target of Surveyor
2 and a strong candidate for an Apollo landing site (page
89). The original pre-launch target was a 30 km circle
centred at 0.588 N, 0.838 W, almost identical to the post-
launch adjusted target for Surveyor 2. If no mid-course
correction or braking had been attempted, impact would
have been at 1.998 S, 5.98 W. That location is shown on
Figure 85C. The final aim point was moved by the mid-
course correction to 0.4178 N, 1.3338 W, within the 7.2 km
by 10.8 km ellipse made feasible by the extremely accurate
trajectory. The estimated landing point (assuming safe final
braking and landing, but total loss of telemetry) is 0.438 N,
1.628 W. It is more likely that Surveyor 4 crashed nearby
(JPL 1968a). These locations are shown in Figure 124.
19 July 1967: Explorer 35 (IMP-E) (United
States: NASA)
Explorer 35 was a 230 kg (fueled-mass) spin-stabilized
spacecraft intended for space science research at lunar
distances. It was built by Westinghouse and managed by
the Goddard Space Flight Center, in Maryland. Explorer
35 was launched on a Delta booster from Cape Canaveral
at 14:19 UT and entered a 485 km by 675 km lunar orbit
inclined 328 to the equator with a 96-minute period. The
spacecraft rotated at 25.6 rpm about an axis nearly per-
pendicular to the ecliptic plane. An alternate designation,
IMP-E (or AIMP-E) derives from its formal title,
''(Anchored) Interplanetary Monitoring Platform.''
Explorer 35 studied plasma, dust, magnetic fields, ener-
getic particles and solar X-rays. Bistatic radar observations
Table 15. Orbiter 2 screening results.
Sector
Rank
(* suitable) Site number
Location
Thermal
anomalies
Surveyor site
East
1*
IIP-6
08450N,238370E
Cool area
No
2*
IIP-2
28400N,348000E
Cool area
No
3*
IIP-5
28400N,248250E
4
IIP-3
48120N,218030E
5
IIP-1
48000N,388450E
Central 1*
IIP-8
08250N,18200W
None
Yes
2
IIP-9
08550N,128550W
3
IIP-7
18530N,18520W
4
IIP-4
(rejected)
West
1*
IIP-11
08 250 N, 198 550 W Warm area
Yes
2*
IIP-13
18 400 N, 418 400 W Between two cool
areas
No
3
IIP-12
18420N,348120W
4
IIP-10
38180N,278120W
Other sites considered at this time
Central
IP-5-1
08480N,28300W
Cool area
Yes
West
IP-7-1
38000S,238120W None
Yes
IP-7-3
38120S,238060W None
Yes
IP-9.2b-1
28120S,448300W None
Yes
Surveyor 1
2.158 S, 43.358 W
None
Landed
Chronological sequence of missions and events 123

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Figure 111 (both pages) Lunar Orbiter 3 site screening results.
As in Figures 86 and 96, the candidate landing sites are shown as ellipses, with sites preferred after screening shown in black.
All ellipses are 7.9 km by 5.3 km, indicating the scale of the images. Figure 105 shows the location and orientation of each site.
Where Orbiter 3 prime sites overlapped photography from Orbiters 1 and 2, some ellipses are common to previous screening
results, and are indicated by dual labels. Some Orbiter 1 ellipses are labelled ''A'' and some ''I'', a discrepancy that follows the
source materials (Lunar Orbiter Photo Data Screening Group 1967b).
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Figure 111 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 125

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Figure 112 Surveyor 3 sampling arm in operation.
In the two right-hand images, trench 1 (Figure 119) is at left and the arm is digging trench 3. The surface activity map
(Figure 119) is derived from Scott and Roberson (1968) and JPL (1967b).
Figure 113 Surveyor 3 landing site.
Figure 113A: the landing region, southwest of Copernicus.
Figure 113B: the target was a smooth mare area, close to the Surveyor 2 backup target. After launch the target was refined to move it
further from a cluster of small craters.
Figure 113C: tracking suggested a landing west of the target. Surveyor 3 was eventually located within the boxed area.
Base maps. Figure 113A: ACIC Chart AIC 76 A (Euclides P), original scale 1: 500 000, first edition, June 1966. Figure 113B: Army
Map Service Lunar Map ORB III-9(100), original scale 1:100 000, first edition, March 1968. Figure 113C: Army Map Service Lunar
Photomap ORB III-9(100), original scale 1:100 000, first edition, January 1968.
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of areas within about 108 of the lunar equator, near long-
itudes 808 E and W, were made as transmissions from the
spacecraft were scattered from the lunar surface and then
recorded at the 45 m Stanford dish antenna. The results
gave statistical information on small-scale slopes in those
areas. After six years of successful operation Explorer 35
was turned off on 24 June 1973. According to Powell
(2003), Explorer 35 is probably still in lunar orbit.
1 August 1967: Lunar Orbiter 5 (United States:
NASA)
Lunar Orbiter 5, the last Lunar Orbiter mission, was
launched from the Eastern Test Range at 22:32 UT. On
5 August the spacecraft was placed in a 195 km by
6023 km lunar orbit inclined 858 to the equator with a
period of 8.50 hours. On 7 August the low point was
dropped to 100 km and on 9 August the orbit was
adjusted to 99 km by 1499 km with a 3.16-hour period.
Photography took place from 6 to 18 August.
The mission goal was to photograph candidate
Apollo sites on the nearside, including later Apollo
sites outside the narrow zone previously considered,
and to fill blanks in farside coverage. Orbiter 5 obtained
211 medium- and high-resolution image pairs including
a full Earth image from lunar orbit. It also collected
radiation intensity and micrometeoroid data and was
used to evaluate Apollo tracking stations and orbit
determination methods. Tracking provided important
gravity data. The mission ended when the spacecraft
crashed on the lunar surface at 2.798 S, 83.048 W, north-
east of the Orientale basin near the crater Schluter at
07:58 UT on 31 January 1968.
Data collected during the Lunar Orbiter program
included 22 micrometeoroid impacts, showing that the
average dust particle flux near the Moon was about a
hundred times greater than in interplanetary space but
slightly less than near Earth. The radiation experiments
showed that the Apollo hardware would protect astro-
nauts from typical levels of solar particle radiation, but
not from major solar flares.
The Orbiter 5 nearside targets were candidate Apollo
sites (Figure 126), including scientifically interesting tar-
gets outside the equatorial zone. Some sites mentioned in
later pages are labelled. One set of oblique images
Figure 113 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 127

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showed astronaut-eye approach views of the Apollo sites
in Mare Tranquillitatis favoured for the first landing.
Two areas on the eastern limb were extensions of med-
ium-resolution farside coverage. Orbiter 5 later crashed
inside the Figure 125A outline.
Tracking of the Lunar Orbiters and the Soviet Luna
10, 11 and 12 orbiters revealed local variations in the
lunar gravitational field (Figure 127). Areas causing
higher accelerations are shown with brighter shading,
especially over the Imbrium and Serenitatis basins.
Weaker gravitational anomalies are also seen in
Figure 127 over the circular mare basins Crisium,
Nectaris and Humorum, but not over the irregular
maria (Tranquillitatis, Nubium, Fecunditatis, Oceanus
Procellarum). Once thought to be signs of buried aster-
oids, these ''mascons'' (mass concentrations) are now
considered due to the thick basalt fill in the circular
basins. The irregular mare areas are generally thinly
covered ''overflow'' areas, as shown by the large number
of protruding crater rims and isolated hills.
In Figure 128, low-resolution farside coverage is
shown in a fainter tone, high-resolution coverage with
lighter shading. The goal was to fill gaps in previous
coverage, and this was largely achieved. Some areas in
the extreme east of the farside near the Orientale basin
were seen poorly at oblique angles and very near the
terminator with some areas hidden in shadow.
Otherwise excellent high-resolution coverage was
obtained across the northern and eastern farside. A few
major features are labelled. The only area remaining
unseen by any spacecraft at this time was a narrow strip
at longitude 1058 W, from the outer rim of Orientale to
the south pole. This was eventually revealed by the Luna
Incognita mapping project (page 372) and the Clementine
mission of 1994 (page 382).
Figure 129 shows that Lunar Orbiter 5 essentially
completed the reconnaissance of the farside. The small
area still unseen is in a narrow strip of shadow between
opposing terminators at lower right, extending from the
south pole to the edge of the Orientale basin.
Figure 130 is a sample Lunar Orbiter 5 image (frame
154-H1) of the floor of Copernicus near its north wall,
one of many candidate Apollo landing sites in that
crater.
Figure 114 Surveyor 3 landing site.
Base maps. Figure 114A: Army Map Service Lunar Map, Surveyor III Site, original scale 1: 2000, 1st edition, January 1968.
Figure 114B: Army Map Service Lunar Map, Surveyor III Site, original scale 1 : 500, 1st edition, February 1968.
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August 1967: Santa Cruz Study
The 1967 Summer Study of Lunar Science and
Exploration, organized by MSC and directed by Wilmot
Hess, was held from 31 July to 13 August 1967 at the
University of California -- Santa Cruz (MSC 1967a). Its
objectives were to plan future lunar exploration, to pre-
pare detailed mission plans and scientific investigations,
and to assess equipment needs.
These guidelines were developed prior to the 1968
Appropriation Hearings in Congress which curtailed
future spending, so a prolonged post-Apollo explora-
tion program was still anticipated at the time. The
resulting plans far exceeded NASA's ability to accom-
plish them.
The report of the meeting consists of sections by work-
ing groups for geology, geophysics, geochemistry and
other disciplines, and a summary by the Group for
Lunar Exploration Planning (GLEP) chaired by Hess.
These are summarized in Table 17 and illustrated in
Figure 131.
Santa Cruz results included detailed plans for missions
to Alphonsus, Aristarchus and Copernicus. They empha-
sized the need for broad surface mobility, including a one-
person Lunar Flying Unit (LFU) and the Local (or Lunar)
Scientific Survey Module (LSSM), a long-range rover
capable of carrying crew and being operated between
missions by remote control. Three exploration phases
were anticipated: (1) early Apollo (the first few landings,
local exploration on foot); (2) the Apollo Applications
Figure 114 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 129

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Program (AAP), using enhanced lunar modules, LFU and
LSSM mobility, and dual launches in which equipment
including an LSSM could be landed initially, followed by
crew on a second Saturn 5; and (3) a transition phase (late
Apollo or early AAP) involving some increases in stay
time and mobility but only single launches.
Landings would occur at roughly six-month intervals
between 1970 and 1975. AAP missions could include
lunar orbit flights, with crew, for one to twelve months.
In some dual-launch missions a LSSM would make long
traverses, deploying geophysical instruments and col-
lecting samples, ending at the next landing site where
astronauts would retrieve the samples. Augmented or
''Block II'' Surveyors would take instruments to places
where people would not land. Most of these ideas were
soon abandoned and AAP evolved into the Earth-orbital
Skylab program.
The geology, geophysics and geochemistry groups at
the Santa Cruz meeting each developed separate plans
for lunar exploration. The Group for Lunar Exploration
Figure 115 Surveyor 3 landing site plans.
The locations of the three touchdowns during landing are shown in Figure 115A. Surveyor 3 came to rest straddling a shallow
2.5 m-diameter crater on the eastern inner slope of the 200 m-diameter crater (Figure 115B).
The relief drawing, by P. Stooke, shows a characteristic ''treebark'' texture found on many lunar hillsides and crater walls. It is
thought to be produced by downslope movement of regolith caused by impact-induced shaking.
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Planning (GLEP) attempted to reconcile the different
views and provide a single summary plan. In addition,
detailed exploration plans for three sites were included in
the meeting report. These are all summarized in the
following pages.
Figure 131A shows the sites suggested by GLEP in its
summary of the Santa Cruz meeting (Table 17). Black
circles indicate proposed AAP landing sites. Black lines
represent the long-distance LSSM rover routes, con-
trolled from Earth between AAP landings. White circles
indicate sites suitable for late Apollo missions or addi-
tional early AAP single launches with LFU mobility if
the dual-launch capability was delayed. These late
Apollo or early AAP sites are listed in Table 18. Four
of these sites (marked with asterisks in Table 18) were
indicated as most suitable for late Apollo, with its more
limited mobility.
Figure 131B shows the sites suggested by the Geology
working group at Santa Cruz. The black circles with
names in boxes are the AAP landing sites listed in
Table 17. EA1 is Early Apollo 1. Black lines show the
LSSM routes described in Table 17. White circles repre-
sent nine additional sites suitable for late Apollo mis-
sions. GLEP combined those sites and two other
Geology group choices to make their late Apollo/early
AAP list (Table 18). White lines with names in white text
represent a set of alternate LSSM routes discussed at the
meeting but not included in the final working group
recommendations.
Mare Orientale was also discussed as a major objec-
tive for AAP. A minimum of three dual launches would
be required for adequate coverage.
Figure 131C shows the AAP sites suggested by the
Geophysics working group. Copernicus and Hyginus
were single launch sites. The other proposed sites involved
dual launches with a LSSM which would be used by the
crew during the 14-day mission, and then driven from
Earth for a traverse of up to 1000 km lasting about six
Figure 115 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 131

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Figure 116 (both pages) Surveyor 3 panoramas.
The full panorama (Figure 116A) spans about 80% of the horizon, missing the sector between west and northwest. This image
was created by scanning assembled panorama segments preserved at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona,
and removing numerous visual defects. Trenches 1 (right) and 2 (left, see Figure 119) are visible at the bottom of the panorama
and enlarged in Figure 116B. The tracks labelled in A (see also Figure 119) were made by small rocks set in motion by the vernier
exhaust during landing.
The Surveyor 3 panorama shown here appears bland partly because image contrast was reduced by dust on the camera mirror,
but also because the Sun was high in the lunar sky during most of these photographic sessions. The block field (Figure 116A and
Figure 116C) surrounds a pair of craters southwest of the spacecraft, identified in Figure 114B. 116D shows the footpad imprints
(labelled F) made during the second touchdown, as shown in Figure 115B. The photometric target (Figure 116A) was one of two, the
second mounted on the omnidirectional antenna at far left. All Surveyors carried these targets to permit colour image reconstruction.
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Figure 116 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 133

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months. Most of these remotely driven LSSM routes
terminated at the next landing site, after deploying instru-
ments and collecting samples along the way. The next
crew would then collect the samplers and use the rover
during their mission. The AAP landings would be inter-
spersed with automated landers (Augmented Surveyors,
AS, shown as white circles on the map), which would
carry instruments to the additional sites listed in Table 19.
The Geophysics group also recommended that the
AAP 5 orbital mission (Table 17) deploy ten semi-hard
landers including seismometers, advanced versions of
the Ranger 3, 4 and 5 capsules, at the locations shown
in Table 20 (small black squares on Figure 131C). Saturn
IVB upper stage impacts from each subsequent AAP
flight would generate seismic signals for the network.
Figure 131D presents the Geochemistry working
group plans (Table 17). They identified a list of sites
(black circles) which might provide materials of differ-
ent composition. They include fresh impacts into mare
and highland targets and volcanic materials with
different characteristics. At the time the Davy crater
chain was thought to be volcanic, though today it
would be considered an impact feature. The white
circles indicate other sites considered by the group.
The working group also promoted a program of orbital
remote sensing.
Two plans for exploration of the Copernicus central
peaks were described at the Santa Cruz meeting.
Figure 132A shows the landing area within the 90 km
diameter crater, just north of the central peaks.
Figure 132B depicts two sets of LFU excursions. Black
lines show the Geochemistry working group's plan for
three excursions to sites on the peaks and the crater
floor.
White lines show the Geology working group plan for
four trips, including two with LFU flying units to the
tops of different peaks. Small dots on both sets of routes
are the proposed study and sampling sites. These mis-
sions would have required a minimum of three days on
the lunar surface.
The geologically complex Aristarchus--Schro¨ ter's
Valley (Vallis Schro¨ teri) area was always a favoured
target, though it was never visited by astronauts or
automated missions. The southeastern end of the valley
is informally known as the Cobra Head, apparently the
vent from which lavas erupted to carve the valley. It has
often been associated with reports of continuing activity
(Kopal and Carder 1974, p. 159). The exploration plan is
shown in Figures 133 and 134. The black line shows the
route of a remote-controlled LSSM traverse after the
Cobra Head mission. It would collect samples on its
way to the Hadley AAP site.
Figure 134 is the Cobra Head exploration plan from
the GLEP summary report. An alternate version was
presented by the Geochemistry group. Their crew
would drive the LSSM for a three-day excursion, includ-
ing LFU sorties into and across the valley. Figure 135
depicts activities at Alphonsus, including LSSM tra-
verses before and after the crew visit. At the western
instrument station the LFU would be used for two sor-
ties into presumed volcanic deposits around a dark halo
crater. Samples of that material and of the crater walls
would have been collected by the LSSM before the crew
arrived.
1967: Lunar Orbiter 5 site screening
Lunar Orbiter 5 images were primarily designed to
search for later Apollo scientific sites, but several
sequences provided additional data for planning the
first landings. The detailed screening procedures
adopted for previous Lunar Orbiter primary sites
(pages 98, 109, 124) were followed initially for only
one of the Orbiter 5 sites, V-8, which was the same as
sites IP-1 and IIIP-2. The results are shown in Figure 136
(Lunar Orbiter Photo Data Screening Group 1968).
Two satisfactory ellipses (black) were identified among
the 16 candidates. The ellipses with multiple designa-
tions had been studied in previous screening efforts
(pages 109, 124). Apollo planners now had numerous
choices for early landing sites, and the Lunar Orbiter
program had proven highly effective.
1967: Apollo EVA planning
As site selection continued, lunar surface exploration
capabilities were also being assessed. Harrison Schmitt
had sketched an astronaut walking route on a Ranger
photograph (Figure 47C), showing how visits to features
of geological interest (craters of different sizes and ages,
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Figure 118 Block field
southwest of Surveyor 3.
Figure 117 The horizon north of Surveyor 3.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 135

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clusters of boulders) could be pre-planned and trained
for. Similar work could now be done with Lunar Orbiter
images in screened Apollo landing ellipses.
Figure 137 shows an example of this from ellipse II-
5--3 (Figure 96, page 109, very close to the Ranger 8
impact site), shown by J. Sasser at the ASSB meeting
on 15 December 1967.
1967: Hypothetical Flamsteed mission plan
Numerous hypothetical lunar mission plans circulated
during the years leading up to the first landing, some
based on standard Apollo scenarios and others more
speculative. One example was this scenario described
by Otha Vaughan of the Aero-Astrodynamics
Figure 119 Surveyor 3 surface activities.
Map derived from Scott and Robertson 1968) and JPL (1967b).
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Laboratory at the Marshall Space Flight Center in
Huntsville, Alabama (Vaughan 1967).
This 14-day mission would include a rover and a flying
unit (LFU, page 129), each of which would make six
sorties. Several representative sorties are shown in
Figure 138. Scientific stations like the later ALSEPs
(page 224) would be set up at the landing site and at
three locations on the ring of hills surrounding the site.
The crew would also return parts of Surveyor 1 to
examine the effects of prolonged exposure to the lunar
environment. This idea was later carried out with
Surveyor 3 by the Apollo 12 crew (page 256).
8 September 1967: Surveyor 5 (United States:
NASA)
The Surveyor 5 spacecraft was basically similar to
Surveyors 3 and 4 except that the surface sampler was
replaced with an alpha-backscatter instrument to give
some basic information about soil composition (element
abundance). A small bar magnet was attached to one of
the footpads to study the magnetic properties of the rego-
lith, and a vernier engine erosion experiment was planned.
The target sites considered for Surveyor 5 were the
same as for Surveyor 4. They were 24E-1N, 4E-5S and
1W-1N (see Table 12, page 71). Site 24E-1N in Mare
Tranquillitatis was selected (Minutes of the 14 June
1967 meeting of the Surveyor/Orbiter Utilization
Committee).
Launch from Pad 36B at Cape Kennedy on an Atlas-
Centaur was at 07:57 UT. After a short period in parking
orbit the Centaur re-ignited to send Surveyor 5 to the
Moon. This trajectory was very precise, the uncorrected
impact point (2.328 N, 23.748 E) being only 46 km from
the target point at 0.838 N, 24.008 E (Figure 139).
After Surveyor 5 made a small mid-course correction,
a helium regulator leak compromised the vernier (land-
ing) propulsion system. Several vernier firings and five
additional mid-course trajectory adjustments were made
to create a new flight plan which could overcome the
vernier problem. The first mid-course correction had
been intended to adjust the target point to 0.9168 N,
24.0838 E. Surveyor 5 landed safely at 00:47 UT on 11
September, at 1.418 N, 23.188 E in southern Mare
Tranquillitatis (Figure 139), on the inner slope of a
10 m-diameter crater angled at about 208 (Figure 141).
The spacecraft functioned better than its predeces-
sors, transmitting 18 006 high-quality images during its
first lunar day, ending on 24 September. The verniers
were fired for 0.55 seconds 53 hours after landing to
observe erosion effects on the regolith. Loose particles
were moved, as was the alpha scattering instrument. At
lunar noon the solar panel and main antenna were used
Figure 120 Lunar Orbiter 4 photographic coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 137

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Figure 121 Lunar Orbiter 4 images.
The image at left (frame IV-110-H) has been processed to
remove striping and artifacts as part of a project by the US
Geological Survey to digitize the Lunar Orbiter images (Gaddis
et al. 2003). Further processing by the author emphasizes relief
at the expense of albedo variations. A similar effort at lower
resolution was undertaken by former Bellcomm employee
Charles Byrne (Byrne 2005). The image at right (frame IV-78-H)
shows the original appearance of a typical Lunar Orbiter image.
to shade parts of the spacecraft when temperatures rose
above safe operational levels, a result of the location
inside a crater. Solar corona and earthshine images
were taken after sunset.
On 15 October, after the long lunar night, Surveyor 5
resumed operation, returning 1048 additional pictures
and 22 hours of additional alpha-scattering data. The
spacecraft survived an eclipse of the Sun by Earth on 18
October. Transmissions were received until 1 November
when the second night-time shutdown began.
Communication attempts continued on the third and
fourth lunar days, succeeding only on the fourth day,
with final transmissions on 17 December. Images were
received during the first, second and fourth lunar days
(NASA 1967b; JPL 1967c; JPL 1969).
Surveyor 5 landed roughly 15 km west of Sabine D.
Figure 140A shows the area, among clusters of second-
ary craters. Figure 140B shows the initial landing ellipse
suggested by tracking. Surveyor 5 landed just outside the
area of high resolution Lunar Orbiter images covering
this site. Figure 140C illustrates the final tracking solu-
tion (white ellipse). A small crater rim due east of the
spacecraft cannot be identified with certainty, but given
the small number of candidates it is likely to be the
feature indicated below. If so, the approximate landing
site is shown as the small black ellipse, 400 m long.
Figure 141 shows various Surveyor 5 images.
Figure 142 shows plans of the landing area.
Craters identified in the panoramas (Figure 141) are
indicated in the maps in Figure 142 to provide a link
between the two.
The floor of the crater in which Surveyor 5 landed is
mapped in Figure 143. Sliding during the landing dis-
turbed the regolith along the wall of the crater, as shown.
The alpha-scattering instrument measured the composi-
tion of the disturbed material. The two visible footpads
cut trenches in the regolith, and the third probably did as
well, but this could not be observed. Faint lineations,
shown here as shallow grooves, were seen on the crater
floor in front of the spacecraft. Some geologists thought
these reflected underlying structures, but the consensus
became that they were ephemeral lighting effects.
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Spurious lineations like these are commonly seen on
rough surfaces with very oblique illumination. Rocks A
and B are shown in Figure 141.
27 September 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
(Soviet Union)
The first attempted circumlunar flight by the new Soyuz
spacecraft being developed for the landing program took
place on 27 September 1967. The launch vehicle, without a
crew, crashed 65 km from the launch site after a first-stage
engine malfunction, but the escape system successfully saved
the spacecraft from destruction. It was recovered later.
There were two precursors: Cosmos 154 on 8 April 1967
was a prototype of the piloted circumlunar spacecraft. It
reached earth orbit but the upper stage failed to fire because
its ullage rockets, used to force propellants to the bottom of
their tanks before an engine firing in weightlessness, were
Figure 122 Cumulative
farside coverage up to
and including Lunar
Orbiter 4.
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Figure 124 Surveyor 4 impact site.
Base map: Army Map Service lunar map ORB II-8(100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, December 1967.
Figure 123 Orbiter 4 view of Mare Orientale.
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discarded prematurely. The spacecraft was a lunar Soyuz
but was designated Cosmos 154 after the launch to conceal
its purpose. It burned up two days later when its low orbit
decayed. Cosmos 159 on 17 May 1967 was a high-Earth-
orbit test of tracking and communications for the Soviet
piloted lunar program. It used a radio-equipped version of
the now abandoned Luna 9-style lander.
22 November 1967: Soyuz lunar test launch
(Soviet Union)
This was the second attempted Soviet circumlunar flight.
The Soyuz was again flown without a crew. Four seconds
after the second stage ignited the Proton launcher lost
attitude control. The escape system shut down the engines
and pulled the spacecraft away from the booster. The
launcher crashed 300 km from the pad and the Soyuz
was recovered safely. It was clear that the launch system
would not be ready to carry cosmonauts for some time.
7 November 1967: Surveyor 6 (United States:
NASA)
Surveyor 6 was almost identical to Surveyor 5, including
an alpha-particle scattering instrument which measured
the elemental composition of the regolith. A bar magnet
was attached to one footpad to examine the magnetic
properties of the regolith. Surveyor 6 was launched at
07:39 UT from pad 36B at Cape Canaveral. After a
partial parking orbit the Centaur upper stage propelled
Surveyor 6 to the Moon. The discarded Centaur even-
tually passed 28 000 km from the Moon and entered
solar orbit. Landing occurred on 10 November at
01:01 UT.
Wilhelms (1993) describes several science targets con-
sidered for Surveyor 6, including Fra Mauro,
Alphonsus, Copernicus and the Marius Hills
(Figure 167), but Apollo's requirement for a landing in
Sinus Medii took precedence. The pre-launch target was
0.428 N, 1.338 W in Sinus Medii, at one of the preferred
Apollo sites (page 122), close to the Surveyor 2 and 4
targets and identical to the Surveyor 4 post-launch
adjusted target. The impact point, if no correction or
braking had occurred, would have been at 3.218 S,
0.668 E, about 125 km from the target. The mid-course
trajectory correction 18.6 hours after launch adjusted
the target to 0.4178 N, 1.1338 W(sic in project docu-
ments, but possibly a consistent misprint for 1.3338 W),
and subsequent tracking suggested a landing at
0.4378 N, 1.3708 W. The landing site was soon located
on Lunar Orbiter images at 0.4708 N, 1.4808 W.
The 299 kg spacecraft functioned almost perfectly on
the surface, returning 29 952 images and 30.5 hours of
Figure 125 Lunar Orbiter 5 impact site.
Figure 125 shows the impact point of Lunar Orbiter 5.
Base maps.
Figure 125A: ACIC Lunar Earthside Chart (LMP-1), original
scale 1: 5 000 000, 1st edition, January 1970.
Figure 125B: Lunar Orbiter 4 image 181-H3.
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alpha-scattering data. It fired its attitude-control gas
jets and observed their effects on the regolith. It also
performed a successful 2.5-second vernier engine burn,
initiating the first launch from the lunar surface, in
which it hopped about 4 m high and 2.5 m sideways
before landing safely. It photographed the resulting ero-
sion of the surface and its original footpad imprints to
illustrate the effects of rocket exhaust on the regolith.
After the hop the alpha-scattering instrument was left
lying on its side and could not gather further data on the
regolith, but it was operated for another 13 hours to
collect data for possible cosmic proton studies. The
spacecraft shut down after taking earthshine and solar
corona images a few hours after sunset on 24 November.
It was contacted again on 14 December, but no useful
data could be collected during the three hours of limited
activity before operations ceased (NASA 1968a; JPL
1968b).
Figure 126 Lunar Orbiter
5 nearside image
coverage.
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Figure 145 shows the landing site, just north of a
prominent mare ridge. Some craters visible in surface
images are marked. Note the considerable difference in
coordinates between Figure 145B and 145C. Figure 146
shows various panoramas.
1967: Later Apollo Site Planning
As Lunar Orbiter 5 images became available, MSC staff
in Houston began searching for suitable landing sites for
later Apollo flights. By November they had analyzed
seventeen Orbiter 5 sites, identifying points of specific
scientific interest (white circles in Figures 148 and 149)
and possible landing sites near them (black circles,
whose radius of 1 km provides scale for the images). A
few areas had no obvious landing sites at this stage of the
analysis, and some larger elliptical landing sites are also
shown. Sixteen of these sites were illustrated in an MSC
report circulated to GLEP Site Selection subgroup mem-
bers for a meeting in Washington DC on 8--9 December.
The 17th site, not illustrated in the report, was Littrow,
for which MSC identified two elliptical landing sites.
Table 21 lists all sites discussed at that GLEP meeting.
Sources for this section are MSC (1967b), a letter from
Wilmot Hess to GLEP subgroup members dated 29
November 1967, and the minutes of the GLEP meeting,
8--9 December 1967 (Branch History collection, Flagstaff).
The illustrations in Figures 148 and 149 are derived from
the original materials, with some cosmetic enhancements,
but their quality reflects that of the original materials.
The GLEP subgroup meeting of 8--9 December con-
sidered the 17 MSC preliminary sites and 20 others in
images which became available slightly later, and began
to formulate plans for later landings outside the Apollo
zone. All 37 sites are listed in Table 21 in the order listed
in the meeting minutes. Of these, 24 were also recom-
mended by USGS as indicated in the table notes. From
this list the subgroup selected for the third landing three
1.5 km circular candidate sites at Censorinus, Littrow
and Abulfeda, in that order of preference. Mo¨ sting C
or Fra Mauro would replace Censorinus if it proved
unacceptable. They also chose seven 5 km diameter
sites, not ranked, for future consideration: Littrow (if
not used for the third landing), Hyginus, Hadley, Tycho,
Copernicus (crater floor), Schro¨ ter's Valley and Marius
Hills.
Figure 127 Gravity anomalies
from Lunar Orbiter tracking.
Adapted from Muller and
Sjogren 1968).
Chronological sequence of missions and events 143

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15 December 1967: Apollo Site Selection Board
The Apollo Site Selection Board met at Houston to
choose sites for the first two missions and to plan future
activities. Five sites had been chosen at the previous
meeting (page 111), and now three more were added
from Orbiter 3 coverage to give the final set of eight Set B
sites defined on page 102.
MSC analysis of LM approach paths initially suggested
that all eight sites were acceptable, but site IIP-11 was soon
dropped as the hills to its east violated the landing radar
constraint. John Eggleston, head of MSC's Lunar and
Earth Sciences Division, recommended five of the best
remaining sites (Set C) for the first landing mission.
To take advantage of the large amount of work
already done, the same five sites plus a sixth were chosen
for the second mission. This grouping was called Set D at
this meeting, but was referred to as Set C, Mission 2 at
the next ASSB meeting. The sixth site was IP-1, which
was considered uncertain earlier but had now been seen
Figure 128 Lunar Orbiter
5 farside image coverage.
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at high resolution in Orbiter 5 images (Figure 136). Sets
B, C and D are shown in Figure 150, plotted on the same
base as Figures 80, 110 and similar maps. These sites, as
the term was used here, were now specific ellipses within
the larger Orbiter imaging sites, not the larger imaging
sites themselves. A discussion of EVA planning at this
meeting is illustrated on page 154.
Eggleston and Wilmot Hess, the head of MSC's
Science and Applications Directorate, then indicated
the need to start evaluating sites for the third and later
landings, particularly sites geologically different from
those already chosen. Highland sites in or near the
Apollo zone were particularly desirable.
While recognizing in principle that the third landing
could visit a more challenging site, Board chair Sam
Phillips was inclined to be more cautious and suggested
looking for science targets within the already certified Set
B sites. US Geological Survey staff pointed out that
moving the landing point a short distance inside some
existing ellipses could bring the astronauts within walking
Figure 129 Cumulative
farside coverage up to
and including Lunar
Orbiter 5.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 145

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distance of scientifically interesting features such as hills,
mare ridges or large craters. This suggestion resulted in a
new set of landing targets at the next ASSB meeting.
GLEP was also meeting in this period. On 13 and 14
November 1967 the group emphasized the importance of
continuing scientific exploration with greater capabilities
after the first successful landing. Kennedy's original goal
(page 22) made no mention of science and would have
been fulfilled with a single landing and no sample collec-
tion. GLEP recommended that the human exploration
capabilities be extended by continuing unmanned mis-
sions. At a meeting on 11 January 1968 (immediately
after the successful landing of Surveyor 7) the group pro-
posed flying an additional Surveyor mission, augmented
with a seismometer and an alpha-scattering instrument,
and suggested it be sent to a high-latitude highland site.
On 26 February they proposed flying a Lunar
Orbiter 6 (or possibly more, and an Apollo photo-
graphic orbiter mission with crew was also considered
as an option). This would undertake multispectral com-
positional mapping, infrared imaging and global metric
camera photography with 10 m or 20 m resolution in
1971 or 1972. Resolutions of 1 m would be obtained in
selected areas. Plans for Apollo missions to Censorinus,
Hadley-Apennine and Marius Hills were also consid-
ered. The 1.5 mission concept, which involved landing
equipment with a separate Saturn 5 launch and a
robotic lander before the arrival of the crew, might be
necessary for the Hadley-Apennine site to overcome
payload limitations.
At this ASSB meeting, seven of the eight Set B sites were
portrayed in maps showing the chosen ellipse and hazards
such as rocks and rough terrain. Site IIP-11 had already
been dropped. Context maps showing these ellipses are
found in Figures 96 and 111. The specific ellipses from
those maps are identified here under the new (bold type)
site name. Some of these final ellipses are slightly different
from those shown in the earlier maps. The grid spacing on
the IIIP-11 map is 50, on the other maps it is 60.
The second landing site would be chosen from Set D
(page 144), but the choice would depend on which site
was used for the first landing. Table 22 shows the landing
site options for Apollo landing mission 2, taking into
account the choice for mission 1. If mission 1 failed to
land, Set C would be used again for mission 2. Otherwise
the choices shown here were recommended. The US
Geological Survey staff on ASSB urged that if the first
landing site was in an eastern mare the second should be
in a western mare to take advantage of their different
characteristics as suggested by telescopic and Lunar
Orbiter images. The western maria seemed to be younger
and slightly different in colour properties, suggesting a
different composition.
1968: Bellcomm Lunar Exploration Program
A Lunar Exploration Program plan was developed at
Bellcomm (Hinners et al. 1968). It was similar in its
technical details to NASA's Lunar Exploration
Working Group plan of late 1966 (page 101), beginning
with brief missions using the current Apollo hardware.
It would progress through more sophisticated landing
missions with an Extended Lunar Module (ELM) to
orbital remote-sensing missions with a crew, and finally
dual landings (involving a cargo-carrying LM remotely
landed by the first CSM crew) to permit 14-day stays.
The 28-day orbital remote-sensing mission included a
lunar module stripped and outfitted in the manner of
the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) launched with the
Skylab space station on 14 May 1973. It, and a separate
subsatellite, would be left in orbit after the crew
returned to continue operations for another six
months. The Bellcomm plan involved the missions
described in Table 23, in which LLM means Lunar
Landing Mission.
Figure 130 Lunar Orbiter 5 image of part of Copernicus
crater.
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The Bellcomm Lunar Exploration Program identified
several specific landing sites. A landing site with possible
walking and LFU routes (sampling sites shown as small
black circles) was described for a mission to the northern
rim of the 'ghost' crater Flamsteed P, 20 km north of
Surveyor 1 (Figure 152A). At Tobias Mayer
(Figure 152B) three targets were identified, small circles
with a radius of 1 km at locations giving walking access
to interesting features.
1968: Barmingrad (Soviet Union)
As plans for Apollo progressed, a parallel program con-
tinued in the Soviet Union. Hardware for cosmonaut
landings was being built and tested (page 139), and
site selection work was under way (page 181). As it
seemed increasingly unlikely that Apollo could be bet-
tered, attention began to shift to the post-Apollo era.
One program that was considered in detail from the
Table 17. Mission sequences developed for the Santa Cruz meeting.
Mission
GLEP Summary
(Figure 131A)
Geology group
(Figure 131B)
Geophysics group
(Figure 131C)
Geochemistry group
(Figure 131D)
Early
Apollo 1
Sinus Medii
at least two mare sites
2
Mare Fecunditatis, site I-A-
3
3
Flamsteed, site II-12-B*
AAP-1
Orbital remote sensing Copernicus peaks*
Copernicus floor
Davy
AAP-2
Copernicus peaks
Hyginus* or Davy
Hyginus
Copernicus peaks
AAP-3
Davy
Marius Hills*
North Pole
Marius Hills
AAP-4
Copernicus walls
Sabine and Ritter*
Marius Hills
Copernicus wall
AAP-5
Marius Hills (LSSM to
Cobra Head)
LSSM from Mosting C to
Copernicus (no astronaut
rendezvous)
Orbital remote sensing Aristarchus
AAP-6
Cobra Head (LSSM to
Hadley Rille)
North Pole
Aristarchus (LSSM to
Apennine Front) Alphonsus
AAP-7
Orbital remote sensing LSSM from Maurolycus to
Barocius (no astronaut
rendezvous)
Apennine Front (LSSM
to Sabine and Ritter) Tycho
AAP-8
Alphonsus (LSSM to
Sabine and Ritter) LSSM from Montes
Harbinger to Aristarchus Sabine and Ritter (LSSM
to Mare Fecunditatis) North Pole
AAP-9
Sabine and Ritter (or
end of LSSM route) Aristarchus
Alphonsus (LSSM to
eastern highlands)
AAP-10
landings at one of the
poles, Tycho, Mare
Orientale and Hadley
Rille, order uncertain
LSSM at Alphonsus
Orbital remote sensing
AAP-11
Alphonsus
Orbital, subsatellites
AAP-12
LSSM from Sulpicius
Gallus to Posidonius
AAP-13
Posidonius
AAP-14
LSSM Alpine Valley to
Apennine Front
AAP-15
LSSM Mare Imbrium to
Apennine Front
AAP-16
Apennine Front
* Can be modified as late Apollo mission.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 147

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Figure 131 (both pages) Santa Cruz exploration plans.
A: GLEP summary; B: Geology working group. C: Geophysics working group; D: Geochemistry working group.
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Figure 131 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 149

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mid-1960s onwards was a ''Long-term Lunar Base''
(DLM in its Russian acronym), to follow the first land-
ings and lead to a scientific infrastructure on the lunar
surface. DLM would have had a crew of nine working in a
nine-unit complex powered by nuclear-generated electri-
city. The design was supervised by Vladimir P. Barmin,
Chief Designer of GSKB SpetsMash (State Union Design
Table 20. AAP 5 hard-lander sites.
458 N, 608 E1
8
8N,188E
208 N, 268 E2
5
8N,208E
08N,08E2
5
8S,358W
408 S, 708 W1
0
8S,108E
308 S, 108 E5
0
8S,108E
Table 18. Late Apollo/early AAP sites.
Site name
Location
Copernicus H*
78N,188W
Gambart*
18N,158W
Mo¨ sting C*
28S,88W
Hyginus Rille
88N,68E
Flamsteed (Surveyor 1)
38S,438W
Dionysius east flank
38N,178E
Hipparchus
58S,48E
Dome near II-P-2*
28N,348E
Ranger 7
10.68 S, 20.68 W
Ranger 8
2.78 N, 24.68 E
Surveyor 3
3.28 S, 23.48 W
Table 19. Augmented surveyors.
Number Target
Location
AS-1
South polar region
758S,08E
AS-2
Far eastern highlands
38S,708E
AS-3
Southeastern highlands
358S,508E
AS-4
Sinus Roris near Repsold 508 N, 708 W
AS-5
Far western highlands
108S,708W
AS-6
Possibly sent to farside sites
AS-7
AS-8
Figure 132 Copernicus plans from the Santa Cruz meeting.
Base maps. Figure 132A: US Army Lunar Topographic Map
Copernicus, Orbiter V Site 37, original scale 1: 250 000, 1st edition,
January 1971. Figure 132B: detail of Orbiter V image 155-M.
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Figure 133 Aristarchus exploration
plan from Santa Cruz.
Base map: composite of ACIC charts
LAC 38 (Seleucus) and LAC 39
(Aristarchus), 1st editions, March 1965 and
November 1963 respectively, original
scales 1:1 000 000.
Figure 134 Santa Cruz plan for the
Cobra Head site.
Base image: Lunar Orbiter 5 frame 202-M.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 151

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Bureau of Special Machine Building), and so the DLM
project acquired the nickname ''Barmingrad.'' It was
postponed indefinitely in 1974 in favor of Earth-orbiting
space stations, largely as a result of the failure to develop a
successful heavy-lift launch vehicle. Specific sites for
DLM were not chosen, but in its later years it was seen
as a source of Helium-3 for fusion reactors on Earth. This
would have constrained its location.
7 January 1968: Surveyor 7 (United States: NASA)
Surveyor 7, the last mission of the Surveyor Program,
was identical to the previous Surveyors in structure but
carried more scientific equipment: a camera with polar-
izing filters, an alpha-scattering instrument (ASI), a sur-
face sampler, bar magnets on two footpads, two magnets
on the surface scoop, and several mirrors. The mirrors
Figure 135 Santa Cruz plan for Alphonsus.
Base map: Figure 51c.
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were used to see beneath the spacecraft, to provide
stereoscopic views of the surface sampler area, and to
show lunar material deposited on the spacecraft (JPL
1968c, 1969).
Surveyor 7 was launched from Cape Kennedy on an
Atlas/Centaur booster at 06:30 UT and performed a
mid-course correction 17 hours later to direct it to the
Tycho landing site. Performance was so good that a
planned second correction was not needed. The Centaur
upper stage passed 19 600 km from the Moon and entered
solar orbit. The spacecraft landed safely 66.5 hours after
launch, on 10 January at 01:06 UT, at 41.118 S, 11.458 W.
During the first lunar day 20 993 television pictures were
taken and an additional 45 pictures during the second
lunar day. The alpha-scattering instrument failed to
deploy successfully, but the surface sampler was able to
free it and place it on the surface, later moving it to two
new locations. Surveyor 7 also took pictures of the Earth,
stars and laser beams transmitted from Earth. Operations
continued for 15 hours after local sunset on the first lunar
day. These included Earth and star pictures and observa-
tions of the solar corona.
Operations ceased 80 hours after sunset, at 14:12 UT
on 26 January. The spacecraft was reactivated on 12
February and operated until 00:24 UT on 21 February
under reduced power. The surface sampler could not be
Figure 136 Lunar Orbiter 5 site
screening results.
Figure 137 Example of Apollo EVA
planning.
A: detail of Figure 96, site IIP-5. The ellipses
are 7.9 km long, for scale. B: a possible EVA
plotted on a Lunar Orbiter image. Numbers
indicate sampling locations. Preplanning like
this was only feasible if the LM could be
brought down within walking distance of a
specific target, which was not expected for
the first landing. NASA graphic S-67-13508.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 153

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Figure 138 Vaughan's hypothetical 14-day mission to Flamsteed.
Regional context and base map information is shown in Figures 75 and 76.
Figure 137 (cont.)
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used on the second day, but alpha-scattering instrument
data were collected and new pictures were taken. These
included images of areas hidden by the spacecraft's cen-
tral mast during the first day, now made visible by
motion of the spacecraft during the night caused by the
collapse of a shock absorber. This triumphant conclu-
sion to the Surveyor program paved the way for the
Apollo landings and encouraged planning for future
robotic Mars landers.
Surveyor 7 was freed from the constraint of visiting a
site in the Apollo zone after the success of four of the six
previous Surveyors. The goal was to obtain data at a site
topographically and compositionally different from the
mare targets of previous missions. Prime candidates were
Copernicus, Fra Mauro and Hipparchus (Figure 153A).
During launch preparations the Hipparchus site (4.958 S,
3.888 E; Figure 153B) was entered in the launch vehicle
software, allowing the other sites to be reached by design-
ing a suitable mid-course trajectory correction. A plains
area east of Fra Mauro (58 S, 138 W, Fig. 154A) was the
backup site. After launch the unbraked impact point (if
no correction or braking occurred) was 5.9368 S, 5.3928 E.
The mid-course correction targeted Surveyor 7 to
40.878 S, 11.378 W, on the ejecta blanket of Tycho, a
young highland crater far south of the previous landings.
Tracking suggested a landing at 41.0598 S, 11.4518 W.
The spacecraft was eventually located in Lunar Orbiter
images at 40.928 S, 11.458 W.
Figure 154A shows the Surveyor 7 backup site.
Figure 154B shows the final target region, just north of
the crater Tycho in a small low-lying area near its rim,
which appeared smooth at telescopic resolution.
Figures 154C and 154D locate the landing site itself. The
target, tracking point and actual location were plotted from
Figure 139 The Surveyor 5 landing area.
Base map. Figure 139: ACIC Ranger Lunar Chart RLC-7 (Sabine), original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition March 1966.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 155

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the coordinates given on page 155, which were taken from
the LAC (Figure 154B). They were then moved to match
s
u
rfa
c
efe
atu
r
e
sinthisba
s
em
ap,s
othem
apgrida
nd
coordinates appear not to match. Hills A, B and C in
154D are visible in the surface images (page 182).
Figure 155 depicts the Surveyor 7 landing site with
details plotted over Lunar Orbiter 5 image 128-H. In
Figure 155A the rugged nature of the site is evident. The
target point is shown, but given coordinate uncertainties
it is likely the target was intended to be the ''playa.'' Ridge
D and Hill E are visible in the surface images. The landing
radar recorded the presence of the hill whose bright face it
crossed just west of the landing site. Tracking suggested a
landing just south of this image.
Figures 155B and 155C show the area on the same
image, greatly magnified. The ''lake'' or ''playa'' feature,
one of many on the rim of Tycho and similar impact
craters, probably consists of material which melted dur-
ing the Tycho impact and flowed into a depression.
Features identified in the panoramas are identified.
Two craters just west of the spacecraft are associated
here with block fields seen in the panoramas (page 182). If
this interpretation is correct, the azimuths of these blocky
crater rims allow the previously assumed location (''original
estimate of position'') found by Ewen Whitaker to be
refined. Surveyor 7 landed within the 25 m diameter circle
about 35 m east of the previously determined location.
Figure 156 is a detailed plan of the immediate sur-
roundings of Surveyor 7, derived from Figure III-25 of
JPL 1968c. Distances from the spacecraft were estimated
by focus ranging (observing which features were in focus
for different camera settings). North is at the top. The
area is 20 m across and slopes gently downwards to the
north. Surveyor 7 is shown at the correct scale and
Figure 140 Surveyor 5 landing site
location.
Base maps. Figure 140A: composite of
Ranger 8 lunar chart RLC-8 (Fig 46B) and
Orbiter map ORB II-6(100) (Figure 151).
Coordinates are extrapolated from the
Orbiter map. Figure 140B: detail of Lunar
Orbiter 5 image 74-M. Figure 140C: detail of
Apollo 10 image 10-34-5159.
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orientation. The 3 m wide rock-filled crater about 5 m
NNE of the spacecraft is shown in the panorama in
Figure 157. The cluster of large rocks south of the space-
craft was partly hidden by the spacecraft structure.
Figure 157 shows panoramic mosaics assembled from
Surveyor 7 images, and a closer view of the area in front
of the spacecraft is illustrated in Figure 158.
Table 24 (page 185) gives details of the daily surface
operations of the surface sampler, the remotely controlled
arm (Scott and Roberson 1969). The days in Table 24 are
dates in January 1968. On the second lunar day there was
insufficient power to operate the sampler.
Bearing tests (b1, b2 and so on, in Table 24 and
Figure 158) were performed by pressing the sampler
down on the surface, and impact tests by dropping the
arm. Rock A was weighed and imaged in stereo to
estimate its volume and density. Rock E was broken by
dropping the sampler on it, and the broken surface was
photographed. Seven trenches were dug to estimate soil
mechanical properties. Trenches 1, 2 and 6 were dug with
multiple sampler passes, the others just with one. A
buried rock in trench 1 prevented deep digging.
The alpha-scattering instrument provided composi-
tion data. After being freed by the sampler it fell to
position ASI-1 and examined undisturbed regolith.
Later the sampler moved it to ASI-2 to examine a rock.
Finally, trench 7 was dug to help create a large patch of
disturbed material and the instrument was moved to
ASI-3 to examine that material. All results were similar,
and differed from the Surveyor 5 and 6 samples in that
they contained less iron. The magnet scrape test searched
for regolith particles adhering to a magnet on the sam-
pler scoop. The photomosaic in Figure 158 was made on
21 January with the sampler in trench 6.
07 February 1968: Luna 1968A (Soviet Union)
This was intended to be a lunar orbiter, apparently
similar to Luna 10 but equipped to test navigation and
Figure 140 (cont.)
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Figure 141 (both pages) Surveyor 5 images.
Figure 141A (across both pages) is a full panorama,
a composite of images made at different times of day
to minimize the area lost in shadows.
Figure 141B shows the horizon north of the landing
site. The inner slope of the Surveyor 5 crater is visible
in the foreground.
Figure 141C shows a trench cut by the footpad as the
spacecraft slid down the wall of the crater it landed in.
The trench is about 1 m long.
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Figure 141D is the view to the southern
horizon, looking over the black electronics
box. It shows a rocky crater rim a few tens
of meters from the landing site.
Figures 141E and 141F are views of the
alpha-scattering instrument (black-
topped box) before (E) and after (F) the
vernier engine firing. The instrument and
many soil particles moved slightly. This
gave some indication of the effects of
exhaust jets on the regolith to help with
future Apollo landing plans.
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communications procedures for the Soviet lunar cosmo-
naut program. The third stage engine shut down prema-
turely 525 seconds after launch when it ran out of fuel. A
seized valve or fuel inlet control may have been respon-
sible. The upper stages and spacecraft broke up in the
atmosphere.
12 March 1968: Zond 4 (Soviet Union)
Zond 4 was the first deep-space test, without a crew, of the
Soyuz spacecraft intended to send cosmonauts to the
Moon. It was launched at 18:29 UT into a parking orbit
on a Tyazheliy Sputnik (Heavy Sputnik, an orbital launch
platform), then injected into a 330 000 km apogee Earth
orbit. This took it roughly to the distance of the Moon but
1808 away from it. The mission tested both spacecraft
systems and the complex re-entry procedure, which
involved an initial pass through the upper atmosphere
to reduce speed before the final re-entry and landing on
Soviet territory. The guidance system failed and the
planned maneuver was not possible. To prevent the
recovery of the vehicle by the United States, the spacecraft
self-destruct system was activated 12 km above the Gulf
of Guinea. Re-entry occurred 5.2 days after launch.
This and later spacecraft designated Zond were unre-
lated to Zond 3 (page 68). The 5140 kg capsule was cylind-
rical with one rounded end, 4.5 m long and up to 2.7 m in
diameter, attached to a cylindrical instrument module
carrying twin solar panels, folded at launch, which spanned
nearly 9 m. The spacecraft carried a proton detector. Later
Zonds carried cameras, but it is not known if Zond 4 did.
26 March 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board
At this meeting the Board looked at candidate sites for the
second and third landings (Table 25). Site IP-1
(Figure 150) was dropped from consideration for the
second landing. Pinpoint landing targets for the second
mission were identified (Figure 159). Four candidate sites
for the third landing were presented (Figure 160). For
future landings, a survey of Lunar Orbiter 5 images
showed that, of 36 sites photographed, 10 were inade-
quately covered (no stereoscopic viewing for topographic
mapping), 4 were marginal and 22 were satisfactory. Of
those, 10 were rejected based on the radar constraints on
the approach, leaving 12 for future study.
The following site selection procedure for later mis-
sions was adopted. A set of about 80 sites, called Set A,
would consist of all sites having high-resolution ima-
ging from Orbiters 2, 3 and 5. From these would be
selected about 20 sites of higher scientific interest and
accessible to Apollo at least one day per year (Set B).
For any given mission a small Set C of specific targets
would be chosen. The need for three sites per mission,
to accommodate launch delays, was still assumed at
this time, but attempts to reduce launch recycle times
were in progress.
A brief assessment of some Santa Cruz sites was
presented. The Alphonsus and Marius Hills sites
seemed possible. Tycho and Schro¨ ter's Valley had bad
approaches, and Hadley Rille had only marginal photo-
graphic data. Copernicus suffered from both marginal
data and a bad approach.
7 April 1968: Luna 14 (Soviet Union)
This 1700 kg lunar orbiter made measurements similar
to those of Luna 10 including lunar gravity, solar-
charged particles and cosmic rays, though few details
Figure 142 Plans of the Surveyor 5 landing area made
from panoramic images.
Figure 142A portrays the surroundings out to about 100 m from
the spacecraft. A crater rim forms a small hill south of Surveyor
(crater C). Feature positions in this map are not well controlled
because of the oblique viewing and lack of orbital images at
this resolution. Adapted from Figure 3--4 of NASA 1967b.
Relief drawing by P. Stooke.
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are available. Lunokhod motors may have been tested,
as on Luna 12 (page 97). It is now known that the main
function of Luna 14 was to test tracking and commu-
nications systems for the Soviet manned lunar pro-
gram. Launch was at 10:09 UT from Baikonur, and a
trajectory correction was made at 19:27 UT on 8 April.
Luna 14 entered a 150 km by 870 km, 160-minute lunar
orbit inclined 428 to the equator on 10 April, and oper-
ated at least until the end of April. This was the final
mission in the second generation (orbiter and lander)
series of Luna spacecraft. Luna 14 is now in solar orbit
(Powell 2003).
Figure 142B shows the immediate surroundings of Surveyor 5. The spacecraft landed on the wall of a small crater and slid onto
its floor, coming to rest on a slope of about 208. The map is adapted from JPL 1967c by P. Stooke, with additions from NASA 1967b.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 161

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1968: Apollo site screening
The Mapping Sciences Branch at MSC in Houston exam-
ined all Lunar Orbiter high-resolution images to identify
the Set A potential sites for later landings. In all, 57 sites
photographed by Orbiters 2, 3 and 5 were considered, as
shown in Figures 161 and 162 (Surface Analysis Group
1968). The screening procedure was similar to that for
earlier sites (page 89) except that a smaller landing target,
a circle of radius 1.5 km, was used. The landing target was
1 km in radius, and the astronaut walking range was
taken to be 1.5 km. The circles shown in Figure 162 are
3 km in diameter. The black circles were preferred. Lines
extending eastwards from each black circle show the
range of approach directions which had to be reasonably
free of obstacles. Of 148 targets screened, 88 were thought
suitable for further study (page 203).
All Lunar Orbiter sites screened at this time by MSC for
Apollo exploration landing sites are illustrated in
Figure 162, spread over six pages. Most of these sites are
equatorial, reflecting the nature of Lunar Orbiter photo-
graphy targeting. The sites are numbered in Figures 90, 105
and 126 and Table 30, for comparison with Figure 162.
Note that Site IIIS-16 (page 191) was (correctly) called
IIIS-11 on page 119. This was a mistake in the MSC report.
Points marked X in Figure 162 are sites from other docu-
mentsofthisperiod,andare described on page 163.
The images in Figure 162 have been modified cosme-
tically after being reproduced directly from the report,
but the image quality reflects that of the original
material. The last two sites, taken from Addendum II
of the report, were highland sites in the Apollo zone,
considered suitable for an early landing. The three
potential targets (black circles shown on those two sites)
were ranked in order of landability as follows: (1 -- best)
Site IIIS-15-1, 08 2700 N, 58 5000 W; (2) Site IIIS-10-1, 18
180 S, 138 310 E; (3) Site IIIS-10-2, 18 430 S, 138 240 E.
Another iteration of this selection process is recorded
in an unattributed document in the branch history col-
lection at USGS Flagstaff, produced in June 1968 by the
GLEP site selection subgroup, the ''rump GLEP''
(Wilhelms 1993). The report identified 17 ''AAP landing
sites'' (page 129) in Lunar Orbiter 5 imaging sites, two of
them in Copernicus (Table 26). In Figure 162 these are
Figure 143 Immediate surroundings of Surveyor 5.
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identified with an X and labelled GLEP. At Fra Mauro
(Site V-34) the GLEP site corresponds with MSC site 4.
Two sites very different from MSC choices are illu-
strated in Figure 163. For context, the Littrow site is
on the upper right edge of Figure 160C. The Alexander
area is also shown in Figure 149.
Bellcomm also considered potential sites for later mis-
sions, as described by Silberstein (1968) and El-Baz
(1968). Their nine sites (from Silberstein) are listed in
Table 27. Multiple landing points were suggested at
Copernicus, Hadley, Schro¨ ter's Valley and Marius Hills.
Some of these differ from MSC sites. Many of them are
indicated with an X and labelled B in Figure 162. The
remaining site at Abulfeda is illustrated in Figure 164.
Some alternative sites are illustrated in Figure 165.
The Censorinus and Littrow sites are the same as
those in Figure 160. The Hadley site is the same as
MSC's site 2 (page 193). The Tycho site is at Surveyor
7, whereas MSC's was not (page 209). One Copernicus
site in a melt pond on a wall terrace was the same
as MSC's site 1 (page 194). At Abulfeda (Figure 164)
the site differs from Figure 160. El-Baz noted that a
walking mission could be conducted north of the
crater chain, but a flying unit (LFU, page 165) would
be desirable to reach supposed volcanic hills inside one
of the vent craters. At Marius, Silberstein identified
three sites by coordinates, marked with a B (Bellcomm)
in Figure 165A. The Silberstein and El-Baz documents
differ slightly, El-Baz adding additional landing
points at both Hadley and Copernicus. Additional
sites at Tobias Mayer and Littrow are illustrated in
Figure 165, taken from miscellaneous material in the
USGS Flagstaff branch history collection. The multiple
versions of these site suggestions illustrate the complex
and hurried nature of site planning at this time.
4--5 June 1968: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
At this meeting GLEP considered landing options other
than a sequence of separate sites. The principal alterna-
tive was multiple landings at one site to build up research
infrastructure such as an observatory. A compromise
would be to make more than one visit to each of several
sites. A single site revisit program could evolve to an
observatory for astronomy, bioscience and lunar
exploration and exploitation, functional by 1980, sup-
porting 12 people for one to two years.
Figure 144 The Surveyor 6 landing area.
Base maps. Figure 144A: part of Figure 85C. Figure 144B:
Army Map Service lunar map ORB II-8(100), original scale
1:100 000, 1st edition, December 1967.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 163

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During construction, shorter stays (up to about 12
days) would dictate an equatorial site to accommodate
the Moon's rotation under the command module's orbit
plane. A highland-mare contact would be advantageous
for geological studies. Latitudes a little south of the
equator would be best for an observatory so both galac-
tic poles would be visible. These criteria could be diffi-
cult to combine at one site. Marius Hills and Mare
Orientale were considered suitable areas, and an impact
crater was suggested as an interesting type of target.
GLEP also considered the types of lunar feature that
would be scientifically desirable for future landings
(Table 28). Some sites already had sufficient photogra-
phy, some required either a dual Saturn 5 launch or an
extended version of the Lunar Module (LM).
Theophilus West, proposed by Hal Masursky of the
USGS, became the Apollo 16 site.
The first three landing missions were considered as
summarized in Table 29. The evolution to greater cap-
ability is evident. The science sites for mission 2 would be
redesignated sites like those shown in Figure 159. True
pinpoint landing capability would begin with mission 3.
GLEP then turned its attention to possible astronaut
surface activities (Extravehicular Activity, EVA) at
several sites, shown in Figures 166 to 169, which are deri-
ved from materials presented at the meeting.
Figure 167 shows the Marius Hills site and mission
plan presented at the June 1968 GLEP meeting. The
details were published in Karlstrom et al. (1968). The
lander would be an extended LM (page 206), equipped
for a stay of several days.
Heavy lines in Figure 167 show rover routes (EVA 1 to
EVA 4) for sampling at the black dot locations and deploy-
ing explosive charges for the Active Seismic Experiment
(asterisks). Thinner lines show two LFU routes (F-1, F-2)
to be flown to distant sites, the most distant being 5 km
south of the LM. Communication repeater stations would
be set up on peaks on those two routes, to allow uninter-
rupted radio communication with all sites and experiments.
Two geophone arrays set up at east and west extremes
of the site would allow subsurface structural mapping as
the various explosive charges were set off.
An eight-geophone array set up on EVA 3 was
designed to probe the deep structure of a small fracture
Figure 145 Surveyor 6 landing area.
Base maps. Figure 145A: composite of Map B and ACIC Lunar Map ORB-II-8a(25), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st edition, October
1967. Figure 145B: ACIC Lunar Photomap ORB-II-8a(25), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st edition, October 1967. Figure 145C: US Army
map, Surveyor VI Site (Experimental), original scale 1:1000, March 1969.
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in the crust at that location. Two of the EVAs might
have been extended to allow further sampling if time and
resources permitted. The background image is Orbiter 5
frame 216-H3. See also page 198 for a more advanced
mission plan at the same site.
This meeting also considered a landing with extensive
surface traverses in Mare Orientale. The Lunar Orbiters
had shown this to be one of the most scenically dramatic
and geologically interesting regions of the Moon. The
Orientale mission is described separately on page 185.
Figure 168 shows the Hadley--Apennine site being
considered. The landing point is 40 km southwest of
the eventual Apollo 15 site (Figure 168A). Figure 168B
illustrates three Lunar Flying Unit (LFU) flight lines.
The first EVA for ALSEP deployment and sample col-
lection (not shown) remained close to the lunar module.
The three LFU flights gave access to the mountains, the
floor of the steep-walled valley and the rim of crater
Hadley C, as well as additional mare sampling sites.
The LFU would have been essential for the thorough
exploration of rugged sites such as Hadley and Marius,
as these missions were envisaged at this time. This one-
person rocket-propelled structure would be flown in a
standing position. Planners often assumed they would
eventually have this capability, but in the end this inher-
ently dangerous device was never built.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory devised remote-
controlled rover concepts for sample collection, in situ
analysis and geophysical measurements. GLEP described
four possible 500 km routes for such rovers, extending from
the landing areas in Mare Imbrium or Mare Serenitatis to
the Hadley-Apennine site (Figure 168C).
Figure 169 illustrates three sites suitable for early
Apollo missions, with possible EVAs. Figures 169A and
169B show the landing ellipse in site IIP-6, the Apollo 11
landing area. Two plausible EVAs are depicted.
Figures 169C and 169D show a redesignated site in IIIP-
11 with three EVAs on the flank of a mare ridge. ALSEP
Figure 145 (cont.)
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Figure 146
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Figure 146 (both pages) Surveyor 6 panoramas.
Figure 146A (across both pages) is a full panorama of the landing site, taken after the 'hop'. Streaks in the foreground at left were
produced by the vernier exhaust. Figure 146B is an enlarged view of the footpad imprints and vernier exhaust marks. CB indicates
three marks left by the ''crushable block'' shock absorbers (page 169). A third footpad imprint would be underneath the spacecraft.
Figure 146C shows the southern horizon with a prominent mare ridge near the landing site. This was the first view of a mare ridge
from the surface. There had been speculation that mare ridges (also called wrinkle ridges) were produced by linear volcanic
extrusions from deep fractures in the crust.
Later mapping and geophysical modeling resulted in the interpretation that they are thrust faults caused by compression as the
weight of the mare basalt layer caused crustal subsidence. A blocky crater on the ridge is identified in Figure 145B. Other craters and
a rock visible in the panorama are identified in Figures 145 and 147.
Figure 146D is a mosaic of images showing the southern horizon near sunset. The rough nature of the ground would probably
have excluded this specific location from consideration as an Apollo site. The Apollo site planned for this area was at the original
Surveyor 6 target on the south side of the ridge (Figure 144B).
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is the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package, instru-
ments to be set up by the crew during the first EVA.
Figures 169E and 169F show the Censorinus North site
(Figures 160D) and possible EVAs on the crater's ejecta
blanket. At the southern limit of their walk the crew
would have a dramatic view into the 4 km wide crater.
Table 30 is a composite of several tabulations pre-
sented at the June GLEP meeting. It represents the Set A
sites described on page 160. The table lists 88 landing
targets, classifying them as good, fair or poor, and iden-
tifies with asterisks the 23 considered most promising for
further study. These would be the Set B sites. This table
can be compared with Figure 162 to identify orbiter
imaging sites and specific landing targets. The same
numbering system is used for both.
25 July 1968: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
At this meeting GLEP considered program goals beyond
the first landing. Kennedy's challenge (page 22) would
have been fulfilled by a single successful landing and
return. Several options were outlined. Apollo could be
ended after either three or six landings at different sites. It
could pause after three landings to assess results, and then
continue. Crews could continue to land, augmented by
robotic missions. They could continue to land with
upgraded equipment giving greater exploration potential.
Apollo could end after three landings, followed by a
robotic program. Finally, the single site option outlined at
the previous meeting (page 163) could be pursued. The
meeting also identified specific problems in lunar science
and sites which would address them (Table 31), placing
site selection on a scientific rather than operational basis.
GLEP identified 15 sites as needing further photogra-
phy for landing assessment: Gambart (questionable),
Gambart C, Mo¨ sting, Mo¨ sting C, Hevelius, Posidonius,
Descartes, Boscovich, Davy, Censorinus, Dawes,
Abulfeda, Rima Hadley, Copernicus CD and Vitello.
They recommended analysis of the following potential
future sites in Fiscal Year (FY) 1969: Early Apollo sites at
Mo¨ sting C, Censorinus, Fra Mauro and Hipparchus; Late
Apollo (with extended LM) sites at Littrow, Hyginus,
Tycho and Gassendi, and Dual-launch mission sites at
Marius Hills, Hadley-Apennines, Copernicus and
Harbinger mountains. In FY 1970 the Late Apollo sites
at Abulfeda, Rima Bode II, Schro¨ ter's Valley/Aristarchus
Plateau, Aristarchus crater, Dionysius, south of
Alexander, Tobias Mayer dome and Copernicus CD,
and the dual-launch site at Alphonsus should be analyzed.
15 September 1968: Zond 5 (Soviet Union)
The 5375 kg Zond 5 was launched at 21:42 UT into an
Earth parking orbit, then injected into a lunar trajectory
from its Tyazheliy Sputnik platform. The mission was a
systems and hardware test for future human exploration
missions, with an opportunity to make scientific studies
during a lunar flyby, culminating with a return to Earth.
A life sciences experiment involving turtles, flies, worms,
plants, seeds, bacteria and other living things was
conducted.
On 18 September the spacecraft flew around the
Moon with a closest distance of 1950 km. Photographs
of the Earth were obtained from 90 000 km altitude.
Lunar photography was planned, but difficulty in con-
trolling attitude during the flyby prevented it. On 21
September the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmo-
sphere, braked successfully and parachuted to a splash-
down in the Indian Ocean. The film and the biological
payload were recovered successfully. The mission was a
precursor to a human lunar expedition, the first circum-
lunar flight with a return to Earth since Luna 3 (page 16),
and its passengers were the first living things to make a
round trip to the Moon.
Figure 147 The Surveyor 6 landing site.
Figure 147A is a detail of Figure 145C showing the immediate
area of the landing site. The triangle shows the location of the
spacecraft but not its true size or orientation.
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Figure 147B is a plan of the site drawn from Surveyor images. The footprints mark the initial landing site. After the vernier engine
firing the spacecraft hopped to its final location, shown by the drawing. Here the spacecraft is shown with the correct size and
orientation. The inset map shows the initial landing area in more detail. Two landing footprints are labeled, and a third lies under the
spacecraft itself. Three points labeled C are surface imprints made by crushable blocks under the upper leg joints. ASI indicates
the location of the alpha-scattering instrument measurement. Adapted by P. Stooke from Figure III-24 of JPL (1969).
Chronological sequence of missions and events 169

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There had been two precursor missions since Zond 4.
On 22 April the launch escape system on a similar space-
craft malfunctioned during launch. It automatically shut
down the second stage engines 260 seconds after liftoff.
The escape rockets pulled the spacecraft away from the
launcher and it was recovered safely. On 21 July the upper
stage of a similar launcher exploded on the launchpad,
killing three people but leaving the spacecraft intact.
26 September 1968: Apollo Site Selection Board
The effects of irregularities in the lunar gravitational
field (page 143) on orbiting spacecraft were still poorly
understood at this time, making the position of the
spacecraft along its descent trajectory uncertain by up
to 10 kilometers, about twice what had been expected in
initial planning. This necessitated a last-minute change
Figure 148 MSC initial evaluation of Lunar Orbiter 5 images for future landing sites.
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in the size of the landing ellipses for the first landing
mission. At this meeting the Board approved elongated
ellipses, 5.0 km by 15.0 km, for the Set C sites, the five
primary targets for the first Apollo landing mission
(Figure 170). The previously favoured ellipses, 5.3 km
by 7.9 km, are shown as thinner outlines in that illustra-
tion. They also considered sites for the second landing
mission, again looking at 1 km-radius circles near
Figure 149 Continuation of Figure 148.
points of scientific interest. These sites, referred to as
redesignated sites in the 26 March 1968 meeting (page
160), were now called relocated or biased sites.
Biased sites were described at this meeting for four of
the Set C sites (IIP-2, IIP-6, IIP-8, IIIP-11) and for site
IIIP-12 (near Surveyor 1). The minutes state: ''The cap-
ability to land near the feature of interest is to be provided
by pilot redesignation during the latter part of the LM
descent.'' Descent targeting would bring the LM into the
landing area, and the pilot would take over to reach the
biased site itself. Biased sites IIP-2, IIP-8 and IIIP-12 are
illustrated in Figure 159, Site IIIP-11 in Figure 169. The
IIP-6 biased site is illustrated in Figure 171.
Next, the sequence of sites for landing missions 1, 2 and
3 was considered. At this time it was not certain that Apollo
11 would be the first landing mission, so formal mission
numbers were not assigned. The first landing would take
place in one of the five smooth mare sites (Set C).
A conservative sequence would place the second land-
ing at another of those sites, and a third at one of the five
biased sites just described, or possibly at one of the
scientifically interesting ''exploration sites'' within the
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formal Apollo zone (page 58). These were Censorinus,
Fra Mauro, Mo¨ sting C or Hipparchus.
A more aggressive expansion of capability, assuming
no setbacks in previous missions, would place the second
landing at one of the five biased sites. Then the third
landing could go to one of the exploration sites in the
Apollo zone, or possibly to an exploration site outside
the Apollo zone. The candidates here were Hyginus,
Tycho rim, Littrow or Gassendi.
Reaching sites outside the Apollo zone required a
more complex and risky flight profile. The early Apollo
flights followed a free return trajectory: if not inserted
into lunar orbit, the spacecraft would loop around the
Moon and return directly to Earth. The new trajectories
would involve a change in the lunar orbit plane to reach
higher latitude sites. The initial orbit would be highly
elliptical with a 24-hour period. At the high point a
rocket burn changed the orbit plane, and at the next
low point a second burn made the orbit circular at
about 100 km altitude. Calculations showed that most
sites could be reached in this way, only Schro¨ ter's Valley
being marginally accessible.
For the later Apollo missions, a large Set A of potential
sites had been described at the June GLEP meeting
(Table 30). Following further screening at MSC, the
Group now designated 21 Set B candidate sites
(Table 32 and Figure 172) for detailed analysis. Some of
these sites differ slightly from those considered by GLEP.
Table 32 and Figures 172 and 173 identify the Set B
candidate sites for later Apollo landings. Another report
by the Apollo Lunar Exploration Office (ALEO 1968)
also identified later landing sites. Its sites at Censorinus
(West), Littrow and Abulfeda are as suggested on 26
March 1968. Sites which differ from this Set B are
shown in Figure 172 as circles labelled ALEO. Table 32
is compiled from two lists in the ASSB minutes which
contain numerous inconsistencies.
Of the 21 candidate Set B sites, Fra Mauro and
Censorinus were as illustrated in Figure 160A, D. The
favoured Littrow site was centered only 1 km southwest
Figure 150 Set B, Set C and Set D Apollo landing sites.
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Figure 151 The Set B Apollo landing sites.
Base maps. Site IIP-2: US Army Map Service (AMS) lunar map ORB
II-2(100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, December 1967. Site
IIP-6: AMS lunar map ORB II-6(100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st
edition, December 1967. Site IIP-8: AMS lunar map ORB II-8(100),
original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, December 1967. Site IIIP-9:
AMS Lunar Map ORB III-9 (100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st
edition, March 1968. Site IIIP-11: AMS Lunar Uncontrolled Mosaic
ORB-3-P 11 (100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, July 1967.
Site IIIP-12: ACIC Lunar Photomap ORB-I-9.2 (100), original scale
1:100 000, 1st edition, March 1967. Site IIP-13: AMS lunar map
ORB II-13 (100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, December
1967.
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Table 21. Later Apollo sites considered on 8--9 December 1967.
Orbiter site
number
Name
Coordinates
Notes
(M ¼ in MSC 1967b)
IIP-4
Cayley Formation (highland
plains)
48550N,158350E
USGS recommended
IIIP-12
Flamsteed Ring
28200S,438450W
IIIS-18
Mo¨ sting C
28000S,88000W
USGS recommended
IIIS-23
Fra Mauro Formation
(Imbrium ejecta)
38500S,178100W
USGS recommended
V-1
Petavius
258100S,608400E
V-5.1
Messier
28100S,478160E
V-8
Apollo site IP-1 (A-1, Fig. 86)
18000S,428560E
V-14
Littrow Rilles
228120N,298200E
USGS recommended
(M)
V-15.1
Dawes
178120N,268200E
(M)
V-18
Dionysius
28420N,188000E
USGS recommended
(M)
V-21
Highlands south of Alexander
388300N,138300E
(M)
V-22
Sulpicius Gallus
218000N,98200E
(M)
V-23.1
Hyginus Rille
88030N,68000E
USGS recommended
(M)
V-24
Hipparchus
48450S,48050E
USGS recommended
V-26
Hadley Rille
268520N,38000E
USGS recommended
(M)
V-28
Alphonsus
138400S,48100E
USGS recommended
(M)
V-29
Rima Bode II
128500N,48000W
USGS recommended
V-30
Tycho
418450S,118300W
USGS recommended
V-31
Rima Plato
498300N,28400W
USGS recommended
V-32
Eratosthenes
138250N,108350W
V-33
Copernicus CD
68250N,148450W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-34
Fra Mauro crater
78120S,168450W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-35
Copernicus secondaries
148400N,168150W
(M)
V-36
Copernicus H
68520N,188150W
USGS recommended
V-37
Copernicus crater
108250N,208180W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-38
Imbrium flows
328400N,228000W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-40
Tobias Mayer dome
138100N,308550W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-41
Vitello
308250S,378250W
USGS recommended
V-43.1
Gassendi
168520S,408000W
V-45.1
Jura -- Gruithuisen domes
358550N,418300W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-46
Harbinger mountains
278150N,438380W
USGS recommended
V-48
Aristarchus
238150N,478250W
V-49
Schro¨ ter's Valley
258090N,498300W
V-50
Aristarchus Plateau
288000N,528450W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-51
Marius Hills
138450N,568000W
USGS recommended
(M)
V-12
Censorinus
08260S,328430E
USGS recommended
V-19
Abulfeda
148500S,148000E
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of the site shown in Figure 160C. The remaining 18 sites
are illustrated in Figure 172. The locations of all 21 sites
are shown in Figure 173.
Many differ from those considered by GLEP, as
shown on these maps. Sites labelled ALEO were sug-
gested by the Apollo Lunar Exploration Office.
Now the full Set A list of potential sites (Table 30,
Figure 162) had been reduced to a shortlist of potential
sites, Set B, chosen on the basis of operational suitabil-
ity, safety and scientific desirability. It should be noted
that the GLEP sites shown in Figure 172 often differ
from those shown in earlier Figures (162, 163, 165).
Numerous lists and revisions were being circulated
simultaneously.
10 November 1968: Zond 6 (Soviet Union)
The 5375 kg Zond 6 was launched from Baikonur at
19:12 UT into a parking orbit, then put on a lunar
flyby mission from its Tyazheliy Sputnik platform. The
Zond carried instruments including cosmic-ray and
micrometeoroid detectors, cameras and a biological pay-
load, but was primarily a test of lunar human spaceflight
systems and hardware.
Zond 6 flew around the Moon on 14 November with a
closest approach of 2420 km. Photographs of the lunar
surface were taken during the flyby, from distances of
about 11 000 km (full disk images) and 3300 km (earthset
images and regional coverage). Zond 6 successfully
Table 22. Landing site choices for mission 2 (Set D).
Mission 1 landing site
Mission 2 choices (launch opportunities in a given month)
First opportunity
Second opportunity
Third opportunity
II-P-2
I-P-1 or II-P-6
II-P-8
II-P-13 or III-P-11
II-P-6
I-P-1 or II-P-2
II-P-8
II-P-13 or III-P-11
II-P-8
I-P-1
II-P-6
II-P-13 or III-P-11
II-P-13
I-P-1, II-P-2 or II-P-6
II-P-8
III-P-11
III-P-11
I-P-1, II-P-2 or II-P-6
II-P-8
II-P-13
Table 23. Bellcomm Lunar Exploration Program, 1968.
Mission
Landing site
Comments
LLM-1
Any mare
First lunar landing mission (LLM), free return trajectory, must be near equator. Two
walking EVAs, 22-hour stay time, no ALSEP
LLM-2
Mare site
A different near-equatorial site, three walking EVAs in 22-hour stay, ALSEP
LLM-3
Mare crater
Not free return, more choice of targets. Fresh crater provides samples excavated from
depth. Three EVAs, more than 22-hour stay time, ALSEP
LLM-4
Mare ridge
Samples from a ''wrinkle ridge'', three EVAs, over 22-hour stay time, ALSEP
LLM-5
Boundary area
Mare-highland boundary, first highland samples, 36-hour stay, four EVAs, ALSEP
LLM-6
Tobias Mayer
First ELM, 3-day stay, six walking EVAs to explore volcanic features
LLM-7
Site IP-1
Similar to LLM-6, linear rille and highland boundary
LLM-8
Flamsteed
First use of Lunar Flying Unit (LFU) (page 165), landing near Surveyor 1 site
LLM-9
Fra Mauro
Similar to LLM-8, at a site with rilles and domes, possibly volcanic features
LLM-10/11
Hyginus Rille or
Davy craters
Dual landing, pinpoint (100 m) landing capability, 14-day stay with LFU, rover, deep
drill equipment and a deployed instrument station with a 10-year lifetime
LLM-12/13
Marius Hills
Similar to previous landing
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Figure 152 Landing sites from the Bellcomm lunar
exploration program.
Base maps. Figure 152A: detail of ACIC Lunar Photomap ORB
III-12b(25), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st edition, June 1968 (see
Figure 76, page 85 for context). Figure 152B: Orbiter 5 frame
164-M.
re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 17 November and
landed in the Soviet Union.
The landing was very hard and the capsule was badly
damaged, including the camera. The film roll was flattened
and damaged. Many frames were lost but some were saved,
including enough material to piece together a single mosaic
image of the photographed area. Information and images
for Zonds 6, 7 and 8 were provided by K. Shingareva and
B. Krasnopevtseva of MIIGAiK, Moscow.
Figure 174A is a full disk image from Zond 6, centred
at about 908 W, 108 N. Mare Orientale is the dark spot
below center. Careful measurement of the shape of the
limb (edge of the disk) in this view revealed the existence
of a deep depression in the southern farside (Rodionov
et al., 1971). This was the first hint of the existence of the
giant South Pole-Aitken basin, a feature later confirmed
in Clementine data (page 392; see also pages 17, 388). In
Figure 174B a half-illuminated Earth is visible above the
lunar horizon shortly before it set as viewed from Zond 6.
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The horizon in this view is near 908 W, 108 N. Grid lines
on the Soviet original are drawn with 108 spacing.
Figure 174C is a mosaic of most of the area viewed by
Zond 6, pieced together from surviving pieces of film after
the landing accident. The grid spacing is 58.Figure174D
is a detail of the mosaic including Vavilov crater. The
images are of high quality, surpassing Lunar Orbiter
coverage in some areas. This region was seen by Lunar
Orbiter 5 only obliquely and very near the terminator,
with some areas lost in shadow. Source: MIIGAiK.
Figure 175 depicts the area covered by Zond 6 images,
according to an index map provided by MIIGAiK. Figure
174C covers a slightly smaller area. The terminator was near
the center of the farside at the time, so topography was
well defined in the left (western) half of the photographed
area, and albedo was well seen in the right (eastern) half.
Figure 153 Surveyor 7 targets.
Base map. Figure 153B: ACIC Chart AIC 77B (Hipparchus),
original scale 1: 500 000, 1st edition, March 1966.
Figure 154 The Surveyor 7 landing site.
Base maps. Figure 154A: ACIC Chart AIC 76B (Fra Mauro),
original scale 1: 500 000, 1st edition, July 1966. Figure 154B:
Part of ACIC lunar chart LAC 112 (Tycho), original scale
1:1 000 000, 1st edition, July 1967.
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19 December 1968: Rover mission planning
A Bellcomm memo dated 19 December 1968 by Farouk
El-Baz described possible long-range remote-controlled
rover missions which Hal Masursky (USGS Flagstaff)
had presented to the GLEP Site Selection Subgroup on
13--14 November at Menlo Park, California. The rover
plans had been developed for the Flagstaff Group on
Dual Mode Site Selection. This group was considering
combined robotic and human missions.
The rovers described here would land at points marked
1 in Figure 176, and be driven from Earth to the point
Figures 154C and 154D: Lunar Topographic
Map Tycho (Sheet A), Orbiter V Site 30.US
Army Topographic Command, original scale
1: 250 000, 1st edition, September 1971.
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marked 2 along each route. At that point they could
rendezvous with the crew of a separate landing mission,
possibly delivering samples collected along the route. If
desired, the rover could then be driven remotely again to
various alternate locations (3 in the map). Masursky pre-
ferred the routes which crossed Mare Serenitatis or Mare
Imbrium so they could make geophysical measurements
relating to the recently discovered ''mascons'' (page 143).
Similar rover missions had been considered at the Santa
Cruz meeting in 1967 (page 148). These routes ranged
from about 1000 km to 2000 km long.
21 December 1968: Apollo 8 (United States: NASA)
This was the first human flight to the vicinity of the
Moon. The 28817 kg Apollo Command/Service
Module (CSM) was launched from the Kennedy Space
Center at 12:51 UT on a Saturn 5 rocket, the first Saturn
5 launch with a crew. No lunar module was flown on this
mission, but a ''test article'' with the same mass was
flown to fully test the Saturn systems.
The CSM and Saturn IVB (SIVB) upper stage entered
a 191 km by 183 km, 32.58 inclination parking orbit with
a period of 88 minutes to check all spacecraft systems.
At 15:42 UT the upper stage burned to place Apollo 8 on
its translunar trajectory. The SIVB was later separated
and passed the trailing edge (eastern limb) of the Moon to
enter solar orbit. Lunar orbit insertion occurred at 09:59
UT on 24 December. The initial elliptical orbit was
311 km by 111 km, with a 129-minute period, inclined
128 to the equator. After two revolutions the orbit
was approximately circularized at 110 km by 112 km
with a 119-minute period for the remaining eight lunar
orbits. Trans-Earth injection occurred at 06:10 UT on 25
December. The Command Module re-entered Earth's
atmosphere and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on
27 December at 15:52 UT, about 1600 km SSW of Hawaii
(1658 1.20 W, 88 7.50 N). The total flight time was 147
hours. The Apollo 8 Command Module is now in the
Chicago Museum of Science and Industry.
The Apollo 8 crew were Frank Borman (Commander),
James A. Lovell (Command Module Pilot) and William
A. Anders (Lunar Module Pilot). Precursor flights (not
including numerous launch vehicle tests) had been Apollo
Figure 155 Surveyor 7 landing site.
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4 (9 November 1967, the first full Saturn 5 launch with a
Command Module test article), Apollo 5 (22 January
1968, the first test of the Lunar Module in Earth orbit,
without a crew), Apollo 6 (4 April 1968, the final CSM
test flight without a crew) and Apollo 7 (11--22 October
1968, first CSM Earth orbit flight with a crew, which
consisted of Walter Schirra, Jr., Donn Eisele and Walter
Cunningham).
The Apollo 8 astronauts undertook a program of
photography of the lunar surface. The mission carried
two 70-mm Hasselblad cameras and a 16-mm Maurer
camera with various lenses, and a timer for stereo strip
photography. The goals were to obtain improved cover-
age of parts of the farside at high resolution, to observe
candidate Apollo landing sites and other targets of inter-
est, and to record operational activities. Apollo site IIP-2
was one of the highest-priority targets for photography.
Seven 70-mm magazines and five 16-mm magazines of
lunar photography were obtained, including spectacular
views of 'Earthrise' over the lunar horizon.
The Apollo 8 astronauts took 588 photographs of the
Moon as well as images of Earth and crew activities.
Most of the images were taken from low altitude and
cover only the area under the spacecraft, along the orbit
from the eastern (farside) terminator to the western
(nearside) terminator. Other images taken to each side
of the groundtrack show the surface obliquely, extend-
ing coverage out towards the horizon. Later Apollo
missions produced many more of these side-looking
views, but on Apollo 8 the crew, feeling overscheduled
and suffering a lack of sleep, did not complete a full
photographic program. After the trans-Earth injection
(TEI) rocket firing, to bring the spacecraft home,
images of a broader area were taken from higher alti-
tudes. The areas covered in these images are shown in
Figure 180.
Figure 177 is a mosaic of Apollo 8 images showing the
floor of the 450 km diameter basin Korolev (right half)
and the highlands to the west (left half). The mosaic
covers an area about 300 km long.
The Apollo basin and surroundings on the farside are
mapped in Figure 178. Craters named after the Apollo 8
crew are labelled in heavy black text. Craters named
after the Apollo 1 crew (page 108) are labelled in
white boxes. Later, other craters in this area were
named after 14 astronauts who died in the two Space
Shuttle accidents (pages 371, 399).
The only official names on the farside were those
associated with Luna 3 (page 19). Names on Zond 3
Soviet charts (page 73) had not been adopted by the
International Astronomical Union. Apollo planners,
needing feature names for reference during the flight,
annotated a copy of the Apollo Lunar Flight Chart
with the unofficial ''farside communications designa-
tors'' in Figure 179. They occupy only the region under
the Apollo 8 orbital groundtrack. At no time were they
considered or proposed as official names, but some
made their way into communications and reports.
Most names commemorate people associated with
NASA and Apollo, and some were later adopted for
use elsewhere (Figures 178, 205).
In Figure 180 and all subsequent Apollo image cover-
age maps the nearside is shown at top and the farside
below. The high-resolution photo coverage runs from
Figure 155 (cont.)
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terminator to terminator, under the orbiting spacecraft.
A broad area seen in lower-resolution views during the
departure from the Moon is also shown. The Moon was
not visible from Apollo trajectories during the initial
approach.
Figure 181 is a view of the Moon from the returning
spacecraft (Apollo 8 image AS08-14-2506). The bright
area near the limb at extreme right is the ray system
referred to erroneously in the Luna 3 maps (page 19) as
the Soviet Mountains.
1968: Soviet landing site planning
Landing site studies were conducted at the Institute
for Cosmic Research (IKI) in Moscow in 1968 and
1969, in preparation for possible cosmonaut landings
in the coming year. This work involved assessing candi-
date areas for smoothness and safety, as in the United
States. No Luna spacecraft had returned images suit-
able for site selection except Luna 12 (page 93), and its
images were far too limited in coverage to be useful here.
Figure 156 Plan of the Surveyor 7 site.
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Figure 157 (both pages) Surveyor 7 panoramas.
Figure 157A (both pages): a full 3608 panorama of the landing site (original compiled by USGS/JPL, reprocessed by P. Stooke).
Figures 157B and 157C: details showing block fields west of the spacecraft.
Figures 157D and 157E: high-resolution mosaic compiled by P. Stooke showing topography north of the spacecraft.
The small mirror mounted on the mast (Figure 157A, top left) provided stereoscopic views of the trench area.
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Figure 157 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 183

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Much of this analysis was based on Lunar Orbiter
images, many of which had been published and were
widely available. Photographic prints, or the US Army
and Air Force photomaps derived from them, may also
have been obtained, but the details remain unclear.
Analysis focused on three equatorial areas (Figure 182,
on the Figure 104 base): Oceanus Procellarum, near the
earliest landers (Figures 34, 67--70), Mare Fecunditatis,
near the later Luna 16 sample return site (Figure 234),
and Sinus Medii near Surveyor 6 and Apollo site IIP-8
(Figures 144, 151). The Sinus Medii area was rejected for
being too rough, leaving just the eastern and western areas
in consideration.
Specific sites are not known, but if they were limited
to Lunar Orbiter high-resolution coverage the choices
were quite restricted. They would have included Apollo
Figure 158 Surface sampler operations.
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sites IIP-13, IIIP-10, IIIP-11 and IIIP-12 (Flamsteed)
(Figures 90, 105), and V-8 (Figures 126, 136) (A. T.
Bazilevsky, personal communication, 2003).
1968: Advanced mission planning
As the first Apollo landing neared, ever more dramatic
future activities were proposed. A late Apollo mission
was considered for the interior of the Orientale basin,
where landing during a favorable libration would per-
mit direct communication. The landing area would be
southwest of Kopff crater. Mobility would be limited,
but sufficient to sample the mare material, crater rays
from Maunder crater, the rim of Kopff (possibly a
caldera rather than an impact crater) and pre-mare
basin floor materials. A more advanced post-Apollo
option would be a long rover traverse similar to those
discussed at Falmouth and Santa Cruz (pages 61,
148). A 400 km traverse with astronauts was envi-
saged, including LFU flights into two craters, preceded
and followed by automated traverses (Figure 183,
plotted on Orbiter 4 frames 187-H2 and 195-H2).
(Ulrich 1968; also discussed at GLEP meeting of 4
June 1968).
Table 25. Candidate Apollo sites for landing missions 2 and 3.
Category
Site characteristics or location
Position
Comments
Apollo zone
redesignated
science sites
Mare-terra contact in IIP-2
28 43.50 N, 348 240 E
Acceptable
Crater, ridge and mare ridge contact in IIP-8
08290N,18170W
Acceptable
Flamsteed Ring in IIIP-12 (mare with hills of
uncertain origin)
28370S,428320W
Marginal data
Apollo zone
science sites
Censorinus north (very recent impact crater) 08 170 S, 328 390 E
Unacceptable
Censorinus West (very recent impact crater)
08230S,328320E
Unacceptable
Fra Mauro (terra material)
38450S,178360W
Unacceptable
Science sites
outside
Apollo zone
Abulfeda (chain craters, possible volcanic
material)
148570S,148180E
Unacceptable
Littrow (mare ridge, dark material)
218440N,298020E
Acceptable
Table 24. Surveyor 7 sampler operations.
Day
Actions
11
b1, b2, attempt to deploy ASI with sampler
12
b3, b4, b5, pick up and weigh rock A, drop it at A0 ,
deploy ASI at ASI-1
13
Reach for rock B, pick up rock C, drop at C0 , dig
trench 1, leave sampler shading ASI
14
Reach for rock D, move it but fail to pick it up,
leave sampler shading ASI
15--18 Move sampler to shade ASI as sun moves -- too hot
to operate sampler
19
Pick up rock A (at A0), weigh it, drop it at A0 ,
perform bearing test on rock A, b6, dig trench 2,
leave sampler in trench
20
Finish trench 2, b7, b8, b9, dig trench 3, b10, b11,
dig trench 4, magnet scrape test, leave sampler
shading ASI
21
ASI lifted to calibrate rock weights, then placed
over rock at ASI-2, b12, dig trench 5, b13, dig
trench 6, leave sampler in trench
22
Finish trench 6, b14, dig trench 7, move ASI to
ASI-3, i1, i2, b15, b16, break rock E by impact of
sampler, leave sampler in trench 1
23
Sunset, retract sampler against buried rock to
move either rock or spacecraft
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20 January 1969: Soyuz circumlunar mission
(Soviet Union)
This test of Soyuz lunar hardware was aborted when the
Proton launcher's second-stage engine failed 500 seconds
after launch. The capsule abort system carried the Soyuz
to a safe landing in Mongolia. Further tests of this system
were now postponed so that all efforts could be devoted
to testing the giant N1 rocket and flying a successful
robotic lunar soil sample return mission before the first
Apollo landing. This now seemed to be the best remaining
way for the Soviet Union to respond to Apollo, claiming
as it did so that the US approach was unnecessarily risky
and expensive compared with robotic missions.
Figure 159 Future landing sites.
Figure 159A shows seven sites now
considered for the second and third
landings. IIP-2, IIP-8 and IIIP-12 targets
are now circles of radius 1 km rather than
5.3 km by 7.9 km ellipses, assuming that
operational experience allowed more
precise landings after the first attempt.
The circles are ''redesignated'' sites
chosen to place scientifically interesting
features within walking distance of the
landed spacecraft, hills at IIP-2 (Figure
159B) and IIIP-12 (159D), a mare ridge at
IIP-8 (159C). The base maps are as for
Figure 151. Two sites are close to landed
Surveyor spacecraft, but there was no
plan at this time to visit the Surveyor itself.
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19 February 1969: Luna 1969 A (Soviet Union)
A Lunokhod rover (page 261) was destroyed 40 seconds
after its launch from Baikonur at 09:48 local time. A
booster engine failure caused the vehicle to crash 15 km
from the launch pad. The mission plan was to land at one
of the potential cosmonaut landing sites (Figure 182),
to find an area free of obstacles and to deploy a radio
beacon. The lunar phase at the expected landing date (26
February) suggests this landing would have been in
Mare Fecunditatis. If the N-1 launch of 21 February
had been successful there might have been an attempt
to receive transmissions from that beacon during lunar
orbit tests of the Soyuz spacecraft. Plans announced
on 10 June 1969 by the VPK Military-Industrial
Commission called for two more rovers to be launched
on 22 October and 21 November, and five soil-sampling
and return missions like Luna 16 (page 252) on 14 June,
13 and 28 July, 25 August and 25 September, in a last
desperate attempt to outflank Apollo.
21 February 1969: First N-1 launch (Soviet Union)
The first launch of the new N-1 booster from Baikonur
took place at 09:18 UT, but several seconds after launch
two engines shut down. The remaining engines compen-
sated, but about a minute later at an altitude of 30 km
another failure caused the remaining engines to shut
down. The N-1 crashed about 50 km from the launch
pad. The spacecraft payload was a Soyuz/Zond crew
module, to be flown without a crew into lunar orbit for
automated photography of possible landing sites. A
dummy lander was carried for realistic system mass
tests. The capsule was lifted clear by its escape system
and landed 35 km from the pad.
27 March 1969: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
At this meeting GLEP considered various alternatives
for the second landing, as summarized in Table 33. The
''relocated'' site IIIP-11R considered here was not the
site shown on page 201, but a new location on
the southwestern edge of the old IIIP-11 ellipse adjacent
to a chain of 100 m diameter craters (Figure 184). These
were interpreted as secondary craters, dug by debris
thrown out by a large impact elsewhere. They lay on a
distant part of the Tycho ray system, and thus gave an
opportunity to study ray material and possibly to gather
some Tycho ejecta. The GLEP illustration did not show
the enlarged IIIP-11 ellipse (Figure 171), reverting
instead to the original ellipse shown in Figure 151.
GLEP also outlined expectations for improved land-
ing accuracy and surface mobility. For the first missions,
Figure 159 (cont.)
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Figure 160 (cont.)
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the landing could occur anywhere in a roughly 15 km by
5 km ellipse (Figure 171), with an exploration range of
only 1 km from the LM. This was expected to improve
to a landing accuracy of 1 km and an exploration range
of5km.
15 April 1969: Luna 1969B (Soviet Union)
This mission was the first attempted flight of a sophisti-
cated new lander intended to return lunar regolith sam-
ples to Earth, the Soviet Union's last chance to beat
Apollo to this important lunar goal. The target area
was in the eastern maria, probably near the Luna 16
landing site (Figure 234). The spacecraft was essentially
identical to Luna 15 and 16. It was lost in an explosion
on the launch pad at Baikonur.
18 May 1969: Apollo 10 (United States: NASA)
A precursor to this flight was Apollo 9, launched on 3
March 1969, which tested the full Apollo system includ-
ing the Lunar Module (LM) in Earth orbit in a flight
Figure 160 Science sites considered for the third Apollo landing.
Figure 160A: Fra Mauro.
Figure 160B: Abulfeda. The crater chain Catena Abulfeda was thought at the time to be a chain of volcanic vents. It would now be
considered more likely to be of impact origin.
Figure 160C: Littrow.
Figure 160D: Censorinus, showing two possible landing locations.
Base maps. Figure 160A: ACIC Lunar Chart AIC 76B (Fra Mauro), original scale 1: 500 000, 1st edition, June 1966, and Orbiter 4
image 113-H3. Figure 160B: ACIC Lunar Chart LAC 78 (Theophilus), original scale 1: 1 000 000, 1st edition, March 1963, and Orbiter
5 image 084-M. 160C: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Rimae Littrow, Orbiter V site 14, original scale 1: 250 000, 2nd edition, May
1970, and Photomap Rimae Littrow (same details). Figure 160D: ACIC Lunar Chart AIC 79A (Capella), original scale 1: 500 000, 1st
edition, June 1966, and US Army Lunar Photomap Censorinus (Sheet A), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st edition, May 1969.
Figure 161 Set A, potential sites for later Apollo landings.
Caption for Figure 160 (cont.)
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Figure 162 (over six pages) Set A landing sites.
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Figure 162 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 191

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Figure 162 (cont.)
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Figure 162 (cont.)
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Figure 162 (cont.)
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lasting 241 hours. Apollo 9's crew were James McDivitt
(Commander), David Scott (Command Module Pilot)
and Russell Schweickart (Lunar Module Pilot).
The crew for Apollo 10 was Thomas Stafford
(Commander), John Young (Command Module Pilot)
and Eugene Cernan (Lunar Module Pilot). Stafford had
flown previously on Gemini 6 and Gemini 9. Young had
flown on Gemini 3 and Gemini 10, and was to fly later on
Apollo 16. Cernan had flown on Gemini 3 and later flew
on Apollo 17. Apollo 10 orbited the Moon, testing the
LM and the entire flight profile including the untested
lunar orbit rendezvous upon which Apollo depended,
omitting only the landing itself. The CSM call sign was
''Charlie Brown,'' the LM was called ''Snoopy.''
The fully fuelled LM mass was 13 941 kg. This unique
lander consisted of a lower ''descent'' stage with the main
landing engine, four legs spanning 10 m diagonally, and
equipment storage bays, and an upper ''ascent'' stage
housing a smaller engine for the lunar take-off and
return to orbit, plus the crew cabin.
Figure 162 (cont.)
Table 26. GLEP AAP sites, June 1968.
Site
Designation
Location
1/35
Littrow
228120N,298200E
2/41
Dionysius
28420N,188000E
3/45
South of Alexander
388300N,138300E
4/46
Sulpicius Gallus
218000N,98200E
5/47
Hyginus Rille
88150N,68000E
6/50
Hadley Rille
268120N,38000E
7/53
Alphonsus
138400S,48100W
8/59
Copernicus CD
68250N,148450W
9/60
Fra Mauro
7800S,16845W
10/61
Copernicus secondaries
148400N,168150W
11/63
Copernicus (two sites) 108 250 N, 208 180 W
12/65
Imbrium flows
328400N,228000W
13/69
Tobias Mayer Dome
138100N,308550W
14/76
Jura-Gruithuisen
358550N,418300W
15/82
Aristarchus
288000N,528450W
16/83
Marius Hills
138450N,568000W
Figure 163 Two GLEP subgroup Apollo sites.
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After launch at 16:49 UT (just before midnight EST
on 17 May, local time) the spacecraft entered a 190 km
by 184 km parking orbit. After 1.5 orbits at 19:28 UT the
SIVB upper stage burned for trans-lunar injection (TLI).
The CSM separated from the SIVB, turned to face it,
and docked with the LM at 20:07 UT. Apollo 10 entered
a 316 km by 110 km lunar orbit on 21 May at 20:45 UT,
and later circularized the orbit at 114 km by 109 km.
Table 27. Bellcomm Apollo sites, 1968.
Site
Name
Location
1
Censorinus
08230S,328320E
2
Abulfeda
148570S,148180E
3
Littrow rilles
318440N,298020E
4
Hadley Rille
248420N,28570E
5
Hyginus Rille
248420N,68100E
6
Tycho ejecta
408540S,118210E
7a
Copernicus peaks
98430N,208000W
7b
Copernicus wall
108510N,208090W
8a
Schro¨ ter's Valley S
248200N,498290W
8b
Schro¨ ter's Valley NE
258120N,498160W
8c
Schro¨ ter's Valley NW
258280N,498580W
9a
Marius Hills a
148350N,568370W
9b
Marius Hills b
148000N,558330W
9c
Marius Hills b
138240N,558300W
Figure 164 Bellcomm Apollo site, Abulfeda.
Figure 165 Potential Apollo sites at Marius Hills (A), Tobias
Mayer (B) and Littrow (C).
Figure 165A uses the Figure 166 base.
Figure 165C uses the Figure 160C base.
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22° N
21° N
29.5° E
28.5° E
Figure 165 (cont.)
Table 28. Types of lunar feature to be targeted for
future missions.
Feature type Site
Comments
1. Impact
features
Copernicus or Tycho
(unmodified crater) Dual launch, existing
photography OK
Posidonius or
Gassendi (modified
crater)
Extended LM,
existing
photography OK
Mare Orientale or
Mare Imbrium
(large basin)
Dual launch
2. Volcanic
features
Marius Hills
Dual launch, existing
photography OK
Schro¨ ter's Valley
and Cobra Head Dual Launch
Theophilus West
(upland volcanics?) Extended LM
Abulfeda or Davy
crater chains
Extended LM,
existing
photography OK
Rima Bode or
Littrow Rille
Extended LM,
existing
photography OK
3. Tectonic
features
Hyginus Rille
Extended LM,
existing
photography OK
Apennine Front
4. Lunar poles
(added
later)
Polar sites, possible
trapped ice
Table 29. First three Apollo lunar landing missions considered by GLEP.
Mission number Landing mission 1
Landing mission 2
Landing mission 3
Site
IIP-2, IIP-6, IIP-8, IIP-13, IIIP-11 Science sites in IIP-2, IIP-8,
IIIP-11 and IIIP-12
Censorinus
Objectives
Demonstrate landing and surface
operations, deploy instruments,
collect mare samples
Study ridge, hill or Flamsteed ring
structures, deploy instruments Demonstrate point landing,
collect highland samples,
deploy instruments
Stay time
 26 hours, 2 EVAs
>26 hours, 3 EVAs
>26 hours, 3 EVAs
Chronological sequence of missions and events 197

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Apollo 10 camera equipment consisted of two 70-mm
Hasselblad cameras, a telephoto lens for close-up
images, and two 16-mm automated sequence cameras,
one in the CSM and one in the LM.
On 22 May Stafford and Cernan detached the LM
from the CSM at 19:37 UT, and dropped its orbital low
point to 14 km over the nearside to make low passes over
landing sites IIP-2 and IIP-6. All LM and ground sys-
tems needed for a landing were tested successfully.
Close-up photographs of the Moon's surface including
the landing sites were taken, though the best images of
site IIP-6 were lost when a camera jammed.
The LM descent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit,
and would ultimately have crashed on the lunar surface
within a few degrees of the equator on the nearside, but
its location is unknown. The LM rendezvoused with the
CSM and docked 8 hours after separation at 03:22 UT
on 23 May. Several hours later the LM ascent-stage
engine was burned to depletion, placing the vehicle in a
solar orbit to prevent it interfering with later missions.
On 24 May at 10:25 UT after 31 lunar orbits the CSM
engine burned to leave lunar orbit and return to Earth.
The Command and Service modules separated at 16:22
UT on 26 May and Apollo 10 splashed down safely in
the Pacific Ocean at 16:52 UT, ending a 192-hour
mission. Splashdown occurred at 158 20 S, 1648 390 W,
600 km east of Samoa and 5.5 km from the USS
Princeton recovery ship.
The Apollo 10 CM is currently on display in the
Science Museum in London, UK.
By the time of Apollo 10 the informal farside ''commu-
nication designators'' (Figure 179) had been replaced by a
more acceptable temporary system of numerical crater
designations. Large craters and basins were identified by
roman numerals, smaller craters by numbers. Informal
names were now applied to landmarks on the approach
to the Apollo 11 prime landing site (ALS-2). Most names
commemorate people associated with the astronauts (e.g.
Mt. Marilyn refers to Apollo 8 astronaut James Lovell's
wife; Weatherford was astronaut Stafford's Oklahoma
birthplace, and coincidentally the name of a historic
hotel in Flagstaff). Some are whimsically descriptive.
Star Crater (on the equator at 438 E) refers to an unspeci-
fied small crater in this vicinity. Some of these names are
found in news reports of the period. The full set of names
(Figure 186) is taken from a hand-lettered copy of the
ACIC Apollo 10 LM Descent Monitoring Chart, edition
1, 30 April 1969, preserved at the Lunar and Planetary
Institute in Houston, and portrayed here on a composite
of ACIC AIC charts 60C, 61C, 61D, 78B, 79A and 79B. A
few official names are boxed. None of the informal names
were intended to become official.
Apollo 10 orbital photographic coverage is plotted in
Figure 187, with the nearside at the top and the farside
below. High-resolution images were made along the
equator and out towards the horizon north and south
of the groundtrack. After the TEI (trans-Earth injection)
burn on the return leg of the journey, high-altitude
images covered the illuminated part of the nearside and
eastern limb at lower resolution.
A detail of Apollo 10 image AS10-28-4040
(Figure 188) shows Censorinus, the smaller fresh crater
at left centre. At the time this was a candidate future
Apollo landing site (Figure 160).
1969: Advanced Apollo planning
Mission planners continued to propose extravagant
future missions, including the complex five-day explora-
tion of the Marius Hills site (Ellston and Willingham
1969) shown in Figure 189. This plan shares many
Figure 166 Marius Hills candidate site.
Base map: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Marius F, Orbiter-
V-site 51, original scale 1: 250 000, 1st edition, April 1971.
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features with that shown in Fig. 167, but provides for an
even more detailed investigation of the geology and
geophysics of this complex site. Three LFU sorties from
the Extended Lunar Module (ELM, described on page
206) would emplace communication relays (comm sta-
tions) on two hills, and visit six locations for sampling
and instrument readings. Despite the scientific importance
of this site, it was never visited by Apollo astronauts.
03 June 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
Until this meeting the candidate Apollo sites had been
known by their Lunar Orbiter designations (IIIP-12
and so on). At this meeting ASSB officially renamed
the five Set C sites (Figure 150) numbering them 1 to 5
from east to west, so IIP-2 became Apollo Landing Site
(ALS) 1 and IIP-12 became Site 5. Redesignated
(''biased'') sites were labelled R, so the site shown in
Figure 184 was now Site 4R. The Flamsteed hill site
(Figure 159) was now 6R. The five Surveyor sites were
also considered viable targets and were named S-I, S-
III, S-V and so on. S-I was also referred to as Site 6 and
S-III was Site 7.
The discussion turned to plans for landings after the
first. One set of alternatives for the early landings was
presented, allowing more conservative or aggressive
Figure 167 Marius Hills EVA plan.
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Figure 168 Hadley landing site and mission plans.
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approaches as circumstances permitted (Table 34). This
had also been mentioned earlier (page 171).
MSC proposed that if Apollo 11 failed to achieve the
first landing, Sites 2, 3 and 5 remain the targets for Apollo
12, but if Apollo 11 landed at sites 2 or 3 then the S-III and
S-I western Surveyor sites would be used for Apollo 12.
Landings would be targeted 300 m east and 150 m north
of the landed Surveyor. ASSB chairman General Sam
Phillips rejected the Surveyor sites (the required pinpoint
landing capability had not yet been demonstrated, and S-I
was too far west, having no recycle option) and suggested
Sites 2, 3, 5, Hipparchus or Fra Mauro for Apollo 12.
MSC considered both Fra Mauro and Hipparchus unac-
ceptable. Benjamin Milwitzky of the Lunar Exploration
Office, formerly Program Manager for Surveyor, pro-
moted the Surveyor sites for the following reasons:
the return of Surveyor parts and samples examined by
the alpha-scattering instrument (ASI) would give useful
Figure 169 Three Apollo sites with EVA plans.Base maps.
Figure 168A: ACIC lunar chart LAC 41 (Montes
Apenninus), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition,
September 1963; Figure 168B: Defense Mapping
Agency NASA Lunar Topophotomap 41B4S2(50),
Rima Hadley Central, original scale 1: 50 000, 1st edition,
April 1975; Figure 168C: from Fig. 2.Base maps. Figure
169A: from Figure 151 (II P-6). Figure 169B: US Army
Lunar Photomap ORB-II-6d(25), original scale
1: 25 000, 1st edition, November 1967; Figures 169C
and 169D: details of Figure 151 (IIIP-11). Figures 169E
and 169F: details of Figure 160D (US Army, 1969).
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engineering information on the effects of long-term expo-
sure to the lunar environment, and help verify the ASI
results. Goals at each site are listed in Table 35.
Planners expected that each Apollo flight would pro-
vide photography of potential future sites. At this ASSB
meeting, plans were presented for photography of high-
land sites in the Apollo zone during Apollo missions 10
and 11 (Figure 190). Sampling a highland site was
scientifically important since highlands occupy most of
the lunar surface, but in the end these sites in the Apollo
zone were not visited. Highland samples were collected
later at the Apollo 15, 16 and 17 sites well outside the
narrow equatorial zone.
Figure 190 shows the highland photography targets,
designed to cover potential Apollo landings sites, as
presented to the ASSB meeting on 3 June 1969. The
photographs would be taken from the Apollo CSM in
lunar orbit. Some were already in hand from Apollo 10,
and additional coverage was expected from Apollo 11.
14 June 1969: Luna 1969 C (Soviet Union)
This mission was another attempt to obtain a soil sample
from the eastern maria, probably from a site near the
Luna 16 landing site (Figure 234). The booster placed
the spacecraft and upper stage in a parking orbit, but the
upper stage suffered a failure in its control system and
failed to ignite properly.
3 July 1969: Second N-1 launch (Soviet Union)
This mission was similar in its intent to the first launch on
21 February. It would have carried the Soyuz/Zond crew
module, without a crew, into lunar orbit for automated
photography of possible landing sites. A dummy lander
was also to be carried for realistic system mass tests.
Launch on the new N-1 booster from Baikonur was at
20:19 UT, but only a few seconds later debris in a fuel line
caused an explosion in an engine pump. The engines shut
down and the massive vehicle fell back onto the launch
pad, causing very serious damage. The Soyuz capsule was
lifted clear by its escape system and landed 1 km away.
10 July 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
At this meeting, deliberations by the Group for Lunar
Exploration Planning (GLEP) Site Selection Subgroup
were presented and evaluated. The Subgroup had met
on 17 June at the request of Sam Phillips to consider the
scientific goals of lunar exploration and to propose a
sequence of landings to address those goals. They worked
with a list of 22 Set B sites (Table 36), differing in many
details from the ASSB version of Set B (Table 32). From it
they identified ten sites which might provide the necessary
results and ordered them in a sequence (Table 37) which
matched expectations of growing mission capability and
maximum scientific return.
Widely separated sites were needed to ensure good
geophysical data from deployed instrument packages.
The Surveyor 3 site was not included in this sequence.
ASSB, however, reinstated it for consideration for
Apollo 12, and rejected Hipparchus and Fra Mauro for
Figure 169 (cont.)
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Table 30. Set A candidate Apollo sites presented at the June 1968 GLEP meeting.
Site
Target, name, rating
Location
Site Target, name, rating
Location
Sites with higher-resolution photography
IIP-1
1, Maskelyne F, good*
48 020 N, 368 200 E V-48 1, Aristarchus, good*
218520N,468540W
2, Maskelyne F, good
48 000 N, 378 450 E V-51 1, Marius Hills, good
138360N,568250W
IIS-1
1, Secchi A, good*
38250N,418050E
2, Marius Hills, good
138110N,558500W
IIS-2
2, south of IIP-1, good*
38350N,368430E
3, Marius Hills, good*
138400N,558480W
IIP-5
1, Sabine EA, good*
28430N,248330E
4, Marius Hills, good
138250N,558380W
2, Sabine EA, good
38 040 N, 258 180 E IIP-3 1, Manners, fair
48120N,218030E
IIP-7
2, Pallas FA, good*
18520N,18510W
3, Manners, fair
48250N,218120E
IIS-9 1, north of Bruce, good
28340N,38330E
5, Manners, fair
48050N,218330E
IIIS-17 1, Hipparchus, good
48 320 S, 38 530 E IIP-4 1, Rima Ariadaeus, fair
58020N,168100E
2, Hipparchus, good
48 500 S, 48 240 E IIP-7 1, Pallas FA, fair
18560N,18550W
3, Hipparchus, good*
58 090 S, 48 460 E IIP-9 2, Gambart G, fair
08550N,128550W
IIIS-19 3, Flammarion, good*
38 170 S, 38 180 W IIP-10 1, Hortensius dome, fair
38080N,278140W
IIIS-22 1, Reinhold b, good
08 560 N, 228 000 W IIP-12 1, Kunowsky, fair
18420N,348120W
IIIS-31 1, Hevelius, good
28100N,668280W
2, Kunowsky, fair
1840N,338530W
V-2.1 1, Petavius B, good
188 490 S, 578 150 E IIS-8 2, Lade A, fair
08200N,128550E
2, Petavius B, good
188 460 S, 578 260 E IIS-13 1, south of Suess D, fair
38050N,428350W
V-8
1, IP-1, good*
08570S,428200E
2, south of Suess D, fair
28550N,428370W
5, IP-1, good
08 550 S, 438 400 E IIS-16 1, west of Reiner C, fair
28500N,538350W
V-15.1 1, Dawes, good
178 240 N, 268 590 E IIIS-9 1, Delambre, fair
18420S,178320E
V-22
1, Sulpicius Gallus, good*
208 400 N, 98 400 E IIIS-18 3, Mo¨ sting C, fair
18450S,78450W
V-23.1 1, Hyginus Rille, good
78 260 N, 68 060 E V-18 1, Dionysius, fair
38080N,188030E
2, Hyginus Rille, good*
78 350 N, 68 280 E V-24 1, Hipparchus, fair
48400S,38350E
V-28
1, Alphonsus, good*
138 200 S, 38 150 W V-29 1, Rima Bode II, fair
128410N,48320W
V-32
3, Eratosthenes, good
128 480 N, 108 150 W V-32 1, Eratosthenes, fair
158250N,108170W
4, Eratosthenes, good*
108220N,108120W
2, Eratosthenes, fair
138580N,108230W
V-33
3, Copernicus CD, good
68 450 N, 148 200 W V-36 1, Copernicus H, fair
68350N,178350W
V-34
5, Fra Mauro, good*
78 100 S, 168 200 W V-43.2 1, Gassendi, fair
198040S,398280W
V-35
1, Copernicus secondaries, good 128 400 N, 168 080 W IIP-4 2, Rima Ariadaeus, poor 48 270 N, 168 070 E
2, Copernicus sec., good
128 450 N, 168 100 W IIS-6 1, Rima Triesnecker II, poor 48 220 N, 48 380 E
3, Copernicus sec., good*
168 200 N, 168 130 W IIS-8 1, Lade A, poor
08420N,128580E
4, Copernicus sec., good
168 250 N, 168 150 W IIS-0.2 2, Gambart C, poor
38250N,118250W
V-37
2, Copernicus, good*
98 550 N, 208 160 E IIS-11 1, Hortensius EB, poor
48580N,278100W
V-40
1, Tobias Mayer domes, good* 128 350 N, 318 200 W IIIS-16 1, Mo¨ sting, poor
08160S,58310W
Sites with lower-resolution photography
V-1
2, Petavius, good
258 200 S, 608 10 E V-26.1 3, Hadley-Apennine, fair 288 100 N, 48 020 E
5, Petavius, good*
258 000 S, 618 350 E V-31 1, east of Plato, fair
498500N,48050W
V-4
1, Stevinus A, good
318200S,518300E
2, east of Plato, fair
498300N,38200W
2, Stevinus A, good
318150S,528100E
4, east of Plato, fair
488500N,08450W
V-26.1 2, Hadley-Apennine, good*
258 050 N, 28 500 E V-38 1, Imbrium flows, fair
328470N,218550W
V-41
2, Vitello, good
308450S,368290W
2, Imbrium flows, fair
328110N,218150W
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Table 30. (cont.)
Site
Target, name, rating
Location
Site Target, name, rating
Location
V-45.1 2, Jura domes, good*
358 310 N, 418 290 W V-46 3, Montes Harbinger, fair 288 300 N, 448 200 W
V-46
1, Montes Harbinger, good* 288 100 N, 448 200 W
4, Montes Harbinger, fair 268 150 N, 438 350 W
V-50
1, Aristarchus plateau, good* 288 480 N, 538 300 W V-49 1, Cobra Head, fair
258360N,508020W
V-21
1, south of Alexander, fair
398 400 N, 148 450 E V-30 1, Tycho, poor
418060S,118570W
V-26.1 1, Hadley-Apennine, fair
268 300 N, 28 400 E V-41 1, Vitello, poor
308270S,368400W
Table 31. Site considerations: lunar geological units and problems.
Major surface units
Regional lunar problems
1. Mare
Eastern mare
Problem
Area
Western mare/
Flamsteed ring
1. Configuration
and composition
of mare basins
Filled basins
Imbrium/
Serenitatis
2. Highlands
Censorinus
Unfilled basins Orientale
Major processes
2. Configuration and
composition of highland basin
Clavius/
Hipparchus
3. Impact
Small fresh craters
Censorinus
Large fresh craters
Copernicus/Tycho 2a. Difference between 1 and 2
Modified craters
Posidonius/
Gassendi
3. Structure and composition
of highlands
Apennines/
Serenitatis rim
4. Volcanism Variety of forms
Marius Hills
4. Basement under
regional ejecta blanket
North of Fra
Mauro
Recent activity?
Schro¨ ter's Valley
In highlands
Abulfeda/Davy/
Descartes
5. Major volcanic province
Marius Hills
6. Structure of major valley
Alpine Valley
Associated with
rilles
Littrow/Rima
Bode II
7. Major fault zones
Straight Wall/
Rheita Valley
5. Mountains
and faults
Mountain front
Apennine scarp
8. Origin and formation
of major sinuous rilles
Prinz rilles/
Hadley Rille/
Schro¨ ter's Valley
Major fault trough Hyginus Rille
that mission. Descartes (later the Apollo 16 site) was also
being considered at this time for its expected highland
volcanic materials. Table 37 shows the GLEP recom-
mended sequence as well as the modified sequence
agreed to by ASSB at this meeting.
Farouk El-Baz (Bellcomm) described the sampling
goals for these ten missions. They were the older (wes-
tern) and younger (eastern) mare materials, broad
deposits around mare basins, impact craters in both
mare and highland areas, volcanic features in both
types of area, and any features which might point to
processes other than impact and volcanism. The ten
proposed sites were related to these sampling goals.
ASSB approved the ten sites for planning purposes.
One serious problem was that many of these sites
would need additional photography for planning and
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certification. Apollo 10 photography was adequate for
landing site studies, and GLEP now pointed out that
photography during early landing missions could be
used for later site studies if planned properly, a process
which became known as ''bootstrap'' photography.
The Surveyor 3 option for Apollo 12 offered better
opportunities for this than the other western sites, which
was a strong point in its favor. This site was now gaining
ground over Surveyor 1. When the time came to select a
site for Apollo 12, Surveyor 3 (Site 7) was the final
choice. The reasons included better bootstrap photogra-
phy for Fra Mauro and Davy, and better recycling
(launch delay) alternatives. Most importantly, however,
USGS now noted that a ray from Copernicus crossed
the Surveyor 3 site (Figure 221A), suggesting that
Copernicus ejecta could be collected there, as a landing
in Copernicus now seemed unlikely (Wilhelms 1993).
One type of feature omitted from the Set B sites was a
so-called ''caldera'' crater. These craters differed in
appearance from typical impact craters, having smooth
Figure 170 Extended ellipses for Apollo Set C sites.
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walls and floors at about the level of the exterior surface.
Some researchers considered them to be volcanic cal-
deras rather than impact craters. GLEP was considering
several as possible landing targets.
First priority was Gaudibert (118 S, 388 E), second
Lassell (158 S, 88 W), and the lowest priority was assigned
to Gambart (18 N, 158 W) or Sabine and Ritter (28 N,
208 E), see page 49). The priority reflected the desire later
in the landing sequence for high-latitude sites, giving better
geophysical data and orbital photographic coverage.
These considerations shaped the list of sites for which
additional orbital photography was needed for site plan-
ning. Set B sites needing more images were: Mo¨ sting C,
Abulfeda, Rima Hadley, Copernicus CD and
Censorinus. Other possible sites not included in Set B
but needing more images were: Gambart, Gambart C,
Mo¨ sting, Hevelius, Gaudibert, Sabine/Ritter,
Posidonius, Dawes, Vitello, Descartes, Boscovich,
Davy and Lassell.
ASSB minutes for this meeting also noted the follow-
ing points. The need to sample materials of different ages
to tie down lunar geological history was emphasized.
The idea that Apollo landings might be made in the
lunar ''afternoon'' (near the eastern terminator, a few
days before sunset) was finally abandoned. All landings
would be made in the early lunar morning.
Lastly, an extended version of the lunar module
(ELM) with a large vertical solar panel mounted on
one side, providing extra electrical power for a longer
stay, was finally dropped from consideration (see pages
164, 169).
Figure 191 shows the ten sites scheduled for Apollo
landings by GLEP and ASSB (Table 37) and other sites
mentioned in the text.
The board also considered sampling objectives at six
future sites at this meeting. Figure 192 illustrates these
sites. The Censorinus sites were shown but not explained
in ASSB minutes.
13 July 1969: Luna 15 (Soviet Union)
Luna 15 was the third of the new robotic sample return
missions (after Lunas 1969B and 1969C, pages 189 and
202), and the first to leave Earth successfully. This
mission was the last possible chance to return lunar
material to Earth before the United States. It was
launched from Baikonur at 02:55 UT, three days before
Apollo 11. This caused some concern about deliberate or
accidental interference with Apollo, but assurances were
soon given that there would be no problems of this type.
The 2718 kg spacecraft made a trajectory correction
on 14 July, then entered a 133 km by 286 km, 150-minute
period lunar orbit inclined 1268 to the equator at 10:00
UT on 17 July. Luna 15 adjusted its orbit several times,
first changing to 94 km by 220 km on 18 July, then
dropping the low point to 85 km on 19 July on its 25th
orbit, finally changing to 16 km by 109 km, inclined
1278, with a period of 114 minutes. After completing 52
orbits and following 86 communications sessions, Luna
15 crashed in Mare Crisium at 15:51 UT on 21 July as it
attempted to land, possibly because of navigational
errors induced by mascons or inadequate knowledge of
Figure 171 Site IIP-6 biased site. Base map: from Figure 151.
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Table 32. Set B candidate sites for later Apollo landings.
Site
Name
Coordinates
Offset Site Name
Coordinates
Offset
IIIS-18 Mo¨ sting C 18 450 S, 78 450 W 11 V-29 Rima Bode II
128410N,48320W2
3
IIIS-23 Fra Mauro 38 450 S, 178 360 W 0
V-30 Tycho
418 060 S, 118 570 W1
1
V-12
Censorinus 08 170 S, 328 390 E 0
V-33 Copernicus CD
68450N,148200W2
2
V-14
Littrow
218440N,298020E 1
V-37 Copernicus
98550N,208160W
11, 14, 27
V-18
Dionysius 38 080 N, 188 030 E 15 V-40 Tobias Mayer dome 128 350 N, 318 200 W1
4
V-19 Abulfeda 148 570 S, 148 180 E 6
V-43.2 Gassendi
198 040 S, 398 280 W2
2
V-21
south of
Alexander 398 400 N, 148 450 E 52 V-46 Harbinger Montes 288 100 N, 448 200 W
41, 57
V-23.1 Hyginus
78 260 N, 68 060 E 11, 12 V-48 Aristarchus
218520N,468540W
32, 82
V-24
Hipparchus 48 400 S, 38 350 E 3
V-49 Schro¨ ter's Valley/
Aristarchus plateau 258 360 N, 508 020 W0
V-26.1 Apennines-
Hadley* 268 300 N, 28 400 E3
9
V-28 Alphonsus 138 200 S, 38 150 W 20 V-51 Marius Hills
138360N,568250W
8, 27, 47
Offset: distance in kilometers from this site to GLEP preferred site.
* Apennines-Hadley coordinates corrected from an error in the original documents.
local elevations. Some reports suggested the spacecraft
was capable of photographing the lunar surface, but this
probably means after landing, not from orbit (see Luna
20, page 318).
If Luna 15 had followed the flight profile of Luna 16 it
might have returned lunar samples slightly ahead of
Apollo 11, scoring a great propaganda victory for the
Soviet Union. Instead, it spent an extra day in lunar
orbit before attempting to land. That delay would have
prevented a sample from being returned before Apollo
11 even if it had succeeded.
The location of the impact is given differently in
various sources. The most consistent interpretation
seems to be that the target area was near the point later
visited by Luna 24 (Figure 341, near 128 N, 628 E), and
that the impact occurred at 178 N, 608 E (Figure 193;
regional context shown in Figure 234). This location is
probably uncertain by up to 20 km. An impact location
of 168 N, 578 E was reported by Sven Grahn. The origi-
nal source of this is unclear, and it may be a simple error.
The Philip's map of the Moon, 2003 edition, gives the
Luna 15 location as 178 N, 498 E and plots it at 178 N,
538 E, both probably incorrect.
Johnson (1979) suggested that Luna 15 was a
Lunokhod rover mission rather than an attempted sam-
ple return, but this is now known to be incorrect.
16 July 1969: Apollo 11 (United States: NASA)
Apollo 11 fulfilled President John Kennedy's directive
(page 22) with a safe lunar landing and return to Earth.
The crew consisted of Neil A. Armstrong, Commander
(who had previously flown on Gemini 8), USAF Lt.
Colonel Michael Collins, Command Module Pilot
(also flew on Gemini 10) and USAF Colonel Edwin E.
Aldrin, Jr., Lunar Module Pilot (also flew on Gemini
12). The backup crew for this mission was Jim Lovell
(Gemini 7, Gemini 12, Apollo 8, later Apollo 13),
Fred Haise (later Apollo 13) and William Anders
(Apollo 8). The spacecraft call signs were ''Columbia''
(CSM) and ''Eagle'' (LM). The Apollo 11 Command
Module is in the National Air and Space Museum,
Washington, DC.
Launch from pad 39 A of the Kennedy Space Center
at Cape Canaveral on a Saturn V booster took place at
Chronological sequence of missions and events 207

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Figure 172 ASSB Set B and other proposed sites.
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Figure 172 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 209

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Figure 172 (cont.)
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13:32 UT on 16 July. Apollo 11 first entered an Earth
parking orbit, then after 1.5 orbits the S-IVB stage reig-
nited at 16:16 UT for the 5.8-minute translunar injection
burn which placed the spacecraft on its lunar trajectory.
After 33 minutes the CSM separated from the S-IVB
upper stage, then turned around and docked with the
LM at 16:56 UT. The S-IVB stage was then sent into a
solar orbit by one last burn. On 17 July during the
translunar coast a small trajectory correction was made.
Lunar orbit insertion took place on 19 July at 17:22
UT by burning the main engine for 357.5 seconds while
the spacecraft was over the lunar farside. A later burn
made the orbit circular. On 20 July astronauts
Armstrong and Aldrin entered the LM to prepare for
the landing. At 18:12 the LM separated from the CSM.
Its descent engine fired for 30 seconds at 19:08 UT to
drop the orbital low point to 14.5 km above the lunar
surface. Finally at 20:05 UT the descent engine fired for
756.3 seconds and the descent to the lunar surface began.
The LM landed at 20:18 UT at 0.678 N, 23.478 E, at
landing site ALS-2 in Mare Tranquillitatis. Armstrong
announced the landing with the words ''Houston,
Tranquillity Base here -- the Eagle has landed.'' The
name Tranquillity Base has been used ever since for
this spot, usually in its official Latin form ''Statio
Tranquillitatis'' (Stoyanka Spokoistviya on Russian
maps).
Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface at 02:56
UT on 21 July, with the words ''That's one small step f'ra
man, one giant leap for mankind.'' (the slurred
Figure 172 ASSB Set B and other proposed sites.
Base maps. Schro
¨ ter's Valley: Orbiter 5 frame 202-M; Abulfeda: Orbiter 5 frame 084-M; Mo
¨ sting C: Orbiter 3 frame 113-M;
Hipparchus: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Hipparchus (Orbiter V site 24), original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, November 1970;
Marius Hills: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Marius F (Orbiter V site 51), original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, April 1971; Hyginus:
US Army Lunar Topographic Photomap Rima Hyginus (Orbiter V site 23.1), original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, October 1970;
Copernicus: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Copernicus (Orbiter V site 37), original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, January 1971;
Tycho: Orbiter 5 frame 128-H; Tobias Mayer: Orbiter 5 frame 164-M; Dionysius: Orbiter 5 frame 081-M. Rima Bode II: Orbiter 5 frame
122-M; Gassendi: US Army Lunar Topographic Map Gassendi, Sheet B, Orbiter V site 43.2, original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition,
December 1971; Copernicus CD: Lunar Orbiter 5-137-M; South of Alexander: Lunar Orbiter 4-98-H2; Aristarchus: ACIC Lunar
Topographic Map Aristarchus, Orbiter V site 48, original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, January 1972; Apennines-Hadley: US Army
Lunar Topographic Map Rima Hadley, Sheets A and B, Orbiter V site 26.1, original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, January 1971; Montes
Harbinger: US Army Lunar Topographic Photomap Prinz, Orbiter V site 46, original scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, December 1970.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 211

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pronunciation of ''for a'' is usually misreported as ''for'').
Aldrin followed 19 minutes later. The astronauts set up a
flag, moved the TV camera from a mount on the LM
near the ladder to a stand 20 m northwest of the LM, and
shot a TV panorama for the live audience on Earth
(including this author).
They deployed surface experiments (page 235), took
photographs, and collected 21.7 kg of lunar rock and
soil, later dated about 3.6--3.8 billion years old. The
astronauts traversed a total distance of about 250 m.
They spoke live over the radio link with President
Richard Nixon. The EVA ended at 05:11 UT after 151
minutes when the astronauts returned to the LM and
closed the hatch.
The LM ascent stage launched from the lunar surface,
leaving the descent stage behind, at 17:54 UT on 21 July
after having spent 21.6 hours on the Moon. The LM
rendezvoused with the orbiting CSM and docked at
21:34 UT. It was unloaded and then separated at 00:01
UT on 22 July and left in lunar orbit. It probably
impacted at an unknown location near the equator
within 1 to 4 months.
The trans-Earth injection (TEI) burn beginning at
04:55 UT on 22 July sent the spacecraft out of lunar
orbit and back towards Earth. A trajectory correction
burn was made several hours later on the same day. As
the spacecraft approached Earth the CM separated
from the SM at 16:21 UT on 24 July, and the SM burned
up in the atmosphere. Apollo 11's Command Module
dropped safely into the Pacific Ocean at 16:50 UT on 24
July after a total mission elapsed time of 195 hours,
18 minutes, 35 seconds. The splashdown location was
138 190 N, 1698 90 W, about 600 km SSW of Wake Island
and 24 km from USS Hornet, the recovery ship.
Apollo 11 carried three 70-mm cameras, one addi-
tional data camera, two 16-mm data acquisition cameras,
and one 35-mm lunar surface stereoscopic closeup
camera. The photographs returned included 1359
70-mm frames, 58 134 frames of 16-mm automatic photo-
graphy, and 17 stereoscopic pairs.
Figure 173 Set B sites for later Apollo landings.
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The instruments deployed on the surface were an alu-
minium foil solar wind collector, exposed to the solar
wind to trap particles and returned to Earth for analysis,
a solar-powered passive seismic experiment (PSE)
designed to monitor ''moonquakes,'' and a laser ranging
retroreflector (LRRR) designed to return laser photons to
Earth for distance and dynamical studies. The PSE oper-
ated for two lunar days and the passive LRRR is still
functional. The PSE included a solar cell degradation
experiment called DTREM (dust, thermal and radiation
engineering measurements) to monitor loss of voltage
output due to radiation damage and dust accumulation.
The PSE and LRRR together constituted EASEP, the
Early Apollo Surface Experiment Package.
Figure 195A shows the three Apollo landing sites cho-
sen for Apollo 11. Site ALS-2 was preferred, but launch
delays could push the landing to Site 3 or Site 5 if
15° N
C
0°N
15° S
110° W
125° W
140° W
Figure 174 Zond 6 images of the Moon (left) and the setting
Earth (right). Images: MIIGAiK.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 213

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necessary. Figure 195B shows the Apollo 11 prime land-
ing ellipse, now enlarged to 20 km by 5 km (Figure 171).
Several informal names are shown. They were given to
landmarks which might be viewed during the descent to
help locate the landing site within the ellipse. The ''Trio''
crater group is shown in Figure 186. The center of the
ellipse was the nominal target, but landing at any site
would constitute a successful mission, unlike later land-
ings which were necessarily more constrained.
Other local placenames are shown in Figure 186, and
also in Figure 196, which is part of the Apollo 11 LM
Descent Monitoring Chart. Two crater groups known as
the Trio and Triangle, and a secondary crater cluster
called Cat's Paw are visible.
Figure 197A shows the Apollo 11 landing ellipse.
There are small discrepancies between plotted landing
ellipses in different documents (compare Figures 196
and 197A). This ellipse is taken from NASA graphic
S-69-3715, included in the Apollo 11 Mission Report
(MSC 1969a).
The background image is Apollo 10 frame AS10-34-
5158, with details from NASA- S-69--3715 at the eastern
end. The nominal landing point was the ellipse centre, so
a small area near that point was recreated at full size at
Cinder Lake, near Flagstaff, Arizona, for astronaut
training. Several informal names are shown in the figure.
Figure 197B is an enlargement of part of Figure 197A
showing the approach to the landing site. The spacecraft
was about 1500 m south and about 7 km ahead of its
intended position. The flight computer would have
brought the LM down in a rocky area near the rim of
West Crater (''targeted landing point'' in Figure 197C),
but Armstrong flew manually on to a smooth spot 500 m
further west (Figure 197C, part of Lunar Orbiter 5 image
V-76-H1).
West crater, named after the landing, takes its name
from its location near the west end of the ellipse, but also
can be seen as commemorating Mareta N. West
(1915--1998), one of the USGS astrogeologists at
Flagstaff who worked on Apollo site selection, including
this site. The small crater inside the black ''Fig. 198A''
box is Little West Crater, shown in Figure 198 and in
the partial panorama Fig 200H. In the Apollo Lunar
Surface Journal this crater is called ''East Crater'' from
its location relative to the landed LM.
Figure 198A shows surface activities at the landing
site. Double Crater is prominent in the panoramas in
Figure 200.
Figure 198B is an enlargement of Figure 198A show-
ing the sample collection areas. The contingency sample
was collected by Armstrong from the area with the heavy
black outline as soon as he set foot on the surface, in case
an emergency departure became necessary. The bulk
samples were collected quickly from four areas (white
outlines) to provide as much lunar material as possible.
The documented samples were collected from within the
thin black outline, with careful descriptions and before
and after photographic records, so that the identities and
lunar orientations of rocks would be known. Two cores,
10 cm and 13.5 cm deep, were obtained by hammering
hollow tubes into the soil. The Apollo Lunar Surface
Closeup Camera (ALSCC) was used to take stereoscopic
pairs of photographs of small areas in the regions
indicated.
Apollo 11 orbital photographic coverage is shown in
Figure 199. High-resolution images were taken along the
groundtrack by both the crew and automated cameras.
Oblique views showed areas north and south of the
groundtrack. The candidate Hipparchus landing site
was photographed very near the terminator. Lower-
resolution images were obtained as Apollo 11 left lunar
orbit on the return journey. The spacecraft spent two
Figure 175 Zond 6 photographic coverage.
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days in orbit, during which the terminator moved about
258, so the longitudinal extent of photography is about
2058, not 1808.
Apollo 11 surface photography is presented in
Figure 200 in the form of panoramic views compiled by
P. Stooke.
Figure 201 shows Columbia, the Apollo 11 CSM,
seen from Eagle (the LM) in lunar orbit, with part of
Mare Fecunditatis in the background.
In 1970 the International Astronomical Union
approved names for three craters near the Apollo 11
landing site to commemorate the crew. Normally,
Figure 176 Flagstaff rover missions.
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names of living people are not assigned to craters, but
this exception and a few others (Figures 104, 178) were
deemed acceptable. Craters previously known as Sabine
B, D and E are now called Aldrin, Collins and
Armstrong respectively (Figure 202).
In Figure 203 Apollo 11 astronaut Aldrin (far left) is
standing beside the PSE (seismometer) with the LM in
the background. The PSE solar panels are deployed east
and west. Just behind the PSE is the laser reflector
(LRRR), tilted to face Earth. Alternate deployment
positions for LRRR and PSE were north, east and west
of the LM at about the same distance, if obstacles made
the southern location unsatisfactory.
7 August 1969: Zond 7 (Soviet Union)
The 5979 kg Zond 7 was a further test of systems
required for cosmonauts to visit the Moon, similar to
the missions of Zonds 4, 5 and 6. The spacecraft was
Figure 177 Apollo 8 farside mosaic strip.
Figure 178 Craters named after Apollo 1 and Apollo 8 crewmembers.
Base map: detail of US Geological Survey map I-1218-A, Map Showing Relief and Surface Markings on the Lunar Far Side,
original scale 1: 5 000 000, 1980.
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launched from Baikonur at 23:48 UT, entered parking
orbit, and then was placed on its translunar trajectory.
Like Zond 6 it obtained photography of Earth and
the Moon (Figure 204). Earth photos were obtained on
9 August. On 11 August the spacecraft flew past the
moon at a distance of 1985 km and conducted two
picture-taking sessions, obtaining Earthset views and
20 terminator images but, on this mission, no full-disk
images. Zond 7 images extended Zond 6 coverage into
the nearside. The original images were exposed on col-
our film and returned to Earth for processing. Those
used here were provided by MIIGAiK.
Zond 7 re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 14
August and landed safely about 50 km from its pre-
planned target south of Kustanai. This was the only
fully successful flight of the lunar version of the Soyuz
spacecraft, and the only one which would have returned
its crew alive.
23 August 1969: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
ASSB had approved a sequence of landings at its last
meeting (page 202), but GLEP now considered some
minor changes which had become necessary as detailed
mission plans were drawn up (Table 38).
Alternative lists were presented by Calvin H. Perrine
and Dennis James, and after discussion GLEP
approved a modified list. They also considered require-
ments for equipment and experiments, as shown in the
notes column of Table 38. The choice of sites depended
in part on when particular items (e.g. a rover) or cap-
abilities (additional stay time permitting more EVAs)
would be ready.
23 September 1969: Luna (Cosmos 300) (Soviet
Union)
Cosmos 300 was another attempted robotic soil-return
mission similar to Lunas 15 and 16, and directed to a
target in the same general area spanning Mare
Fecunditatis and Mare Crisium. The spacecraft was
stranded in low Earth orbit because of an upper-stage
malfunction, and given a generic ''Cosmos''
designation.
Figure 179 Apollo 8 farside communication designators.
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Figure 180 Apollo 8 photographic coverage.
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22 October 1969: Luna (Cosmos 305) (Soviet Union)
Cosmos 305 was another in the series of attempted
robotic soil-return missions similar to Lunas 15 and 16,
and directed to a target in the same general area span-
ning Mare Fecunditatis and Mare Crisium. This space-
craft suffered the same fate as Cosmos 300.
16--17 October 1969: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
This meeting took place over two days. Alternative land-
ing sequences continued to be discussed as planning for the
later landings continued. Numerous lists circulated and
appeared in committee minutes. Table 39 is a composite
of several lists from the minutes of this GLEP meeting.
The numerous variant lists at this time complicate the
process of tracking landing-site selection. Figure 205 illus-
trates the variety of mission proposals by mapping EVA
routes and sample sites from a variety of sources.
Additional sites were also discussed at this meeting,
including Hyginus, Lassell, Hipparchus, Abulfeda and
Alphonsus, all of which had proponents and opponents.
Harold Masursky opined at this meeting that
''Hipparchus is the least interesting site on the Moon,''
and indeed it was dropped from consideration as its
goals could be met elsewhere. Finally, Apollo 13 site
planning continued as summarized in Table 40.
The Lalande site had not been included in any of the
earlier evaluations of possible sites. It is illustrated in
Figure 206. Its coordinates are 48 550 S, 88 300 W.
Figure 205 shows alternate EVA plans for potential
late Apollo sites.
At about this time the Censorinus site was also being
reassessed (MSC 1970). The landing sites considered
previously (Figure 160) were close to the crater rim,
but the density of large blocks might be too great for a
safe touchdown. Two sites more distant from the crater
were chosen as alternatives (Figure 207).
On the other hand, Censorinus had been favored initi-
ally for being one of the few small fresh impacts in highland
Figure 181 Apollo 8 global image of the Moon.
Figure 182 Soviet cosmonaut landing areas.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 219

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Table 33. GLEP second mission priorities, 27 March 1969.
A. Considering prime sites only
First landing:
IIP-2
IIP-6
IIP-8
IIIP-11
IIP-13
Second landing:
IIP-2
X
2
2
3
3
IIP-6
2
X
--
1
1
IIP-8
3
--
X
2
2
IIIP-11
1b
1b
1b
X
--
IIP-13
1a
1a
1a
--
X
B. Considering relocated sites
First landing:
IIP-2
IIP-6
IIP-8
IIIP-11
IIP-13
Second landing:
IIP-2
X
2
2
3
3
IIP-6
2
X
--
1
1
IIP-8R
3
--
X
2
2
IIIP-11R
1b
1b
1b
5
4
IIIP-12R
1a
1a
1a
4
5
X: not considered for the second landing because (in this plan) the site had already been visited.
R: relocated site. A dash (--) indicates that this site would not be considered for the second
landing. Sites 1a and 1b were both high priority, with 1a slightly preferred over 1b. Site IIIP-12R
is the Flamsteed hill location (Figure 159A).
Figure 183 Proposed Orientale
basin traverse.
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materials in the narrow Apollo zone. There might be other
more interesting fresh impact sites at higher latitudes,
reachable by Apollo once the free return constraint was
dropped (page 33). Lockheed Electronics Company
(1969) looked for alternatives in a report presented to
MSC on 3 October. The report identified 24 small fresh
highland craters similar in appearance to Censorinus and
suitable as possible landing sites, based on a survey of
Lunar Orbiter 4 images of the nearside (Table 41).
30 October 1969: Apollo Site Selection Board
The Board considered the various GLEP lists, especially
the ''prime site'' list (Table 39) which originated from
MSC. Hadley was considered to give a better view of a
sinuous rille than Rima Prinz I, so Hadley was retained
and Prinz dropped from consideration. Descartes and
Hadley Rille were readily accessible, and the Marius site
was available for only two months each summer, but
Copernicus and Tycho were difficult to reach.
Descartes, Hadley, Davy and Censorinus required
further photography, which would have to come from
earlier Apollo flights. Since Littrow could provide this
''bootstrap'' photography for Hadley it was preferred
over Rima Bode I for an otherwise comparable site.
Tycho was assigned the last Apollo flight to leave time
to address the accessibility issues. The Board finally
settled on the prime and alternate lists in Table 42 for
planning purposes.
The Board also considered the landing site for Apollo
13. For a launch in March 1970, Fra Mauro was the
prime target, and no suitable backup was available. For
a launch in April 1970 Site 6R (Flamsteed hill) would
Figure 184 Redesignated Apollo site IIIP-11R.
Base map: from Figure 151.
This new site is adjacent to a cluster of craters thought to be Tycho secondary craters. If so they might allow the Tycho impact
to be dated, and provide samples of Tycho ejecta.
Figure 185 Apollo 10 image AS10-34-5158 showing the
Apollo 11 landing site.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 221

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serve as a backup. If Fra Mauro was found unaccepta-
ble, Hyginus would be the target, with Site 6R as
backup. Fra Mauro would only be acceptable if Apollo
12 achieved a pinpoint landing.
14 November 1969: Apollo 12 (United States:
NASA)
Apollo 12 was the second human landing on the Moon. It
was intended to demonstrate the ability to land within
walking distance of a specified target, which would be
essential for future landings. The crew were Commander
Charles P. ''Pete'' Conrad (also flew on Gemini 5 and
Gemini 11, and later Skylab 2), Command Module Pilot
Richard F. Gordon (Gemini 11) and Lunar Module Pilot
Alan L. Bean (also flew on Skylab 3). The backup crew were
David R. Scott, James B. Irwin and Alfred M. Worden. The
CSM call sign was Yankee Clipper, the LM was Intrepid.
Launch from Pad 39 A at Cape Canaveral was at
16:22 UT. Just 36 seconds after launch, and again 16
seconds later, the Saturn V rocket was struck by light-
ning. Luckily the only effect was a momentary power
outage. The spacecraft reached a parking orbit after
11.75 minutes and its health was checked carefully. At
19:15 UT, after 1.5 orbits, the 5.75-minute SIVB upper-
stage trans-lunar injection burn began. Then 25 minutes
later the CSM separated from the SIVB, turned, and
docked with the LM at 19:49 UT.
The SIVB was placed in a distant Earth orbit with a
43-day period instead of the intended solar orbit due to
an instrument error. An unexpected postscript to this
event unfolded when an apparently asteroidal object,
J002E3, was detected orbiting Earth on 3 September
2003 by Canadian amateur astronomer Bill Yeung,
observing in El Centro, California. Its trajectory sug-
gested it had been captured from solar orbit.
Spectroscopy indicated a painted surface similar to a
Saturn rocket. Orbit analysis suggests that the Apollo
12 SIVB completed nine or ten Earth orbits after launch,
then passed through the L1 Sun--Earth Lagrange point
where terrestrial and solar gravity are about equal, and
slipped into solar orbit in March 1971. After 33 solar
orbits and 31 Earth years it again passed through the L1
region in April 2002 and became a temporary satellite
Figure 186 Informal placenames used by the crew of Apollo 10.
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Figure 187 Apollo 10 photographic coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 223

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again. Six orbits later it slipped through the same region
and into solar orbit in June 2003. This scenario will
probably repeat several times until the SIVB meets its
ultimate fate of hitting Earth or the Moon.
The LM was checked out during trans-lunar cruise. A
trajectory correction was made at 02:15 UT on 16
November.
Another burn at 03:47 UT on 18 November put
Apollo 12 into its initial lunar orbit, which was circular-
ized after two orbits. Conrad and Bean separated the
LM from the CSM at 04:16 UT on 19 November, began
the descent at 05:47 UT, and landed at Site 7 (3.018 S,
23.428 W) in Oceanus Procellarum at 06:54 UT. Conrad
and Bean performed two EVAs, the first on 19
November and the second on 20 November, during
which an Apollo lunar surface experiments package
(ALSEP) was set up, 34.4 kg of lunar material were
collected, numerous photographs were taken, and parts
were removed from Surveyor 3 for return to Earth.
The LM ascent stage lifted off from the Moon on
20 November at 14:25 UT after 31.5 hours on the surface,
and docked with the CSM at 17:58 UT. After transfer-
ring samples and equipment to the CSM, the ascent stage
was jettisoned at 20:21 UT and deliberately crashed on
the lunar surface at 22:17 UT to create an artificial seis-
mic signal for the ALSEP seismometer. The impact point
was 3.948 S, 21.208 W, about 60 km southeast of the land-
ing site. The trans-Earth injection burn began at 20:49
UT on 21 November, and a trajectory correction was
made on 22 November. The CM separated from the
SM at 20:29 UT on 24 November and splashed down at
158 470 S, 1658 90 W in the Pacific Ocean near Samoa,
6.9 km from the recovery ship USS Hornet, at 20:58
UT. The whole mission lasted 244.6 hours. The Apollo
12 Command Module is in the Virginia Air and Space
Center, Hampton, Virginia.
Apollo 12 carried a 70-mm Hasselblad electric camera,
two Hasselblad data cameras, two 16-mm Maurer auto-
mated cameras, one 35-mm lunar surface closeup camera
for stereoscopic photography, and a four-camera, multi-
spectral experiment to photograph potential future landing
sites (Fra Mauro, Descartes, Theophilus) from orbit. The
photographs included 1584 70-mm frames, 69 519 16-mm
frames, 15 stereoscopic pairs, and 552 frames of photogra-
phy from the multispectral system. Parts returned from
Surveyor 3 showed some effects of exposure to the lunar
environment. Samples of lunar material showed that the
mare surface in this area consisted of basalt lavas erupted
about 3.2 billion years ago, four hundred million years
younger than the Apollo 11 samples.
Figure 208A shows the Apollo 11 landing site, and the
Apollo 12 prime site (ALS-7) and backup site (ALS-5).
Since the goal was a pinpoint landing, the Apollo Site
Selection Board asked the Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning to identify interesting points in the Site 5 ellipse.
Newell Trask (USGS) identified nine small fresh craters
(small open circles in Figure 208B). The chosen landing
point is shown as a filled circle near one of the craters
(208B) and in more detail in 208C. The four crater cross
would serve as a navigation landmark during descent.
The crew would visit one or both of the indicated fresh
craters, which have internal benches thought to indicate
exposed bedrock (Wilhelms 1993; El-Baz 1969).
The Apollo 12 landing ellipse is shown in Figure 209.
The accuracy with which Apollo 12 could be guided to
its target was still uncertain, given the experience with
Apollo 11 (page 234). The nominal landing point (the
landing site if everything went according to plan) was at
the centre of the ellipse in Figure 209. The Flight
Figure 188 Apollo 10 image of Censorinus.
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Analysis Branch of MSC's Mission Planning and
Analysis Division performed studies (MSC 1969b) of
the effects of dispersion of the trajectory caused by navi-
gation uncertainties and mascon-induced gravitational
effects (page 143). One of their plots shows dispersed
landing points caused by the largest expected effects,
shown as white dots in Figure 209. Errors were more
likely along the east-to-west orbit track than to the side.
Figure 189 Marius Hills mission plan.
Eight rover traverses (LRV: lunar roving vehicle) would fan out among the volcanic hills and flows. Labels on the map have the following
meanings: ALSEP: the instrument package to be deployed on the surface. 3-g array, 8-g array: arrays of three and eight geophones
set out to measure subsurface structure. The 8-geophone array is set out across a valley thought to mark a deep fracture. Stars
indicate locations for explosive charges for the active seismic experiment. G: gravity measurements. H: heat flow measurements.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 225

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Coordinates given for these points (not matching the
grid on this map because they were based on an updated
coordinate system) are given in Table 43.
Figure 209 also shows informal names for two navi-
gation landmarks in the region, the Crescent, a curving
chain of 400--800 m diameter craters, and the Three
Sisters, a row of 250--400 m craters at the centre of the
crescent. The middle crater of both the Crescent and the
Three Sisters became known later as ''Middle Crescent''
crater (Figure 213) and was visited by the Apollo 12
astronauts (MSC 1969b).
Apollo 11's EVAs could not be planned in advance
because the landing point would probably be beyond
walking range of the nominal target. Apollo 12's expected
''pinpoint'' landing allowed detailed pre-planning for the
first time.
Apollo 12 pre-mission plans are shown in
Figure 210. The landing target used for navigation
during descent was 300 m east and 150 m north of
Surveyor 3. The Commander could try to land closer
to Surveyor if fuel permitted it, but planners knew this
first attempt at a ''pinpoint'' landing might be some-
what off target. Plans were drawn up just before launch
for possible landings at four sites in the vicinity, each
with two EVAs laid out to visit and sample interesting
locations. These are not the same as the dispersed land-
ing points in Figure 209, which were worst-case scenar-
ios. The first EVA would include ALSEP deployment,
so it covered a shorter distance. Possible extensions to
reach Surveyor 3 are shown for three EVAs (dashed
lines). LM 1 was the preferred site, usually shown in
contemporary news reports and referred to as ''Pete's
(or Conrad's) Parking Lot.''
Another informal name widely used for Apollo 12 was
Snowman, a group of craters including Surveyor and
Head. The Snowman is outlined in white in Figure 210.
Table 34. Early Apollo landing site options.
First landing
Sites 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (sites 2, 3 and 5 preferred)
Second landing
Conservative approach
Aggressive approach
1,2,3,4or5
Include relocated sites: 1, 2, 3R, 4R, 6R
Conservative approach
Intermediate approach
Aggressive approach
Third landing
Include relocated sites: 1, 2,
3R, 4R, 6R
Exploration sites in Apollo zone:
Censorinus, Fra Mauro
Exploration sites outside
Apollo zone: Tycho rim, Littrow
Table 35. Scientific goals of Apollo landings at Surveyor sites.
Surveyor 1 Investigate and sample block field several hundred meters south of Surveyor and fresh crater east
of Surveyor; return specified rocks; examine footpad and ''crushable block'' shock absorber imprints in soil
for mechanical properties of soil.
Surveyor 3 Return specified rocks; examine footpad imprints for erosion effects; examine trenches; examine
spacecraft parts for changes; look for evidence of downslope transport of regolith.
Surveyor 5 Return samples analyzed by ASI; see if Surveyor has shifted downhill; sample blocks on crater rim
200 m north of Surveyor; return specified rocks.
Surveyor 6 Examine wrinkle ridge and nearby craters; return samples analyzed by ASI; photograph magnets
carried by spacecraft and return any magnetic material adhering to them; examine pre- and post-hop footpad
imprints and vernier blast disturbances.
Surveyor 7 Return specified rocks, including from rock-filled crater near Surveyor; return samples analysed by ASI;
examine trenches for erosion or slumping; return or examine magnets and mirrors; sample the ''lake,'' ridges
and apparent flows northeast of Surveyor.
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The easily recognizable Snowman was a navigation land-
mark for the LM crew during their descent.
The actual landing occurred about 200 m west of LM
1, and the long second EVA was redesigned based on
part of the LM 4 plan (Figure 215). The initial landing
target and actual landing point are shown as white cir-
cles in Figure 210.
Operations planned near the landed Lunar Module
are shown in Figure 211. As each astronaut stepped off
the LM he would take a few minutes to familiarize
himself with balance and walking in the lunar environ-
ment. The contingency sample would be collected
nearby. The TV camera, initially mounted on the side
of the LM to observe the crew's first steps, would be
moved on its stand to the position labelled TV-1 for a
panorama of the surroundings and then to monitor
equipment unloading.
The plan called for the large S-band antenna and
solar wind collector (SWC) to be erected as shown in
Figure 211. The camera would be moved to TV-2 to view
ALSEP unloading, and then reoriented (TV-3) to view
ALSEP deployment. The deployment area here is to the
southeast, not the west as in Figure 210.
At the end of EVA 1 the camera would be placed at
TV-4 to view the return to the LM. During EVA 2 the
camera would be placed at TV-6 (number 5 was not
used) to view the long geology traverse, and then
moved to TV-7 for the final operations, crew ingress
and jettison of equipment.
The plans shown in Figure 210 had to be modified
when Intrepid landed on the north rim of Surveyor
Crater. EVA 1 began at 11.44 UT on 19 November, 4.5
hours after landing, a little delayed while the plans were
modified. Conrad, the first on the surface, collected a
contingency sample and passed it up to the LM cabin
before Bean climbed out. Bean carried the TV camera
out to its first deployment position, but accidentally mis-
pointed it, causing it to be damaged by the bright sun.
Hitting the camera with a hammer failed to fix it, so no
further TV transmissions from the surface were possible.
The S-band antenna, solar wind collector and flag
(Figure 212) were erected near the LM, and three
panoramic photo sequences were taken (Figure 218).
Next the ALSEP was removed from its storage area,
the plutonium fuel source was placed in the radioisotope
thermoelectric generator (RTG), and Bean carried the
ALSEP out to a site 120 m northwest of the LM selected
by Conrad, who had walked on ahead. The two astro-
nauts then set up the instruments, which were turned on
from Earth two hours after the EVA started.
Three hours into the EVA, with the equipment all set
up, the crew set about collecting a larger set of lunar
samples, ''selected samples,'' the equivalent of Apollo
11's bulk sample. They sampled and photographed two
mounds of regolith near the ALSEP site, then walked
quickly another 70 m northwest to the rim of Middle
Crescent Crater. Middle Crescent was referred to in
voice transmissions as ''the thousand-foot crater.''
Linear patterns were reported in the regolith near here,
either optical illusions caused by the low Sun or pro-
duced by sprays of ejecta from the myriad small craters
nearby. More samples and photographs were taken at
Middle Crescent and on the way back to the LM.
Another set of three panoramas were photographed
around the LM because there was some concern that the
first set had been spoiled by incorrect focus settings.
Next, a core tube was driven into the surface near the
TV camera to study layering in the regolith. Its core
Figure 190 Apollo 10 and 11 highland photography targets.
(Plotted on the Figure 80 base.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 227

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sample was 19 cm long. Bean tried changing settings on
the TV camera but could not repair it. Finally the sam-
ples were stowed in the LM and the crew re-entered the
cabin. EVA 1 lasted 3 hours 56 minutes.
The first EVA is depicted in Figure 213. Small circles
(P) are the locations of panoramic photographs, and semi-
circles indicate partial panoramas, as at Middle Crescent
crater. A typical panorama consists of about 20 images.
Panoramas were designed to provide exact locations for
equipment or activities and to show the nature (roughness,
rock distribution etc.) of each locality (Figure 218). S
indicates the approximate sample collection locations.
The total distance walked was about 800 m.
Figure 214 shows the immediate landing area, with
the equipment deployed near the LM. The solar wind
collector was exposed for 18.7 hours, and then retrieved
to return solar wind samples to Earth. The broken TV
camera was also returned to Earth. The LM is shown at
the correct scale. Other features are shown schemati-
cally, but locations are correct. The contingency sample
was collected from the rim of a small crater immediately
after landing, and a core tube sample was collected near
the TV camera at the end of EVA 1.
As soon as the approximate landing point became
clear, mission planners in Houston sketched out a pos-
sible route for the second EVA (Figure 215). This ver-
sion of the plan included stops at several craters, a
descent to the bottom of Surveyor crater and a visit to
Surveyor 3 (point 5). It is a modification of one of the
routes shown in Figure 210. The astronauts descended
into Surveyor crater diagonally along the eastern wall
rather than as shown here (Figure 216).
Table 36. GLEP Set B candidate sites presented to ASSB.
Name
Features
Coordinates
Name
Features
Coordinates
Censorinus
Fresh highland impact
crater
08170S,328390EM
o
¨ sting C Fresh impact crater in
mare
18550S,88030W
Rima Littrow Mare ridge, dark mantle
material
218 350 N, 288 560 E Hipparchus Old crater basin fill
48360S,38400E
Abulfeda
Volcanic crater chain,
deposits, in highlands 148 500 S, 148 000 E Prinz
Double sinuous rille,
access to its mouth
area
258570N,438400W
Rima Hyginus Linear rille, volcanic
deposits
78 520 N, 68 070 E Gassendi Crater, rilles, mare
deposits
178500S,408200W
Rima Hadley Young sinuous rille,
mountains of Imbrium
basin rim
258 020 N, 28 550 E Dionysius Fresh crater, light and
dark rays
28310N,178490E
Tycho
Young large highland
impact
418 080 S, 118 350 W Alexander Domes and rilles near
large basin
378460N,148060E
Copernicus Peak Large crater central
peaks
98 360 N, 198 530 W Alphonsus Dark halo craters, rilles
and faults in crater 138 350 S, 48 110 W
Copernicus Wall Large crater walls,
impact melt
108 220 N,
198 590 W
Rima
Bode II Linear rille, dark mantle,
volcanic deposits
128470N,38490W
Schro¨ ter's Valley Large and small rilles,
dome and rille
complex on plateau
248 360 N,
498 030 W
Copernicus
CD
Dark mantle, domes, on
Copernicus ejecta
68320N,148580W
Marius F
Volcanic domes, rilles
and flows
158 100 N,
568 310 W
Tobias
Mayer P Dome, rille, highland
ridge
138180N,318110W
Fra Mauro
Imbrium ejecta
38 450 S, 178 360 W Aristarchus Young large impact
crater
248240N,47850'W
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EVA 2 began at 03:55 UT on 20 November (still 19
November in the United States), after a rest period in
which the astronauts found themselves unable to sleep
well. The EVA started 1 hour 40 minutes ahead of
schedule and lasted 3 hours 49 minutes. First the astro-
nauts collected the damaged TV camera for return to
Earth. Conrad then walked to the ALSEP to check the
orientation of the cold cathode gauge (CCG). His
approach was recorded by the seismometer and the
CCG. Bean walked to the rim of Head crater to meet
Conrad, who picked up a grapefruit-sized rock and
rolled it down the slope of Head crater. They were now
100 m from the seismometer, which did not detect vibra-
tions from the rolling rock.
A 15 cm deep trench dug in this area revealed light
gray material below a darker surface layer, and one
small crater had a white rim. There were taken as signs
that Copernicus ray material might be present at the site,
as had been hoped (page 205). Glass beads were noted
in the regolith throughout the EVA. The common occur-
rence of glass is a result of sudden melting and cooling of
rocks and soil during impacts in the vicinity.
Just south of Head crater, on the way to Bench crater,
the crew observed rounded rocks with fillets (debris
banked against the rock) on all sides. A rock found
partially buried near Bench crater had a strikingly iri-
descent coating, probably impact glass. At Bench, soil
disturbances again revealed lighter toned material
beneath a darker surface. At Sharp crater a 20 cm deep
trench was dug, and a core sample was taken in the
trench. Here the light material was seen at the surface.
The regolith was very soft around Sharp, but noticeably
firmer around Bench as the crew began the return jour-
ney from this most distant point on the traverse, about
400 m from the LM.
The astronauts made their way back to the rim of
Surveyor crater, then turned south to take a double
core sample and other samples just south of Halo crater.
Some samples collected at Halo crater were not returned
to Earth, to allow the damaged television camera to be
returned instead. Returning to Surveyor crater the astro-
nauts descended the inner slope diagonally, aiming for
Surveyor 3 which had come to rest on the eastern wall of
the crater.
Conrad approached Surveyor directly while Bean
walked a little higher along the crater slope and then
descended roughly along the path followed by Surveyor
3 as it bounced (Figure 115). There is no indication that
he observed the footpad impressions from Surveyor's
earlier touchdowns.
The astronauts photographed the Surveyor and its
footpad imprints and trenches, looking for evidence of
changes. The once-white spacecraft had faded to brown
in places, and several chips caused by micrometeorites
Table 37. GLEP and ASSB Apollo landing sequences, 10 July 1969.
Mission
GLEP proposal
GLEP alternative site Geological characteristics
ASSB site
G-1
Site 2
Old mare surface
Site 2
H-1
Site5or4
Young mare surface, Kepler ejecta
Flamsteed or
site 7
H-2
Fra Mauro
Formation
Hipparchus, Cayley
Formation
Imbrium ejecta (alternate sites:
highland plains areas)
Fra Mauro
Formation
H-3
Rima Bode II
Hyginus, Littrow
Valley, dark volcanic deposits
Censorinus
H-4
Censorinus
3.8 km diameter fresh impact crater
Rima Bode II
J-1
Copernicus peaks
Central peaks, volcanic (?) mounds
on floor
Tycho rim
J-2
Marius Hills
Variety of volcanic domes and flows
Copernicus
peaks
J-3
Tycho
Surveyor 7, flows, ejecta
Marius Hills
J-4
Rima Prinz I
Schro¨ ter's Valley
Sinuous rille (alternative site is older) Descartes
J-5
Descartes
Abulfeda
Highland volcanic materials
Rima Prinz I
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were found on its smooth surfaces. A bacterium was
found on a returned Surveyor part, but almost certainly
as a result of contamination during or after the Apollo
12 flight rather than from Surveyor 3 itself. Several
components including the TV camera and soil scoop
were retrieved.
The crew then photographed Block crater and
returned to the LM. In the final minutes of the EVA
they retrieved the solar wind collector and used the
Apollo lunar surface close-up camera (ALSCC) to take
15 stereoscopic image pairs in the vicinity of the LM.
Samples collected on the 1500 m traverse were documen-
ted with stereoscopic and before and after photography.
Results of the Apollo 12 geology investigation include
a measured age for the mare surface in this area of about
3.2 billion years, 500 million years younger than the
Apollo 11 site. This conclusively demonstrated that all
maria were not formed by the same event and that the
Moon had had a fairly long and complex geological
history. The regolith was estimated to be about half as
deep as on the older mare sampled by Apollo 11. Some
samples of possible Copernicus ejecta have ages of about
850 million years.
The ALSEP instruments were set out between small
craters (Figure 217), connected by cables to a central
station which collected and transmitted data to Earth.
Electrical power was provided by a small nuclear gen-
erator (RTG). The magnetometer detected a weak local
field, and also the effects of the Moon's passage through
Earth's magnetospheric tail. The solar wind spectro-
meter characterized the solar wind and Earth's magneto-
spheric tail. The suprathermal ion detector experiment
examined the lunar ionosphere, including any ionized
products of gases emitted from the Moon itself or the
LM. The cold cathode gauge was designed to detect
atmospheric gases from the same sources. It failed after
Figure 191 Sites considered for Apollo landings in July 1969.
Circles: sites scheduled for landing in Table 37. Squares: additional sites under study. Solid symbols: sites with adequate
photography already available. Open symbols: sites for which more bootstrap photography was needed.
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Figure 192 Sampling objectives at six later Apollo sites.
Large circles show the range of expected mobility from the landing site at the center of the circle. Black dots are sampling locations.
Figures 192A and B are shown on the Figure 160 base maps, Figures 192C and 192F on the Figure 172 base maps, Figure 192D on
the Figure 167 base map, Figure 192E on the Figure 233A base map.

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14 hours of operation. Layout and equipment shape is
schematic but approximately correct. The Apollo 12
ALSEP operated until 30 September 1977 when all the
ALSEPs were turned off (page 369).
Apollo 12 panoramas (Figure 218) reveal a diversity
of craters.
The Apollo 12 landing site was 508 further west than
Apollo 11's, so orbital photography (Figure 219)
extended into areas not seen by earlier Apollo missions
(Figures 180, 187, 200). Bootstrap photography of Fra
Mauro helped confirm that as the Apollo 13 target.
After leaving lunar orbit on the return journey, lower
resolution images were obtained from high altitudes. A
white outline indicates a strip of experimental multi-
spectral imaging, intended to reveal compositional
variations.
Apollo 12 image AS12-52-7957 (Figure 220) included
the hilly target for Apollo 13 (upper right corner). This
rough material, the Fra Mauro Formation, is ejecta
thrown out of the Imbrium basin by the asteroid impact
which formed it.
The Lunar Module ascent stage was separated from
the CSM after unloading, and deliberately crashed near
the landing site to create a seismic signal of known
strength for the passive seismic experiment. The deorbit
burn was two seconds longer than intended, causing
the ascent stage to crash short of its target. The target
was 3.348 S, 23.428 W, 9 km south of the landing site.
The impact site was estimated to be 3.958 S, 21.178 W. A
prolonged vibration was detected by the seismometer.
The crater caused by the impact has not been identified.
Figure 193 Luna 15 impact area.
Base map. Figure 193: a composite of ACIC charts LAC 44
(Cleomedes), first edition December 1965, and LAC 62 (Mare
Undarum), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, February 1964.
Figure 194 Luna 15 impact area.
Base map: detail of Apollo 17 metric camera frame AS17-M-0426 (dark swirls are film defects).
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Figure 221A shows the landing site region with target
and impact areas, based on Figure 3 of the Apollo 12
Post Launch Mission Operation Report, which mislo-
cates the sites but is corrected here. The coordinates
given above are from that report but they do not corre-
spond to this map grid, so the plotted positions are
shifted here to match surface features rather than the
grid. The Copernicus ray (page 205) is indicated.
Figure 221B shows the impact region in more detail. Its
grid was mislabelled in the original and has been cor-
rected here. Figure 221C shows the impact region. Given
the uncertainties the ascent stage impact could have
occurred anywhere in 221C. This confused account illus-
trates the numerous inconsistencies in these documents.
6 February 1970: Luna 1970A (Soviet Union)
This mission was another attempted robotic soil-return
mission similar to Luna 15 and the ultimately successful
Luna 16. The launch was from Baikonur, but the launch
vehicle failed to place the spacecraft in Earth orbit. The
landing target would have been somewhere in the Mare
Crisium or Mare Fecunditatis areas targeted by Lunas
15 and 16.
6 February 1970: Group for Lunar Exploration
Planning
The Group for Lunar Exploration Planning met on 6
and 7 February in Houston to review landing site assign-
ments. Fra Mauro was now the highest priority as it
promised material older than the Apollo 11 and 12
lavas, consisting of debris excavated from a considerable
depth by the impact which formed the Imbrium basin.
The Group favored the Davy crater chain (Figure 222)
for the H-4 mission (see Tables 42 and 44) as it might
provide volcanic material from deep sources, but it
wanted to land as close to the highland terrain as
Figure 195 Apollo 11 landing area.
Base map: a composite of the Ranger and Orbiter maps also used in Figure 140A.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 233

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possible to permit sampling highland material; if this
was not practical, Censorinus was preferred. The
Group recommended that the Hadley (J-4) site be
moved from the west side of the Rille (Figure 206) to
the east near Hadley C (Figures 168B, 172), giving access
to the Apennine Mountains and samples of more than
one type of material. The Apollo 12 LM ascent-stage
impact had provided interesting seismic data, so GLEP
recommended that the much larger Saturn IVB upper
stage should be impacted on all remaining missions.
Figure 196 Detail of Apollo 11 LM Descent Monitoring Chart.
Figure 197 The Apollo 11 landing site.
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Much thought was given at about this time to the use
of the electric-powered rover which would be ready for
the later J-series missions. GLEP recommended that on
missions carrying both a rover and an ALSEP, the
ALSEP be deployed first. They also considered the
rover's capabilities for extending exploration.
Four sorties were developed by a group including
representatives of Bellcomm, USGS, NASA's Marshall
Space Flight Center in Huntsville and Boeing, which had
built the rover. They laid out short (600--2400 m long)
''sortie legs'' on high-resolution topographic maps of Fra
Mauro, at that time the best-mapped site with substan-
tial topographic relief. These legs were combined to
create fictitious sorties of about the total length
Bellcomm had planned for sites at Marius, Hadley,
Copernicus and Tycho (Figure 206). These were used
for mission operational studies. Examples of Copernicus
Peaks and Marius Hills traverse plans on this fictitious
terrain were presented at the GLEP meeting, the
Figure 198 Apollo 11 landing site and surface activities.
P denotes panorama locations, SWC the solar wind collector, LRRR the lunar ranging retroreflector, PSE the passive seismic
experiment; and TV the location of the television camera on its stand, set up later in the EVA. The first TV images were taken while the
camera was mounted on the side of the LM. Areas disturbed by footprints are shown in a darker tone, including Armstrong's brief
sortie to Little West Crater at the end of the EVA. The map is adapted from Apollo 11, 12, and 14 Traverses, prepared by the US
Geological Survey and published by the Defense Mapping Agency, undated (c. 1972).
Figure 197 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 235

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Copernicus example covering 10.5 km in 5 hours 40
minutes and Marius covering 19.3 km in 5.1 hours.
Figure 222 shows the Davy region, being considered
at this time for an Apollo landing. Davy Catena is the
name now in use. This is the same site referred to as
''Davy Rille'' in other documents.
19 February 1970: Luna 1970B (Soviet Union)
This mission, launched from Baikonur, crashed into the
Pacific Ocean after a launch vehicle failure. It is thought
to have been a lunar orbiter mission designed to photo-
graph potential landing sites, perhaps similar to the later
Luna 19.
6 March 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
By this time the number of remaining flights was begin-
ning to shrink. A Saturn 5 launch vehicle was needed for
Skylab, the only surviving part of the once more ambi-
tious Apollo Applications Project (page 129). The
assembly line was shut down and no new Saturns
would be built, so Apollo 20 was cancelled in January
1970 to free a booster for Skylab.
At this meeting the Fra Mauro site for Apollo 13 was
confirmed, and attention passed to subsequent missions.
A site giving access to volcanic material originating deep
in the lunar crust (''deep-seated material'') was the priority
for Apollo 14, and Littrow was preferred (Figure 160C).
Davy (Figure 222) was preferred over Censorinus for
Apollo 15, if both the crater chain and the adjacent high-
lands were accessible to astronauts on foot. Otherwise
Censorinus was preferred. The first lunar rover vehicle
(LRV) was expected to fly on Apollo 16, the first of the
advanced ''J'' missions, and one list (Table 39) had
Copernicus in that flight slot, but ASSB now felt that
Copernicus was too rough for the first rover. ASSB now
had a reduced number of flight slots to allocate to its
targets, and reworked the lists again (Table 44). The
Board also considered Tycho, Hyginus and an unspeci-
fied old highland site, if one could be identified in future
Apollo orbital photography.
11 April 1970: Apollo 13 (United States: NASA)
Apollo 13 was intended to land at Fra Mauro, but an
accident during the cruise to the Moon crippled the
spacecraft, and the landing was cancelled.
Extraordinary efforts by the astronauts and mission
controllers in Houston eventually brought the crew
around the Moon and safely back to Earth.
The Apollo 13 crew consisted of Commander James
A. Lovell, Jr., who had flown previously on Gemini 7,
Gemini 12 and Apollo 8; Command Module Pilot John
L. Swigert, Jr.; and Lunar Module Pilot Fred W. Haise
Jr. The backup crew consisted of Commander John W.
Young (also flew on Gemini 3, Gemini 10, Apollo 10,
and later on Apollo 16, STS-1 and STS-9), Command
Module Pilot John L. Swigert (Thomas K. Mattingly
was the original CMP, but was replaced by Swigert
Figure 198 (cont.)
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Figure 199 Apollo 11 photographic coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 237

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Figure 200 (both pages) Apollo 11 panoramas.
A: view to the west from the LM windows just after landing, showing Double Crater and low hills forming the rim of Cat's Paw
crater, 5 km from the landing site. B: view from the LM windows after the EVA, showing footprints and items left on the surface.
C (across both pages): panorama taken from southeast of the LM during the EVA. Aldrin is working in front of the LM.
D: panorama taken just west of the LM (Armstrong was standing in the LM shadow) at the start of the EVA. E: panorama taken
from west of the LM, showing equipment on the surface. F and G: sections of a panorama taken north of the LM showing
Armstrong (far left), the solar wind collector which was returned to Earth, and the flag and TV camera. H: partial panorama taken
near the end of the EVA, showing Little West Crater and the LM.
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Figure 200 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 239

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only 72 hours before launch as he had been exposed to
Rubella), and Charles M. Duke (also flew on Apollo 16).
The Command Module was called ''Odyssey,'' and the
Lunar Module ''Aquarius.''
Apollo 13 was launched on a Saturn V from pad 39 A
at Kennedy Space Center on 11 April at 19:13 UT into an
Earth parking orbit. At 21:54 UT the SIVB upper-stage
trans-lunar injection burn sent the spacecraft towards the
Moon. The CSM separated from the SIVB, turned,
docked with the LM in its housing, and extracted it
from the SIVB. Then for the first time on an Apollo flight
the SIVB auxilliary propulsion system burned at 01:13
UT on 12 April to place the SIVB on a trajectory which
would impact on the Moon, to provide a seismic signal for
the Apollo 12 seismometer. It struck the lunar surface on
14 April at 01:09 UT at 2.758 S, 27.868 W with a velocity
of 2.58 km/s (page 265). A mid-course correction burn
was made on 13 April at 01:27 UT.
On 14 April at 03:06 UT Jack Swigert switched on
fans to stir oxygen in tanks in the Service Module. Wires
previously damaged during pre-flight testing in one tank
shorted, causing a fire which led to an explosion two
minutes later. The interior of the Service Module was
severely damaged, the Command Module rapidly lost
power, and very quickly the mission was aborted and the
crew transferred to the Lunar Module which now had to
function as a ''lifeboat.''
At 08:43 UT a mid-course correction was made by the
Lunar Module descent stage engine, placing the space-
craft on a free-return trajectory around the Moon and
back to Earth. Apollo 13 looped around the Moon,
allowing the astronauts to take some lunar photography
(Figures 229 and 230). Another Lunar Module engine
burn on 15 April at 02:41 UT shortened the return time,
as reserves of power were extremely limited. To conserve
power and other consumables the lunar module was
powered down except for environmental control, com-
munications and telemetry, and passive thermal control
was established. At 04:32 UT on 16 April, and again at
12:53 UT on 17 April, two more small burns adjusted the
return geometry.
The Service Module was jettisoned at 13:15 UT on 17
April and the crew was able to see and photograph the
damage. The Command Module was powered up and
the Lunar Module was jettisoned at 16:43 UT. Apollo 13
splashed down in the Pacific Ocean at 218 380 S, 1658
220 W, southeast of Samoa and 6.5 km from the recovery
ship USS Iwo Jima, on 17 April at 18:08 UT after a
mission lasting 142.9 hours. The Apollo 13 Command
Module is on display at the Kansas Cosmosphere and
Space Center, Hutchinson, Kansas.
If Apollo 13 had landed successfully the crew would
have deployed an ALSEP and sampled the Fra Mauro
Formation, part of the Imbrium basin ejecta blanket. A
lunar surface closeup camera would have been used, as
on the two previous landing missions, to take stereo-
scopic photographs of small features. Orbital photo-
graphy would have included high-resolution
''bootstrap'' coverage of proposed landing sites at
Censorinus, Descartes and Davy.
Also, the very bright Comet Bennet (1969 Y1) would
have been photographed from lunar orbit. Because of
the accident, only two Hasselblad 70-mm cameras and
two automatic data-acquisition cameras were used, pro-
viding 584 70-mm frames and some distant frames of
16-mm photography during the return coast. After the
Figure 201 Apollo 11 CSM in lunar orbit. Image ASII-37-5445.
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landing and return from the surface, the Lunar Module
ascent stage would have been crashed to provide a new
seismic signal for the Apollo 12 and 13 seismometers.
Figure 223A locates the Apollo 13 landing site relative
to the Apollo 11 and 12 sites. It also shows Apollo site 6R,
the site being considered as a backup for Apollo 13 when
Table 40 was produced. By the time of flight the require-
ment for a backup landing site had been dropped in favour
of a different approach. There would be only one site. The
crew would be launched a day early, and spend a day in
Figure 202 Apollo 11 astronaut-named craters.
Base map: see Figure 139.
Figure 203 Aldrin beside the seismometer.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 241

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lunar orbit. A launch delay could be accommodated by
omitting that day in orbit. A further delay would result in
landing with a higher sun than previously allowed.
Figure 224A shows the Saturn IVB upper-stage
impact target (38 S, 308 W), the target for the Lunar
Module ascent stage impact if a normal mission profile
had been followed (38 S, 19.758 W), and the Apollo 12
landing and LM impact sites (Figure 221). Control over
the SIVB trajectory was limited, so the impact was only
expected to be within about 500 km of the target.
Tracking suggested it had crashed at 2.758 S, 27.868 W.
The Apollo 13 landing ellipse, shown in Figure 223B,
from ASSB presentation materials from the most recent
meeting, was almost the same as that first considered in
1968 (Figure 160A, which also shows the regional context
of the site). Many other nearby locations were also
considered (Figure 225), but this area was preferred for
its wide valley floor and easy access to a ridge and fresh
crater (Cone crater) at the eastern end of the ellipse. A few
other informal names are also shown. Dots marked 1, 2
and 3 show the three candidate landing points within the
ellipse, numbered in order of preference.
Ewen Whitaker (Lunar and Planetary Laboratory,
University of Arizona) located the 40 m diameter impact
crater at 2.548 S, 27.798 W, in photographs taken later by
the Apollo 14 crew. Figures 224B to 224E show the SIVB
impact area and the crater with its dark ejecta in pro-
gressively greater detail. It lies on the outer flank of the
crater Lansberg B.
The Fra Mauro Formation, the ejecta blanket of the
Imbrium basin, was the sampling goal for Apollo 13, but
as it covered a very large area a specific target had still to
Figure 204 Zond 7 images and coverage map.
Figure 204A shows the area covered by Zond 7 images, from an index map provided by K. B. Shingareva (MIIGAiK). The Zond 6 image area
is also indicated. The two images are an Earthset scene (204B) and a mosaic of most of the Zond 7 photo coverage by P. Stooke (204C).
242 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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be chosen. The site would be in the region photographed
by Lunar Orbiter 3 just north of the crater Fra Mauro
itself (Site IIIS-23, Figure 105), as it was in the Apollo
zone and was the best photographed example of the
desired material. Within this large area many candidate
landing points might be identified. A first assessment is
recorded in papers deposited by Don Wilhelms in the
Branch History collection at USGS Flagstaff.
Notes dated 12 July 1969 record seven candidate sites
within high-resolution image coverage (Figure 225A). The
site numbers indicate the Orbiter 3 high-resolution frame
covering the area. These points provided access to materials
of both ridges and valley floors, in case these had different
origins, and most are near small fresh craters which should
excavate true Fra Mauro material from beneath any later
accumulation of crater ejecta. Point 132-C was the ''first
priority'' site preferred by R. Eggleton in a note of 16 June
1969. Its coordinates were given as 38 16.00 S, 178 56.00 W.
Notes dated 15 August 1969 follow the selection pro-
cess. Figure 225B shows sites proposed by Louis Wade
and Richard Eggleton. Wade's target was at 28 590 S,
178 260 W. Eggleton initially preferred two sites (E1 on
the map) at 28 590 S, 178 300 W (the map and coordinate
positions do not agree in the original and are not
Figure 204 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 243

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Figure 204 (cont.)
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corrected here) and 38 060 S, 178 260 W. Later he adjusted
these positions slightly (E2, plotted on their map as
shown here, but with coordinates of 38 030 S, 178 310 W
in their notes, not matching either position). He chose a
''still better'' site (E3) at 38 100 S, 178 350 W, then jumped
to two ''ideal'' sites (E4) further away at 38 050 S, 178
520Wand28520S,178030W.
Meanwhile Farouk El-Baz (Bellcomm) in a memor-
andum to Capt. L. R. Scherer (NASA) indicated a point
selected by USGS on a ridge near a fresh 400 m dia-
meter crater, close to the ellipse examined in 1968
(Figure 160A). This point was at 3.5598 S, 17.3238 W.
By 27 January 1970 (memorandum from F. El-Baz to
the GLEP Site Selection Subgroup members), the target
had been shifted to the valley floor immediately west of
this ridge. This became the final site. Three alternative
targets were described, in decreasing priority from east
to west because the ridge and fresh crater were sampling
priorities. These are shown in the EVA plans in
Figures 227 and 228.
Equipment and activities around the Lunar Module
are shown in Figure 226. Apollo 13 carried a large
S-band antenna like that on Apollo 12. A contingency
sample would be collected near the footpad at the start
of the EVA. Then the camera would be moved about
15 m north to view the antenna and flag deployment. A
solar wind collector as flown on Apollo 11 and 12 would
have been set up nearby.
Then the camera would be moved to view the off-
loading of the ALSEP equipment packages and the fuel-
ling of the RTG. The plutonium fuel rod was stored
separately during flight and only placed in the RTG
during the EVA. Finally the camera would be moved
to a third position and pointed towards the ALSEP
deployment area, using a telephoto lens to give better
viewing of the ALSEP site which was 150--200 m from
the LM (NASA 1970a).
The planned Apollo 13 EVAs for each of the three
targets (Figure 223B) are plotted in Figures 227 and 228.
Comparison with Apollo 14 EVAs (Figure 251) reveals
many small differences between the two mission plans.
Table 38. GLEP site changes and equipment needs, 23 August 1969.
Launch
date
Mission
number ASSB list
Perrine's list James's list GLEP modified
list
comments
7/69 11 (G) Site 2
Site 2
Site 2
Site 2
EASEP, PSE
11/69 12 (H-1) Site 3
Site 3
Site 3
Site 3
ALSEP, PSE
3/70 13 (H-2) Fra Mauro Undecided Fra Mauro Fra Mauro
HFE, PSE
7/70 14 (H-3) Censorinus Rima Bode Littrow
Rima Bode or
Littrow
ALSEP
11/70 15 (H-4) Rima Bode Fra Mauro Descartes
Censorinus or
alternate
ALSEP, PSE
4/71
16 (J-1) Tycho
Tycho
Tycho
Tycho
ALSEP, LRRR, HFE, PSE
7/71
17 (J-2) Copernicus Marius Hills Copernicus Copernicus
Rover, 4 or more EVAs,
HFE, PSE
2/72
18 (J-3) Marius Hills Copernicus Rima Bode Descartes
HFE, PSE, rover
7/72
19 (J-4) Descartes
Rima Prinz Marius Hills Marius Hills
Rover, LRRR, HFE, PSE
12/72 20 (J-5) Rima Prinz Descartes
Hadley Rille Hadley Rille
Rover, HFE, ASE, LRRR,
4 or more EVAs
Notes:
For Apollo 16 to 20, the order of items in the comments reflects their priority. EASEP: Early Apollo Surface Experiment Package;
PSE: Passive Seismic Experiment; ALSEP: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package; HFE: heat-flow experiment; LRRR: laser
ranging retroreflector; EVA: extravehicular activity; ASE: active seismic experiment.
The GLEP minutes for this meeting refer to the Apollo 11 site as site 9 (possibly a simple error) and the Apollo 12 site as
site 3, though site 7 (Surveyor 3) had already been chosen (page 205) with site 5 as a backup.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 245

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Figure 228 shows the Apollo 13 EVA plans for land-
ings at site 2 (Figure 228A) and site 3 (Figure 228B),
portrayed in the same way as the site 1 map in
Figure 227. There was a crater called ''Outpost'' at each
site. The ALSEP deployment was always scheduled early
in EVA 1, followed by a short traverse to collect samples.
Some planners advised against carrying an ALSEP on
Apollo 13, partly to save weight, allowing more hovering
time in case it was difficult to find a level landing point at
this hilly site, but also because Fra Mauro is so close to
Apollo 12's landing site. Saving the ALSEP for a more
distant site would result in better geophysical data.
Table 39. Apollo sequence alternatives from GLEP minutes, 16--17 October 1969.
Mission
Prime site
Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3
New GLEP
list (5)
12 (H-1)
Sites5or4
13 (H-2)
Fra Mauro
Alphonsus (1) Alphonsus (1) Fra Mauro (1) Fra Mauro
Formation
(2)
To be
determined
14 (H-3)
Littrow
Littrow
Littrow
Littrow
Rima Bode II
(3)
Fra Mauro
15 (H-4)
Censorinus
Fra Mauro
Fra Mauro
Censorinus
Censorinus
NW
Littrow
16 (J-1)
Descartes
Censorinus
Censorinus
Descartes
Copernicus
Peaks
Censorinus
17 (J-2)
Marius Hills
Marius Hills Marius Hills Marius Hills
Marius Hills (4) Marius Hills
18 (J-3)
Copernicus
Copernicus
Davy Rille
Davy Rille
Tycho Rim
Descartes
19 (J-4)
Hadley
Hadley
Hadley Rille Hadley Rille
Rima Prinz I
Hadley Rille
20 (J-5)
Tycho
Tycho
Copernicus
Copernicus
Descartes
Copernicus
Mission
Alternative lists
13 (H-2) Alphonsus or
Hipparchus Alphonsus or
Hipparchus
Littrow
Alphonsus
Hyginus, Rima Bode or
Davy Rille
14 (H-3) Littrow
Littrow
Fra Mauro
Littrow
Fra Mauro
15 (H-4) Censorinus
(Fra Mauro) Censorinus
Censorinus
Lassell
16 (J-1) Mid-Serenitatis
(Censorinus) Tycho
Descartes, Rima Bode
or Hyginus
Polar orbit mission
Censorinus
17 (J-2) Copernicus
Copernicus
Marius
Marius
Copernicus central peak
18 (J-3) Marius Hills Davy Rille
Copernicus
Descartes
19 (J-4) Davy Rille
(Tycho) Marius Hills
Hadley
Tycho
Marius Hills
20 (J-5) Hadley/
Apennines Hadley/Apennines Tycho, Rima Bode or
Hyginus
Gassendi & a telescope Hadley/Apennines
Notes:
(1): Hyginus is an alternative if Alphonsus or Fra Mauro are not possible. (2) Future Apollo 13/14 site (Imbrium ejecta), not the
site shown in Figure 148, and to be considered for H3 if not visited on H2. (3): consider for H4 if not visited on H3. (4): Marius
before Tycho, in case the rover is not available for J2. (5) Alternatives include Tycho and Lalande.
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Figure 205 (two pages) Alternative EVA plans.
On this page the sites are Marius Hills (left column) and Tycho (right column). In Map E the Marius EVAs include shorter optional
routes (thinner lines) if time or resources were restricted. Sample sites are shown as dots on EVA routes.
On the next page the sites are Copernicus peaks (left column) and Hadley-Apennine and Rima Prinz I (right column). Map I shows two
sets of EVAs for different landing points. Maps J and K show abbreviated routes as thinner lines. EVA 1 at Rima Prinz I would be to the
ALSEP.
The sources for the various EVA plans are as follows: Bellcomm presentation to MSC, 4 September 1969 (A, B, G, H); Transparencies
prepared by USGS Flagstaff for NASA ad hoc committee, August 1969 (C, D, I, L); Shayler 2002 (E, F, J, K). The Bellcomm and USGS
materials are in the Branch History collection at Flagstaff. Base map for Figure 205L: as in Figure 172.

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Figure 205 (cont.)
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The planned Apollo 13 ALSEP layout is shown in
Figure 229. The Apollo 13 ALSEP was similar to that of
Apollo 12, but with a heat-flow experiment instead of a
magnetometer and a charged particle measuring instru-
ment instead of a solar wind spectrometer (though it
would perform a similar function). A drill would be
used to emplace the heat-flow probes, and then to collect
a core sample for return to Earth. The TV camera near
the LM would be fitted with a telephoto lens for better
monitoring of ALSEP deployment.
Apollo 13's photographic coverage is plotted in
Figure 230. The medium-resolution images cover Mare
Moscoviense and the crater Tsiolkovskiy. Lower-resolu-
tion images made during the departure from the Moon
extend onto the nearside. Because the mission did not
spend time in lunar orbit before landing, the landing site
itself was not illuminated. White outlines show the planned
image coverage, including experimental Earthshine photo-
graphy west of the terminator. Figure 231 is a mosaic
of Apollo 13 images AS13-60-8647 to 8653, extending
about 1200 km along the farside terminator from Mare
Moscoviense (dark area at top) to the equator.
7 May 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
ASSB met on 7 May, two days after a new advisory body
set up by MSC to provide advice from scientists to
mission planners, the Science Working Panel (SWP),
had also just met for the first time. SWP replaced
GLEP in providing advice to ASSB, though ASSB min-
utes often referred to the new body as GLEP out of
habit.
Following the cancellation of Apollo 13's landing,
GLEP (SWP) reinforced the importance of the Fra
Mauro site by recommending that Apollo 14 land at
the same place. Apollo 15 would now be targeted for
Davy, but flight planners had concluded that they could
not land within walking distance of the old crater rim,
giving rise to serious reservations about this choice. The
preference now was for sites which provided multiple
sampling objectives, or different types of material,
since it was now clear that the number of landings
would be severely limited, and another had just been
lost. Apollo 14 offered important opportunities for
bootstrap photography in support of future landings.
The prime objective would be Descartes, but Davy was
also of high interest. Censorinus could also be photo-
graphed, but was now of lesser interest as an objective.
The Davy site was important because its crater chain
might be a string of volcanic vents bringing material
from depth to the surface. Three locations were now
Figure 206 Lalande candidate landing site.
Table 40. Evaluation of Apollo 13 (H-2) landing site candidates
Landing site
Accessible in
March 1970
Launch date in
March 1970
Recycle time to site
6R (Flamsteed)
Bootstrap possibilities
Fra Mauro
Yes
12
2 days
Censorinus and Lalande
Littrow
Yes
9
5 days
Hadley
Hyginus
Yes
10
4 days
Censorinus (oblique), Copernicus
Rima Bode
Yes
11
3 days
Censorinus (marginal), Copernicus
Alphonsus
Yes
11
3 days
Censorinus and Lalande
Hipparchus
Yes
11
3 days
Censorinus and Lalande
ALS 3
Yes
11
3 days
Censorinus and Lalande
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considered for landing (Figure 232): the floor of the large
old crater Davy Y near one of the large pit craters; the
highlands on the rim of Davy Y near the most easterly of
the pit craters in the chain; and the foot of the Davy Y
crater wall, the geological contact between wall and floor
materials, within walking distance of the crater chain.
The last site is the one illustrated in Figure 222.
Mission planners recommended the first of the three,
so the preferred target was about halfway along the
crater chain, roughly 8 km from the eastern rim of
Davy Y. This offered a safe landing area near the crater
Figure 207 Alternative landing sites at Censorinus.
Base map: AS10-28-4040.
Table 41. Censorinus alternatives identified by Lockheed, 3 October 1969.
Number Comments
Diameter (km) Location
Bootstrap options
1
Highland/mare boundary near Lyell crater
2.0
128400N,408300E H,M
2
On rim of Ro¨ mer R crater
2.2
248250N,348000E H
3
Highland plains near Alfraganus
2.0
58100S,208350E
A,M
4
On plains in floor of Abulfeda crater
1.5
138450S,148000E A,M
5
On plateau overlooking Mare Serenitatis
2.0
218430N,88530E
L, H,M
6
On outer rim of Albategnius crater
2.2
138460S,58050E
A,M
7
On east rim of Alphonsus crater
3.0
128500S,08460W
A,M
8
Cassini K, among hills east of Montes Alpes
3.5
458 050 N, 48 050 E (none)
9
Regiomontanus CA, on floor of ancient crater 3.9
298060S,58000WT
10
Between Lassell C and Lassell G
2.5
148370S,98060W
A,M
11
Archimedes E on 'Apennine bench'
2.9
248580N,78120W H,L,M
12
On outer rim of Parry crater
3.7
78400S,148450W
A,L,F,M,C
13
Mare Humorum border near Hippalus crater
2.3
238 520 S, 318 040 WT
,
A
14
Edge of Mare Nubium near Mercator crater
2.3
298 050 S, 248 050 WA
,
T
15
Hilly area near Tobias Mayer site
2.4
148350N,328360W A,M
16
Hilly area near Tobias Mayer site
2.4
148160N,328580W A,M
17
Mare Humorum border near Campanus crater 2.0
288 050 S, 308 400 WT
,
A
18
West of Gassendi crater
2.6
168260S,428480W A,L
19
On a ridge on outer rim of Letronne crater
3.8
118590S,398470W A,L,F,C
20
On Gruithuisen g dome (volcanic?)
2.7
368 350 N, 408 340 WH
21
On Promontorium Heraclides**
2.6
408 460 N, 358 480 WH
22
On plains in old crater west of Mare Humorum 2.1
268360S,478260W T
23
East of Cruger crater
3.0
178 000 S, 648 570 W L,C,F
24
Plains between outer rings of Grimaldi basin
2.6
78580S,648370W
L,F,C,A*,TM
Bootstrap options: landing sites which could provide orbital images of the candidate crater suitable for site certification and EVA
planning. Bold indicates vertical or near-vertical viewing, preferred for mapping. A: Alphonsus (A* misprint in original report;
Alphonsus probably intended); C: Copernicus; F: Fra Mauro; H: Hadley/Apennine; L: Littrow; M: Marius Hills; T: Tycho;
TM: Tobias Mayer.
** Crater 21: the report shows this crater on a map as reported in this table, but in a separate annotated Lunar Orbiter 4 image
it indicates a 5 km diameter crater at about 408 500 N, 368 050 W. This was probably a mistake.
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chain, but was too far from the highlands for astronauts
to reach by walking. No rover would be ready for this
mission (Apollo 15). Copernicus, Marius Hills and
Descartes would also be possible for Apollo 15, but
SWP thought they would be better for the forthcoming
J missions which would carry rovers.
Site discussions continued at MSC and among the
Site Selection Subgroup of GLEP/SWP over the summer
of 1970. The subgroup members met on 17 June to
consider sites for Apollos 16 and 17, already aware
that they might lose more landings to budget cuts.
They reconsidered 14 sites: Alphonsus, Censorinus,
Copernicus, Descartes, Dionysius, Flamsteed,
Gassendi, Hipparchus, Hyginus, Littrow, Mo¨ sting C,
Rima Bode II, Sinus Medii and the Marius Hills. They
decided that Gassendi was too rough to support a land-
ing. Also, MSC finally ruled out Copernicus and
Censorinus for the same reason. The final recommenda-
tion was for Apollo 15 to go to Marius Hills, with
Littrow as a backup. Descartes would be the Apollo 16
Table 42. Apollo landing sites approved by ASSB,
30 October 1969.
Mission Prime site First launch
opportunity
Alternative site
H-2
Fra Mauro 12 March 1970 Hyginus
H-3
Littrow
8 July 1970
Littrow
H-4
Censorinus 30 October 1970 Fra Mauro
J-1
Descartes 29 March 1971 Censorinus*
J-2
Marius Hills 30 July 1971
Marius Hills
J-3
Copernicus 19 February 1972 Davy Rille
J-4
Hadley
14 July 1972
Hadley
J-5
Tycho
7 February 1973 Copernicus
Notes:
The alternative list would apply if Fra Mauro was delayed and
Tycho was dropped.
* Lalande was an alternative for Censorinus in the alternative
list.
Figure 208 Apollo 12 prime and backup landing sites.
Base map for Figure 208C: US Army lunar photomap ORB II-13d(25), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st edition, November 1967.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 251

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target. Only these three sites and Hadley-Apennines
were still thought suitable for the remaining landings.
Apart from these considerations, SWP also continued
looking at several detailed EVA plans for different sites
during this period. Some are illustrated on the following
page.
Figure 233A is the Science Working Panel's plan for
Copernicus considered in May 1970. The map shows
EVAs using a rover with 10 km range (solid lines) or
5 km range (dashed lines), and walking EVAs (white
lines) in the event that the rover was unavailable or
damaged. Dots show sampling locations. Other
Copernicus EVA plans are shown on in Figure 205.
SWP's Marius Hills plan considered at a 22 June
meeting is summarized in Figure 233B. Details of the
EVA routes differ from previous plans (Figures 167, 189,
206). These new plans are more commensurate with the
existing Apollo system than the extravagant scenarios
described earlier. The dots represent sampling locations.
The background image is a composite of Lunar Orbiter 5
frames 216-H3 and 217-H1.
12 September 1970: Luna 16 (Soviet Union)
Luna 16 was the first successful robotic spacecraft to
return lunar regolith samples to Earth, following several
previous failures including Luna 15 (page 206). The
three sample return flights (see also Luna 20 and Luna
24, pages 318 and 362) can be considered the most
important scientific achievements of the Soviet lunar
exploration program. The spacecraft consisted of a
small return capsule on top of a main landing stage.
The landing stage had a cylindrical core with four land-
ing legs, fuel tanks, a descent engine and associated
controls. It was equipped with cameras, radiation and
temperature sensors, communication hardware and a
Figure 209 Apollo 12 landing ellipse and surroundings.
Base map: Army Map Service Lunar Photo map ORB III-9 (100), original scale 1:100 000, 1st edition, January 1968.
Table 43. Landing Points for Apollo 12.
Landing point
Latitude
Longitude
Nominal point
2.98228 S
23.391948 W
West of nominal point
2.9658 S
23.4738 W
East of nominal point
3.0298 S
23.1768 W
North of nominal point
2.9628 S
23.3898 W
South of nominal point
3.0028 S
23.3958 W
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drill deployed on a hinged arm for sample collection and
delivery to the return capsule. The ascent stage had a
small cylindrical core with a spherical re-entry capsule
on top. At its base were the ascent rocket, attitude con-
trol thrusters and spherical fuel tanks. The sealed sample
container was stored inside the re-entry capsule.
The 5600 kg Luna 16 was launched from Baikonur at
13:26 UT, entered a parking orbit, and was then pro-
pelled towards the Moon. After one trajectory correc-
tion on 13 September it entered a circular 111 km lunar
orbit inclined 708 to the equator on 17 September. A day
later the spacecraft dropped into an orbit with a low
Figure 210 Apollo 12 pre-mission plans.
Each of the four LM locations is shown as a black circle, and the ALSEP deployment area as a black square about 100 m west of
the LM. Pre-planned sampling sites are small circles on the EVA routes. Informal placenames are indicated. The name Shelf was
sometimes used for the large crater at top left rather than the small local feature on its rim as shown here, but after the mission the
large crater was renamed Middle Crescent. The 'Crescent' was the string of 400--800 m diameter craters strung out north to
south across the approach trajectory (Figure 209).
Chronological sequence of missions and events 253

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point of 15.1 km and after another slight orbit adjust-
ment on the following day it landed on the Moon at
15:18 UT on 20 September in Mare Fecunditatis, at
0.688 S, 56.38 E (also reported incorrectly as 0.48 N,
56.18 E), about 100 km west of Webb crater. The large
descent engine shut down 20 m above the surface, and
the smaller landing jets at 2 m, when the velocity was
below 2.4 m/s, allowing the vehicle to drop to the surface.
The spacecraft was equipped with twin television
cameras on a forked structure which cradled the drill
arm in its upright position. They were intended to help
select a safe sampling location. If the area immediately in
front of the drill was blocked by rocks, the arm could be
rotated sideways to reach a better drilling location. Luna
16 landed about 60 hours after local sunset, and carried
lamps to illuminate its sampling area, but they failed.
The panoramic images transmitted to Earth were nearly
featureless, but showed a few bright spots where
Earthshine illuminated the terrain (D. P. Mitchell, infor-
mation from A. Selivanov, 2004, personal communica-
tion). They were probably of no use in drill site selection
and were never published.
The drill was deployed, operating for seven minutes
and reaching a depth of 35 cm before encountering a
rock, when drilling was stopped. The sample was placed
in the return capsule, and after 26.4 hours on the lunar
surface the ascent stage was launched at 07:43 UT
on 21 September with its payload of 101 grams of
regolith.
The return flight was designed so that the small space-
craft, leaving the Moon's gravitational influence, was
orbiting Earth with less than the Moon's orbital velocity,
causing it to fall towards Earth. This arrangement man-
dated a launch from about 608 E longitude, which
restricted the landing site locations of all the Soviet
sample return missions. The return capsule coasted
back to Earth without any trajectory correction and
landed in Soviet territory, 80 km southeast of the city
of Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan, at 03:26 UT on 24
September. The landing stage operated for some time
after ascent-stage liftoff, transmitting temperature and
radiation data.
Figure 234 indicates the landing sites of Luna 16 and
Apollo 11, and the Luna 15 impact site. The locations of
Figure 193 (Luna 15) and Figure 235A are shown. The
pre-launch target point for Luna 16 is not known, but it
was probably close to the actual landing site. This region
of Mare Fecunditatis was later named Sinus Successus
(Bay of Success).
The area of northeastern Mare Fecunditatis, with the
location of the Luna 16 landing site among wrinkle
ridges northwest of Langrenus crater, is depicted in
Figure 235A. The mare surface here probably contains
a small amount of material ejected from Langrenus.
Figure 211 Planned operations near the LM.
This plan is from the Apollo 12 Press Kit, 5 November 1969.
Figure 212 Conrad with the flag (AS12--47--6897).
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Figures 235B and 235C are details of Lunar Orbiter 1
frame I-033-M showing the landing site. The exact loca-
tion is not known, but it probably lies within a few kilo-
meters of the stated position, within the circle shown in
Figure 235C.
The Luna 16 regolith sample is small compared with
Apollo sample collections, but it is important as the only
material from this mare region. It consists of basalts
containing more aluminium than most mare basalt sam-
ples returned to Earth by other missions, emphasizing
that the maria are not chemically identical. It was dated
as 3.40 billion years old (Wilhelms 1987), intermediate in
age between Apollo 11 and 12 samples.
24 September 1970: Apollo Site Selection Board
After Congress cut NASA's budget for Fiscal Year 1971,
NASA was forced to cancel two more lunar landings.
The cuts were announced on 2 September 1970. Rather
than cutting two of the four more capable J missions,
NASA opted to cut the last H mission and the last J
mission (Apollos 15 and 19 according to the numbering
of Table 44, page 264).
MSC sought advice from independent groups of
scientists (Table 45). The geochemists suggested sites to
the Board for missions 15 to 18, before it became appa-
rent that there would be no Apollo 18. They considered
Figure 213 The first Apollo 12 EVA route.
Base map: Figure 114A.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 255

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Figure 214 Area around the Apollo 12 LM.
Figure 215 Sketch of possible EVA 2 route.
Based on an image from the Apollo Lunar Surface Journal
website. Base map: as Figure 114A.
Figure 216 Apollo 12 EVA 2 route and activities.
Panorama and sample locations are shown here as in Figure 213. Sharp Crater (see Figure 210) was later renamed Sharp-Apollo
to distinguish it from another Sharp Crater on the Moon (45.78 N, 40.28 W).
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Littrow, Censorinus, Marius Hills, Tycho, Davy,
Descartes, Copernicus, Hadley and Tsiolkovskiy, on
the farside. Their recommendations are given in
Table 45, but as a grand finish to Apollo they suggested
Tsiolkovskiy for Apollo 18. The Tsiolkovskiy site would
be near the edge of the dark mare deposit in the crater
floor, giving access to both farside highlands material
and the relatively young mare. A major disadvantage
was that it would require a communications relay satel-
lite. The Board was not sure that a farside landing was
even possible with Apollo hardware and procedures.
When these recommendations came to ASSB,
Copernicus, Davy, Descartes and Tycho were all con-
sidered, but Hadley and the Marius Hills were favored.
Both seemed acceptable but Hadley was preferred by the
astronauts themselves, so the Board eventually recom-
mended Hadley for a flight in mid-1971. It offered dra-
matic mountains, a sinuous rille and another mare area,
and its relatively high latitude was ideal for the growing
array of ALSEP instruments, including another laser
retroreflector. Tycho was once again dropped for being
too difficult to reach.
Looking further ahead, the Board preferred
Descartes for Apollo 16, with a launch early in 1972.
The Apollo 17 site was not fixed at this time. Marius
Hills and Copernicus were good candidates, but a high-
land site was strongly desired and the hope remained
that a new candidate would be found in orbital photo-
graphy from Apollo 14 or 15.
Once Hadley was accepted as the target for Apollo 15
there were still several candidates for the best landing site
within that broad region. Figure 236A shows five poten-
tial landing sites considered by the Science Working
Panel at a meeting on 20 October. The minutes of the
meeting include EVA routes for landings at site 1, the
site eventually chosen, and site 5 at the south end of
the rille (Figures 236B and 236C respectively). Site 1
was eventually selected because it offered the best walk-
ing EVA options. It lay outside the limits of the high-
resolution Lunar Orbiter 5 photography, but growing
experience suggested that extrapolation from the
medium-resolution images would be acceptable.
20 October 1970: Zond 8 (Soviet Union)
The 5375 kg Zond 8 was launched from Baikonur at
19:56 UT into a parking orbit, then placed on its trans-
lunar trajectory. This was the last flight test of the Soyuz
lunar hardware before the program was cancelled in
favor of Earth-orbit space station missions. Zond 8's
cameras photographed Earth on 21 October from
65 000 km. Television images of Earth were transmitted
during the three-day flight to the Moon.
Zond 8 looped around the Moon on 24 October at an
altitude of 1100 km, taking full-disk images and a long
strip of very-high-resolution images across the farside,
beginning with Earthset and ending at the terminator
near Aitken crater. Zond 8 returned to Earth and
splashed down in the Indian Ocean on 27 October. A
guidance system failure caused a hard re-entry, which
would not have been survived by a crew.
Figure 237 shows farside image coverage obtained
from all Zond and Apollo missions. Zond 8 image cover-
age is shown with a black outline. Coverage from Zonds
6 and 7 is shown with gray outlines, and the combined
coverage of all Apollo missions is shown with a subdued
white outline. Apollo low-resolution coverage and
Earthshine images in the Orientale area at far right
(Figure 324) are not shown. This map illustrates the
highly complementary nature of the various data sets.
Zond 8 photography is of excellent resolution and qual-
ity. Where it overlaps Apollo photography, its reversed
lighting reveals areas otherwise lost in shadow.
A mosaic of Zond 8 images (Figure 238) extends from
the terminator to the limb across the northern edge of
the giant South Pole--Aitken basin. The largest crater at
Figure 217 Apollo 12 ALSEP layout.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 257

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Figure 218 (both pages) Apollo 12 panoramas.
A: composite view to the west from both LM windows just after landing, with long shadows cast by the rising sun. B: similar view after
EVA 2, showing deployed equipment and footprints.
C (over both pages): the landing site seen from just north of the LM at the end of EVA 1, with Surveyor crater and some deployed
equipment. The TV camera was set up to show activities near the LM. D: partial panorama across Middle Crescent crater, showing the
astronauts' shadows and blocks on the rim of a small fresh crater. E: EVA 2 partial panorama of Bench crater looking southwards from
its northern rim.
F: Sharp crater (later, and officially, called Sharp-Apollo) viewed from its eastern rim. The two astronaut shadows are visible,
Conrad's in the middle, Bean's at far right. The rough rock-strewn interior is typical of very fresh impact craters.
G: partial panorama of the Surveyor 3 site (see also Figures 116 and 117) looking northwest, with the LM in the distance on the
crater rim. Block crater is visible near the horizon. The shallow subdued topography of Surveyor crater is typical of older lunar
craters of this size (200 m diameter). H: view to the southwest across Block crater and Surveyor crater, with Bean's shadow and the
LM just visible at right.

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Figure 218 (cont.)

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Figure 219 Apollo 12 orbital
photographic coverage.
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the left end of the mosaic is Aitken. Figure 239 shows a
selection of Zond 8 images of the Moon.
10 November 1970: Luna 17/Lunokhod 1 (Soviet
Union)
Luna 17 carried the 750 kg Lunokhod 1 rover, which
could be remotely controlled by a five-person crew at a
communication center outside Moscow. This was the
first remotely controlled rover mission ever carried out.
The spacecraft was launched from Baikonur at 14:44
UT, placed in a parking orbit, then sent to the Moon.
It entered lunar orbit on 15 November, initially circular
at 90 km altitude with an inclination of 1418. Later its
low point was dropped to 20 km, and it landed on 17
November at 03:47 UT at a position usually given as
38.288 N, 35.008 W in northwestern Mare Imbrium (see
below).
Lunokhod rolled off the east-facing ramp of its lander
at 06:28 UT. It was intended to operate for three lunar
days but survived for eleven lunar days (322 Earth days).
Operations officially ended on 4 October 1971, by which
time it had travelled 10.5 km and had obtained more
than 20 000 single pictures (to assist with driving opera-
tions) and over 200 panoramas. It conducted about 500
lunar regolith tests by pressing a probe into the ground,
observed wheel tracks to estimate regolith mechanical
properties, and made chemical composition measure-
ments by means of an X-ray spectrometer at 25 loca-
tions. The Lunokhods were originally conceived as
vehicles which would survey and prepare sites for
human landings, but they became highly effective
explorers in their own right.
The landing spacecraft, Luna 17, had dual ramps by
which Lunokhod 1 could be driven down to the surface.
Lunokhod 1 consisted of a near-cylindrical pressurized
compartment, tapered slightly towards the base, on eight
independently powered wheels. Internal temperatures
were maintained at night by a radioisotope heater. On
top were a conical omnidirectional antenna and a high-
gain helical antenna. Two television cameras mounted at
the front provided information to drivers on Earth. Two
panoramic cameras were mounted on each side of the
body, one facing outwards and one facing downwards,
both providing 1808 views from the forward to back-
ward directions.
The body also supported deployable experiments to
contact the lunar regolith for density and mechanical
property tests. An X-ray spectrometer for soil composi-
tion measurements, a regolith radioactivity detector, an
instrument for solar and cosmic X-ray observations, cos-
mic-ray detectors, and a French laser retroreflector were
also operated. Lunokhod was powered by batteries which
could be charged by solar cells mounted on the underside
of a large convex folding lid, which was closed at night to
help insulate the interior and opened during the day.
Luna 17 landed about 60 km southwest of
Promontorium Heraclides, the southern end of the
Montes Jura surrounding Sinus Iridum. The exact site
has not been pinpointed but a possible candidate for a
large crater seen by the rover is identified in Figure 242,
based on a comparison of the Lunokhod route map
(Figures 243 to 245) with the best orbital images of the
region. Based on this possible identification, the current
coordinates of the rover are believed to be 35.1908 W,
38.2878 N. In 2006 new laser shots were to be made at
that point.
Figure 220 Apollo 12 image of the Apollo 13 site.
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Figure 240 shows the region in which Luna 17 landed.
This was the most northerly landing site on the Moon
during the missions of the Luna and Apollo period, about
1200 km north of Surveyor 1 and Apollo 12. Figure 241
shows the landing site in increasing detail, identifying the
tentative site identification described above.
The route of Lunokhod 1 is mapped in Figures 242,
243 and 244. The three figures correspond to three
sections of the map in Figure 241E, also shown as an
inset in Figure 243. The 500 m grid overlay shows
Figure 221 Apollo 12 LM ascent-stage impact.
Base maps. Figure 221A: ACIC Chart AIC 76 A (Euclides P),
original scale 1: 500 000, 1st edition, June 1966. Figure 221B:
US Army Lunar Map ORB-I-7 (100), original scale 1:100 000,
1st edition, September 1967. Figure 221C: detail of Apollo 14
image AS14-73-10119.
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distances measured from the landing site. X represents
location of X-ray measurements of soil composition. P
represents locations where panoramic images were
obtained. Areas labelled as Plans 1 to 7 are mapped in
more detail in Figures 245 and 246. Inset images in
Figure 242 show the view to the east from Lunokhod 1
before it left its lander (lower left) and the Luna 17 lander
viewed from Lunokhod 1 on 20 January 1971 (upper
right). These maps are composites of several illustrations
in Vinogradov (1971a, b), incorporating attempts to
resolve differences between the originals.
Lunokhod 1 began by driving south from its landing
site (Figure 242). After two lunar days it stopped at its
southernmost point in a 150 m diameter crater. On the
third day it returned to the lander, moving faster as its
drivers gained experience. On the fourth day it moved
towards the north (Figure 243), spending three lunar
days exploring the largest craters it encountered.
It drove around the rim of a roughly 500 m diameter
subdued crater during this time. This crater may be
visible in Figure 241D.
In its final months of activity Lunokhod 1 was driven
further north, generally in the direction of the hills seen
from the original landing site. It was navigated around a
cluster of craters during the summer of 1971. In its final
month it moved only a short distance as it was wearing
out. Operations ceased when the internal radioactive
heat source was depleted and equipment froze during
the eleventh lunar night.
The vehicle was parked in a position which was sup-
posed to allow its laser retroreflector to be used for later
ranging studies, but this may not have been successful,
perhaps due to an unexpected failure.
The seven detailed plans in Figure 245 are adapted
from figures in Vinogradov (1971b). They show the loca-
tions of craters and rocks in areas which were selected for
detailed mapping, as well as the pattern of rover opera-
tions in each location. P represents locations at which one
or more panoramic images were made. Note that on the
smaller-scale maps of the whole route (Figures 242 to
244) the details of rocks and craters are somewhat sche-
matic. In these plans they should be more reliable.
Lunokhod 1 was not normally driven when the Sun
was low in the sky because long shadows made safe
driving difficult, or when the Sun was too high to show
relief clearly.
The area immediately surrounding the Luna 17 land-
ing site (Figure 246) was mapped using Lunokhod 1
images. The lander made two footpad impressions dur-
ing the touchdown, and its rocket exhaust disturbed soil
on its southwest side. The ramps were lowered and the
controllers drove Lunokhod 1 off the eastern ramp on
17 November.
After two lunar days exploring south of the lander,
Lunokhod 1 was navigated back to the landing stage to
spend the lunar night a few meters southwest of the
Figure 222 Davy potential landing site.
Base maps. Figure 222A: ACIC lunar chart LAC 77
(Ptolemaeus), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, May
1963. Figure 222B: part of Apollo 16 Metric Camera frame
AS16-1973 (M).
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lander. After the Sun rose again the rover was driven
around the lander and set off in a northerly direction on
7 February 1971. The scale is only approximate in this
very rough sketch map.
Several Lunokhod 1 panoramas shown in Figure 247
have been reprojected to make the horizon level. The
region is generally flat, presenting no difficulty to mobi-
lity except near larger craters. Lunokhod panoramas are
often printed in reverse (flipped right to left), but are
corrected here based on comparisons with the detailed
site plans. The bell-shaped object at the top of each
panorama is an orientation indicator.
Additional panoramas from Lunokhod 1 are
included in Figure 248.
Figure 249A, B and C are three views from Lunokhod
1 of hills seen on the horizon. 249A and 249B show a
group of hills lying roughly NNW of Luna 17, as seen
from the landing site (249A) and from the plan 7 area
(249B). Figure 249C includes several small hills due
north of the Plan 7 area, probably only local relief and
so not useful for locating the site. The other hills may be
more useful, but uncertainties in orientation of the
panoramas make it difficult to use these features to
pinpoint the site precisely. Figure 249D shows the most
likely identification of these distant hills, on a ridge to
the west of Promontorium Heraclides. The peak indi-
cated by the arrow may be the most prominent of the
hills seen on the horizon. It lies 60 km from Luna 17.
Figure 249E shows the landing region with dots
marking the targets of laser reflection attempts on 5
and 6 December 1970 (Vinogradov 1971b). The white
ellipse shows the approximate size of the instantaneous
laser-illuminated area. Reflections were obtained from
points 1 and 2, but only very weakly from 3 and hardly at
all from 4. T is the tracking estimate of the site. The
landing site suggested in Figure 241E (L, shown as a dot
with a white center) is within 6 km of T.
Table 44. ASSB site recommendations, 6 March 1970.
Mission GLEP recommendation MSC recommendation
H-2 (13) Fra Mauro
Fra Mauro
H-3 (14) Littrow
Littrow
H-4 (15) Davy Rille
Davy Rille or Censorinus
J-1 (16) Marius Hills
Copernicus
J-2 (17) Descartes
Descartes
J-3 (18) Copernicus
Marius Hills
J-4 (19) Hadley/Apennine
Hadley/Apennine
Figure 223 The Apollo 13 landing site.
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31 January 1971: Apollo 14 (United States: NASA)
Apollo 14, the third successful astronaut landing on the
lunar surface, was launched from pad 39 A of the
Kennedy Space Center at 21:03 UT after a 40-minute
weather-related delay. It entered a parking orbit 12
minutes later, and the trans-lunar injection burn began
at 23:38 UT. A trajectory correction was used to correct
for the launch delay. The CSM (call sign ''Kitty Hawk'')
separated from the SIVB stage at 00:06 UT on 1
February, and after some initial problems it was able
to dock with the LM at 02:00 UT and extract it from its
storage space in the SIVB.
The SIVB upper stage was placed on a lunar impact
trajectory, and crashed at 8.098 S, 26.028 Wo
n4
February at 07:41 UT having a velocity of 2.54 km/s
and a path inclined 218 off vertical (Figure 260). A
second CSM trajectory correction was made on 2
February and a third on 4 February, with lunar orbit
insertion at 07:00 UT on that day.
The Apollo 14 Commander was veteran astronaut
Alan B. Shepard, Jr. (1923--1998; also flew on Mercury
Redstone 3, the first US sub-orbital astronaut mission).
Stuart A. Roosa (1933--1994) was the Command
Module Pilot, and Edgar D. Mitchell was the Lunar
Module Pilot.
The backup crew consisted of Eugene Cernan
(Gemini 9, Apollo 10, later Apollo 17), Ronald Evans
(later flew on Apollo 17) and Joe Engle (STS-2 and
STS-51I).
The LM, call sign ''Antares'', flown by Shepard
and Mitchell, separated from the CSM at 04:51 UT on
Figure 224 Apollo 13 LM and SIVB impact sites.
Sources: Apollo 13 Press Kit, NASA News Release 70--50 K, 2
April 1970; Whitaker, E. A., 1972. Figure 224A: ACIC chart LAC
76 (Montes Riphaeus), 2nd edition, April 1964, original scale
1:1 000 000. Figures 224B, C, D: Apollo 14 image AS14-69-
9656; Figure 224E: Apollo 14 image AS14-69-9636.
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5 February and landed at 09:18 UT at the pre-planned
landing site at 3.68 S, 17.58 W, about 25 km north of the
rim of Fra Mauro crater. The astronauts made two
EVAs on 5 and 6 February, for a combined 9 hours, 23
minutes on the lunar surface. They deployed a third
ALSEP scientific instrument package and collected
42.9 kg of regolith and rocks. At the end of the second
EVA, Shepard used a tool handle to hit two golf balls
Figure 224 (cont.)
Figure 225 Apollo 13 site selection.
Base map: ACIC Lunar Topographic Photomap Fra Mauro, Orbiter-III-Site 23, 1st edition, June 1969, original scale 1: 250 000.
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over the lunar terrain. Meanwhile the CSM undertook
an extensive series of photographic and visual observa-
tions from orbit (Figure 252).
The LM lifted off at 18:49 UT on 6 February after
33.5 hours on the Moon. The LM docked with the CSM
at 20:36 UT, and 42.3 kg of lunar samples, and film and
other materials, were transferred into the CSM. Then the
LM was separated at 22:48 UT and deorbited, impacting
at 3.428 S, 19.678 W on 8 February at 00:45 UT to create
a new seismic signal for the Apollo 12 and 14 seismo-
meters (page 303). The trans-Earth injection burn began
at 01:39 UT on 7 February, and was followed by a small
correction on 8 February.
The CM separated from the SM at 20:36 UT on 9
February and splashed down at 278 10 S, 1728 390 Win
the Pacific Ocean, about 1200 km south of Samoa, at
21:05 UT after a total flight time of 216 hours, 2 minutes.
The spacecraft and crew were recovered by the USS New
Orleans and placed in quarantine, as the previous landed
crews had been, but the need for quarantine was so
doubtful that it was abandoned after this flight. The
Apollo 14 Command Module is on display at the
Astronaut Hall of Fame, Titusville, Florida.
Apollo 14 carried two 70-mm Hasselblad cameras,
two Hasselblad data cameras, three 16-mm Maurer
automated data-acquisition cameras, a lunar surface
stereoscopic camera and a special Hycon topographic
mapping camera for use in photographing future land-
ing sites. The Hycon camera suffered a shutter problem
that reduced the quality of its images. Despite this, the
images were used to search for alternatives to the Apollo
16 landing site (Figure 264). Samples collected on the
lunar surface included six core-tubes, a subsurface
(uncontaminated) soil sample, and a sample of regolith
contaminated by descent engine exhaust from below
the LM.
The different dates of Apollos 13 and 14 required
slightly different CSM orbit inclinations, resulting in
differing LM approach azimuths and a small adjustment
to the landing point itself. Figure 250 is a comparison of
the two approaches and landing targets.
Apollo 14 EVA plans are illustrated in Figure 251
(MSC 1971a). The three maps show plans for the same
three landing targets considered for Apollo 13
(Figures 227, 228), but note that sites 1 and 3 have
been moved slightly from those intended for Apollo 13.
The EVAs also differ in many details from those of
Apollo 13. For all three of these landing points the
basic plan was as follows. A contingency sample would
be collected immediately after the start of the first EVA,
as on previous missions. Then after ALSEP deployment
a comprehensive sample would be collected nearby (cor-
responding to the Apollo 12 ''selected samples,'' page
227). On EVA 2 a fully documented set of samples
would be collected. LRRR is the lunar ranging retro-
reflector (laser ranging experiment, as on Apollo 11,
page 235). P denotes panorama photography stations.
Each set of EVA plans includes a visit to a large
crater, Cone at site 1, Star at site 2 and Sunrise at site 3.
At this crater the crew would take two panoramas from
stations about 100 m apart for good stereoscopic viewing
of the opposite crater wall. They would roll a rock down
the crater slope and film its motion. They would also
attempt a communication experiment by standing behind
a boulder large enough to block them from the LM, to
test radio restrictions. The activity at Cone crater has been
moved to the east compared with Apollo 13, to give better
viewing of the sunlit crater wall.
The Apollo 14 ALSEP (Figure 253A), deployed dur-
ing EVA 1, was very different from the planned Apollo
13 ALSEP (Figure 231). Some elements were repeated:
the central station (common to all ALSEPs), a passive
seismic experiment (PSE), and a charged particle lunar
environment experiment (CPLEE). The cold cathode
ion gauge (CCIG) was deployed with a suprathermal
ion detector experiment (SIDE) as on Apollo 12 rather
than alone as on Apollo 13.
Figure 225 (cont.)
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The heat-flow experiment was replaced with a com-
plex active seismic experiment. Three geophones (small
seismometers) were arrayed along a 100 metre long
cable, roughly equally spaced (Figure 254). A hand-
held ''thumper'' provided a seismic signal at different
locations along the array. A second part of the experi-
ment was a small mortar package designed to fire four
small grenades to different distances (about 150 m,
300 m, 1000 m and 1600 m, all towards the northwest
across the valley containing the landing site, after the
astronauts had left the surface). Each grenade would
provide a signal for the PSE and geophones. Concerns
Figure 226 Activities near the Apollo 13 LM.
Figure 227 Apollo 13 EVA 1 plan.
Heavy black lines are the basic EVA routes. Thinner black lines show extensions which could have been attempted if time permitted.
P: panoramic photography stations. Squares show the LM and ALSEP locations. Small dots are sampling locations (lettered). Informal
placenames and activities at three locations are also shown.
White lines show alternative EVAs considered during planning but not included in the official flight plan. The solid white line shows a
variation on the possible EVA 1 extension to ''Star Rim,'' the rim of Star crater, which would also visit Halfway crater. The dashed white
lines show a different version of EVA 1 altogether. It would involve setting up the ALSEP, then walking to Cross Roads crater and back
to the LM. If time permitted, the trek from the ALSEP to Star Rim to Halfway and then to Cross Roads would be added. These variations
appeared in some contemporary news reports.
EVA map adapted from the Apollo 13 Flight Plan.
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about damage to other ALSEP equipment resulted in a
decision not to use the mortars. ALSEP layout here is
schematic. Pre-flight diagrams differ from this in some
details. SIDE is about 20 m from the central station,
LRRR about 30 m away. The remaining items are within
3 m of the station.
The activities around the LM during EVA 1
(Figure 253B) included setting up the flag, the solar
wind collector (SWC), the S-band antenna and the TV
camera. The TV was initially mounted on the descent
stage to view the astronauts' first steps on the surface.
Later it was moved to a tripod at the TV1 position to
view the flag and other equipment set-up, then to TV2
to monitor the ALSEP offloading, and finally to TV3 to
follow ALSEP deployment. At the end of EVA 1 it was
returned to TV1, where it remained for the beginning
and end of EVA 2. During the traverse to Cone crater the
camera was pointed slightly north of Cone (TV4). P
denotes panorama locations. S denotes the contingency
sample collection point (NASA 1971c).
EVA 1 began at 4:42 UT. Shepard climbed out of the
LM first, them Mitchell. Shepard moved the TV camera
out to its first position (TV1) to observe subsequent
activities, while Mitchell collected a contingency sample
Figure 228 Apollo 13 plans for EVAs 2 and 3.
EVA maps are adapted from the Apollo 13 Flight Plan.
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Figure 229 Apollo 13
image coverage.
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Figure 230 Mare
Moscoviense viewed
from Apollo 13.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 271

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in case an emergency departure became necessary. Then
Shepard deployed the S-band antenna to give better com-
munications and Mitchell set up the solar wind collector.
Mitchell returned to the LM cabin to activate the antenna
and store the contingency sample. Next, the flag was set
up, and then Mitchell moved to the TV camera to swing it
around, providing a panoramic view for the earthbound
audience. Meanwhile Shepard took three panoramic sets
of photos with the Hasselblad camera. The final activity
in the vicinity of the LM was the unloading of ALSEP
equipment from the storage bay on the southeast side of
the descent stage. Shepard moved the TV camera to TV2
to monitor this activity. Then it was returned to TV3,
using a zoom lens to observe the ALSEP deployment.
The ALSEP equipment was packaged in two sections,
carried by Mitchell in barbell fashion to a point about
180 m west of the LM. The crew also had a wheeled tool
carrier, the MET (modular equipment transporter), with
them for extra items and samples. The astronauts set out
the equipment, with Mitchell laying out the geophone line
to the south of the ALSEP site. The ''thumper'' was set off
at intervals along the geophone line to provide a seismic
signal. This was reflected from boundaries between layers
of different density to indicate the subsurface structure.
Results showed that the Fra Mauro Formation
(Imbrium basin ejecta) was 45--85 m thick here, and that
an 8.5 m deep regolith had formed over it. Only 13 of the
possible 21 thumper firings were successful, but they were
enough to provide the necessary data. The mortar with its
larger charges and greater spacing, up to 1600 m, would
have probed to greater depths, but it was never activated.
Shepard deployed the LRRR about 30 m west of the
ALSEP central station, near the Doublet craters.
After setting up the ALSEP the astronauts were run-
ning about 30 minutes behind schedule. A half-hour
Figure 231 Apollo 13 ALSEP layout.
Figure 232 Potential Davy landing sites.
This is part of Apollo 16 Metric Camera frame AS16-M-1973
showing the crater chain Davy Catena on the rim and floor of the
old crater Davy Y (Figure 222). The approximate locations of
the three candidate landing sites are shown.
Figure 233 EVA plans for Copernicus and Marius.
The base map for all Copernicus EVA plans is Orbiter 5 frame
152-H1.
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Figure 234 Luna 16 landing area.
Base map: as Figure 80.
Figure 233 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 273

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extension of the EVA was granted, but the optional
traverse around Doublet (Figure 251) was abandoned.
Instead, they set off back to the LM, pausing to collect
a ''comprehensive sample,'' larger than the contingency
sample. They collected regolith samples and used a rake
to gather ''walnut-sized'' rocks. Closer again to the LM
they collected two ''football-sized'' rocks. Back at the
LM they repositioned the TV camera (back to TV1),
attempted to brush loose dust off their suits, and
returned to the LM cabin to eat and sleep. EVA 1 lasted
4.8 hours and covered a distance of roughly 1 km.
Figure 235 Luna 16 landing site.
Base map. Figure 235A: detail of Karta Luny, Ekvatorialnaya
Zoni, Sheet 7 (More Pen'), original scale 1:1 000 000, Sternberg
State Astronomical Institute, Moscow, 1968.
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The EVA 1 route and ALSEP deployment locations
are shown in Figure 254.
The astronauts reported that the terrain was more
uneven than they anticipated, with several broad shallow
depressions. They walked around one to set up the
ALSEP on more level ground beyond it.
Lunar Orbiter 3 frame 133-H2 forms a base for a map
of the EVA 2 route (Figure 255). South crater, part of the
Triplet group, was later renamed South-Apollo to avoid
confusion with another South crater on the Moon
(58.08 N, 50.88 W).
Table 45. Science site priorities for the remaining landings.
Mission
Geology group
recommendation
Geochemistry group
recommendation
Geophysics Group
recommendation
MSC recommendation
Preferred Second
choice Preferred Second
choice
Preferred Second
choice Preferred
Second
choice
15
Tycho Descartes Descartes Copernicus Hadley Hadley
Hadley
Copernicus
16
Davy
Copernicus Descartes
Descartes
Descartes
17
Marius
Davy
Hadley Marius
Davy
Marius Marius or Copernicus
or new site
Figure 236 Hadley landing sites and EVA plans from
SWP minutes.
Figure 236A shows five sites at Hadley-Apennine considered
for landing at the 20 October 1970 SWP meeting. Sites between
the rille and the mountains were preferred, to provide access to
both, and Site 3 required a very steep descent after clearing a
nearby peak, so sites 1 and 5 were preferred. Figures 236B
and 236C are proposed EVAs at sites 1 and 5 respectively.
Base maps. Figure 236A is from Figure 172. Figures 236B and
236C: details of Defense Mapping Agency NASA Lunar
Topophotomaps 41B4S1(50) (Rima Hadley North) and
41B4S3(50) (Rima Hadley South), original scales 1: 50 000, 1st
editions, November 1974 and May 1975, respectively.
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EVA 2 began at 8:11 UT on 6 February, 2.5 hours
earlier than planned, at the crew's request. The astronauts
loaded the MET with equipment, including a lunar por-
table magnetometer (LPM) to make measurements of the
local magnetic field during their traverse. The TV camera
was placed in the LM shadow to avoid a repeat of the
Apollo 12 TV camera accident, and pointed towards
Cone Ridge, though the astronauts would be out of
view for most of the traverse. Shepard and Mitchell
walked to Station A pulling the MET, commenting that
the regolith along the route had a pitted texture.
At the unplanned stop now called Station B1,
Mitchell tried to find his location on the map while
Shepard took a panorama.
At Station B2, an unplanned rest stop, Mitchell took
a panorama while Shepard used the Apollo lunar surface
closeup camera to take stereoscopic closeup images of
''Big Rock'' (panorama G in Figure 258). They contin-
ued climbing the increasingly rocky slope, informally
referred to as ''Flank Ridge,'' towards the rim of Cone,
but unsure of its exact location. At Station B3 they again
stopped to rest, at the suggestion of doctors on the
ground who were monitoring their heart rates and
breathing. Mitchell took another panorama among a
cluster of small craters and boulders with prominent
fillets.
At Station A Shepard took a double core sample
and Mitchell photographed a panorama. A LPM
measurement was made here and other documented
samples were collected. Between Stations A and B the
ground began to rise. If the astronauts found it difficult
to pull the MET uphill they could drop it off along the
route and retrieve it on the return, but this was not found
to be necessary. At Station B they collected an undocu-
mented (''grab'') sample and Shepard took a panorama.
Boulders were becoming more numerous here. Another
grab sample was picked up just beyond B. After this the
crew spent some time trying to locate themselves on the
maps they carried and set out for the rim of Cone crater.
After being granted a 30-minute extension to the
EVA, the astronauts crossed a flatter area and climbed
a little way up the informally named ''east ridge,'' aiming
for the highest point of the ridge in the mistaken belief
that this was the rim of Cone crater. In fact they were
walking parallel to the rim at this point.
At Station C0 (''C-prime'') they stopped among
boulders on the rim of a small crater at the highest
point they reached. Shepard took a panorama and they
both collected documented samples. They attempted a
core sample but the tube could not be driven in very far
and the granular regolith fell out when it was removed
from the ground. Shepard noticed that white material
underlaid the dark surface material.
At Station C0 the crew also collected a football sized
rock, and took another LPM magnetic reading. The LPM
was now detached from the MET and left at Station C0 .
Figure 236 (cont.)
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Figure 237 Zond 8
and other farside image
coverage.
Figure 238 Zond 8 image mosaic.
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Figure 239 Zond 8 images of the Moon.
Figure 239A is from the earthset sequence showing Mare Orientale, the largest dark area. Figures 239B and 239C are two
horizon views showing different silhouettes of Montes Cordillera against the lunar sky. Figure 239C includes the dark
lavas of Mare Orientale, and small dark spots where that lava has been excavated from beneath later ejecta by recent small impacts.
Figure 239D: distant view (9600 km altitude) showing Mare Orientale (left) and Oceanus Procellarum (right). Figure 239E: the
Ranger 4 impact area (Figure 31). Figure 239F: craters with smooth plains fill, possibly Orientale ejecta, on the northern rim of Apollo
basin (308 S, 1408 W), in an area not photographed at high resolution by other missions. The largest crater is Kleymenov. All Zond
images provided courtesy of MIIGAiK, T. Nyrtsova and K. Shingareva.
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They then moved a short distance northwest to a cluster
of very large rocks (3 or 4 metre diameter) collectively
known as ''White Rocks,'' not realizing they were almost
at the rim itself. This stop is referred to as Station C1.
Documented samples and a mini-panorama (I in
Figure 258) were taken here. The astronauts descended
slightly to Station C2, very close to B3, to collect a grab
sample and photograph large fillets around a rock.
Grab samples were also collected quickly near
planned Stations D and E during the descent. At
Station F Shepard made a brief detour to photograph
Weird Rock (named for the ''weird'' composite crater
nearby), and then took a panorama at F while Mitchell
Figure 240 Luna 17 landing area.
Base map: ACIC Lunar chart LAC 24 (Sinus Iridum), original
scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, September 1966.
Figure 241 The Luna 17 landing site.
Figures 241B and 241C show several craters similar in size to
the largest one in the Lunokhod route map. All were examined
closely, using the more recent Clementine long wavelength
infrared (LWIR) images where possible. The most promising
candidate is shown in Figures 241D and 241E, which compare
the Lunokhod route map base (Figure 241E) with the LWIR
image. A low double ridge on the western horizon (241F), seen
by Lunokhod 1 while still on its landing stage, may be the rim of a
fresh crater with bright ejecta in the Apollo image, appearing
dark in the LWIR image.
The relief map in Figure 241E is the background image from
Figures 242, 243 and 244, which show the rover route. It was
drawn by P. Stooke. A digital version of an early version of this
page was intended to fly on Transorbital's Trailblazer mission
(page 413).
Base maps: Figures 241A: ACIC Lunar Chart LAC 24 (Sinus
Iridum), original scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, September 1966;
Figures 241B and C: details from Apollo 15 Hasselblad frame
AS15-93-12714, rectified from its original highly oblique view;
Figure 241D: Clementine LWIR image lla4583m_049; Figure
241E: shaded relief base of Lunokhod route map.
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collected a grab sample. Documented sampling resumed
at Station G just east of Triplet. Mitchell tried to collect
a triple core but could not drive it very deep.
Shepard dug a trench about 50 cm deep, noting that
under the darker surface he found a layer of glass frag-
ments and then a lighter layer. An environmental sample
was collected from the bottom of the trench and placed
in a sealed container to trap any gases which might be
present in it. A sample of a partly buried rock was
collected on the north rim of North crater, and then
the astronauts returned to the LM.
At the end of EVA 2 Mitchell walked to Station H in a
boulder field to take samples and a panorama, including
images of Turtle Rock. Shepard returned to the ALSEP
to adjust the central station antenna. Then their supplies
and equipment were loaded into the LM. As a final
gesture Shepard used a tool handle to hit two golf balls
across the surface, reporting that one flew towards the
ALSEP and another fell into a nearby crater. Another
tool, thrown like a javelin by Mitchell, fell into the same
crater (Figure 253B). The crew entered the LM and
prepared for liftoff. EVA 2 lasted 4.6 hours and the
crew walked approximately 4 km. A total of 42.3 kg of
samples were collected during both EVAs, later dated
about 3.85 billion years old. Total time on the surface
was 33.5 hours.
Detailed plans of the Apollo 14 EVA 2 traverse sta-
tions (Figures 256, 257) record activities at each station.
These are sites where panoramas were made and, in most
cases, where samples were collected (S). The MET is
Figure 241 (cont.)
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Figure 242 Lunokhod 1 route map, southern section.
shown where it appears in the panorama, with its
tracks leading up to that point. All positions are
approximate. Station B3 (right) also includes the sam-
pling stop referred to as Station C2.
These plans are based on the panoramas, supple-
mented by Lunar Orbiter images, and also (at stations
A, B, B3, C0, C1, G and H) are derived in part on
illustrations in Swann et al. (1977) and NASA (1971c).
The drawings in Figures 256 and 257 were made by
assembling Apollo 14 panoramas (Figure 258) and
reprojecting them into an overhead map geometry.
These could be matched with the Lunar Orbiter
images to establish the exact panorama location, and
the combined images were used to map rocks and
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Figure 243 Lunokhod 1 route map, central section.
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Figure 244 Lunokhod 1 route map, northern section.
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Figure 245 Plans of Lunokhod 1 study sites.
craters. Other features are taken from illustrations in
Swann et al., 1977. All positions are approximate.
The MET and tracks are shown at the time the
panorama was taken. At Station G the first core
sample was unsuccessful and the second partly suc-
cessful, in retrieving regolith samples.
Apollo 14 panoramic views of the landing site are
shown in Figure 258.
Apollo 14 returned images from under its ground
track, and over a broad area at lower resolution during
its departure from the Moon. Special imaging included
extensive colour photography, very-high-resolution
images of the Kant region for future site selection,
and zero-phase imaging. The zero-phase images,
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Figure 245 (cont.)
Figure 246 Luna 17 landing site plan.
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Figure 247 Lunokhod 1 panoramas.
Figure 247A: Panorama made just after Lunokhod left the landing stage on 17 November 1970.
Figure 247B: Plan 2 area looking south.
Figure 247C: Luna 17 landing stage observed when Lunokhod 1 returned to it on 20 January 1971.
Figure 247D: Tracks and distant hills from the Plan 7 area, looking north.
Figure 247E: Panorama made on 21 December 1970 near Lunokhod's southernmost point.
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Figure 248 Lunokhod 1 panoramas.
Figure 248A: The plan 2 area, looking southeast. The crater is 8 m in diameter.
Figure 248B: The plan 7 area looking south, showing a fresh 4 m diameter crater.
Figure 248C: The plan 3 area looking southwest. The crater is 30 m across.
Figure 248D: Panorama made on 18 February 1971, looking south. Lunokhod 1 has just emerged from the crater in the background.
Figure 248E: This panorama is from one of the downward-facing panoramic cameras, giving a view from the front (left) to the rear
(right) with the wheels at the bottom edge. The round object at center is the top view of the bell-shaped orientation indicating
device shown in other panoramas. This image was taken in the Plan 1 area.
Lunokhod 1 images are courtesy of V. V. Shevchenko (Sternberg State Astronomical Institute) and A. Wasserman (USGS Flagstaff).
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Figure 249 Locating the Luna 17 site.
Base maps. Figure 240: as Figure 240. Figure 249E: as Figure 241B.
Figure 250 Apollo 13 and 14 landing trajectories and targets.
Base map: Orbiter 3 frame 133-H2.
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taken looking in the same direction as the incoming
sunlight, as if to view the spacecraft's shadow, reveal sur-
face texture information to assist geological analysis.
Figure 259 is part of Hycon image (AS14-80-10468)
showing the floor of Theophilus, from a search for alter-
native Apollo 16 landing sites (Figure 264).
Figure 260A gives the locations of Apollo landing,
target and impact sites and the locations of the sub-
sequent figures, plotted on ACIC lunar charts LAC 75
(Letronne), second edition June 1962, and 76 (Montes
Riphaeus), second edition April 1964, original scale
1:1 000 000. The SIVB was expected to impact within
600 km of 18 360 S, 338 150 W. The impact occurred at
6:41 UT on 4 February, at 78 490 S, 268 000 W, 300 km
southeast of the target. The Apollo 12 seismometer,
170 km away, recorded vibrations from the impact for
two hours.
The impact crater was located later by Ewen
Whitaker (University of Arizona) in Apollo 16 photo-
graphs. Figures 260B and 260C: details of Apollo 16
metric camera frame 2829 showing the northwest
corner of Mare Cognitum, showing the context of
Figure 260D.
Figure 260D is part of Apollo 16 panoramic camera
frame 5451. The dark spot at centre is the Apollo 14
SIVB ejecta. Narrow bright rays are also visible.
The location of the SIVB impact had been refined to
8.028 S, 26.028 W by the time Apollo 16 images became
available. Ewen Whitaker discovered the 40 m diameter
crater at the centre of its dark ray system (Figures 261A
Figure 251 Apollo 14 EVA plans.
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and 261B). It is seen most clearly in Apollo 16 panoramic
camera frame 5449 (261B), where it appears to have a
small central hill. Its map coordinates are 8.178 S,
25.958 W. The dark impact debris area is also visible as
a bright spot in Clementine LWIR image lla1674i178
(not shown).
Figure 262A is Apollo 12 image AS12-56C-8439,
showing the location of Figure 262B. The latter, part of
Apollo 16 metric frame 2508 rectified from its oblique
view, shows a dark spot near the expected position of the
Apollo 14 LM ascent stage impact. When the dark
appearance of spacecraft ejecta was recognized,
Whitaker identified this as the probable site of the LM
impact. The crater itself, probably about 18 m across, is
not resolved. The LM target was 38 300 S, 198 160 W,
tracking suggested an impact at 3.428 S, 19.678 W and
the dark spot is at 3.378 S, 19.48 W. It is not covered by
Clementine LWIR images. This section is based on
NASA (1971a), NASA (1971b), MSC (1971b) and
Whitaker (1972).
3 February 1971: Science Working Panel
The Panel met on 3 February and 30 March to consider
Apollo 15 EVA plans. A rover, the lunar roving
vehicle (LRV) would be carried for the first time, but
suitable walking EVA plans were required if the rover
failed, or could not be ready in time for launch. Only the
Hadley North site (Figure 236B) was now being
considered.
The sampling goals included the plains material at the
landing site, Imbrium basin rim (Apennine Front) mate-
rial from the base of Hadley Delta, the mountain south
of the landing site, and the rim of Rima Hadley, the
sinuous valley to the west. Several plans presented at
the Panel meetings are shown in Figure 263, differing
in many details from the proposed EVAs shown in
Figure 236.
3 June 1971: Apollo Site Selection Board
The Board met to finalize Apollo 16 site selection and to
begin considering the site for the last landing. At the
previous meeting (page 257) Descartes was recom-
mended as the Apollo 16 site with Copernicus central
peaks as an alternative, and Marius Hills as Apollo 17's
target with Copernicus or a new highland site as alter-
natives. Now, however, the scientific priority for both
remaining Apollo missions was to sample highland sites.
Since Copernicus ejecta were apparently sampled by
Figure 251 (cont.)
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Figure 252 Apollo 14 orbital image coverage.
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Apollo 12, that crater was less of a priority. Descartes
and Alphonsus were now favored for Apollo 16.
Another alternative was the Kant Plateau, a high-
land area east of Descartes. Apollo 14 provided high-
resolution stereoscopic images from its Hycon camera
(Figures 250, 259), which failed before reaching
Descartes but provided good images between
Theophilus and Kant. Caroll Ann Hodges (USGS)
selected three sites along the photo strip (Figure 264).
In order of ''geological promise'' these were: (Site 1)
frame AS14-80-10468, 11.08 S, 26.38 E, a flat area just
north of the central peak of Theophilus, with a fresh
200 m diameter crater and an LRV route to the central
peaks; (Site 2) frame AS14-80-10629, 9.58 S, 18.38 E,
west of Kant, landing in a flat area at the centre of the
frame, with hilly Cayley Formation material and a fresh
100 m diameter crater; (Site 3) frame AS14-80-10511,
10.68 S, 24.28 E, Theophilus ejecta, with three craters in
an arc, one fresh with a blocky rim.
These sites were rejected because only a very narrow
strip of high-resolution coverage was available.
Alphonsus was rejected because its geology was poorly
understood, and very old material, a high priority, might
be difficult to find under Imbrium ejecta. It might still be
used for Apollo 17 if good photography from Apollo 16
helped resolve these issues. Thus Descartes was adopted
for Apollo 16.
The schedule change for Apollo 17, now set for the
end of 1972, would again make Tycho accessible so it
was once more in contention. The Apollo 17 priority
Figure 253 Apollo 14 LM and ALSEP
areas.
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Figure 254 Apollo 14 EVA 1.
P: panoramic photography locations. S: sample collection locations. LM is the Lunar Module Antares. LRRR is the lunar ranging
retroreflector.
Base map: Orbiter 3 frame 133-H2.
Figure 253 (cont.)
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sequence was now: (1) Tycho or Davy; (2) the highland
region southwest of Mare Crisium, if Apollo 15 orbital data
showed a compositional difference between that area and
the mountains at the Apollo 15 site; (3) Gassendi central
peaks; (4) (low priority) Copernicus. The ''southwest of
Crisium'' region was as far as Apollo could hope to get
from Imbrium ejecta, offering a good chance of finding
older material. This section is based on ASSB minutes and
the Science Working Panel minutes from 11--12 May 1971.
6 June 1971: Soyuz 11
Soyuz 11 launched from Baikonur at 4:55 UT with its
backup crew, Georgi T. Dobrovol'skiy, Viktor I.
Patsaev and Vladislav N. Volkov. The prime crew
(Alexei A. Leonov, Pyotr I. Kolodin and Valeri N.
Kubasov) were replaced when Kubasov became ill
before the launch. They docked with Salyut 1, the first
time a space station was occupied in orbit. After several
technical problems including a small fire and a jammed
telescope cover, they cut short their flight and deorbited
on 29 June. The 23.8 day flight was the longest yet made
by any crew. A valve failure caused a fatal loss of air
pressure in the capsule during re-entry. The crew are
buried in the Kremlin wall in Moscow and are comme-
morated by craters near Tsiolkovskiy (Figure 265).
A nearby crater commemorates Valentin V.
Bondarenko, a cosmonaut in training who died in a fire
during ground tests on 23 March 1961, in circumstances
similar to those of the Apollo 1 astronauts (page 108).
The details were made public in 1986.
27 June 1971: Third N-1 Launch (Soviet Union)
This launch was not aimed at the Moon, and carried only
a dummy lunar orbital module (LOK) spacecraft. The
rocket began to lose control after 30 seconds and failed
completely after 50 seconds, crashing 20 km from the
Baikonur launch pad.
26 July 1971: Apollo 15 (United States: NASA)
Apollo 15's crew consisted of Air Force Colonel David R.
Scott (Commander, previous flights on Gemini 8 and
Figure 255 (both pages) Apollo 14 EVA 2.
Base map: Orbiter 3 frame 133-H2.
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Apollo 9), Air Force Major Alfred M. Worden (Command
Module Pilot) and Air Force Lt.-Colonel James B. Irwin
(Lunar Module Pilot). The backup crew was Richard
Gordon, Vance Brand, and Harrison Schmitt.
Launch occurred on 26 July at 13:34 UT from Kennedy
Space Center Pad 39 A, and trans-lunar injection took place
at 16:30 UT. The CSM ''Endeavour'' separated from the
SIVB and docked with the LM ''Falcon'' at 17:07 UT. SIVB
burns at 19:22 UT and 23:34 UT put it on a lunar impact
trajectory, and it crashed on 29 July at 20:58 UT (page 306).
Trajectory corrections were made on 27 July at 18:14 UT
and 29 July at 15:05 UT. The Service Module instrument
package cover was discarded at 15:40 UT on 29 July and
Apollo 15 entered lunar orbit at 20:05 UT.
The orbit was adjusted at 00:13 UT on 30 July, and
Falcon separated from Endeavour at 18:13 UT. The LM
descent began at 22:04 UT, and Falcon landed at 22:16
UT on 30 July at 26.18 N, 3.68 E. Scott and Irwin had three
EVA periods on the surface with a total time of 18.6 hours,
in which they travelled 27.9 km using a lunar roving vehicle
(LRV) for the first time, collected 77.3 kg of lunar samples,
took photographs, set up an ALSEP and conducted other-
experiments. Meanwhile Endeavour conducted photogra-
phy and other orbital experiments from orbit.
Falcon left the surface at 17:11 UT on 2 August, 66.9
hours after landing. It docked with Endeavour at 19:10
UT and samples and equipment were transferred to the
CSM. The LM ascent stage was jettisoned at 01:04 UT
on 4 August and struck the lunar surface at 03:04 UT
(page 318). The CSM modified its orbit and then ejected
a small satellite (''Apollo 15 subsatellite'') from its SIM
bay at 20:13 UT on 4 August, into a 102.0 km by
Figure 255 (cont.)
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Figure 256 Apollo 14 traverse station plans.
141.3 km orbit. The trans-earth injection burn was
made on the next orbit at 21:23 UT.
On 5 August Worden made the first deep-space
EVA, leaving the CM for 38.2 minutes to make
three tethered excursions to the SIM bay at the
back of the SM to retrieve film canisters from the
cameras. On its return to Earth on 7 August the CM
separated from the SM at 20:18 UT and entered the
atmosphere. One of the three large parachutes did
not open fully but the spacecraft splashed down
safely on 7 August at 20:46 UT after a flight lasting
295.5 hours.
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Figure 257 Apollo 14 traverse station plans.
Splashdown occurred at 268 70 N, 1588 80 W,
500 km north of Honolulu, Hawaii and 9.8 km
from the USS Okinawa recovery ship. The Apollo
15 CM is now on display at the USAF Museum at
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.
Hadley-Apennine was by far the most spectacular
lunar site yet visited. Features were given informal
names by future shuttle astronaut Joe Allen and the
Apollo 15 crew (Figures 266A, 267). Names near the
landing site are labelled in Figure 266A.
Lee Silver was a geologist involved with crew
training, Gordon Swann was a USGS geologist
and Floyd Bennett was an MSC engineer involved
in mission planning. ''Big Rock'' was Rocco Petrone,
the Apollo Program Director. ''Hill 305'' refers to a
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Figure 258 (both pages) Apollo 14 panoramas.
Figure 258A: composite view from both windows just after landing.
Figure 258B: view from the left window after EVA 1 showing the solar wind collector and ALSEP (small bright dots at right).
Figure 258C: view from right window after EVA 2 showing the flag and other items left on the surface.
Figure 258D: view of the LM from the east. The antenna cover sheet shaded the MET between EVAs to prevent overheating.
Figure 258E: the LM from the south, with Cone Ridge northeast of the landing site.
Figure 258F (across both pages): full panorama from Station C near the rim of Cone crater, showing rocky ejecta. At right the view
extends 3 km south to Old Nameless. The image of the MET is truncated here to allow maximum visibility of the lunar surface.
Figure 258G: Station B2 seen during the ascent of the ridge.
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Figure 258 (cont.)
Figure 258H: the best view of Old Nameless, from Station B3 during the ascent of the ridge. The MET and an astronaut cast
shadows in the foreground, but because they are moving only the shadow is visible in this compilation.
Figure 258I: boulders two or three metres high at Station C0 , near the rim of Cone crater.
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US military operation (the name was used in France in
1918, Vietnam and Korea), but the specific reference is
unknown.
The Apollo 15 SIVB upper stage was deliberately
impacted on the Moon to provide a seismic signal to
the Apollo 12 and 14 seismometers (NASA 1971d,
1971e). The target was at 38390 S, 78 34.80 W near the
crater Lalande (Figure 266B). Initial reports placed the
actual impact at 18 000 S, 118 520 W, and more careful
analysis later placed it at 1.518 S, 11.818 W, near the
crater Turner. This location was not photographed at
high resolution before or after the impact, so the crater
formed by the SIVB has not been identified. The
Clementine mosaic (Figure 266C) shows the area of the
impact. Pre-Apollo telescopic images are not detailed
enough to reveal any changes with certainty.
Figure 267 shows the informal feature names assigned
by Joe Allen and the Apollo 15 crew. James Head III of
Bellcomm and Gerald Schaber of USGS Flagstaff are
commemorated here, but most names are more whimsi-
cal, taken from literature (Durin's Bridge, Rhysling),
from their locations (Rim, Elbow) or appearance
(Arrowhead). Pluton was also called ''750 meter crater.''
Bridge crater's rim and ejecta might possibly have pro-
vided a route across the rille.
The name Durin's Bridge suggests a similar intended
meaning, but it was shown on an Apollo working map
(Short 1975, p. 153) at the location labelled (DB). I have
moved it to a more likely location, assuming an error in
the original. The Apollo 15 target point is shown.
Matthew, Mark, Luke, Index and Last craters served
as guides to the crew during the descent. Salyut com-
memorates the first Soviet space station, Salyut 1,
launched on 19 April 1971.
The first Apollo 15 EVA followed the route shown as
a black line in Figure 268. The pre-mission planned route
is also plotted in gray. The LM landed about 600 m
north of the intended location and there was some initial
confusion about the location. Two hours after landing,
Scott stood on the ascent engine cover to look out
through the open upper hatch for a novel 33-minute
''stand-up EVA'' (SEVA), during which he photo-
graphed two complete panoramas and assessed rover
driving conditions.
Scott left the LM at the start of EVA 1, setting up a
TV camera on a tripod to observe the near-LM activities
and collecting a contingency regolith sample. After
Irwin joined him on the surface the LRV was deployed.
The rover performed well throughout the stay despite a
faulty front steering mechanism on EVA 1. The highest
priority for this site was to collect samples from the
Apennine Front. This name was applied to the entire
west-facing mountain range extending through the
Hadley-Apennine region. In this area it corresponds to
the mountain Hadley Delta.
Figure 259 Floor of Theophilus crater.
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The astronauts set out on the LRV, aiming for the edge
of the rille (initially at checkpoint 1 near Canyon crater),
then following the rille edge to Elbow crater. Their location
uncertainty persisted until they arrived at Elbow (Station
1). They collected samples near Elbow crater and at the
foot of the mountain (Station 2), amid the most spectacu-
lar scenery yet seen on the Moon. A planned third sample
stop on the Front was omitted, but a very brief unplanned
stop (Station 3) on the plains near Rhysling was made
instead to collect a vesicular basalt sample. A TV camera
mounted on the rover, panned and zoomed from Earth,
gave excellent live coverage at every stop.
On their return to the LM, the astronauts offloaded
the ALSEP equipment and set it up about 100 m
Figure 260 Apollo 14 SIVB and LM impact sites.
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Figure 260 (cont.)
Figure 261 Apollo 14 SIVB impact site.
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northwest of the LM. Time limitations prevented the
drilling of the second of two heat-flow experiment
cores, a task postponed to the second EVA. Total time
for EVA 1 was 6.6 hours. The distance covered was
10.3 km, and the greatest distance from the LM was
4 km.
Details of equipment and activities near the landing
site are shown in Figure 269. Figure 269A portrays the
area around the LM with the locations of equipment and
activities.
Falcon landed with its rear pad in a crater, about
60 cm lower than its front pad, but the 108 tilt was within
allowable limits. Early in EVA 1 Irwin collected a con-
tingency sample at point C on the map. Other samples
were collected at the points labelled S. The solar wind
collector (SWC) was set up during EVA 1 and retrieved
at the end of EVA 3 for return to Earth. The TV camera,
initially mounted on the LM facing the ladder on the
forward leg, was moved to a tripod west of the LM to
view early surface activities. The LRV was deployed
from its storage unit in the LM descent stage and set
up at point L before being moved to an area north of the
LM for testing and loading. The ALSEP equipment was
offloaded at point A, and some packing materials were
discarded nearby. Three panoramas were taken at the
points marked P during EVA 2. The flag was set up at
theendofEVA2.AttheendofEVA3theroverwas
parked northeast of this map area to give live TV
Figure 261 (cont.)
Figure 262 Apollo 14 LM impact site.
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coverage of the LM liftoff for the first time during the
Apollo program.
A detail of Apollo 15 panoramic camera frame 9377
(Figure 269B) shows the LM on the lunar surface, casting
a prominent shadow. Several Apollo 15 panoramic cam-
era images show the LM with its shadow shrinking as the
sun rose higher. Image 9798 (Figure 274) also reveals a
darkened strip between LM and ALSEP caused by
multiple rover tracks and footprints. These were only the
second set of orbital images (after those of Surveyor 1,
Figure 79) to show landed hardware on the lunar surface.
The Apollo 15 ALSEP (Figure 269C) was similar to
that carried on Apollo 12, with the addition of the heat-
flow experiment that was lost during Apollo 13 and a
Figure 263 Apollo 15 EVA plans from SWP.
Figures 263A and 263B show traverse plans from the February
SWP meeting. Figure 263A depicts LRV traverses, and Figure
263B shows walking traverses. The maximum walk-back
distance was assumed to be about 3 km, limiting the range of
exploration but still fulfilling the chief science goals of the
mission. Figure 263C shows modified EVA routes and activities
from the March meeting. A cluster of craters and hills north of the
target point was now interpreted as a possible volcanic
complex, and had become an additional sampling goal, though
it would not be accessible to walking astronauts. Background
image: AS15-87-11717.
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separate laser ranging retroreflector (LRRR). All equip-
ment except the LRRR was connected by cables to the
central station, which provided power and communi-
cations. A detector mounted on the central station moni-
tored dust accumulation. A radioisotope thermoelectric
generator (RTG) generated electrical power. A passive
seismic experiment (seismometer, labeled PSE) moni-
tored ''moonquakes'' and impacts. A solar wind spectro-
meter (SWS) measured the nature of the solar wind and
Earth's extended magnetosphere. SIDE (suprathermal
ion detector) and CCIG (cold cathode ionization gauge)
were similar to those flown on Apollo 12 and 14. The
heat-flow experiment had a central electronics box and
two probes inserted into drilled holes. Figure 269C is not
drawn to scale and is based on pre-flight deployment
plans, modified from surface photography to show cable
layouts and two craters. The true deployed configura-
tion is shown in Figure 273.
EVA 2 (Figure 270) was modified to allow time to
complete the ALSEP deployment. The astronauts drove
to the Apennine Front without stopping at Station 4 on
Figure 264: Alternative sites for Apollo 16.
The main image shows the Apollo 16 landing site north of Descartes and the three Kant Plateau sites (black circles) briefly considered
for that mission. The Hycon image strip is shown as a white rectangle. Base map: ACIC Lunar Chart LAC 78 (Theophilus), original
scale 1:1 000 000, 1st edition, March 1963. Below the main image are Apollo 14 Hycon images of the three sites, arranged from
west to east. Each image spans 4 km top to bottom.
Figure 265 Cosmonaut memorial craters near Tsiolkovskiy.
Base map: Figure 104.
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the rim of Dune crater, although they did pause to take a
partial panorama nearby.
Station 5 at the east end of the planned route was
cancelled and three points uphill from Stations 6 and 7
were examined instead, with the goal of sampling ejecta
from a small fresh crater on the slope. Core and trench
samples were taken at Station 6. A 3 m boulder with a
greenish layer was sampled at Station 6 A. Station 7 at
Spur crater provided many rocks including a white
anorthosite often called ''Genesis Rock.''
On the return journey samples were collected at
Station 4 at the South Cluster, thought to be secondary
craters caused by a large fresh crater (either Aristillus or
Autolycus) northwest of the landing site. The goal was to
Figure 266 Apollo 15 site and SIVB impact area.
Base maps. Figure 266A: a detail of US Army Lunar Topographic Map Rima Hadley, Sheets A and B, Orbiter V site 26.1, original
scale 1:250 000, 1st edition, January 1971.
Figure 266B: a composite of LACs 75 and 76, as in Figure 260A.
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Figure 267 Apollo 15 feature names.
The background image is part of Apollo 15 image AS15-87-11717, rectified from its original oblique view.
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find material ejected from one of those distant craters. A
later stop at Station 8 near Arbeit crater was dropped.
Back at the ALSEP, the heat-flow experiment was com-
pleted. One probe was emplaced about 1.5 m deep, the
other only 1 m deep, rather than the 3 m desired depth. A
new Station 8 was investigated near the ALSEP. This
included sampling, digging a trench, soil mechanics tests,
and drilling a 2 m deep core. The core could not be
extracted from the ground and was left in place at the end
of the EVA. EVA 2 lasted 7.2 hours and covered 12.5 km.
The background image is part of Apollo 15 panoramic
camera frame 9430. The planned EVA is taken from MSC
(1971c). The actual EVA is derived from the Apollo
Lunar Surface Journal, as the source used for EVAs 1
and 3 shows an inaccurate representation of EVA 2. The
original ALSJ map was compiled by Ken Rattee.
EVA 3 (Figure 271) began with the successful extrac-
tion of the EVA 2 core tube at Station 8 near the ALSEP.
Scott and Irwin then drove west to the edge of Hadley
Rille, where they collected samples and took high-
resolution photographs of the far wall of the rille. The trip
to the North Complex had to be omitted because of the
extra Station 8 work and other delays. The name
''Wolverine'' was assigned by Irwin as they drove past a
subdued crater.
On returning to the LM, the solar wind composition
(SWC) foil was retrieved after 41.2 hours of exposure,
and wrapped for return to Earth. The LRV was parked
about 100 m northeast of the LM (the VIP site) to allow
it to transmit images of the LM ascent stage liftoff. Scott
deposited a small memorial to deceased Soviet and
American astronauts near the LRV. Film and samples
were transferred to the LM and the astronauts returned
to the cabin after 4.8 hours. Travel distance on EVA 3
was 5.1 km. Apollo 15 samples from the mountain were
about 3.85 billion years old. The mare plains were 3.3
billion years old (Wilhelms 1987).
The LRV continued to function for several days after
the LM ascent stage liftoff, and was used to transmit
several TV panoramas. It could not be driven remotely,
though that option had been considered earlier (page
129). An attempt to transmit TV coverage during a
Figure 268 Apollo 15 EVA 1.
The background image is a detail of Apollo 15 panoramic
camera frame 9430. The actual EVA is taken from DMA Lunar
Photomap 41B4S4(25), Apollo 15 Traverses, original scale
1: 25 000, 2nd edition, April 1975. The planned EVA is taken
from MSC (1971c). Rough sketches of the planned EVAs in
other Apollo 15 documents and press materials often differed in
detail from the official plan.
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solar eclipse (lunar eclipse as seen from Earth) on
6 August was prevented by a permanent loss of transmis-
sion the day before. The crew, then more than halfway
home, offered to return to make repairs.
MSC (1971c) also includes detailed plans for walking
EVAs in the event that the LRV failed (Figure 272).
These differ significantly from the options illustrated in
Figure 263. The order of EVAs was changed to reflect
the high priority of sample collection at the Apennine
Front. Interestingly, the abbreviated Apollo 15 EVAs
actually conducted resemble these walking EVAs
(except in order) more closely than the planned full
LRV routes. Given the northerly offset of the actual
landing point, the Apennine Front may not have been
within reach of walking astronauts.
Plans of the ten Apollo 15 stations, or sampling stops,
only approximately to scale, are shown in Figure 273.
They are modified from small drawings in Swann et al.
(1972), except for Station 6A which corrects an error in
that paper according to an analysis by Eric Jones for the
Apollo Lunar Surface Journal. Locations of panoramas,
sample locations (S), cores, trenches and other activities
are shown. The LRV locations and tracks are shown at the
time of sampling operations, with tracks drawn from rec-
tified panoramas. Details of craters and rocks are based on
a composite of the sketches in Swann et al. (1972), Apollo
15 orbital photography and rectified panoramas.
At Station 2 a boulder was rolled over and samples
collected from underneath it. The rake samples (Stations
2, 7 and 9A) were intended to collect small rock
fragments from the soil. Station 6 A was the highest
point reached by the astronauts. Station 10 was chosen
to provide stereoscopic images of the far side of the rille
in combination with Station 9 A photography. No sam-
pling was done there.
Figure 276 shows a selection of Apollo 15 panoramas.
Apollo 15 panoramic camera frame 9798 (Figure 274)
shows the LM and areas of disturbed regolith, which
appear as darker patches and streaks. The image was
taken between EVAs 2 and 3. The most thoroughly
disturbed areas surround the LM, the LRV parking
area and the ALSEP itself. A very small dark patch,
nearly lost against topographic shading on a crater rim,
heat-flow
experiment
electronics
heat-flow
experiment
probe 2
heat-flow
experiment
probe 1
5m
5m
10m
16m
CCIG
SIDE
C
4m
15m
3m
3.5 m RTG
central
station
LRRR
PSE
magnetometer
SWS
Figure 269 Apollo 15 landing site and ALSEP details.
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Figure 270 Apollo 15 EVA 2.
marks the soil disturbed during the laser ranging retro-
reflector (LRRR) deployment. Comparison of this
image with frame 9377 (Figure 269B) confirms that the
LRRR spot is newly formed.
The Apollo 15 LM ascent stage was deliberately
crashed to provide a seismic signal of known strength
for the three active seismic stations now installed
(Apollos 12, 14 and 15). The target point was at
26.258 N, 1.758 E, only about 10 km from the possible
observation of the Luna 2 impact point (Figures 18C,
D). The actual impact point was at 26.368 N, 0.258 E,
about 40 km further west and 93 km from the landing
site (NASA 1971d; NASA 1971e).
Figure 275A covers the Palus Putredinis area, with
the LM ascent stage target and impact points and the
Apollo 15 landing site.
Like all orbital Apollo missions, Apollo 15 photo-
graphic coverage (Figure 277) at high resolution lies
under the CSM groundtrack, which gradually shifted
westwards relative to the surface during the time spent
in orbit. The SIM bay cameras photographed mostly
areas directly under the spacecraft, but coverage was
extended by images directed towards the horizon. The
lower-resolution images were taken from high altitude
during the departure from the Moon and in this case
cover mostly the nearside.
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Figure 278, a detail of AS15--10176, shows an appar-
ent volcanic complex discovered by Ewen Whitaker in
Apollo 15 images. The unusual shallow depression at
188 400 N, 58 200 E, containing numerous low domes, is
known as ''Ina'' or ''D-Caldera,'' and is a strong candi-
date for future exploration.
Apollos 15 to 17 carried a set of remote-sensing
instruments in their Service Modules. The panoramic
camera obtained over 1500 very-high-resolution panora-
mic images including stereoscopic coverage. The map-
ping camera provided high-quality metric photographs
of the lunar surface and simultaneous star images to give
accurate pointing information for a new generation of
lunar maps. The other instruments and their results are
described on page 369.
The 41 kg Apollo 15 subsatellite measured magnetic
fields and solar flares. It was a 1 m long spin-stabilized
cylinder rotating at about 12 rpm with its spin axis roughly
perpendicular to the ecliptic. Three 1.5 m booms around its
base unfolded after deployment. It transmitted data for 6
months until most data channels failed in February 1972.
The remaining channels were monitored intermittently
until January 1973, when ground support ended. The sub-
satellite eventually struck the lunar surface, as low lunar
orbits are unstable, but its impact point is not known.
2 September 1971: Luna 18 (Soviet Union)
Luna 18 was one of the series of sample return missions.
Luna 16 (page 252) collected material from Mare
Fecunditatis, and Luna 18 would attempt the same feat in
a highland area. It was essentially the same as Luna 16 but
with improved navigation systems. The designer, Georgy
N. Babakin of the Lavochkin Design Bureau, died at the
age of 57 on 3 August, only a month before the launch.
Luna 18 was launched from Baikonur at 13:41 UT
into a parking orbit, then placed on a lunar trajectory.
It entered a 100 km circular lunar orbit inclined 238 to
the equator on 7 September and made 54 orbits before
beginning its descent. Contact was lost just before the
Figure 271 Apollo 15 EVA 3.
The background image is a detail of Apollo 15 panoramic
camera frame 9430. The actual EVA is taken from DMA Lunar
Photomap 41B4S4(25), Apollo 15 Traverses, original scale
1: 25 000, 2nd edition, April 1975. The planned EVA is taken
from MSC (1971c).
Figure 272 Apollo 15 walking EVA plan.
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Figure 273 (both pages) Apollo 15 science stations.
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Figure 273 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 313

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expected landing time on 11 September. Luna 18 struck
the surface within a few kilometers of 38 340 N, 568 300 Ein
a broad valley just west of the crater Apollonius C, 40 km
north of the edge of Mare Fecunditatis, in the highland
region between Mare Fecunditatis and Mare Crisium. All
these sample return missions were restricted to a narrow
range of longitudes near 608 E. The site was sufficiently
important that it was reused for Luna 20 (page 318).
Figure 279 depicts the Luna 16 and Luna 20 landing
region.
28 September 1971: Luna 19 (Soviet Union)
Luna 19, the first of a new class of heavy lunar orbiters, was
launched at 10:00 UT. After leaving its temporary Earth
parking orbit and making two trajectory corrections on
Figure 274 Apollo 15 LM viewed from orbit.
Figure 275 Apollo 15 LM impact point.
Base map (Figure 275A): DMA Lunar Topographic Orthophotomap LTO41B4(250) (Hadley), original scale 1:250 000, 2nd edition, April
1975. Figure 275B: Apollo 15 metric camera frame 0416 showing the impact site. No post-impact high-resolution images are available
to help identify the impact crater. Clementine images do not reveal an obvious candidate.
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29 September and 1 October, the 5600 kg spacecraft was
placed in a 140 km, 2-hour circular lunar orbit inclined
40.588 to the equator on 3 October. Four days later the
orbit was altered to 127 km by 135 km. The onboard
instruments were designed to study the near-lunar radia-
tion environment, gamma-ray emissions from the lunar
surface, the solar wind, and to photograph the surface
with a novel camera system. Gravity studies were also
conducted to help locate mascons (page 143). A radar
altimeter was used to map the topography of the surface
under the spacecraft.
Photography began by about 19 October, and in
November the orbit was changed to 77 km by 385 km to
improve image resolution. Coverage in the area from 308 S
to 608 Sa
nd208 Eto808 E(o
r208 Eto308 E, either a
misprint or referring to a single image) has been reported,
but this probably refers only to one orbit. A hand-
annotated map in the MIIGAiK library shows two points
Figure 276 (both pages) Apollo 15 panoramas.
Figure 276A and 276B are composite views looking west from the LM windows, just after landing (274A) and after EVA 3, showing the
extensive surface disturbance caused by footprints and rover tracks (274B). The rover was parked behind the LM to view liftoff and
cannot be seen in this view. The change in sun angle is very apparent.
Figure 276C (both pages) is one of the two Stand-up EVA (SEVA) panoramas showing the landscape around the LM. The Swann Hills
are mostly in shadow or lost in glare. Several LM components are truncated because image overlap areas have been edited to
maximize surface visibility.
Figure 276D (both pages) is a panorama made at the end of EVA 2 just south of the LM. The right LM footpad is resting in a shallow
crater, causing a significant tilt.
Figure 276E is a view to the north up Hadley Rille from Station 2.
Figure 276F looks south towards Hadley Delta from the LM during the SEVA. Hadley Delta rises about 3000 m above the plains below.
The large crater at left is Last Crater (Figure 267). An antenna at far right, partly obscuring a small crater, has been mostly edited out
by the use of overlapping images.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 315

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just east of Ru¨ mker which may also have been observation
targets. It appears that only five panoramic images were
taken, but the extent of each panorama is not known as
very little information has been released from this mission.
Five images, the only ones known to the author, are
plotted in Figure 280 with black outlines. Some are
enlarged in Figure 281. They may not be the only images
obtained. The possible area of Luna 19 data collection
shown on a MIIGAiK index map, and the area said to
have been the focus of Luna 19 observations (white
outline) are also plotted. The camera and possibly
some of the other instruments were regarded as experi-
mental, and the results seem to have been treated as
engineering rather than scientific data.
The camera was a unique scanning system which
scanned a line from horizon to horizon under the
spacecraft, each successive scan line being displaced
along the ground track by the spacecraft's orbital
motion. Each panoramic image could have extended
from terminator to terminator, though the actual extent
is not known and only small sections have been released.
The original images are of good quality, though the
apparent resolution of perhaps 100 m would not have
been sufficient to plan human landings. This appears to
have been the first purely electronic imaging system used
in lunar orbit. Luna 12, the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft and
the Apollo missions all used film cameras. Luna 19
operated for nearly 13 months and over 4000 orbits. It
probably struck the surface as its orbit evolved under the
influence of mascons, but its impact site is unknown.
The images shown in Figure 281 may be only small
sections from much longer panoramic image strips.
Figure 276 (cont.)
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1971: Science Working Panel
The Panel met on 11 to 12 May, 1 to 2 June, 3 August,
1 October, 15 to 16 November and 20 December 1971 to
consider Apollo 16 activities. Several alternative versions
of the Apollo 16 EVA traverses are illustrated in Figure 282
as they appeared in the minutes of the Panel meetings. A
walking mission option was included. All EVAs using the
LRV include visits to the hills north and south of the
landing site (referred to as ''North Hills'' and ''South
Hills'' at the May meeting, but subsequently named
''Smoky Mountain'' and ''Stone Mountain'' respectively).
The earliest plan (Figure 282A) did not involve climb-
ing far up Stone Mountain, but drove a considerable
distance along its base instead. The walking EVA
(Figure 242E) could only reach Stone Mountain. It
would only be used if the LRV suffered a failure and
could not be used. Figure 282D was the option even-
tually chosen for the Apollo 16 mission.
Both the mountains and the plains between them were
thought to consist of highland volcanic materials, which
was the chief reason for choosing this site. Later, during
the mission itself, they were shown to be deposits of
basin ejecta.
11 February 1972: Apollo Site Selection Board
This, the last meeting of the Apollo Site Selection Board,
selected the final Apollo Program landing site for the
Apollo 17 mission. Consideration began in October to
Figure 276 (Cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 317

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allow time for detailed assessments of many candidate
sites. The objective was to find a site incorporating dif-
ferent types of material, especially pre-Imbrian material
in highlands as far as possible from the Imbrium basin,
and relatively young volcanic materials. The site should
also allow orbital remote sensing in new areas of the
Moon and be complex and interesting enough for the
geophysical instruments to give good results.
Apollo 15 images were scrutinized as soon as possible
in case an interesting new site could be found, in addition
to those already considered. Six new areas were exam-
ined (Figure 283), but three of them were too far east
to allow adequate pre-landing tracking. Proclus, at
198 300 N, 488 300 E, about 100 km north of the crater
itself, was too close to the edge of the accessible area.
The remaining two were ''Southwest of Crisium'' and
Taurus-Littrow, a site in a mare-filled highland valley
60 km southeast of the old Littrow landing site candidate
(Figure 160C).
The three candidates considered previously were
Alphonsus, Copernicus Central Peaks and Gassendi
Central Peaks. EVA plans were compiled for these
three sites and for Taurus-Littrow. Marius Hills also
appeared on some of the planning documents but was
outside the accessible area on the launch date.
Copernicus was less appealing now because its ejecta
had apparently been sampled by Apollo 12.
The whole Crisium region was now considered less
important for Apollo because it fell within the area
accessible to Soviet robotic sampling missions. Luna 18
had failed in an attempt to collect a sample from the
Apollonius area (Figure 279) but success was anticipated
in the near future, and in fact came only two weeks
after this meeting. Gassendi offered no young volcanic
materials.
Taurus-Littrow was eventually selected for Apollo
17. It included highlands and apparently small volcanic
cinder cones, though in the end the target was not placed
close to the most obvious cinder cones. It also had the
best options for the maximum 3.5 km radius walking
EVAs if the LRV failed (Gassendi did not offer good
walking options and Alphonsus was barely acceptable).
Its orbital science coverage was very good, though
Gassendi was also very promising from that point of
view as it allowed coverage of parts of the Orientale
basin. Taurus-Littrow's narrow valley at first seemed
too small to contain a full-sized landing ellipse, but
growing experience suggested the constraints could be
loosened and it became acceptable.
Figure 284 shows areas which would be covered by
orbital photography for missions to several Apollo 17
candidate sites. The existing (Apollo 15) and anticipated
(Apollo 16) coverage prior to Apollo 17 is shown with a
white outline.
Areas potentially covered by the metric and panora-
mic cameras on Apollo 17 (excluding high oblique cover-
age) are shown for three possible landing sites:
Alphonsus (grey outline), Gassendi (black outline) and
Taurus-Littrow (heavy black outline, grey shading).
Gassendi offered the best new coverage, but the overlap
between Apollo 15 and Taurus-Littrow coverage was
also desirable because it would allow comparisons
between data from the different SIM bay instruments
carried by Apollos 15 and 17. Alphonsus and Gassendi
EVAs are shown in Figures 285 and 286.
The central part of the Taurus-Littrow valley is shown
in Figure 287 with the proposed Apollo 17 landing site
and two alternate landing locations. The region is located
near 208 N, 308 E. Its context is shown in Figure 308.
14 February 1972: Luna 20 (Soviet Union)
The 5600 kg Luna 20 spacecraft was launched from
Baikonur at 03:28 UT into a low Earth parking orbit
and then placed on a lunar trajectory. After one trajec-
tory correction it entered a 100 km circular lunar orbit
inclined 658 to the equator on 18 February, and on the
next day the spacecraft's low point was reduced to
21 km. At 19:19 UT on 21 February Luna 20 landed
safely in the hilly region between Mare Crisium and
Mare Fecunditatis (Figure 288), in the same area used
for the Luna 18 mission (Figure 279). Its final descent
began 760 m above the surface, 160 m higher than for
Luna 18. The coordinates are given as 3.538 N, 56.558 E,
which would be only 1800 m southeast of the Luna 18
crash site, though the uncertainties in each point are
several kilometers larger than this. The landing site was
120 km north of the Luna 16 site (Figure 235). The twin
cameras surveyed the scene in tilted panoramas,
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Figure 277 Apollo 15 photographic coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 319

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extending from horizon to horizon with a view of the
foreground. Only fragments of these panoramas have
been published (Figure 289). The images were supposed
to allow the sample drill to be positioned to avoid rocks,
but there were no significant rocks in the view.
The drill was lowered and 50 grams of regolith sam-
ples were collected. This was less than intended because
Figure 278 (above): D-Caldera.
Figure 279 Luna 18 impact area.
Figure 279A is a map of the region by George Burba
(Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry,
Moscow), used with his kind permission.
Figure 279B shows the site in more detail on part of Lunar
Orbiter 1 image 033-M.
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the drill struck a hard object, presumably a buried rock,
at a depth of about 15 cm, causing the drill to overheat.
Drilling was abandoned and the small sample was raised
and placed in the return capsule. The return stage was
launched from the Moon after a stay time of 27.65 hours
on 22 February carrying its samples in a sealed capsule.
This separated from its ascent stage when still 52 000 km
from Earth and landed in the Soviet Union late on 25
February during a blizzard. The samples were recovered
from an island in the Karkingir River, 40 km northwest
of Dzhezkagan, the following morning. The Luna 20
samples dated the Crisium basin at about 3.85 billion
years, almost the same as the age of the Imbrium basin
(Wilhelms 1987).
Figures 290A and 290B shows the two ends of the
Luna 20 panorama, rotated to show a level horizon. A
fresh 10 m diameter crater lies several tens of meters
north of the landed spacecraft in 290 A. In 290B a
group of hills and ridges extend to the eastern horizon.
Figure 290C is the view to the east, reprojected to help
locate surface features. Matching features are shown by
letters in this and the Lunar Orbiter image at right (from
Figure 288B, rotated to place east at the top for easier
comparison with the perspective view). The Sun is high
above the horizon in the Luna 20 panorama, so differences
in lighting must be accounted for. Feature A is a crater
roughly 2 km in diameter. B is a prominent hollow in the
outer flank of Apollonius C. Other points are on the rim of
Apollonius C and in the hilly terrain north of the crater.
By matching features along the edges of the Luna 20
image to the Orbiter view, two converging lines can be
plotted to indicate the location of the landing site.
16 April 1972: Apollo 16 (United States: NASA)
The Apollo 16 crew consisted of Navy Captain John W.
Young, Commander, who had previously flown on
Gemini 3, Gemini 10 and Apollo 10, and would later fly
on STS-1 and STS-9; Navy Lt-Commander Thomas K.
Mattingly II, Command Module Pilot, who later flew on
STS-4 and STS-51C; and Air Force Lt-Colonel Charles
M. Duke, Jr., Lunar Module Pilot. The Apollo 16 backup
crew consisted of Fred W. Haise Jr. (Apollo 13), Stuart A.
Roosa (Apollo 14), and Edgar D. Mitchell (Apollo 14).
Figure 280 Known Luna 19 image coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 321

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Figure 281 Luna 19 images.
Figures 281A and 281B show the original image format (A) and a map-projected view (B) of the Metius region near 408 S, 458 E. The
scanner viewed the surface from horizon to horizon, but near the horizons the view is too oblique to be useful. The sharp crater at
centre is Metius.
Figures 281C and 281D are original and reprojected versions of an image of Eratosthenes, Stadius and Sinus Aestuum near 108 N,
128 W.
Figure 281E is a map-projected fragment of an image of the craters Zagut, Lindenau and Rabbi Levi near 358 S, 228 E. Images
courtesy of MIIGAiK, reprojections by P. Stooke.
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Figure 282 Evolving plans for
the Apollo 16 EVAs.
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Figure 283 Candidate Apollo 17 sites.
The sites considered at the last Apollo Site Selection Board meeting are shown in Figure 283 as open circles. The six ''new'' sites near
Crisium are shown with white centers. The previous Apollo landing sites are plotted as solid black dots.
Figure 284 Photographic coverage planning for Apollo 17 site selection.
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Apollo 16 was launched at 17:54 UT on a Saturn V
from Pad 39 A at Kennedy Space Center. The launch
had been postponed from 17 March to allow minor
repairs. The vehicle entered a parking orbit at 18:06
UT and its trans-lunar injection burn occurred at 20:28
UT. The CSM separated from the SIVB upper stage at
20:59 UT and docked with the LM at 21:16 UT. The
SIVB continued to a lunar impact, but helium venting
prevented a planned course adjustment. The SIVB radio
transmitter failed on 17 April at 21:03 UT so tracking
was lost. It struck the lunar surface on 19 April at 21:02
UT, at 1.38 N, 23.88 W with a speed of 2.5 km/s, 118 from
Figure 285 Alphonsus EVAs.
Figure 285A shows the proposed landing area at Alphonsus and the Ranger 9 site. The map is a detail of Figure 51C.
Figure 285B shows the suggested landing site at 138 S, 48 W and EVA routes around it, from the ASSB minutes and NASA
presentation graphic S-72-095-V. Dashed outlines are the prime sample collection areas. The image is part of Lunar Orbiter 5
frame 118M.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 325

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a vertical trajectory, providing a signal for the Apollo 12,
14 and 15 seismometers.
Apollo 16 made a trajectory correction on 18 April at
00:33 UT. During trans-lunar coast a CSM navigation
problem was discovered in which a false indication
would cause loss of inertial reference, this was solved
by a real-time change in the computer program. The
SIM bay door covering the orbital remote-sensing
instruments was ejected on 19 April at 15:57 UT and
the spacecraft entered lunar orbit at 20:22 UT. After two
orbits its low point was dropped to 20 km.
On 20 April at 15:24 UT, Young and Duke entered
the LM ''Orion.'' They separated from the CSM
''Casper'' at 18:08 UT. The descent to the surface was
delayed for six hours by a potentially serious propulsion
system anomaly, which was eventually resolved. The
LM landed on 21 April at 02:24 UT in the Descartes
region (Figure 294) at 8.978 S, 15.508 E. Young and
Duke made three EVAs lasting a total of 20.25 hours,
using an LRV to cover 27 km. They brought back
94.7 kg of lunar samples, took many photographs, and
set up an ALSEP and other experiments.
Orion took off on 24 April at 01:26 UT after 71.0 hours
on the surface and docked with the CSM at 03:35 UT.
After equipment and the 94.7 kg of lunar samples were
transferred to the CSM, the LM was jettisoned at 20:54
UT. It was supposed to be crashed near the landing site to
provide a seismic signal, but it lost attitude control and
was abandoned in orbit. It probably remained in lunar
orbit for about a year before orbital decay caused it to
crash at an unknown location within 108 of the equator.
Several other minor technical problems also affected
the mission. The instrument boom which supported the
orbital mass spectrometer could not be retracted, so it
was ejected and must also have struck the lunar surface
within 108 of the equator at an unknown date. Concerns
about the propulsion system led to a one-day reduction
in orbit time, and the cancellation of an orbit adjustment
designed to place the Apollo 16 subsatellite in its desired
orbit. As a result the subsatellite was ejected at 21:56 UT
into an elliptical orbit with a lifetime of about one
month, rather than the full year intended. The subsatel-
lite stopped transmitting, presumably because it struck
the lunar surface, on 29 May (Figure 291).
The trans-Earth injection burn began on 25 April at
02:16 UT. At 20:43 UT that day Mattingly began a 1.4-
hour deep-space EVA to retrieve film from the SIM bay
cameras. The CM separated from the SM on 27 April at
19:17 UT and splashed down on 27 April at 19:45 UT at
08 430 S, 1568 130 W, in the Pacific Ocean 350 km south-
east of Christmas Island and 5 km (3 miles) from the
recovery ship USS Ticonderoga. Total mission time was
265.85 hours. The Apollo 16 Command Module is now
Figure 286 Gassendi EVAs.
Figure 286A shows the proposed landing area at Gassendi,
just west of the main central peaks. The map is the same as that
shown in Figure 172. The proposed Apollo 17 landing site
(Figure 286B)isat178 S, 408 W. The EVA routes (a little
uncertain because of the quality of the data sources) are taken
from ASSB minutes and NASA presentation graphic S-72-096-
V. Dashed outlines are the prime sample collection areas. The
image is part of Lunar Orbiter 5 frame 178-M.
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on display in the US Space and Rocket Center in
Huntsville, Alabama.
The Saturn IVB upper stage impact location is shown
in Figure 292. The target point was 28 180 S, 318 420 W
(NASA 1972a), though lack of accurate control made
this uncertain by 108 (300 km) or more. The actual impact
was estimated just after the flight to have occurred at
18 500 N, 238 180 W, from tracking before loss of commu-
nications (NASA 1972b). This was later refined to
2.248 N, 24.498 W. Timing of the resulting seismic signals
suggested a location of 1.38 N, 23.88 W, uncertain by
about 0.58, according to the National Space Science
Data Center. The last estimate is probably the best.
Figure 291 shows the subsatellite impact area, on the
same base as Figure 178. The Apollo 16 subsatellite
carried a plasma analyzer and a magnetometer to study
the lunar magnetic and plasma environment, and pro-
vided information on the lunar gravitational field via its
radio transponder. The spin-stabilized subsatellite was
placed in a 119-minute orbit inclined 118 to the equator.
Eventually on 29 May 1972 the signal ceased, after 34
days and 425 orbits. It is believed to have crashed at that
time. There was no close tracking of the impact, which
occurred on the far side, but the lowest point on that
orbit would have been at about 108 N, 1128 E so the
impact is assumed to have occurred here.
The subsatellite impact point would be in or near the
100 km crater Lobachevskiy, and about 300 km from the
Lunar Orbiter 2 impact site (Figure 92). The impact site
should be considered uncertain within several hundred
km along the orbit track (east to west).
The regional setting of the Apollo 16 landing site is
shown in Figure 293. The landing site is about 300 km
south of Mare Tranquillitatis in the cratered southern
highlands. It lies about 200 km north of the old Abulfeda
site (Figure 160B), which it replaced as the preferred site
for studying potential highland volcanism. The site,
referred to as Descartes, actually lies about 70 km
north of Descartes crater, which is almost hidden
under a blanket of material that forms small hills
throughout this area. An unnamed 250 km wide crater,
also nearly buried, spans the full width of Figure 294A
with the landing site at its center.
Figure 294A shows the landing site in more detail.
The nearly buried crater can be seen more easily here.
Figure 294B shows a closer view of the hills, referred to
during planning as ''north hills'' and ''south hills'', and
the plains which lie between them and extend far to the
Figure 287 Taurus-Littrow EVAs and site characteristics.
EVA routes are taken from ASSB minutes and NASA graphic S-71-3532-V. The circles indicate dark halo craters (probably cinder
cones) mapped by El-Baz (1972). Dashed outlines are the prime sample collection areas. The image is part of Apollo 15 panoramic
camera frame 9554.
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west across the buried crater. Some informal feature
names used during the mission are indicated.
Informal placenames around the landing site, used in
crew training and mission operations, are shown in
Figure 295. The landing site is dominated by two moun-
tains (Stone Mountain and Smoky Mountains, also called
Smoky Mountain) and two fresh ray craters (North Ray
and South Ray). Cayley Plains is strictly speaking a
geological unit name, applied to all patches of relatively
smooth and level material filling depressions in the
southern cratered highlands, but it was sometimes used
at this particular example as if it were a local placename.
Cinco is a cluster of five craters on Stone Mountain.
Canoe is an elongated depression, a northwesterly exten-
sion of Big Sag, slightly north of the edge of this map. It
lies mostly outside Figure 295, but is also visible in
Figure 294A. The name Dot (named for Charles
Duke's wife Dorothy) was originally assigned to a crater
northwest of Palmetto (1 on the map). It would have
been Station 13 in Figure 282B.
When the EVA was redesigned the name was moved to
a feature just north of Palmetto (2). The name Haystack
also was used in two locations, most often for a small
fresh crater near the western edge of the map (1 on the
map), but also for a hill north of North Ray (2).
Three possible landing points for Apollo 16 are indi-
cated in Figure 296 (MSC 1972). The smoothest, point 2,
was selected for the mission. The LM landed about
300 m north of the target point. The planned and actual
landing sites and routes for the first EVA are shown in
Figure 297.
The early EVA activities would have been broadcast
by a television camera set up on a tripod west of the LM
as on Apollo 15 (Figure 296), but an antenna problem
prevented its use. The broadcast began only when the
LRV with its own antenna was set up.
After leaving the LM the crew offloaded the LRV and
ALSEP, and set up a small far-ultraviolet (far-uv) telescope
and the flag. The telescope was placed in the LM shadow
and made observations of Earth, the Large Magellanic
Cloud, the Galactic Centre and eight other astronomical
Figure 288 Luna 20 landing site.
Figure 288A, part of Lunar Orbiter 1 image 33M, shows the
region around the Luna 20 landing site. The regional context is
shown in Figures 235 and 279. The landing took place in a broad
valley east of the 10 km diameter crater Apollonius C.
Figure 288B is an enlargement of Figure 288A showing the
landing site. Circle 1 was indicated as the landing location on
the basis of tracking, in Heiken and McEwen (1972). Circle 2
indicates the location plotted by George Burba on the map
shown as Figure 279.
Circle 3 is the position indicated by matching horizon features in
the panorama with details of the terrain on the northern rim of
Apollonius C (now called Ameghino) in the Lunar Orbiter image,
as shown in Figure 290. It confirms Burba's analysis.
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targets on film. Duke carried the ALSEP to a point about
100 m southwest of the LM where it was unpacked and set
up. An unfortunate accident at this point ruined one of the
experiments: Young's foot caught a cable from the heat-
flow experiment and pulled it loose. Although a possible
repair method was devised on the ground, time later in the
mission was too limited to attempt it. A deep core sample
was drilled nearby, and a ''thumper'' was used to generate
seismic signals for a row of geophones to probe subsurface
structure, as on Apollo 14.
The crew then drove out to Station 1 at Plum crater
on the rim of Flag. Duke referred to a depression south
of the rover route as ''Hidden Valley,'' perhaps a mis-
taken reference to ''Eden Valley'' (Figure 295). The
Cayley Plains material was sampled at Flag crater
(named for Flagstaff), and a trench was dug and sampled
in the rim of Plum crater.
At Station 2, between Spook and Buster craters, the
lunar portable magnetometer was deployed to measure
the local magnetic field, and samples were collected. In
general the magnetic field was stronger at Descartes than
at the other Apollo sites, though still very weak by
terrestrial standards.
Figure 289 Luna 20 images and site plan.
Figure 289A is a composite of published fragments of a Luna
20 panorama. The irregular outlines result from combining
images from multiple sources.
Figure 289B is a reprojection of Figure 289A to give a flat
horizon. Published depictions of this panorama are usually
reversed left to right because of a mismatch between the
scanning directions of the camera and the original output
device. This also occurred with most Lunokhod 1 panoramas
(Figure 247). The left end of the panorama faces roughly north,
the right end to the east.
Figure 289C is a very rough sketch map drawn from the
panorama, not to scale but showing an area about
10 m across.
Figure 289D is a small section of an image taken before
sampling, showing the drill target area.
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The crew then returned to the ALSEP, a little behind
their tightly scheduled timeline. Sampling was deleted at
what would have been called Station 3. The active seis-
mic experiment mortar was armed and the core-tubes
were retrieved. Back at the LM, Duke deployed the solar
wind collector, the far-UV telescope was reset, and sam-
ples were loaded into the LM. EVA 1 lasted 7.2 hours
and covered 4.2 km.
Figure 298 shows activities around the landing site and
ALSEP area. S indicates a sampling location. Young flew
the LM over a 30 m crater and landed just west of it.
After the EVA 2 geology traverse to the south the
crew returned to a location designated Station 10
near the ALSEP to collect samples and perform a
penetrometer soil mechanics experiment. After the
EVA 3 geology traverse to the north the crew returned
to a nearby point called Station 100 (Ten prime) near the
LM/ALSEP area for sampling and photography.
Finally the LRV was parked east of the LM at the
''VIP'' site (see also page 347) to provide video of the LM
ascent stage liftoff and subsequent impact (Figure 304). A
rock was collected and placed on top of the lunar portable
magnetometer (LPM) for a reading of its magnetic char-
acteristics before being returned to Earth.
The mortar for the active seismic experiment was to
fire four grenades to distances of 1500 m, 900 m, 300 m
and 150 m to provide signals for the seismometer.
Comparison with Figure 297 shows the most distant
grenade would have landed a few hundred meters north-
east of Flag crater. Three grenades were fired on 23 May,
but the most distant was not fixed because mortar orien-
tation data became uncertain. The other three gave good
seismic data, probing the depths to layers of different
material beneath the site.
Figure 299 shows the planned and actual EVA 2
routes. EVA 2 began with a long drive to Station 4 on
Stone Mountain. The most distant station was visited
first to allow time to walk back if the rover failed. Station
4 was in the Cinco crater cluster, not quite as far south as
originally intended. The largest of these craters, adjacent
Figure 289E was taken just after sampling. The drill has been raised, leaving a dark ring to the left of the drill where it touched the
surface.
Figure 289F was taken after the sample has been placed in the sample container. The drill is resting on the ground. The white
circle indicates the drill hole. Comparison of the hole in 289E and 289 F shows that the images were taken by different cameras.
289E is from the right-mounted camera, 289 F from the left-mounted camera. Each camera photographed a scene extending from
its horizon to the sampling area, giving stereoscopic viewing of the area to be drilled. All images courtesy MIIGAiK, incorporating
a detail provided by Don P. Mitchell.
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to Station 4, is labelled Cinco on the DMA map, but the
name really referred to all five craters. They were distin-
guished as ''Cinco a,'' ''Cinco b'' and so on if necessary.
Stations 5 and 6 were at lower elevations on the moun-
tain. The location of Station 5 is uncertain. Here it is based
on a comparison of a map-projected surface panorama
with orbital images. Station 7 was omitted and the astro-
nauts drove to Station 8 to sample ejecta from South Ray
crater. South Ray lies off this map to the southwest, as
shown in Figure 295). Station 9 was in a ray-free area of
the adjacent plains. Here Young carefully obtained a sam-
ple free from all contamination (LM exhaust and leaking
EVA suits) by ''sneaking'' carefully towards a rock from
the north and sampling from its opposite (southern) side.
A final stop was made at Station 10 between the
ALSEP and the LM (Figure 298). Here a drive tube
(hammered rather than drilled) was used to obtain a
double soil core sample, and a penetrometer measured
soil characteristics. Total EVA 2 time was 7.4 hours, and
the distance covered was 11.3 km.
EVA 3 (Figure 300) was shortened to ensure adequate
time to prepare for liftoff. There had been some discus-
sion of abandoning it altogether, but the sampling objec-
tives at North Ray crater were deemed too important to
give up. On the way to Station 11 a large boulder was
Figure 290 Horizon features in the Luna 20 panorama.
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Figure 291 Apollo 16 subsatellite impact site.
Figure 292 Apollo 16 SIVB impact site.
Figure 292A shows the locations of the SIVB target point and three estimates of the impact point, as described in the text. The base
map is a composite of LACs 57, 58, 75 and 76.
Figure 292B is part of Lunar Orbiter 4 image 126-H1 showing the best estimates of impact points from tracking and seismic timing.
identified as another suitable target, and this became
Station 13 on the return journey. All other stops on
this EVA were dropped.
At Station 11 light and dark boulders were exten-
sively sampled, and the crater was photographed in
detail in the hope of observing stratigraphic layering
in the walls. Photography included four panoramas
(two, both in stereo) taken with a polarizing filter to
provide additional physical information on the crater
walls. The largest rock in the vicinity, dubbed House
Rock for its size, would have been the planned Station
12 location.
Station 13, Shadow Rock, was chosen because its
overhanging south side might protect soil samples
which had been shaded since the emplacement of the
boulder, possibly trapping small quantities of gases.
A final stop was made at Station 100 (10 prime) north
of the ALSEP (Figure 298). A double drive tube sample
and rake samples were taken here. A rake sample was
also collected at this time near the Station 10 location.
The crew then retrieved the solar wind collector and
loaded their samples, films and other items into the LM
before leaving the lunar surface. Total EVA 3 time was
5.7 hours. The distance traveled was 11.4 km.
The Apollo 16 samples were originally expected to
include highland volcanic materials, but instead con-
sisted of basin ejecta. Some material apparently from
Nectaris has an age of about 3.92 billion years, 70 mil-
lion years older than the Imbrium basin.
The Apollo 16 science stations are mapped in Figure 301.
Selected Apollo 16 panoramas are shown in Figure 302.
Figure 303 is a schematic depiction of the Apollo 16
ALSEP based on the pre-flight plan in the Apollo 16
Press Kit, modified to show cable positions, craters and
rocks as seen in surface photography. Figure 298 shows
the geophone positions more accurately. Young
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accidentally pulled the heat-flow experiment cable out of
the central station as Duke was drilling the hole for
probe 1, one of the experiment's sensors. The rest of
the experiment setup was abandoned.
After the return to orbit, the spent LM ascent stage
was to be crashed at 98 290 S, 148 580 E, about 25 km
southwest of the landing site, to provide a seismic signal
as on Apollos 12, 14 and 15. The LRV TV camera was
to be aimed at the appropriate azimuth at full zoom in
the hope of observing a plume of ejecta rising over the
horizon. Control of the LM ascent stage was lost after it
was jettisoned and it was abandoned in lunar orbit. It
must have crashed at some time during the next year or
two, within 108 of the equator but at an unknown
location.
Apollo 16 orbital photographic coverage is mapped
in Figure 305. A small area northwest of Grimaldi was
photographed in Earthshine. High-resolution coverage
runs south of the Apollo 15 image area (Figure 277),
greatly increasing the area seen at very high resolution.
A wider region was observed at lower resolution as
Apollo 16 departed from the Moon.
Figure 306 is a detail of Apollo 16 panoramic frame
4623 showing the LM on the surface with its prominent
shadow.
1972: Science Working Panel
The Panel met on 16 March, 10 to 11 May, 26 to 27 July,
2 to 3 October and 10 November to plan surface activ-
ities for Apollo 17. The maps shown in Figure 307
illustrate various alternative plans for the EVAs, taken
from the minutes of these meetings. This was the final
stage of Apollo mission planning, and the Panel dis-
banded after the last meeting.
Figure 307A is an early plan including two alternative
versions of EVA 2, one to the northwest, the other to the
northeast. Both would return from Station 6 (a promi-
nent boulder which had rolled down the hillside, leaving
a track) to the LM, but a shortcut on EVA 2B which
omitted Stations 5B and 6 was also possible. Black crater
in this map was renamed Shorty later (Figure 310). One
goal was to observe the effects of LM exhaust on the
landing approach path.
Figures 307B and 307C show versions in which the
northern route is shortened and a stop just for photogra-
phy is added. Figure 307D adds several brief stops at which
samples could be collected without dismounting from the
rover. This was done to increase sampling options with
minimal added time, making it appealing to mission plan-
ners. Figure 307D was the version used for Apollo 17.
23 November 1972: Fourth N-1 launch (Soviet
Union)
This fourth and last launch of the great N-1 lunar rocket
carried a test version of the hardware that was intended
to carry cosmonauts to the Moon. The orbital module,
Figure 293 The Apollo 16 landing area.
Base map: Defense Mapping Agency Lunar Map LM 78
(Theophilus), original scale 1: 1 000 000, 1st edition, September
1978.
Figure 292 (Cont.)
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''Lunar Orbit Cabin'' (LOK), was flown without a crew
to test systems and operations.
A dummy lander, ''Lunar Cabin'' (LK), was added to
give realistic mass for the tests. The stack was launched
from Baikonur and was intended to enter lunar orbit for
extensive testing, including the LOK returning to Earth.
As with all earlier N-1 flights the launcher failed, this
time after 107 seconds when a fire in the engine area
caused a catastrophic explosion. Lunar landing plans
did not long survive this accident, and Soviet intentions
shifted towards their space station programs.
7 December 1972: Apollo 17 (United States: NASA)
Apollo 17, the last of seven attempted lunar landings and
six successful landings in the Apollo program, was
launched from Pad 39 A at Kennedy Space Center on a
Saturn 5 booster at 05:33 UT (the first Apollo launch at
night), 2.7 hours late because of a launch sequencer
problem. The spacecraft entered a parking orbit at
05:45 UT and the trans-lunar injection burn occurred
at 08:46 UT. The CSM separated from the SIVB at 09:15
UT and docked with the LM at 09:30 UT. The SIVB
Figure 294 Apollo 16 landing site.
Base maps. Figure 294A: Defense Mapping Agency Lunar
Map LM 78 (Theophilus), original scale 1: 1 000 000, 1st edition,
September 1978. Figure 294B: Defense Mapping Agency Lunar
Topographic Orthophotomap LTO 78D2 (Descartes), original
scale 1: 250 000, 1st edition, November 1974. The Lunar Map
series of charts were updated versions of the old LAC sheets. The
Lunar Topographic Orthophotomaps were produced after Apollo
using the new high-resolution stereoscopic images, but they only
covered the area observed by Apollo.
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was discarded at 10:18 UT and impacted the lunar sur-
face at 20:33 UT on 10 December at 4.218 S, 12.318 W
(Figure 317). A mid-course correction burn was made at
17:03 UT on 8 December, and then on 10 December the
SIM bay door was ejected at 15:06 UT and Apollo 17
entered lunar orbit after a lunar orbit insertion burn
beginning at 19:47 UT. About 4.4 hours later the orbit
low point was dropped to 28 km.
Figure 295 Informal names at the Apollo 16 landing site.
This is a composite of pre-mission planning documents used by the Science Working Panel, from their minutes, and MSC (1972). The
image is part of Apollo 16 panoramic camera frame 4558.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 335

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At 14:35 UT on 11 December Commander Eugene A.
Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt
entered the LM, leaving Command Module Pilot
Ronald E. Evans in the CSM.
The LM separated at 17:21 UT on 11 December and
dropped its orbit low point to 11.5 km with a burn at
18:56 UT. The final descent began at 19:43 UT and the
LM landed at 19:55 UT in the Taurus-Littrow valley at
20.28 N, 30.88 E. This site and the old Littrow site
(Figure 160C) are shown in Figure 308. Cernan and
Schmitt made three EVAs for a total of 22.1 hours.
They drove 35 km on their LRV, collected 110.5 kg of
rock and soil samples, took many photographs, set up an
ALSEP and performed other scientific experiments.
Evans operated instruments in the SIM bay and per-
formed other experiments from orbit. The orbital experi-
ments are described on page 348.
The LM launched from the lunar surface on 14
December at 22:55 UT, 75 hours after landing. The
LM docked with the CSM on 15 December at 01:10
UT, and the samples and equipment were transferred
to the CSM. The LM was jettisoned at 04:52 UT and
struck the Moon at 06:50 UT at 19.968 N, 30.508 E,
within view of the landing site (Figure 322). After a 36-
hour period in lunar orbit for additional photography,
the trans-Earth injection burn began on 16 December at
23:35 UT. Evans began a 67-minute deep-space EVA on
17 December at 20:27 UT, making three trips to the SIM
bay to collect film from the cameras and the lunar soun-
der experiment (page 348). The CM and SM separated
on 19 December at 18:57 UT, and Apollo 17 splashed
down at 19:25 UT after a mission elapsed time of 301
hours, 52 minutes. The splashdown point was in the
Pacific Ocean at 178 530 S, 1668 70 W, 600 km southeast
Figure 296 Three candidate landing points for Apollo 16.
Figure 297 Apollo 16 EVA 1, plan and actual route.
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of Samoa and 6.5 km from the recovery ship USS
Ticonderoga.
Navy Captain Cernan had flown on Gemini 9 and
Apollo 10 before this flight. Navy Commander Evans
and USGS geologist Schmitt (pages 50, 56), the only
professional scientist to fly to the Moon, were making
their first spaceflights. The Apollo 17 backup crew con-
sisted of John Young, Stuart Roosa, and Charles Duke.
The Apollo 17 CM was called America, and the LM was
called Challenger. The Apollo 17 Command Module is
now on display in Space Center Houston, adjacent to the
Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.
Figure 308 shows the area surrounding the Apollo 17
landing site. It takes its name from the Taurus
Mountains on the rim of Mare Serenitatis and the old
crater Littrow north of the landing site. The old Littrow
Figure 298 The Apollo 16 Lunar Module and ALSEP area.
Modified from Figure 6--13 of Muehlberger et al. (1972). This map includes information from surface and orbital photography.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 337

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site (Figure 160C) was about 70 km northwest of this
new site.
Figure 309 shows the Taurus-Littrow Valley with the
names of major features and the location of Figure 310.
Family Mountain was a name on the pre-mission maps.
''West Family Mountain,'' visible from the landing site,
was mistaken for Family Mountain by the astronauts on
the surface. This event is described in detail in the Apollo
Lunar Surface Journal.
Figure 310 shows many more informal names
assigned to features at the Apollo 17 landing site. This
map is based on Figure 5--3 of the Apollo 17 Preliminary
Science Report, and shows the names chosen by the crew
before the mission. Some of them were later adopted
officially. A few additional names in the crowded central
area are shown on the individual EVA maps in
Figures 312 to 316. Figure 316 is another view of the
Taurus-Littrow area.
Several of these names were modified just before and
after the flight. The names San Luis Rey and Mariner
were transferred to smaller craters near the landing site
before the final EVA planning maps were drawn.
Bowen, Mackin, Hess, Steno and Nansen are now offi-
cially designated with a suffix ''-Apollo'' (e.g. Mackin-
Apollo) to distinguish them from craters elsewhere on
the Moon with the same names.
Two craters are named with initials: MOCR after the
Mission Operations Control Room, from which Apollo
flights were directed; SWP after the Science Working
Panel who helped choose the landing site and draw up
the mission plans (pages 290, 333). After the mission
SWP became Bowen-Apollo. The names Lee and
Lincoln were combined as shown in Figure 314.
Lunar and planetary surface features are assigned
names by the International Astronomical Union. Their
Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature
proposes names based on approved categories, primarily
astronomers and others associated with lunar studies, in
the case of lunar craters. This official process has often
been in conflict with the needs and wishes of people
involved in exploration. Names of many features near
Apollo landing sites, including most of those on this
page, are unofficial. Nevertheless they have historical
significance and so are recorded here.
Several alternative EVA plans were developed to accom-
odate potential problems during the mission (Figure 311).
Figure 299 Apollo 16 EVA 2.
The plan for the second EVA (from MSC 1972) is shown as a
gray line. The actual EVA, drawn in black, is modified from
Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) Lunar Photomap Apollo 16
Traverses, sheet 78D2S2(25), original scale 1: 25 000, 1st
edition, March 1975.
The base images for all Apollo 16 EVA maps are composites
of panoramic camera frames 4618 and 4623, courtesy of
the Lunar and Planetary Institute.
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Figure 312 shows the planned landing site and EVA 1
route in gray, drawn on panoramic camera frame 2309.
The actual LM location and route are shown in black.
Cernan landed the LM about 300 m northeast of the
target point, just north of a crater named Poppie (incor-
rectly shown as ''Poppy'' on most contemporary maps; it
was named for Cernan's father).
At the start of EVA 1 the crew erected the flag and
prepared the rover. The ALSEP was set up about 200 m
west of the LM. This took more time than had been
scheduled, so the EVA 1 geology traverse was shortened.
The crew drove south about 1.2 km to a point near
Steno crater (later renamed Steno-Apollo to avoid a
conflict with an existing Steno crater on the Moon). An
explosive charge (EP-6) for the active seismic experiment
was emplaced, and samples were collected. On the drive
back to the LM another charge (EP-7) was set down
beside the rover, and Cernan drove a circular loop
around it while Schmitt photographed a panorama, all
without dismounting.
Back near the landing site, the surface electrical prop-
erties (SEP) experiment was set up 150 m east of the LM.
The rover was driven north--south and east--west to lay
out a cross with its tracks, and the SEP cables were laid
out along the tracks.
EVA 1 lasted 7.2 hours, and covered a distance of
about 3.3 km.
The Apollo 17 LM Challenger was photographed on
the surface from orbit in panoramic camera frame 2309
(Figure 313). The bright area around it was created in
part by the descent engine exhaust. This was seen at all
Apollo sites. The bright appearance is produced by the
removal of very fine darker dust by engine exhaust, or by
associated smoothing of the surface. Footprints and
rover tracks near the LM look dark in surface images
because they disturb the regolith, restoring the darker
surface. Tracks elsewhere do not appear dark.
Figure 314 shows the planned and actual routes for
EVA 2. At the start of the EVA the astronauts used maps
of the landing site, and tape and clamps, to repair a rear
fender on their rover.
The fender was damaged during EVA 1 when a tool
caught on it, causing the wheel to throw dust over the
rear of the rover to an unacceptable degree.
Schmitt walked to the SEP (Figure 318) to turn the
transmitter on and to collect a sample nearby, and
Figure 300 Apollo 16 EVA 3.
The planned EVA (from MSC 1972) is shown as a gray line. The
actual EVA, shown in black, is taken from Defense Mapping
Agency Lunar Photomap Apollo 16 Traverses, sheet
78D2S2(25), original scale 1: 25 000, first edition, March 1975.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 339

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Figure 301 (both pages) Apollo 16 traverse stations.
These plans are modified from sketches in the Muehlberger
et al., 1972, incorporating additional details from orbital images
and surface panoramas. The Station 5 location is different
from that suggested by Sanchez (1981). I have placed it 75 m
southeast of the crater indicated in that report to better match
features seen in reprojected panoramas.
S indicates a rock or soil sample location. Rake, core and trench
samples are shown separately. The rover tracks are very
approximate and are plotted from reprojected panoramas.
The Station 11 plan is plotted on a detail of Apollo 16 panoramic
camera image 4618 to show the topography of the crater wall.
The rover tracks are very uncertain. Stations 10 and 100 are
shown in Figure 298. Stations 3 and 7 were not visited, and this
Station 11 includes Station 12 as originally planned (Figure 300).
The shaded relief drawings are based on orbital panoramic
camera frames as well as surface photography. It is not always
easy to match these disparate views, so these plans must be
considered only rough sketches of the science stations.
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Figure 301 (cont.)
Cernan drove to the SEP site to calibrate the experiment.
After the SEP work the crew began the long drive to
Station 2 at South Massif.
The most distant stop on a long traverse was always
made early in the EVA to allow time to walk back if the
rover failed. A brief stop was made about 200 m south-
west of the ALSEP to deploy another explosive charge
(EP-4) for the seismic experiment. As they drove past
Camelot crater the astronauts looked for blocks on the
rim which would make a good sampling spot for Station
5 on the return journey.
Schmitt collected a rock at LRV-1, a brief stop
designed to allow sampling without having to get off
the rover. At LRV-2 light soil from a narrow lobe of
the ''light mantle'' landslide deposit was collected. Rock

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Figure 302 (both pages) Apollo 16 panoramas.
Figure 302A is a view to the west from the LM windows just after landing. This was the only Apollo 16 window panorama.
Figure 302B shows Buster crater from Station 2, looking north.
Figure 302C (across both pages) is a full panorama taken at the ALSEP site during EVA 1. Figure 302D looks to the north and east
from Station 1.
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Figure 302E is a view to the south and west from a point northwest of the LM, showing the crater overflown just before landing.
Figure 302F looks west and north from Station 4 on Stone Mountain, with two bright ray craters indicated at left.
Figure 302G shows Shadow Rock at Station 13, looking north.
Figure 302H is one of the Station 11 polarization panoramas looking northwards across North Ray crater. Panoramas assembled
by P. Stooke.

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and soil from the dark area called Tortilla Flat were
collected at LRV-3.
As Cernan drove toward Station 2 he approached a
potential obstacle, a long scarp crossing the valley floor.
At the time of the mission the southern end was called
Lincoln Scarp and the northern part Lee Scarp, but the two
names were later used together as shown here. The rover
climbedthes
c
arpn
e
a
rapr
e
viously identified low point
called ''Hole in the wall'' and brought the crew to a stop
where Nansen crater (an irregular hollow) abutted South
Massif. Nansen crater was initially called Amundsen in
early EVA planning. The drive to Station 2 took about
70 minutes, and this was the most distant geology station
from the Lunar Module on any Apollo mission.
Station 2 offered samples from South Massif and the
''light mantle'' landslide deposit covering the plains in this
area. Samples were collected from varying depths and
from a permanent shadow under an overhanging rock
to examine the effects of the solar wind on the regolith.
On the drive towards Station 3 the LRV paused at Station
2 A (LRV-4) for a gravimeter reading (also made at the
LM and at all geology stations) and samples. Station 3
was on the scarp near Lara crater, at a small fresh crater
later named Ballet. A core, a trench and other sampling
were undertaken here, and 500 mm telephoto pictures of
the surrounding hills were made here and at Station 2 A.
The LRV-5 brief stop was made to collect samples
from a rocky-rimmed fresh crater, and at LRV-6 the
crew over-ruled ground instructions and collected a sam-
ple of the light mantle regolith.
Station 4 was a highlight of the mission, though in
retrospect not as important as it appeared at the time.
The dark halo crater Shorty was chosen for sampling as
it might have been one of the cinder cones described on
page 327. Schmitt kicked up orange soil beneath the gray
surface layer, and trenching revealed black and white
material as well. Samples of all types of soil were collected,
andwererichinglassbeadsproducedinfirefountainsas
the dark mantle of the valley floor was produced. Shorty
crater was an ordinary impact crater which had excavated
the exotic soil from beneath the light mantle, and the glass
beads were old, not evidence of recent volcanism.
Stop LRV-7 was made to collect samples and photo-
graphs of the light mantle at Victory crater. At LRV-8 a
regolith breccia (soil welded to form a rock) was picked
up. At Station 5 a large boulder field on the rim of
Camelot allowed sampling of deeper layers in the valley
floor. Finally another seismic experiment explosive
Figure 303 Apollo 16 ALSEP plan.
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charge (EP-8) was deployed, and the crew returned to
the LM. Schmitt alighted at the ALSEP and checked the
gravimeter while Cernan drove back to the LM. EVA 2
lasted 7.6 hours and covered about 20.3 km of driving,
the record for Apollo.
EVA 3 included stops at the foot of North Massif and
the Sculptured Hills. The route shown in Figure 315 is
modified from Figure 7 of Wolfe et al. (1981).
Some changes to the original plan were made. Station
10b was similar to Station 5 and was dropped to allow more
time at other stations. It was so named because an earlier
Station 10 at this location had been split into 10A and 10B
during earlier mission planning, as shown in Figure 307.
At the start of the EVA the cosmic ray experiment,
placed on one of the LM landing leg struts during EVA
1, was retrieved to avoid contamination of its results by a
solar flare. The crew then checked the status of the SEP
before driving north. A soil sample was collected at
LRV-9. Turning Point Rock was a route marker used
by the crew to find their way to Station 6. Soil containing
rock chips from Turning Point Rock was collected dur-
ing a brief rover stop at LRV-10.
Station 6 was at a large boulder, now broken into five
big fragments, which had rolled down the slope of North
Massif leaving a visible trail. The trail indicated the
source region of the rock high on the hillside. After the
mission this was named Split Boulder, but the name
''Tracy's Rock'' is also used for its northern component
(Figure 321) because Apollo 12 astronaut and space
artist Alan Bean later painted a picture of the rock. It
showed Cernan's daughter Tracy's name written in the
dust of the rock, an idea Cernan had regretted not
thinking of while he was there (Apollo Lunar Surface
Journal). Core and rake samples and numerous rock
samples were collected here.
Station 7 was located between rocks at the foot of
North Massif. The astronauts collected rock fragments
and then moved on to Station 8 at the Sculptured Hills.
SWP crater was named for the Science Working Panel
which had helped plan the mission (page 333). On the
DMA map Apollo 17 Traverses, sheet 43D1S2(25), SWP
is named Bowen-Apollo, combining the name Bowen
from a nearby subdued crater in pre-mission maps (as
shown here) with a suffix ''Apollo'' to differentiate it
from another Bowen crater on the Moon. Lunar nomen-
clature specialists often took issue with NASA over the
use of informal names at the landing sites. The same
DMA map locates rover sample stop LRV-11 due east
of SWP, though the position shown here, from the US
Geological Survey Professional Paper, corresponds bet-
ter with the crew observations. The approach to Station
8 is modified here from the USGS map to give a better
match to surface photography.
Station 8 provided rake and trench samples. On the
flight plan maps Station 8 could have been located any-
where along the base of the hills. The actual location
saved travel time. At Station 9 the crew dug a trench,
finding light gray material under a darker surface. They
also collected rock and core samples, and deployed
explosive charge EP-5 near the rover before leaving the
station. Station 10 was dropped from the itinerary
Figure 304 Apollo 16 LM ascent stage target.
Base map: a combination of Defense Mapping Agency Lunar
Topographic Orthophotomaps LTO 78D2 (Descartes) and LTO
78D1 (Andel), original scales 1: 250 000; 1st edition, November
1974.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 345

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Figure 305 Apollo 16 orbital photographic coverage.
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because the crew was behind schedule. A brief rover stop
was made at LRV-12 to scoop up a soil sample.
Explosive charge EP-2 was emplaced close to the SEP
as they passed it on the return to the LM.
Near the LM at the end of EVA 3, an ''environmental
sample'' was collected from an area expected to be con-
taminated by LM exhaust during landing. Schmitt
walked to the ALSEP to make adjustments and take
documentation photographs. Cernan drove the LRV to
a point near the SEP and EP-2 to park it at the ''VIP''
site, from which it could view the LM liftoff. Finally,
explosive charge EP-3 was deployed west of the SEP.
The crew entered the LM after an EVA lasting 7.25
hours, in which they covered roughly 12.1 km. Samples
of the highland massifs gave ages of 3.87 billion years for
the Serenitatis basin. The valley floor basalts were about
3.7 billion years old. The landslide was 110 million years
old, which may date Tycho crater if the slide was
initiated by Tycho secondaries.
Figure 316 is a mosaic of Apollo 17 panoramic cam-
era frames 2755, 2757 and 2759 of the Taurus-Littrow
area. The very dark plains materials contrast strongly
with the bright slopes of the highland massifs.
The Apollo 17 SIVB was crashed to provide a seismic
signal for the four working seismometers already estab-
lished on the Moon (Figure 317).
The Apollo 17 landing area, including the LM,
ALSEP and the surface electrical properties (SEP) site,
is portayed in Figure 318.
Figure 319 is an enlarged view of the ALSEP area to
show equipment layout. Three of the geophones are
outside the map area but are shown in Figure 318.
RTG is the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator.
Panorama localtions are marked ''pan.'' The lunar seis-
mic profiling antenna transmitted the detonation signals
to the emplaced explosive packages.
Figure 322 presents some of the Apollo 17 panoramic
photography, assembled by P. Stooke.
After its return to orbit the LM ascent stage was
unloaded, jettisoned and deliberately crashed on the
lunar surface near the landing site to provide a seismic
signal. The impact would have been visible to the rover
TV camera, but rover systems overheated and failed
before the impact occurred. The impact was detected
by the Apollo 17 geophones and ALSEP seismometers
at the Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 sites.
The ascent stage target point was 198 55.80 N, 308
32.40 E. Initial estimates of the impact location put it at
198 540 N, 308 300 E, a position later revised to 19.968 N,
30.508 E (198 57.60 N, 308 300 E) (NASA 1972d, 1972f).
Figure 323 shows the target and revised impact points
plotted over the base map from Figure 309. Also shown
are the same points as depicted on an unidentified
NASA graphic from the Apollo Lunar Surface
Journal. The points on that image are 1.5 km NNE of
the plotted coordinates. The locations plotted here are
preferred, but any attempt to define positions on a map
using coordinates from another source is only as accu-
rate as the control used for that map.
This impact site is not visible in Clementine images. In
2005 new Hubble Space Telescope images were taken of the
Taurus-Littrow Valley (Figure 358). Careful inspection of
them reveals the bright patch caused by the LM landing
(Figure 324) but there is no evidence of the LM impact.
Figure 320 shows the areas imaged from orbit by
Apollo 17. As with all other Apollo missions, high-
resolution photography was obtained along the ground-
track, including frames showing parts of the Orientale
basin illuminated by Earthshine. Low-resolution views
Figure 306 Apollo 16 LM area from orbit.
Dark spots indicate areas disturbed by surface activities near
the LM and VIP sites (D1) and the ALSEP (D2). A bright spot in
the ALSEP area has not been identified. If it is not just a
photographic defect it may be a very bright reflection from a
piece of ALSEP equipment or packing material.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 347

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of a broader area were taken after leaving lunar orbit.
Some additional time was allowed in lunar orbit to
maximize the amount of orbital photography on this
last Apollo mission.
Figure 325 shows volcanic cones, rilles and depressions
in a scene about 20 km wide in southern Mare Serenitatis.
1972: Apollo Orbital Data: Lunar Consortium
The last three Apollo flights carried instruments in the
SIM (Scientific Instrument Module) bay of the Service
Module to observe the lunar surface during the orbital
part of the missions (Table 46). The non-photographic
datasets were mapped in a common format by a team
called the Lunar Consortium.
The spectrometers provided surface composition data
for broad regions, showing the distribution and abundance
of elements such as iron, potassium, thorium and titanium.
The infrared scanning radiometer provided tempera-
ture maps of the surface. Radar sounder data revealed
subsurface geological structures. The bistatic radar
reflected microwaves off the lunar surface, to be received
on Earth, providing information on regolith particle size
and electrical properties.
The results of these experiments were presented at the
Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Lunar Science Conferences in
Houston in 1974, 1975 and 1976 and were made available
Figure 307 Apollo 17 EVA planning.
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in poster form by the Lunar Science Institute, Houston,
Texas. The digital data from which these figures were
created was made available by USGS Flagstaff.
Figure 326 shows some of the orbital results. At left is
a sample of topographic relief mapping from metric
camera stereoscopic photography, by Sherman Wu and
colleagues at the US Geological Survey in Flagstaff,
Arizona. The high-resolution topography from stereo
images was controlled vertically by the low-resolution
radar altimeter data. At right are maps of Iron, Thorium
and Titanium created from orbital spectrometer data,
and relief from the laser altimeters. In all these maps,
white indicates higher values of elevation or element
concentration, dark indicates lower values. Data were
only collected under the CSM groundtracks.
1973: Harvest Moon
The Committee for the Future, a group based in
Lakeville, Connecticut, proposed using Apollo hardware
from cancelled Apollo missions to fly a mission to the
Moon, funded by worldwide public donations and the
sale of Apollo and lunar material returned to Earth.
The plan was to return to the Apollo 15 landing region
with the Apollo 15 crew, who would deploy an ambitious
package of experiments.
The package, the First Integrated Experiment for
Lunar Development (FIELD), would include a 6 m dia-
meter inflated Mylar dome containing plants, insects
and possibly small animals, a long-range remote-
controlled rover (ROGER, remotely operated geophy-
sical explorer) to determine mineral abundances and
locate resources, a laser communication system to sup-
port the landing and later to function as a communica-
tion relay for terrestrial television, and FLO, the First
Lunar Observatory, a telescope to be controlled from
Earth. The longer-term goal was to foster international
cooperation and space colonization.
Discussions ended when NASA indicated the remain-
ing Apollo hardware would be used for the Skylab
Figure 308 Apollo 17 landing area.
Base map: Composite of parts of ACIC LACs 42 (Mare Serenitatis) and 43 (Macrobius), original scale 1: 1 000 000, 1st editions,
February and May 1965 respectively.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 349

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program or cannibalized for other projects. Other obsta-
cles included the unwillingness of NASA and the
Department of Defense to provide launch, communica-
tions, recovery and other resources for this flight, and a
controversy involving unauthorized sales of stamps car-
ried to the Moon by this crew, which precluded future
flights by them in NASA's view.
The crew would probably have made two walking
EVAs, the first to retrieve items of Apollo 15 hardware
for sale on Earth, the second to collect samples from the
North Complex which was omitted from Apollo 15's EVA
3 (Figure 271). A landing point halfway between these
locations would have been chosen, perhaps near Ridge
and Ring craters (Figure 271). Sources: AW&ST 1972;
Doug Van Dorn, personal communications, June 2005.
8 January 1973: Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2 (Soviet
Union)
The 4850 kg Luna 21 spacecraft was launched from
Baikonur at 06:56 UT on a Proton booster, placed in a
low Earth parking orbit and then put on a lunar trajec-
tory. Power problems required that the Lunokhod solar
panel be opened in flight to augment power, and stowed
again for the trajectory correction and orbit insertion
burns and for landing. On 12 January Luna 21 entered a
90 km by 100 km lunar orbit inclined 608 to the equator.
After a day in orbit the low point was reduced to
16 km, and on 15 January after 40 orbits the vehicle
braked and dropped to just 750 m above the surface.
Then the main thrusters slowed the descent, and at
Figure 309 The Taurus-Littrow Valley.
Base map: Composite of DMA Lunar Topographic Orthophotomaps LTO 42C2, 42C3, 43D1 and 43D4, original scale 1: 250 000,
1974 and 1975. A positional mismatch at lower left is an error in the original maps.
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22 m a set of secondary thrusters took over until the
spacecraft was only 1.5 meters high, when the thrusters
were shut off. Landing time was 23:35 UT.
The site was in Le Monnier crater on the eastern edge
of Mare Serenitatis, 180 km north of the Apollo 17 land-
ing site, at 25.858 N, 30.458 E (Figure 327A). The lander
carried images of Lenin and the Soviet coat-of-arms.
Lunokhod 2, 170 cm long, 160 cm wide and 135 cm
high with a mass of 840 kg, was similar to Lunokhod 1
but carried an additional TV camera, mounted higher to
make driving easier for terrestrial controllers. It also
carried additional experimental equipment.
After landing, Lunokhod 2 surveyed its surround-
ings. A rock partly blocked the west-facing ramp so the
rover was driven east across a shallow crater, leaving the
lander at 01:14 UT on 16 January. It rested 30 m from
the descent stage to recharge its batteries until 18
January, and then drove northwards around the lander
to photograph it and the rim of LeMonnier crater in the
background. Finally it drove about 1200 m further to the
southeast, towards hills visible on the crater rim before
stopping on 19 January to sit out the lunar night. This
was the most visually dramatic and interesting of all
Soviet landing sites, and the rover explored a landscape
Figure 310 Names of features at the Apollo 17 site.
The background image is Apollo 17 metric camera frame AS17-150-23005.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 351

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Figure 311 Alternative Apollo 17 EVAs.
Figure 311A shows restricted EVAs to be followed if a
damaged rover could only carry one astronaut.
Figure 311B was a walking EVA plan in the event that
the rover could not be used at all, including two alternatives
for EVA 3. Figure 311C was the plan if the LM landed 2.7 km
north of the target (the maximum expected offset). South Massif
would not be visited at all. Figure 311D would apply if the
LM landed 2.7 km south of its target. Figure 311E is an
enlargement of 311B showing traverse gravimeter experiment
(TGE) reading locations and explosive charge deployments
(EX) for the walking EVA. Alt. identifies alternative station
locations and the alternate plan for walking EVA 3.
SWP versions of maps A and B had minor variations. Their map
A showed an additional station 3/4 between 3 and 4 on EVA 3.
Their map B version of EVA 3 (alternative) took the crew out
to the Victory crater photo stop (Figure 307), then back to Station
F (location of Station G as shown here), and then to a new
Station G on the south rim of Camelot (EX location in map E).
Figure 311 is based on NASA graphics from the Science
Working Panel minutes, meeting of 16 November 1972, and
scanned documents available through the Apollo Lunar
Surface Journal. NASA graphics: A: NASA-S-72-3207
and 3287-V; B: S-72-3208-V and 3285-V; C: S-72-3206-V;
D: S-72-3205-V.
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of craters, mountains and valleys over four lunar days
and 37 km of travel. The rover paused around each lunar
noon when lack of shadows made driving difficult,
allowing the solar panels to recharge its batteries. At
night the rover closed its ''lid'' to conserve heat, and
was warmed by a small radioactive source.
Lunokhod 2 returned 86 panoramic images and
over 80 000 TV pictures. Soil mechanics observations,
laser ranging measurements and magnetometer readings
were conducted throughout the drive. Solar X-rays were
detected, and the light levels of the daytime sky were
monitored. The light levels were unexpectedly high,
enough to be an impediment to lunar daytime astron-
omy, but whether this counter-intuitive result is a true
observation or the result of an instrument problem is
unclear.
On 4 June controllers announced that the mission was
finished, having failed in mid-May. Lunokhod 2 was left
parked in a position which allowed its laser retroreflec-
tor to be used, and it is still functioning today.
Lunokhod 1's reflector apparently cannot be used
(page 261), but many reports on these missions erro-
neously reverse these statements.
Figures 329 to 331 are compiled from Apollo 15
panoramic camera frames 9294 and 9296 and a map
drawn to record the route and experiment locations of
this highly successful rover mission. The map has not
been published independently, but the western section
was reproduced by Vernov (1978, p. 428). That illustra-
tion and a reduced version of the full map were kindly
provided by Jeanna Rodionova of Sternberg State
Astronomical Institute, Moscow. The Apollo 15 images
have been reprojected to fit the Soviet map as closely as
possible. Dates along the route in these figures are taken
from the source map, but they do not correspond in all
details with other accounts.
The black line shows the route of Lunokhod 2. Dates
of specific stops and experiments are shown. An X-ray
fluorescence spectrometer measured the regolith compo-
sition at locations marked X. P indicates the locations of
panoramic photography, though all panoramas may not
be shown. L indicates the locations of laser reflector
experiments. The laser retroreflector was supplied by
France. S marks places where the daytime sky brightness
was measured.
Figure 312 Apollo 17 EVA 1.
Figure 313 Apollo 17 LM viewed from orbit.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 353

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Figure 314 (both pages) Apollo 17 EVA 2.
The planned EVA 2 route is shown in gray. The actual route, shown in black, is based on Figure 7 in US Geological Survey Professional
Paper 1080. Some parts of the route should be considered uncertain. Where my interpretation of the voice transcript and surface
photography differs from the USGS route my interpretation is shown in black, theirs in white. The main difference is that USGS show
the crew driving the LRV up and over the scarp, while I plot it passing through Hole in the wall.
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After landing, the rover was driven eastwards 30 m
and allowed to recharge its batteries (Figure 332). It then
drove around the landing stage to photograph it, and
then set off towards the southeast. It parked for the first
lunar night on 19 January on the rocky rim of a small
crater after having driven a total of 1260 m. Pictures
were returned on 20 and 21 January and the Sun set on
23 January.
Driving resumed on 10 February. From 12 to 16
February the rover parked near a large fresh boulder as
the high Sun made visibility difficult. The rover then
drove rapidly south to the nearby hills where it took
new panoramic images and performed experiments. It
headed northeast from the hills, back into the plains, on
19 February, and parked on 20 February for the second
lunar night after having driven 9086 m during the pre-
vious lunar day.
Lunokhod 2 resumed work on 12 March. It drove
about 1 km north, and stopped to take images and soil
composition data. Then, as a test of navigation and
driving ability, the rover was driven rapidly south-
wards along its tracks for about 2 km, stopping late on
13 March at the foot of the hills. On 14 March it was
driven northwards again along its tracks. This repeated
traverse was also used to gather magnetometer data
across the mare/highland boundary. Then the long
drive to the east began, as documented in Figure 330.
The Lunokhod controllers now set their sights on
the mountains and the long fracture in the mare sur-
face to the east. As they drove, periodic stops were
made to take panoramic images and soil measure-
ments. Soil mechanics observations and magnetometer
readings were made throughout the route, the magneto-
meter showing varying field directions as Lunokhod
passed craters. The longest daily drives were on 17
February (2230 m) and 18 February (3130 m). On 19
March Lunokhod 2 was driven through a shallow
trough (Unnoticed Rille, or Fossa Inconspicua),
which was apparently so subdued that it was barely
noticed.
On 20 March controllers stopped the rover for the
night near a prominent 400 m diameter crater. This third
day's drive had covered 16 533 m, a remarkable achieve-
ment for remote rover operation.
Two points are labelled 15-3-73 (top section of
Figure 330) but no point was labelled for 16 March on
the map reproduced by Vernov (1978). This could pos-
sibly be a mistake in the original, but more likely it
indicates that observations were made both early and
late on 15 March and none on 16 March. The labelled
Figure 314 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 355

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points show places where observations were made, not
overnight stops.
The fourth day of activity for Lunokhod 2 began on 9
April. Every lunar day began with the rover's ''lid'' being
opened to expose its lining of solar cells so the batteries
could be recharged after the long lunar night. Lunokhod
2 was driven through a subdued crater and towards the
edge of a prominent trough, Straight Rille or Fossa
Recta (Figure 331). Magnetometer readings changed
during the approach to the rim of the trough, and a
roughly 500 m traverse away from and back to the rim
was conducted on both sides of the trough to explore this
further. By driving over the same route in opposite direc-
tions, local lunar magnetism could be distinguished from
magnetic effects of the rover itself. The Lunokhod-
induced magnetic effects were reversed by rotating the
Figure 315 (both pages) Apollo 17 EVA 3.
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vehicle 180 degrees, while the lunar magnetism was
unchanged. This also applied to the triple route mapped
in Figure 329.
The south end of the trough was rounded on 17 April.
Extensive photography documented the rocky rims of
the trough, which may have included rare bedrock
exposures.
Near the end of the lunar day, driving northeast
away from the Sun with poor visibility, Lunokhod 2
was accidentally driven into a small crater (Chaikin
2004). As it maneuvered to climb out, the open lid
protruding behind the body of the rover struck the
crater wall and its solar cells were partly covered with
soil. A drop in power was noted, though this was not
itself a serious problem.
Unfortunately, when the lid was closed to help keep
the rover warm during the lunar night, the soil was
dumped on thermal radiators intended to cool the
rover during the day. The fourth lunar day included
8600 m of driving. Lunokhod 2 was roused on 8 May
and driven for two more days towards the hill called Far
Cape, but it overheated and died a few days into the fifth
lunar day. Before operations ceased it was oriented so its
laser reflector could be used in future. It was still being
used in 2005.
Lunokhod 2 had improved visibility provided by a
top-mounted navigation camera, and a higher frame rate
than Lunokhod 1 (every 3 seconds versus 20 seconds).
These improvements, and the growing experience of
ground controllers, were largely responsible for its abil-
ity to drive long distances. A third Lunokhod was built,
incorporating further improvements, but the program
was cancelled before it could be launched.
Figure 332 shows the surroundings of the Luna 21
landing site. The map is based on panoramic images
and must be considered only a rough sketch. Rocks are
schematic, located properly but not to scale. Panorama
locations are indicated with a letter P. This site was on
the western rim of a very shallow crater roughly 250 m
in diameter, beyond which could be seen the highest
portion of the rim of Le Monnier crater, 50 km to the
northeast.
Luna 21 landed late on 15 January, and Lunokhod 2
soon drove off its landing stage towards the east. It
parked about 30 m from the lander to recharge its bat-
teries, having driven through a subdued 25 m diameter
crater. On 18 January Lunokhod 2 was driven to a point
on the north rim of the 25 m crater where it photo-
graphed the landing stage and the hill Le Monnier
Alpha in the distance to the southwest. Here it was
turned in place to create a circular mark with its wheels,
and then moved a few meters where it made a second
circle. The resulting figure 8 marking was later described
as a memorial to commemorate International Women's
Day, 8 March, which was a holiday in the Soviet Union
and is in Russia today.
Controllers then drove Lunokhod 2 close to the
lander to photograph it. The rover came closer than
was considered safe, about 4 m from it, and was carefully
steered around it. A final panorama (Figure 333) showed
the lander and tracks against the nearby craters and a
hilly horizon. The tracks of Lunokhod 2 are visible at left
and a hill, part of the southern rim of Le Monnier crater,
is at far right. Then Lunokhod 2 set off on its long drive
south to the rim of Le Monnier.
More panoramas from Lunokhod 2 are presented in
Figure 334.
Figure 315 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 357

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10 June 1973: Explorer 49 (RAE-B) (United States:
NASA)
Explorer 49 was also called Radio Astronomy Explorer
B (RAE-B). As the name suggests it was not a lunar
exploration mission, but it conducted its astronomy pro-
gram from lunar orbit. A panoramic camera took
images to confirm spacecraft orientation and to monitor
the deployment of its long antennae.
The 328 kg spacecraft was launched at 14:13 UT, and
entered lunar orbit on 15 June. Its orbit was near-
circular at an altitude of about 1060 km, inclined 568
to the equator. It transmitted data until August 1977.
The Explorer 49 camera was a 4-bit panoramic scan-
ning device. It produced 2160 by 512 pixel images which
were heavily compressed for transmission. Over 100
images were taken and displayed on monitors in mission
control at Goddard Space Flight Center (Miller and
Lynch 1976). An example is included with other images
from non-lunar spacecraft in Figure 360. Explorer 49's
orbit was high enough that it is probably still in lunar
orbit (Powell 2003).
3 November 1973: Mariner 10 (United States:
NASA)
Mariner 10 was launched at 05:45 UT, spent 25 minutes
in a parking orbit, and then was placed on a trajectory
that passed the Moon on its way to Venus and Mercury.
Several hundred images making up six photomosaics of
the Moon were taken during the lunar flyby.
Comet Kohoutek was observed by the camera and the
ultraviolet spectrometer during the cruise to Venus.
Mariner 10 flew past Venus on 5 February 1974 about
4200 km above the surface. This was the first planetary
gravity assist, and it also provided important image data
for studies of Venus cloud dynamics.
Mariner 10 passed Mercury at 20:46 UT on 29 March
1974, the first spacecraft to visit that planet, only 705 km
above the strikingly moonlike surface. After two solar
orbits by Mercury and one by the spacecraft, they again
passed on 21 September 1974 at a distance of 47 000 km,
taking more images to fill most of a gap between areas
covered during the first encounter.
A third flyby on 16 March 1975 at a height of only
327 km provided a small number of additional images.
Finally on 24 March 1975 the attitude control fuel was
exhausted and the mission ended.
The Mariner 10 images of the Moon increased coverage
of a region seen poorly by Lunar Orbiter, on the northern
farside near the north pole. The new images were good
enough to contribute to updated mapping by USGS. In
the decade after Apollo the Department of Defense aban-
doned lunar mapping, passing the work on to USGS.
Figure 316 Apollo 17 mosaic of the Taurus-Littrow landing
area.
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Figure 335 is a mosaic of 20 separate frames. Some
areas near the limb are distorted to accommodate views
from slightly different perspectives.
The area imaged by Mariner 10 is mapped in
Figure 336. The high-resolution mosaic (Figure 335) cov-
ered the northern hemisphere, roughly centred on 808 E.
As Mariner 10 receded from Earth it also observed parts
of the southern hemisphere at very low resolution.
29 May 1974: Luna 22 (Soviet Union)
This heavy lunar orbiter, similar to Luna 19, was
launched from Baikonur on a Proton booster at 08:57
UT. The 4000 kg spacecraft made one course correction
on 30 May, and entered lunar orbit on 2 June. Its 220 km
high circular orbit was inclined 208 to the equator. After
Figure 317 Apollo 17 SIVB impact site.
Figure 317A shows the impact area, plotted on the same base
as Figure 292A. The impact was targeted for 78 00 S, 88 00 W,
northwest of the large crater Ptolemaeus.
Impact was expected within about 500 km of that point. Tracking
suggested an impact at 48 120 S, 128 180 W, about 160 km
northwest of the target (NASA 1972c, 1972e). Comparison with
Figure 85B shows that this is very close to the Surveyor 2 impact
area.
Figure 317B: Clementine UVVIS mosaic of the Apollo 17 SIVB
impact area. The circle is probably larger than the uncertainty in
this position. The impact occurred in a ray-covered mare area
just west of the 5 km diameter crater Turner M. This area was
photographed during the Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 flights before
the impact, but there are to date no post-impact images
adequate to identify the crater. The Clementine image is
enlarged in Figure 317C, but no bright spot can be shown to
have been produced by the impact. The images are from
Clementine basemap sections UI03S345 and UI03S351.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 359

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a week it moved to a 25 km by 245 km orbit, allowing
high-resolution imaging and radar altimetry from the
lower altitude. This mapping phase lasted only four
days, and then the orbiter moved back up to a more
stable 180 km by 300 km orbit for a five-month-long
observatory phase. Here it monitored radiation, micro-
meteorites, magnetic fields, gamma-ray emissions and
surface composition.
Orbital tracking was used to reveal further details of
mascons (page 143). On 11 November Luna 22 raised its
orbit to a 170 km by 1437 km ellipse, and on 2 April 1975
it was moved to a 200 km by 1410 km orbit.
These adjustments allowed the radiation and micro-
meteorite detectors to sample different parts of the lunar
environment. The fuel was exhausted by 2 September
1975 and the mission ended in November 1975.
As with Luna 19, some of the instruments on board
were regarded as experimental, and there was no sys-
tematic mapping of the lunar surface. The imaging sys-
tem was similar to that of Luna 19, scanning from
horizon to horizon and, at least potentially, from termi-
nator to terminator.
Ten imaging sessions are supposed to have been
undertaken, but few images were released. Those that
were are mapped in Figure 338. The maximum resolu-
tion was several hundred m/pixel, not adequate for
detailed landing site selection or to plan surface acti-
vities. The altimeter appears to have been used for only
four observation sequences (Figure 339), enough for
topographic profiling of specific features but inadequate
for regional mapping.
Figure 337 shows an example of a Luna 22 image. The
panoramic image shown here extends across the central
highlands of the nearside from roughly 88 Eto328 E
including the crater Torricelli (filled with shadow at far
right). The narrow horizontal line is caused by a space-
craft component intruding into the field of view of the
scanner. The second image is an approximately rectified
view of the first.
Figure 338 is a map of known image coverage. Most
images used to compile Figure 338 were scanned from a
set at USGS Flagstaff, and others were provided by
Jeanna Rodionova (Sternberg State Astronomical
Institute, Moscow) and Don P. Mitchell. Since this
includes only the images known to the author it may
not be complete. A small box at 138 S, 738 W is marked
on an index map at MIIGAiK and may represent an
additional Luna 22 observation.
Results of the Luna 22 radar altimetry experiment are
shown in Figure 339, plotted on the Figure 80 base map.
Only these four profiles are known to exist (Tyuflin et al.
1976). The vertical bar at the left end of each profile
represents 5 km of elevation, and each profile is about
1100 km long. Apollo altimetric measurements (page
370) do not cover this area.
28 October 1974: Luna 23 (Soviet Union)
Luna 23, weighing 5600 kg with its upper stage, was
launched from Baikonur on a Proton booster at 14:30
UT, entered an Earth parking orbit, and then was sent to
the Moon.
Both Luna 16 and Luna 20 had experienced difficult-
ies with their sampling drills (pages 252, 318). A new
drill, attached to the side of the descent stage rather than
carried on a hinged arm, was designed for future mis-
sions. It was more robust and could apply more pressure
than the previous version. The camera was removed to
accommodate it.
After a trajectory correction on 31 October the vehi-
cle entered a 94 km by 104 km lunar orbit inclined 1388
to the equator on 1 November. The orbit was adjusted
over four days to drop its low point to only 17 km, and
on 5 November the final descent began. Luna 23 landed
Figure 317 (cont.)
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intact but roughly, damaging the drill, so no sample
could be collected. The other systems functioned, and
controllers communicated with the spacecraft for four
days until its batteries overheated or were exhausted.
The sample return capsule was not launched.
The region accessible to these missions contained three
principal sampling targets, Mare Fecunditatis, the circum-
Crisium highlands and Mare Crisium, and with the first
two accomplished the third was eagerly sought. The Luna
23 landing site is given as 138 N, 628 E(LePage1996)and
188 N, 588 E (Sven Grahn). National Geographic Society
maps show it at 148 N, 578 E. As with Luna 15 (Figure 193)
it is difficult to establish the true location.
It is often said that Luna 24 (Figure 341) landed
within a few hundred meters of Luna 23, a position
consistent with LePage's location. I assume here that
138 N, 628 E is the approximate landing point. These
locations are shown in Figure 340.
Figure 340 illustrates southern Mare Crisium, with
the landing sites of Luna 23 and Luna 24 and the impact
site of Luna 15 (Figure 194). As discussed here and on
page 207, two points are shown for Lunas 15 and 23
because reports on those missions conflict. Luna 24 is
more certain, but the position given for that mission
(Figure 341) is based on lunar coordinates which had
been revised since the LAC maps in this figure were
drawn. Accordingly the site shown here, at 628 E, is
really located at about 62.28 E.
16 October 1975: Luna 1975 A (Soviet Union)
This sample return mission was launched from Baikonur
with the goal of sampling Mare Crisium in place of the
failed Luna 23. The spacecraft failed to reach its park-
ing orbit due to a failure in the upper stage of the
Proton launcher. The target would have been in the
same region of Mare Crisium chosen for Luna 23 and
Luna 24.
Figure 318 Apollo 17 LM area.
The locations of photographic panoramas (black circles), collected rock and soil samples (S), and items of deployed equipment are
shown. EP-2 and EP-3 are the explosive charges (EP -- explosive package) deployed for the seismic experiment. They were
detonated by command from Earth after the astronauts left the surface.
Based on Figure 6--98 of Muehlberger et al. (1973), and high-resolution photography from orbit, the LM ascent, and surface panoramas.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 361

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9 August 1976: Luna 24 (Soviet Union)
Luna 24, essentially identical to Luna 23, was launched
from Baikonur at 15:04 UT into a parking orbit and then
sent on its four-day path to the Moon. A trajectory
correction was made on 11 August, and on 13 August
it entered a 115 km circular orbit with a 1208 inclination.
On 16 and 17 August Luna 24 dropped its low point to
12 km, and on 18 August it descended to the surface. It
landed safely at 02:00 UT, not far from Luna 23 at
12.88 N, 62.28 E. It is often claimed to have landed within
a few hundred meters of Luna 23, but the relative loca-
tions are not known as accurately as that suggests.
Soon after landing, the drill pushed 1.6 m into the
regolith to obtain a 170 g sample, which emerged
wrapped in a plastic sheath. This was wound into a spiral
in a cylindrical container that was then deposited in the
return capsule. After a 22.8-hour wait to ensure the
capsule would fall in Soviet territory, the ascent stage
lifted off on its return journey. The return took four
days, with a landing 200 km southeast of Surgut in west-
ern Siberia on 22 August. Luna 24 basalts were about
3.3 billion years old (Wilhelms 1987).
Figure 341 shows the area in which Luna 24 landed.
The regional context of this map is shown in Figure 340,
but the coordinates shown here are updated and can be
considered more accurate. An isolated peak 40 km
southeast of the Luna 24 landing site was referred to as
''Hill 5408'' (its summit elevation) in some Luna 24
literature. It is now known as Mons Usov.
Figure 319 ALSEP layout.
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Figure 320 Apollo 17 orbital photographic coverage.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 363

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Figure 321 (both pages) Plans of Apollo 17 science
stations.
Based on illustrations in Wolfe et al. (1981), orbital images
and surface panoramas, this plans shows the science
stations at the Apollo 17 site. Sample locations (S),
panorama locations (black circles), equipment and
surface activities are portrayed. At Station 2, six boulders
were given designations (A, B, C, 1, 2, 3). Boulders 1, 2
and 3 were sampled. At Station 5 the large boulder field is
shown schematically. The large broken boulder at Station
6 was visible in Apollo 15 orbital images, with an obvious
track showing how it had rolled downhill from its source
region. The largest pieces are collectively called ''Split
Boulder,'' and the flatter northern section is now called
Tracy's Rock (page 345). Rover tracks are shown as
recorded in surface photography.

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Figure 321 (cont.)

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Figure 322 (both pages) Apollo 17 panoramas.
Figure 322A is a composite view from the LM windows just after landing. The name Family Mountain has been applied to both peaks
seen on the western horizon, as discussed on page 338.
Figure 322B is the same view after EVA 3, showing rover tracks and the discarded PLSS life support backpacks.
Figure 322C (across both pages) is a panorama from Station 2 with Earth in the sky above South Massif.
Figure 322D was taken near Geophone Rock, south of the ALSEP.
Figure 322E shows Schmitt setting up the SEP transmitter east of the LM.
Figure 322F is Station 4 at Shorty crater. The orange soil was found near the large boulder at left, just above the truncated shadow of
Schmitt. The image of Cernan at right is also truncated by movement in this compilation.
Figures 322G and 322H are two views of the Station 6 boulder and the surrounding hills.

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Figure 322 (cont.)
Chronological sequence of missions and events 367

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Figure 342 consists of parts of Apollo 17 panoramic
camera images 2221, 2226 and 2228 reprojected to fit the
geometry of DMA Lunar Topographic Orthophotomap
LTO62B1(250) (Fahrenheit), original scale 1: 250 000,
1st edition, August 1974.
The Lunar Map series illustrated in Figure 340 was
conceived as an update of the LAC charts (page 2),
Figure 323 Apollo 17 LM impact site.
Base map: from Figure 309.
Figure 324 Hubble Space Telescope image of the Apollo 17
landing point.
HST image courtesy of NASA, ESA and J. Garvin (NASA/GSFC),
released 19 October 2005.
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incorporating Apollo images and topographic data.
Only 12 sheets were produced before DMA abandoned
lunar cartography. New placenames are incorporated
into these maps, notably Fahrenheit and Dorsa Harker
(Harker Ridges) in this area.
Figure 343, an enlargement of part of Figure 342,
shows the landing site, a mare surface between irregular
wrinkle ridges. The circled site is that shown by Florensky
et al. (1977) and Butler and Morrison (1977), but the
landing location is uncertain by several kilometers and
could lie anywhere within this illustration. The illustra-
tion is offset slightly to the northwest of the indicated site
to give a better fit to updated coordinates.
30 September 1977: ALSEPs turned off
On this date the five Apollo ALSEPs were turned off,
ending the data-gathering phase of the Apollo program.
Equipment failure had reduced the number of operating
experiments considerably, with the seismometers the most
important remaining instruments. After two months of
engineering tests the entire system was shut down.
1980s: Lunar mission plans (Soviet Union)
Following the last few Luna missions the Soviet Union
turned its attention to Mars, with the goal of obtaining
the first samples from its surface. A Lunokhod 3 vehicle
was built, and would probably have been targeted to the
northern mid-latitudes on the nearside, the area accessi-
ble to this class of mission, but it was never flown.
A sample return mission teaming a Lunokhod with a
separate lander similar to Luna 24 was also proposed.
The rover would be equipped with a sampling device
Figure 325 Apollo 17 image of volcanic cones.
Part of Apollo 17 panoramic camera image 2317.
Table 46. Apollo SIM bay instruments.
Apollo 15, Apollo 16
Apollo 17
Panoramic and mapping
cameras
Panoramic and mapping
cameras
Laser altimeter
Laser altimeter
S-band transponder
S-band transponder
X-ray fluorescence
spectrometer
Infrared scanning radiometer
Alpha-particle spectrometer Far-ultraviolet spectrometer
Mass spectrometer
Lunar radar sounder
Bistatic radar (Apollo 15 only)
Note: the bistatic radar and S-band transponder were also
carried on Apollo 14.
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and would roam the surface collecting samples from
interesting areas. Then it would rendezvous with the
lander and transfer its samples to a return capsule. The
sampling capabilities would have approached those of
cosmonauts.
After 1977 the Mars sample return mission was aban-
doned, and some planners again contemplated lunar
missions. An advanced lunar orbiter with geochemical
mapping instruments was proposed in 1978 with a pos-
sible launch in 1983. This was delayed, and by 1985 it
had been modified as a polar orbiter with 300 kg of
remote-sensing instruments including cameras, X-ray
and gamma-ray spectrometers, a radar altimeter and
several particle and field instruments. This orbiter,
Luna '92, was approved in 1987 for a 1992 launch,
using a new spacecraft based on the Phobos mission
Figure 326 Samples of Apollo orbital data.
Figure 327 Luna 21 landing area.
The location of the Luna 21 landing site, and its relationship to
the Apollo 17 and old Littrow landing sites (Figures 308, 160C),
are shown in Figure 327A. Luna 21 landed about 5 km north of
the hills forming the southern rim of Le Monnier, an old crater
partly flooded by lavas from Mare Serenitatis. The low southern
rim of Le Monnier was just visible from the landing site. More
prominent on the horizon were the high eastern rim of the
crater near 27 N, 32 E, and the high peak Le Monnier Alpha to
the west.
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design. It would observe from a circular orbit inclined
858 to the equator. This would have been the first Soviet
mission to undertake systematic mapping of the lunar
surface. The changes unleashed by the demise of the
Soviet Union in the early 1990s resulted in the cancella-
tion of this mission.
28 January 1986: Challenger accident
The Space Shuttle Challenger (mission 51-L, 25th
Shuttle launch) was launched from Pad B at the
Kennedy Space Center at 16:38 UT on 28 January. A
failed seal in one of the solid rocket boosters caused hot
exhaust gas to impinge on the external fuel tank, leading
to loss of the vehicle and crew 73 seconds after launch.
These were the first US space crew fatalities since Apollo
1 (page 108), and the first crew fatalities during any space
launch.
In 1988 the International Astronomical Union
approved the names of seven lunar craters comme-
morating the Challenger crew. The newly named craters
all lie in the Apollo basin on the farside, near craters
named after the Apollo 1 and Apollo 8 astronauts.
Figure 344 locates the craters named after the seven
Challenger astronauts. The new names are in white
boxes.
The astronauts were Frances R. Scobee (Commander),
Michael J. Smith (Pilot), Judith A. Resnik, Ronald E.
McNair and Ellison S. Onizuka (Mission Specialists),
Gregory B. Jarvis (Payload Specialist, an employee of
Hughes Aircraft Corp.) and Sharon Christa McAuliffe,
a school teacher chosen from over 11 000 applicants to be
the first teacher in space.
Figure 327B is a mosaic of Apollo 15 panoramic camera images showing the landing area. The image is distorted by oblique
viewing, which is only partly corrected for by reprojection. The outline of Figure 328A is shown. There are many features of geological
interest in this region including a long north-trending straight rille, probably indicating a deep fracture, east of the landing site.
The base map for Figure 327A is the same as for Figure 308. The mosaic in Figure 327B includes parts of frames AS15-P-9292, 9294,
9296 and 9298.
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1990: Luna Incognita
One small area of the Moon constituting less than 1% of
its surface was not seen adequately in Lunar Orbiter
images and had not been mapped in detail during the
Apollo period. This was a strip of terrain extending from
the south pole to about 408 S, approximately along the
1058 W meridian. This narrow strip was lost in shadow
between opposing terminators in Lunar Orbiter views
(Figure 129). Much of the southern part of this strip was
just visible from Earth under conditions of extreme libra-
tion. The Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers
(ALPO), under the direction of John Westfall, organized
an effort beginning in 1972 to collect observations of this
region, referred to as ''Luna Incognita.''
In 1990 Westfall compiled a map from these observa-
tions (Westfall 1990, 1991), which provided new details
in most of the blank areas (Figure 345). Several place-
names were proposed, some of which were later adopted
including Shackleton, the small crater containing the
South Pole (Figure 370).
24 January 1990: Hiten and Hagoromo (Japan:
ISAS)
Hiten, called MUSES-A before launch, was designed to
test equipment for future lunar and planetary missions.
MUSES stands for Mu Space Engineering Satellite, a
series of technology development missions.
The ISAS (Institute of Space and Astronautical
Science) spacecraft was launched from Kagoshima at
11:46 UT into a highly elliptical Earth orbit which
made several close approaches to the Moon. Hiten's
primary objectives were to gain experience with naviga-
tion, aerobraking and gravity assists, to place a sub-
satellite (Hagoromo) into lunar orbit, and to measure
micrometeorites. Further objectives were to pass
through the L4 and L5 Lagrangian points of the
Earth--Moon system, to place Hiten in orbit around the
Moon, and to impact on the lunar surface. Hiten was
named after a Buddhist angel, Hagoromo, for the veil
worn by Hiten. This mission conducted Japan's first
lunar flyby, orbit, photography and impact.
Figure 328 The Luna 21 landing site.
Figure 328A is taken from a map produced at MIIGAiK using Apollo 15 image data, reproduced courtesy of K. B. Shingareva.
Lunokhod 2's route was not shown on the original map, but it was added by hand to this copy of the map in the collection of the
US Geological Survey in Flagstaff. Base map: Topograficheskaya karta na raion deistviya Lunokhoda-2, VN-B-3-41-C, original
scale 1: 50 000, 1973.
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Hiten was cylindrical, 1.4 m diameter and 0.8 m high
with the small Hagoromo orbiter mounted on top.
Hiten's mass was 197 kg including fuel and Hagoromo.
Solar cells on the cylindrical surface supplied power.
Hiten was spin-stabilized, attitude control being pro-
vided by 12 thrusters, and related sensors. An optical
navigation system including a CCD imager to image
stars and the Moon's overexposed limb was tested.
Communications made use of three antennae, one
mounted on the top and two on the bottom. The 12 kg
Hagoromo orbiter was a 26-sided polyhedron, 36 cm in
diameter. A small retrorocket was mounted inside the
spacecraft for lunar orbit insertion. Sixteen of the 26
surfaces of Hagoromo were covered with solar cells.
Communications were provided through an antenna
on top of the orbiter. Only engineering data would be
sent, but the transmitter malfunctioned before lunar
orbit insertion and no data were transmitted after that.
Launch velocity was too low, resulting in an apogee
of 290 000 km rather than 476 000 km. Trajectory
corrections placed Hiten back on its proper orbit. At
19:37 UT on 18 March as Hiten approached the Moon
for its first flyby at a distance of 16 472.4 km above the
Moon, Hagoromo was released into lunar orbit.
Although Hagoromo's transmitter had failed, the brak-
ing rocket ignition was reportedly seen from Kiso
Observatory, Japan at 20:04 UT. Hagoromo's estimated
orbit was 7 400 km by 20 000 km with a period of 2.01
days. Its orbit was high enough that it is most probably
still in orbit (Powell 2003).
Hiten completed seven more lunar swingbys by 4
March 1991 and then conducted two aerobraking
experiments. At 00:43 UT on 19 March Hiten flew
through Earth's atmosphere 125.5 km over the Pacific
Ocean at 11.0 km/s. Drag lowered the velocity by
1.712 m/s and the apogee by 8665 km.
This was the first time aerobraking was used to mod-
ify a spacecraft orbit at near escape velocity. A similar
maneuver was performed at 11:36 UT on 30 March,
reducing velocity by 2.8 m/s and apogee by 14 000 km.
Figure 328B is a detail of Figure 328A showing the Lunokhod 2 route. Several features are given informal names. Published
sources include alternate translations of some names: Unnoticed Rille and Straight Rille were also called Fossa Inconspicua and
Fossa Recta respectively, in latinized forms similar to official lunar names. Round Gulf was also translated as Circle Harbour.
These were the only informal names given to features at any Soviet landing site.
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This marked the end of the primary mission. A ninth
lunar flyby was used to increase the apogee to
1 532 000 km. A tenth on 2 October 1991 put Hiten into
a very elongated orbit which passed through the L4 and
L5 libration points. Hiten's micrometeorite detectors
looked for dust particles trapped at those points, but
no obvious concentration was found.
At 13:33 UT on 15 February 1992 Hiten passed the
Moon at a height of 422 km. Most of the remaining fuel
was used to enter lunar orbit. Nearly two months later
the residual fuel was burned to place Hiten on an impact
trajectory. It crashed on the Moon on 10 April 1993 at
18:03 UT, at 34.08 S, 55.38 E near the craters Stevinus
and Furnerius (Uesugi 1993).
Figure 346 presents some Hiten images, kindly pro-
vided by Ted Stryk who located and processed them.
Figure 346A is a single image of the Theophilus area. Its
low quality reflects the navigational, rather than scientific,
purpose of the camera. Figure 346B is a mosaic of optical
navigation images taken during Hiten's final descent to
the lunar surface. The mosaic extends from 208 W(Fr
a
Mauro area) to Piccolomini, the prominent crater at lower
right. Figure 346C is a map of the area of descent imaging
and impact, showing the location of Figure 347A.
Figure 347 shows the impact site, which was very
close to the predicted location. The impact was photo-
graphed in the infrared by Dr. David Allen in Australia,
revealing a 5 km diameter cloud of hot gas just on the
dark side of the terminator.
Hiten's optical navigation camera obtained images of
the lunar surface using a 384 by 490 pixel 4-bit detector
(Figure 346). Image quality was limited, and the images,
regarded as engineering rather than science data, have
not been released for scientific study. The number and
areal coverage are not known.
8 December 1990: Galileo (United States: NASA)
Galileo was an orbiter and probe mission to Jupiter. It
was launched from the Kennedy Space Center at 16:54
UT on 18 October 1989 in the payload bay of the Shuttle
Orbiter Atlantis on flight STS 34. At 22:23 UT the space-
craft was ejected from the shuttle, and an hour later the
upper stage propelled Galileo out of Earth orbit. The
complex trajectory involved a gravity assist at Venus on
Figure 329 Western section of Lunokhod 2 route.
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10 February 1990 and two gravity assists during Earth
encounters, on both of which observations of the Moon
were made.
The first Earth flyby was on 8 December 1990, the
second on 8 December 1992. Galileo also flew past
asteroid 951 Gaspra on 29 October 1991 and asteroid
243 Ida on 28 August 1993. It entered Jupiter orbit on
7 December 1995, just after its probe entered the
atmosphere of Jupiter. The mission was severely com-
promised by the failure of its high-gain antenna to
Figure 330 Central sections of Lunokhod 2 route.
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open successfully, but it operated successfully in Jupiter
orbit for eight years, transmitting from its low-gain
antenna. On 21 September 2003 it burned up in the
atmosphere of Jupiter, deliberately removed from orbit
to prevent accidental contamination of any of the jovian
satellites.
The first lunar flyby in 1990 came no closer than
300 000 km, but the images proved useful. They were
the first from the vicinity of the Moon since Luna 22
(Figure 337) and the first of the farside since Apollo 17
(Figure 308). Most importantly, they provided the first
multispectral images using post-Apollo sensors, and
helped map the large dark area on the southern farside
now known as the South Pole-Aitken (or Shoemaker-
Aitken) basin. This had been noted in Luna 3 images and
named Mechta Sea (Figure 22), and its topographic
expression as a huge depression had been detected in
Zond 6 limb topography (page 176) and Apollo
altimetry (page 370). Now its full extent was revealed
for the first time, as it was hard to discern in Lunar
Orbiter images.
Figure 348 illustrates the Galileo images obtained dur-
ing the 1990 flyby. The highest-resolution image
(Figure 348A) was taken from 300 000 km. It is a mosaic
of frames 61115300, --6300, --6400 and --7200. Figure 348B
shows the crescent seen during approach. The terminator
cuts through Mare Serenitatis and the large crater
Maurolycus at about 158 E (frame 60961700).
Figure 348C shows the receding view of the farside
with the dark South Pole-Aitken basin at left and
Oceanus Procellarum at right (frame 61270800). Figure
348 also includes a map of image coverage during this
flyby. Galileo approached from the eastern hemisphere,
viewing a crescent phase, and departed over the farside
viewing a nearly full phase. The approximate outline of
the South Pole-Aitken basin is shown.
Figure 331 Eastern section of Lunokhod 2 route.
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8 December 1992: Galileo (United States: NASA)
On this date the Jupiter-bound Galileo spacecraft (page
374) made its second and final Earth gravity assist flyby,
and obtained useful images of the Moon.
The encounter was closer than that made two years
earlier, coming to within 110 000 km of the surface.
High-quality multispectral images were made of much
of the nearside, complementing the partial farside cover-
age obtained during the first flyby.
Figure 349 is a map of Galileo image coverage
obtained during the December 1992 flyby, with several
views taken during the flyby. Figure 349A is the crescent
view seen during approach. Figure 349B is a mosaic of
the nearside after closest approach, and Figure 349 C
shows the receding view with the concentric rings of
the Orientale basin on the terminator.
The highest-resolution view of the Moon taken from
110 000 km during the 1992 Galileo flyby is shown in
Figure 350. This and the near-full phase mosaic
Figure 332 The Luna 21 landing site.
Figure 333 Luna 21 lander viewed from the west on 18 January.
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Figure 334 (both pages) Lunokhod 2 panoramas.
Figure 334A shows the International Women's Day memorial (dark figure eight shape at left), situated a few meters northeast of
the Luna 17 lander. The image was taken on 18 January. The bright hills at left above a darker horizon form the highest part of the
eastern rim of Le Monnier crater, 50 km from the landing site.
Figure 334B shows hills forming the southern rim of Le Monnier crater. This image was taken on 18 March. The highest hill at the
centre of the image is Near Cape. Far Cape lies at far left, just above the horizontal rod. A low ridge on the near horizon just to the
right of Far Cape is the rim of a subdued crater just south of the rover, shown on Figure 330. The image was reproduced from a
very-low-quality original and has been extensively enhanced.
Figure 334C is a view of the hills of Le Monnier Alpha where Le Monnier crater meets Mare Serenitatis. The image was taken near
local noon on the second lunar day, about 15 February, looking west.
Figure 334D illustrates the typical appearance of the floor of Le Monnier crater, showing a 10 m diameter crater beyond the
vertical hanging device. This is a composite of two panoramic images.
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Figure 334E looks west on 10 February. The hills at left are the northern parts of Le Monnier Alpha.
Figure 334F is a southward view on 10 February. Le Monnier Alpha is at far right and the Tangled Hills span the left half of the horizon.
Figure 334G (rectified to show a level horizon) shows Straight Rille with its extensive boulder field, and the hills between Near Cape
and Far Cape at extreme right. The image was taken on 16 April.
Figure 334H is a panorama made just after the magnetometer traverse on 19 April. Straight Rille is at left, with Near Cape beyond it.
All images except D have been reprojected to make the horizons level. Lunokhod images are usually printed reversed right to left, but
here they are correctly oriented. Original images courtesy Sternberg State Astronomical Institute and MIIGAiK (A to D) and USGS
Flagstaff (E to H).
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Figure 335 Mariner 10 lunar mosaic.
Images are from NASA's Planetary Data System, mosaicked and processed by P. Stooke.
Figure 336 Mariner 10 image coverage.
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Figure 337 Luna 22 image and reprojection.
Courtesy of MIIGAiK.
Figure 338 Luna 22 orbital image coverage.
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(Figure 349B) were taken through several filters to create
useful multispectral datasets.
25 January 1994: Clementine (United States:
SDIO, NASA)
Clementine, officially known as the Deep Space Program
Science Experiment (DSPSE) was a joint project between
the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (Ballistic
Missile Defense Organization) and NASA, designed to
test sensors and spacecraft systems and to observe the
Moon and a near-Earth asteroid (1620 Geographos). It
was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in
California at 16:34 UT, entered lunar orbit on 19
February and began mapping on 26 February.
For the first month of lunar operations Clementine
occupied an elliptical polar orbit with a 5-hour period
and a low point of 400 km at latitude 288 S. For the
second month, beginning on 26 March, the orbit was
rotated to place its low point at 298 N.
This allowed global imaging at fairly uniform resolu-
tion and laser altimetry from 608 Sto608 N. The orbit
was optimized for multispectral imaging and composi-
tional studies, for which a high Sun is preferred, so
visible images of the equatorial regions show little relief
and strong albedo variations. Only at high latitudes in
each hemisphere is relief clearly seen. Measurements of
charged particles in the solar wind and Earth's magneto-
tail were also conducted.
Mapping ended on 21 April, and on 5 May Clementine
left lunar orbit. The plan was to use lunar gravity assists
and thrusters to place the spacecraft on a trajectory which
would pass close to Geographos. On 7 May at 14:39 UT a
computer problem caused an attitude control thruster to
fire uncontrollably until its fuel was exhausted. The
spacecraft was left spinning rapidly and the remaining
scientific mission was abandoned. Engineering tests of
hardware response to repeated passages through the
Van Allen radiation belts continued until June 1994
when communications ceased because of power degra-
dation. A close pass by the Moon on 20 July 1994, the
Figure 339 Luna 22 altimetric profiles.
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Figure 340 Luna 23 landing site.
Base map: from Figure 193.
Figure 341 The Luna 24 landing area.
25th anniversary of the Apollo 11 landing (page 207),
deflected Clementine into a heliocentric orbit. Clementine
was briefly contacted again by its Mission Operations
Center in Alexandria, Virginia on 10 April 1995.
Two maps (Figure 351) are representative of the
results of this mission. The topographic map shows the
nearside (left) and farside (right) projected to match
Figure 352 and the hemisphere maps used throughout
this atlas. Brighter areas are higher elevations. Craters
and basins are visible, as well as the extreme relief near
the middle of the farside, with the highest and lowest
elevations on the Moon. This was the first global lunar
topographic dataset. Previous data included shadow
measurements and weak stereoscopy of the nearside
from telescopic observations, stereoscopic photography
from selected lunar orbiter sites, primarily those consid-
ered for Apollo, and Apollo stereoscopic and radar alti-
metry data under the Apollo groundtracks (page 370).
Clementine's altimeter provided near-global height
measurements at about 10 km spatial resolution, but
with poor polar coverage. Stereoscopic analysis of
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Figure 342 The Luna 24 landing site.
Figure 343 Luna 24 landing site.
Figure 344 Challenger astronaut memorial craters.
Base map: Figure 178.
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overlapping areas of the imaging dataset provided better
detail (about 1 km spatial resolution) and filled in most
of the polar areas.
The second map shows iron distribution in the rego-
lith. Bright areas (mostly mare basalts) have higher iron
concentration (weight percentage), darker areas have
less iron. Areas poleward of 708 are not mapped. This
map is representative of a range of compositional maps
derived from Clementine data.
The multispectral imaging system on Clementine
obtained almost global coverage of the lunar surface
(Figure 352). The missed areas were a few narrow gores
between orbital strips and small areas in shadow at the
poles. The nearside (this page) is seen in a mosaic of
about 25 000 UV-VIS red filter images, originally pro-
cessed to show albedo but shown here with enhanced
contrast. Note that shadows are visible only near the
poles. The mosaic was originally assembled by the
USGS Astrogeology group at Flagstaff, Arizona, and
has been reprojected here to Azimuthal Equidistant pro-
jection to match other figures in this Atlas. The farside
mosaic (opposite) also consists of about 25 000 images.
The large dark area in the southern farside is the
South Pole/Aitken (SPA) basin, the oldest, largest and
Figure 345 Luna Incognita.
This shows the Luna Incognita region in three different maps. A: ACIC NASA Lunar Chart LPC-1, original scale 1: 10 000 000,
1st edition, March 1970. B: ALPO chart (Westfall 1990). C: USGS shaded relief drawing incorporating Clementine data and
Arecibo radar images.
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deepest recognizable impact basin on the Moon. The
Luna Incognita area (Figure 345) was observed clearly
in these images for the first time.
Below the farside mosaic is the full global mosaic in
Simple Cylindrical projection (opposite, left-hand map)
and an enlargement of the dark patch just south of Mare
Orientale, seen first but less clearly by Zond 3
(Figures 64, 65) now interpreted as a volcanic plume
deposit (Head et al. 2002).
Clementine greatly improved knowledge of the lunar
poles (Figure 353). The USGS shaded relief drawings in
the background of Figure 353 incorporate Lunar Orbiter,
Mariner 10, Clementine and Earth-based radar data.
Some details have been modified by P. Stooke.
Figure 353A is the south pole, Figure 353B is the north
Figure 346 Hiten images and impact area.
Figure 347 Hiten impact site.
Base maps. Figures 347A, 347B: ACIC Lunar chart LAC 114
(Rheita), original scale 1: 1 000 000, 1st edition, October 1966.
Figure 347C: Clementine UV-VIS frame luc0900f_280.
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pole. Images taken throughout a lunar day reveal some
areas which receive light for a large percentage of a lunar
day (white outlines) and areas of permanent or near-
permanent shadow (dark areas with black outlines).
The sun can never rise more than 1.58 above the
horizon at the poles, so some crater floors are never
illuminated. Conversely, some ridges or crater rims
receive illumination for significantly more than half a
lunar day. There is more shadow in the south than in the
north because the south pole lies just inside the South
Pole-Aitken basin (Figure 348).
At the south pole, the rims of craters Shackleton and
De Gerlache and a ridge connecting them are sometimes
referred to -- informally and incorrectly -- as ''the peak of
Figure 347 (cont.)
Figure 348 Galileo 1990 images and coverage map.
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Figure 348 (cont.).
Figure 349 Galileo 1992 images and coverage map.
Mosaics assembled by P. Stooke.
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Figure 349 (cont.)
Figure 350 Galileo high-resolution lunar mosaic.
Mosaics assembled by P. Stooke.
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eternal light.'' In fact no point truly receives permanent
illumination. However, Bussey et al. (1999) identified
three points, labelled A, B and C in Figure 353A,
which receive the most sunlight. Points A and B
together, only 10 km apart, are together illuminated for
98% of a lunar day. At the north pole three points
labelled ''maximum illumination'' in Figure 353B receive
permanent illumination during the northern lunar sum-
mer (Bussey et al. 2005). It is not yet known whether they
are permanently illuminated during the winter.
Permanently shaded areas might trap water molecules
produced by comet impacts on the Moon, and could
Figure 351 Clementine-derived topography and iron maps.
The topography map was produced by Dr. A. C. Cook, modified by P. Stooke and is used with permission. Courtesy Dr. Cook,
the Smithsonian Institution, with NASA funding, using stereo matching software provided by University College London. Iron maps
by P. Stooke, data from Lucey et al. (1995).
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contain significant deposits of ice mixed with the rego-
lith. This possibility was referred to by Harold Urey in
1961 (page 23), and is still of great interest today.
Any ice would be profoundly important both scienti-
fically and as a possible resource for future lunar devel-
opment or settlement. The poles have very small
seasonal variations caused by the 1.58 tilt of the rotation
axis relative to the ecliptic.
Clementine observed the poles only during northern
summer and southern winter. Since the full range of
seasons was not observed the true extent of permanent
shadow is not yet known. The dark outlines in Figure 353
indicate generalized areas in shadow in Clementine
images. However, some areas between Shoemaker crater
and the pole may receive sunlight during southern sum-
mer, leaving the floors of the larger craters such as
Figure 352 (both pages) Clementine global image mosaic.
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Figure 352 (cont.)
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Shoemaker as the most likely locations for ice. One goal
of the SMART-1 mission (page 401) was to study illu-
mination conditions further. The future ESAS landing
site at Peary B (Figure 384) is shown in Figure 353B.
Clementine's bistatic radar experiment sought evi-
dence of ice in polar shadows. Radio signals reflected
off the lunar surface were detected on Earth when the
orbit geometry was suitable, on orbits 234 to 237 (9 and 10
April 1994) in the south and orbits 299, 301 and 302 (23
and 24 April) in the north. Ice reflects radio signals very
differently from typical regolith. Nothing unusual was
found in the north, or in the south where orbits crossed
sunlit areas, but on orbit 234 data from the vicinity of the
08 meridian (including Shackleton) were consistent with
the presence of ice. Other explanations are possible so the
evidence is not conclusive (Nozette et al.1996).
7 January 1998: Lunar Prospector (United States:
NASA)
Lunar Prospector, the first flight in NASA's Discovery
Program of ''smaller, faster, cheaper'' planetary missions
(page 410), was designed to map the Moon's surface
composition, putative polar ice deposits, magnetic and
gravity fields, and to study possible outgassing events.
Lunar Prospector carried a gamma-ray spectrometer,
a neutron spectrometer, a magnetometer, an electron
reflectometer, and an alpha-particle spectrometer. Its
radio link was used for gravity mapping. The 158 kg
spin-stabilized spacecraft was a graphite-epoxy cylinder,
1.4 m in diameter and 1.3 m high, covered with solar cells
for power, and carrying three 2.5 m radial instrument
booms. An extension on one of the booms held the
magnetometer. Two S-band transponders provided
communications, a medium-gain antenna for downlink
and an omnidirectional low-gain antenna for both
downlink and uplink. Lunar Prospector was com-
manded from the ground rather than carrying its own
computer for operational control. Its data were trans-
mitted directly to Earth, and also stored on a solid-state
recorder and transmitted after a 53-minute delay to
obtain data collected over the lunar farside.
Lunar Prospector was launched at 02:29 UT from
Cape Canaveral Air Station on an Athena rocket. Its
booms were deployed and its instruments readied and
calibrated in flight. The spacecraft entered an 11.6-hour
lunar orbit 105 hours after launch. After 24 hours its
orbit period was reduced to 3.5 hours, and after another
24 hours (13 January) it moved into a 90 km by 150 km
orbit. These earlier orbits were used for instrument cali-
bration. By 16 January it had moved to its nearly circular
100 km mapping orbit with a period of 118 minutes and
an inclination of 908. The orbit was trimmed every month
or so to keep it close to circular as mascons (page 143)
distorted it. On 19 December 1998 the orbit was dropped
Figure 353 Lunar polar illumination conditions.
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to only 40 km to allow the collection of higher-resolution
data. On 28 January 1999 it was moved into a 45 km by
15 km orbit to increase the resolution and sensitivity of
measurements in an extended mission.
On 28 July 1999 the spacecraft survived a lunar
eclipse which threatened to drain its batteries. Finally
at 9:52 UT on 31 July 1999 Lunar Prospector was delib-
erately crashed in a permanently shaded area of a crater
near the south pole (Figure 356). The intention was to
strike a deposit of ice, if it existed at that location, and
release a cloud of water vapour which might be detected
from Earth. Observations were made, but nothing was
detected.
The impact site was in a crater known informally at
the time as Mawson. Lunar Prospector carried a small
container holding some of the ashes of Eugene
Shoemaker (born 28 April 1928, died 18 July 1997; see
also pages 37 and 51), who died in a car accident in
Australia while examining terrestrial impact craters.
The crater was later named Shoemaker. This first
''lunar burial'' was proposed by Dr. Carolyn Porco, a
former student of Shoemaker's, and made possible by
Celestis Inc. of Houston. Celestis (which became Space
Services Inc. in 2004) provided space burials primarily in
Earth orbit, launching remains of many people including
Gene Roddenbury, James Doohan (Scotty), Timothy
Leary, Mercury astronaut Gordon Cooper, and lunar
geologist Mareta West (page 214).
Figures 354 and 355 illustrate some of the geophysical
and compositional datasets provided by Lunar
Prospector. In the original composition data
(Figure 355), brighter areas have higher concentrations
of the mapped element in the regolith. Here the maps
have been processed independently to identify areas of
high or low values but without any consistency of shad-
ing between maps.
Figure 354 provides a reduced version of the
Clementine global image mosaic (left) from Figure 352
for comparison with the Lunar Prospector maps in
Figure 355. To its right is a map of Bouguer gravity
anomalies from the Lunar Prospector gravity mapping
experiment. Bright spots are the mascons (page 143) or
areas of excess gravitational attraction. This was the
most detailed gravity map available before publication
of this atlas.
The composition data were binned at different scales
to suit the measurements, causing variations in clarity in
these maps. The two neutron maps at bottom were
combined to create the hydrogen abundance map.
The neutron spectrometers suggested the presence of
hydrogen, usually assumed to indicate ice, at the poles.
Maps of the south pole (Figure 356A) and north pole
(356B), extending out to 808 latitude, show areas of
hydrogen concentration within black outlines. The results
are difficult to interpret conclusively. In the south, hydro-
gen is concentrated in the permanent shadow areas,
including Shoemaker crater. In the north it appears to
be concentrated in the upland areas between craters.
Lunar Prospector began its descent to the lunar sur-
face with a burn of its thrusters over the nearside, to raise
its altitude over the farside. When the spacecraft reached
its highest point another burn slowed it and it fell to the
surface near the south pole. The groundtrack during
final descent is plotted in Figure 356C.
The target was the shadowed northern floor and wall
of Shoemaker crater (then informally called Mawson).
If the burn went as planned the impact point would
have been near 87.78 S, 42.18 E, shown as a black circle
in Figure 356C. Impact occurred at 9:52 UT on 31 July
1999, and post-impact analyses of the trajectory sug-
gested an impact longitude of 42.358 E (University of
Texas Press Release, 13 October 1999). Figure 356C,
Figure 354 Clementine global mosaic and Lunar Prospector gravity map.
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Figure 355 Lunar Prospector data.
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extending out to 87.58 S, shows the final Lunar
Prospector descent trajectory (large arrow).
This trajectory cleared the southern rim of
Shoemaker by only 880 m. In the event of an accidental
overburn, or errors in the topographic model, an impact
on that southern rim might have been possible, as sug-
gested in Figure 356. This is not thought likely but could
be considered a possibility. The impact in this scenario
would be at about 89.08 S, 60.08 E. Observations at the
time of impact failed to detect any release of water
vapor. The rim of Shoemaker in the region of the possi-
ble impact is illuminated briefly by the Sun each lunar
day, which might explain the absence of water. It is more
likely that the impact was simply not energetic enough to
excavate water, or that water does not exist at the impact
point.
3 July 1998: Nozomi (Japan: ISAS)
The 540 kg (fuelled mass) spacecraft Nozomi (Japanese
for Hope, referred to before launch as Planet-B) was a
Mars orbiter designed to study the interaction between
the planet's atmosphere and the solar wind, and as an
engineering test. Images of Mars and its satellites would
also have been obtained. Nozomi was launched at 18:12
UT from Kagoshima Space Centre, Kyushu, on an M-
V-3 rocket. It was a cuboid, 1.6 m by 1.6 m by 0.6 m with
two solar panels on opposite sides, a communications
dish antenna on top and an orbit insertion rocket on the
base. Instruments were mounted on the body and on two
masts, 5 m and 1 m long, and there were also two wire
antennas spanning 50 m.
Figure 356. Lunar Prospector polar hydrogen and impact
site maps.
Figure 356A: south pole; Figure 356B north pole; Figure 356C
groundtrack during final descent.
The base maps were created by the US Geological Survey and
have been reprojected and modified by P. Stooke.
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Nozomi was placed initially in an elliptical 340 km by
400 000 km parking orbit. Some distant Moon images
were taken in July and August. Two lunar flybys on 24
September (5000 km altitude) and 18 December
(2800 km altitude) were used to increase the orbit period
and to obtain higher-resolution photography of the
Moon (Figures 357, 358).
A final gravity assist by Earth, at a height of 1000 km
on 20 December, combined with a 7-minute rocket burn
was to place Nozomi on its trajectory to Mars, where
it would have gone into orbit on 11 October 1999.
Unfortunately the rocket burn fell short of the energy
needed. Two additional rocket firings on 21 December
placed the spacecraft on a new Mars trajectory which
would orbit the sun for four years and reach Mars in
December 2003.
A large solar flare on 21 April 2002 damaged the
spacecraft electronics, and efforts to repair it failed.
Two further Earth gravity assists were made in
December 2002 and June 2003, without any imaging,
and finally Nozomi flew past Mars at an altitude of
about 900 km on 14 December 2003. No Mars data
were obtained.
Figure 357 portrays Nozomi image coverage. The
areas of higher-resolution imaging during the two
lunar flybys are shown. Low-resolution images of most
of the farside were also obtained. This representation
may not be complete but does include all images which
have been released. Examples of Nozomi images are
presented in Figure 358.
Glimpses from other spacecraft
The Moon has often been used by non-lunar spacecraft
as a target for camera calibration or systems testing.
Other missions have used it simply to provide interesting
images after departure from Earth or during gravity
assist flybys. Mariner 10, Galileo and Nozomi examples
are shown in Figures 335, 336, 348, 349, 350 and 358.
More examples are shown in Figure 360.
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST), in low Earth
orbit, was unable to view the Moon safely with the
instruments installed at launch, but the WFPC2 camera
installed during a servicing mission in December 1993
could do so. In 1998 multispectral images of the
Copernicus region were obtained with this camera
(Figure 360A), providing some compositional informa-
tion to help calibrate HST images of other solar system
bodies.
Additional UV and visible wavelength multispectral
images of Aristarchus were taken by the ACS (advanced
Figure 357 Nozomi image coverage
Chronological sequence of missions and events 397

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camera for surveys) instrument on 21 August 2005.
When calibrated using similar images of the Apollo 15
and 17 landing sites, they enabled a search for titanium
and iron oxides, potential natural resources to support
future human lunar missions.
The Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) space-
craft was an Earth orbiter designed to test sensors
for identifying and tracking ballistic missiles during
midcourse flight for the Ballistic Missile Defense
Organization (BMDO). On 27 September 1996 it took
infrared images of the Moon during a lunar eclipse
(Figure 360B).
Most other images have little or no scientific value.
For instance, Voyager 1, bound for Jupiter on 18
September 1977, and NEAR (Near-Earth Asteroid
Rendezvous) during a gravity assist flyby on 23
Figure 358 Nozomi lunar images.
Figure 358A shows Langrenus crater near the center, with Mare Crisium partly visible at the top.
Figure 358B is a crescent view of the eastern nearside limb regions taken in September 1998.
Figure 358C is a mosaic of farside coverage from December 1998, with Mare Moscoviense at top and Tsiolkovskiy below centre.
Figure 358D is a distant farside view with Mare Moscoviense at centre. The bright spot once interpreted as the Soviet Mountains
(Figure 22) is prominent at left.
Figure 358E is a closer view of Tsiolkovskiy, part of the larger mosaic in 358C.
All Nozomi images used here were taken by the MIC (Mars Imaging Camera) onboard Nozomi, provided courtesy of JAXA and ISAS,
with the assistance of Ai Inada.
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January 1998 took distant, very-low-resolution images,
not shown here.
The Cassini Saturn orbiter made a gravity assist flyby
of Earth on 17 August 1999 during which it took lunar
images (Figure 360C). Stardust, a comet dust sample
return mission, imaged the Moon from 108 000 km on 16
January 2001 (Figure 360D) during its gravity assist flyby.
Its camera lens was contaminated by condensed gases
emitted by spacecraft components so the images are of
reduced quality, but a heater removed most of the con-
tamination before the flyby of Comet Wild 2 on 2 January
2004 and spectacular images of the nucleus were obtained.
The Japanese Hayabusa (MUSES-C) asteroid sample
return mission made a gravity assist flyby on 17 May
2004. It passed about 340 000 km over the northern far-
side and obtained low-resolution images (Figure 360E).
Rosetta, an ESA comet orbiter/lander, took low-resolution
images of the Moon from 400 000 km during a gravity
assist flyby on 4 March 2005 (Figure 360F). Deep
Impact, a comet flyby and impact mission, tested its
cameras on the Moon on 16 January 2005, four days
after launch. The images, from 1.65 million km, show
part of the nearside (Figure 360G). NASA's Mercury
orbiter Messenger flew past the Moon on 2 August 2005,
observing the farside with its spectrometers (not illus-
trated). The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO),
launched on 12 August 2005, made calibration images
of the Moon from 10 000 000 km with its high-resolution
camera on 8 September (Figure 360H). An older exam-
ple is Explorer 49 (page 358), which took images in
support of its mission operations (Figure 360I).
1 February 2003: Columbia accident
The Space Shuttle Columbia (mission STS-107) was
launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 16
January for a 16-day flight focusing on microgravity
research. Unlike most shuttle flights in this period it
did not dock with the International Space Station. As
it re-entered the atmosphere on 1 February Columbia
was destroyed as a result of damage to the thermal
protection system on its left-wing leading edge. This
had occurred when fragments of insulation fell from
the external fuel tank during launch. The failure
occurred about 15 minutes before Columbia was
expected to land at Kennedy Space Center, with debris
falling over Texas. The traumatic loss initiated a reas-
sessment of NASA's goals, leading directly to a new
''Vision for Space Exploration'' (page 422).
The seven Columbia crewmembers were Rick D.
Husband (Commander), William C. McCool (Pilot),
Figure 359 Areas imaged by HST, Stardust, Cassini and MRO.
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Figure 360 Views of the Moon from non-lunar spacecraft.
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Michael P. Anderson (Payload Commander), David
Brown, Laurel Blair Salton Clark and Kalpana Chawla
(Mission Specialists) and Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon
(Payload Specialist). In 2006 the International
Astronomical Union named seven lunar craters after
the Columbia crew (Figure 361). They are located near
the craters named for the Apollo 1, Apollo 8 and
Challenger astronauts (Figures 178, 334). The three
names which already existed elsewhere on the Moon
are distinguished with an initial.
27 September 2003: SMART 1 (Europe: ESA)
SMART-1 (Small Missions for Advanced Research in
Technology 1) was launched from Kourou, French
Guiana,at23:14UT,asanauxiliarypayloadonanAriane
5 launcher. This first European Space Agency (ESA) lunar
mission was flown to validate system and sensor designs for
future uses and to provide science data. It entered a 740 km
by 36 000 km geostationary transfer orbit, and used a solar-
powered electric propulsion (ion) engine to modify its orbit
over 14 months. It cleared the Van Allen radiation belts
by January 2004, and in November 2004 it crossed the
Earth--Moon L1 point and slipped into lunar orbit. The
last Earth periapsis was on 2 November 2004, and the first
lunar periapsis was on 15 November.
The lunar orbit was then reduced from its initial
5000 km by 51 000 km, reaching its final mapping orbit
of 300 km by 3000 km on 28 February 2005. During
January 2005 it obtained medium-resolution images to
compile a global map. From March to July some obser-
vations of the Moon were made but engineering and
systems tests were the main activity. During August
and September the remaining fuel was used to raise the
orbit, prolonging the mission for another year.
Observations included multispectral imaging, surface
Caption for Figure 360 (cont.)
Image credits. HST images (360A): John Caldwell (York University, Ontario), Alex Storrs (STScI) and NASA; J. Garvin (NASA/GSFC),
NASA and ESA. Cassini image (360C): JPL/NASA/Space Science Institute. Stardust image (360D): NASA/JPL. Hayabusa image
(360E): JAXA. Rosetta image (360F): European Space Agency. Deep Impact image (360G): JPL/NASA/University of Maryland. MSX
image (360B): DCATT Team, MSX Project, BMDO. MRO image (360H): NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Explorer 49 image (360I):
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Figure 360A is a composite of 1998 and 2005 Hubble Space Telescope images. The locations are shown in Figure 359.
Figure 360B is a Midcourse Space Experiment infrared image of the nearside taken during a lunar eclipse. Small bright spots (fresh
ejecta) are warm because they contain more rocks, which cool slowly during the brief eclipse. The maria are warmer because they
have more rocks than the dusty highlands. The brightest spot is Tycho.
Figure 360C is a Cassini image including Mare Crisium (top right) and Mare Fecunditatis (centre).
Figure 360D is a Stardust image of the north polar region with Mare Imbrium at the bottom.
Figure 360E is a distant Hayabusa image of the farside with Mare Orientale at the right edge and the broad dark South Pole-Aitken
basin at bottom.
Figure 360F, another small distant view, is a Rosetta image showing Mare Humorum near the bottom.
Figure 360G includes a small Deep Impact image showing Mare Crisium and Mare Fecunditatis and a larger view of the southern
highlands. These images revealed that the camera was out of focus.
Figure 360H is an MRO (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter) image showing Mare Crisium.
Figure 360I is part of a panoramic image taken by Explorer 49 on 16 July 1973, showing the area north of Mare Crisium (lower
right corner). The prominent crater at left is Endymion. Lines interrupting the limb at bottom are image compression artifacts.
Other features in the image are parts of the spacecraft.
Figure 361 Columbia astronaut memorial craters.
Base map: as in Figure 178.
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composition measurements, polar illumination monitor-
ing and attempts to detect polar ice.
Figure 362 is a mosaic of SMART-1 images showing
part of Mare Humorum.
By 15 December the orbit had evolved to 640 km by
2730 km. If left alone the periapsis would have dropped
rapidly in mid-2006 as the orbit became more elon-
gated. The last orbit was projected to climb as high as
3300 km before impacting near 37.58 S, 174.48 E on the
northwest rim of Leibnitz crater in the South Pole-
Aitken basin on 17 August 2006. As this farside impact
could not be observed the attitude-control thrusters
raised the orbit in June 2006, delaying periapsis until 2
September at 36.228 S, 44.548 W in Lacus Excellentiae,
south of Mare Humorum. Impact would be nearer
338 S. Impact and periapsis were sometimes confused
in press accounts.
Impact predictions evolved during 2006. Early in the
year the prediction was for 02:00 UT on 3 September at
348 S, 44.138 W (Foing and SMART-1 teams 2006).
Latitude was least certain because of the low-angle
approach and limited topographic data. Impact might
occur one orbit earlier or later for the same reasons. On
the previous orbit impact would be near 33.58 S, 41.48 W.
On the later orbit it would be between 328 and 368 S near
478 W. An ESA press release of 4 August predicted
impact at 33.448 S, 46.258 W at 5:41 UT on 3
September. By 16 August the nominal impact target
was given as 33.38 S, 46.38 W at 6:41 UT on orbit 2890.
On orbit 2889 it would be at 33.38 S, 43.58 W, and on
orbit 2891 at 33.38 S, 49.08 W (Figure 363B). The last
revision was 34.28 S, 46.28 W.
A final orbit adjustment was made on 2 September
to avoid a probable collision with the rim of Clausius
crater (Figure 363B). The impact occurred at 05:42
UT on 3 September 2006 at 34.48 S, 46.28 W. The
impact was observed in infrared images taken at the
Canada France Hawaii Telescope (CFHT). An early
estimate of the location of the flash is shown in
Figure 363C.
SMART-1 was a 1 m cubic box with solar panels
on opposite sides. The 350 kg launch mass was reduced
to 305 kg at lunar orbit insertion. The 14.6 kg payload
included a camera, a visible/near-infrared spectrometer,
an X-ray spectrometer, plasma environment probes
mounted on booms, and radio science experiments.
Lunar gravity assists
The Moon has also been visited by another class of
spacecraft, designed to use its gravity to adjust their
trajectories without making lunar observations. The
main instances are described here, illustrating another
way the Moon has become involved in human affairs.
The first such mission was the International
Sun--Earth Explorer, ISEE-3, also known as Explorer
59. It was launched from Cape Canaveral on 12 August
1978 at 12:00 UT and placed in a halo orbit about the
Sun--Earth L1 Lagrange point, 235 Earth radii towards
the Sun. There it monitored the interplanetary medium
until 10 June 1982.
On that date it was moved via a series of high Earth
orbits using multiple lunar gravity assists until it escaped
the Earth--Moon system. Flybys were made on 30 March
1983, 23 April, 27 September and 21 October, all at
heights above the lunar surface of about 20 000 km.
Figure 362 SMART-1 image of part of Mare Humorum.
Image courtesy of ESA and Space-X (Space Exploration
Institute).
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Finally on 22 December 1983 it flew just 120 km above
the lunar surface and was thrown out into a heliocentric
orbit. It was renamed ICE (International Cometary
Explorer) and cruised to Comet Giacobini-Zinner, fly-
ing through its tail on 11 September 1985, the first comet
flyby ever undertaken. Particles and fields data were
collected. In late March 1986 ICE flew past Comet
Halley at a great distance, gathering information to
help interpret data from spacecraft making close
encounters with Halley itself, ESA's Giotto, the Soviet
Union's Vega 1 and Vega 2, Japan's Suisei (''Comet,''
also called Planet A) and Sakigake (''Pioneer,'' also
called MS-T5). After several more years monitoring the
interplanetary medium the ICE mission was terminated
in 1997.
Geotail was a Japanese/US mission built by ISAS as
part of the ISTP (International Solar-Terrestrial
Physics) project. It was launched from Cape Canaveral
on 24 July 1992 and measured energy flow in the mag-
netotail. To spend as much time as possible in that
region ''downstream'' of Earth it was placed in a highly
eccentric orbit. It used multiple lunar gravity assists to
rotate its orbit so that the outer part (210 Earth radii
distant) was always opposite the sun. This continued
until November 1994 when it was moved into a lower,
less eccentric, orbit for prolonged study of regions closer
to Earth.
Wind was a second spacecraft in the ISTP project. Its
mission mirrored Geotail. Built and launched by NASA,
it was launched on 1 November 1994 to study particles
and fields on the sunward side of Earth. It used the same
method of multiple lunar flybys to keep its apogee (250
Earth radii) on that side of Earth, for two years. Later it
was placed in a halo orbit about the Sun--Earth L1
Lagrange point to continue observations.
Asiasat 3 was a communication satellite built by
Hughes Global Services in the United States for Hong
Figure 363 SMART-1 impact site.
Figures 363A and 363B are drawn on LAC 110 (Schickard), 1st
edition, September 1976, original scale 1: 1 000 000. Figure
363C is part of a SMART-1 mosaic of its impact site, used
courtesy of B. Foing.
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Kong, to be used for television broadcasting across Asia
and Australia. The satellite had a cubic body nearly
4 m on a side and large solar arrays spanning 26 m and
10 m wide. Asiasat 3 was launched at 23:19 UT on
24 December 1997 from Baikonur, Kazakhstan on a
Proton rocket, but its upper stage failed to place the
satellite in a proper geosynchronous transfer orbit.
The satellite was declared unusable, and was then sold
by its insurers to the manufacturer for salvage. Hughes
renamed the satellite HGS 1, and used its thrusters to
send it on two lunar flybys. The gravity assist provided
by these flybys enabled the satellite to be inserted suc-
cessfully into a geosynchronous orbit where it took up its
communications role. HGS 1 was eventually placed over
the Atlantic Ocean and operated from May 1999 to July
2002, when it was decommissioned and moved into a
disposal orbit.
The Asiasat 3 lunar flybys occurred on 13 May 1998
and 7 June 1998 at distances of 4550 km and 32570 km
(above the surface) respectively. No scientific observa-
tions were performed. Hughes promoted this as 'the first
commercial lunar mission'.
WMAP, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe, an explorer-class NASA mission to map the
cosmic background radiation, was launched from
Cape Canaveral on 30 June 2001 at 19:47 UT. After
three phasing orbits it made a lunar flyby, 5279 km
above the surface, on 30 July 2001 at 16:37 UT. This
allowed WMAP to reach its operational halo orbit
about the Sun--Earth L2 Lagrange point opposite the
sun in the sky.
STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory)
was a two-spacecraft mission designed to study the Sun
from two vantage points ahead of and behind Earth in
its orbit. As the acronym implies, the two spacecraft
could provide stereoscopic images of the solar disk and
coronal mass ejections. The two STEREO spacecraft
were built by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns
Hopkins University and were launched on one rocket on
25 October 2006. The twin spacecraft, named ''Ahead''
and ''Behind,'' entered highly elliptical orbits. Two lunar
gravity assists directed the ''Behind'' probe to a position
behind (trailing) Earth in its orbit. The ''Ahead'' probe
was deflected by another lunar flyby into its position
ahead of the Earth. The mission was scheduled to last
for two years.
Future missions
Lunar A (Japan: JAXA)
This JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) mis-
sion was designed to image the lunar surface from orbit
and to emplace two penetrators containing seismo-
meters and heat flow probes. Launch was originally
scheduled for 24 August 1999 but was repeatedly
rescheduled to allow time to deal with technical pro-
blems. Lunar-A was cancelled in 2005, reconsidered in
2006 and finally cancelled in January 2007.
After entering a parking orbit, the spacecraft would
have been propelled into a very elongated orbit around
the Earth and Moon. After several orbits Lunar-A
would enter a lunar orbit inclined 308 to the equator
and descending as low as 40 km above the lunar surface.
The spacecraft would have deployed two 13 kg penetra-
tors over a four-week period. The penetrators would be
released separately, striking the surface at 250--300 m/s
and becoming embedded up to 3 m deep. One would be
targeted at the equatorial area of the nearside in the
vicinity of the Apollo 12 and 14 landing sites, the other
one at the equatorial farside.
An earlier plan called for three penetrators, two at
these locations and a third near the limb as seen from
Earth, at a location visible from Earth. After dropping
the penetrators, the orbiter would move up to a circular
mapping orbit about 200--300 km high. Penetrator data
would be collected continuously and transmitted to the
orbiter during overflights every 15 days.
The 520 kg (unfueled) spin-stabilized orbiter would
have carried a monochromatic 30 m resolution mapping
camera. It would take images near the terminator where
shading would enhance subtle topographic features,
unlike the Clementine high Sun images.
The cylindrical 90 cm by 14 cm penetrators were to be
attached to the sides of the spacecraft body between its
solar arrays with their long axes parallel to the spacecraft
axis. Each penetrator had a small deorbit rocket, fired
after separation, and side thrusters to maintain orienta-
tion. The deorbit rocket and thrusters would be jetti-
soned before impact. Each penetrator contained a
two-component seismometer, a heat-flow probe, a tilt-
meter, an accelerometer, a radio transmitter and an
antenna, powered by batteries with an expected lifetime
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of one year. The penetrators were designed to withstand
an impact force of 10 000 G.
Figure 364 shows the Lunar-A penetrator targets. The
nearside target (364A) was 3.08 S, 22.88 W, close to the
Surveyor 3 and Apollo 12 landing sites (pages 112,
222). Other nearby impact or landing sites are also
shown. The farside target (364B) was 14.58 S, 154.28 E, in
a heavily cratered region near the Gagarin impact basin.
2007: Selene (Japan: JAXA)
Selene, the Selenological and Engineering Explorer, is a
lunar orbiter planned to launch in 2007. An earlier ver-
sion was referred to as LOOM (Lunar Orbiting
Observatory Mission). A large (1720 kg unfueled, 2 m by
2 m by 4 m) orbiter with cameras, spectrometers for sur-
face composition data, a radar sounder, a laser altimeter,
a magnetometer and several charged particle instruments
would observe for over a year in a polar 100 km circular
orbit. A separate orbiter, VRAD (very long baseline
interferometry -- radio) would occupy a 100 km by
800 km orbit. A third component, a relay satellite in a
100 km by 2400 km orbit, would provide gravity data
derived from ranging to the VRAD spacecraft, including
the first high-quality data from the farside.
An early plan for Selene included a lander to test
technology for future surface operations. This became
a separate mission, Selene B. It would release a rover
called Micro-5 within 1 km of its target. The lander
would make remote observations of the target. The
rover would drive to the target where it would analyse
samples or collect them with a sampling arm and return
them to the lander for analysis. This could be repeated
with traverses of 10 km or more. A likely target would be
the central peak of a large crater (Copernicus,
Langrenus or Theophilus were preferred), with later
traverses over the floor and to the foot of the walls, all
within one lunar day. A volcanic dome in a younger
mare would also have made a good target. Another
scenario involved landing in an area of near-permanent
illumination at a lunar pole. The rover would circum-
navigate a crater rim and choose a route to descend into
a permanent shadow area. There it would use a gamma-
ray spectrometer to measure hydrogen and collect sub-
surface samples for analysis. The rover would return to a
sunlit area to recharge batteries, and repeat this process
several times (Sasaki et al. 2002).
Revised Selene plans were described in September
2005. Selene 2, in about 2011 to 2013, would be a polar
lander. Two years later, a Selene 3 mission would include
a rover.
2007: Chang'e 1 (China: CAST)
Chang'e 1, named after a mythical woman who traveled
to the Moon, is intended to enter a circular polar orbit
Figure 364 Impact targets for Lunar A penetrators: A nearside; B farside.
Base maps. Figure 364A: as Figure 113A. Figure 364B: as Figure 83B.
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about the Moon in 2007 and conduct remote sensing for
at least a year. The 2350 kg spacecraft will carry cameras,
spectrometers, an altimeter, a microwave sounder to
measure the depth of regolith, and charged particle
detectors. This first Chinese lunar mission, operated by
the Chinese Academy for Space Technology (CAST),
may be followed by a lander/rover mission in about
2012 and a sample return mission in about 2017.
2008: Chandrayaan-1 (India: ISRO)
Chandrayaan-1, an Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) spacecraft whose name means ''voyage to the
Moon,'' will orbit the Moon and conduct remote sensing
for two years after a launch in 2008. Launch would be
from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota.
After a 5.5-day cruise, the initial lunar orbit would be at
a height of 1000 km, dropping to 200 km for instrument
checkout and 100 km for mapping. Chandrayaan-1's
instruments will include panchromatic and multispectral
cameras, a laser altimeter, and an X-ray/gamma-ray
spectrometer for surface composition studies.
European and American instruments will also be flown
(page 411). Detection of polar volatiles is one of the
goals. Future missions to land and to return samples
are being considered but are not yet official goals.
The cubic spacecraft, 1.5 m across with an unfueled
mass of 523 kg, will also carry a 30 kg probe designed to
strike the lunar surface to help develop technology for
future landers. Several possible impact points were said
to have been considered but a target had not been
announced as this text was prepared. The impactor
would carry a camera to image its impact point and
would be released early in the mission.
2008: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
(USA: NASA)
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is the first mission
of NASA's Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program
(LPRP, first known as RLEP, the Robotic Lunar
Exploration Program). Four days after launch, late in
2008, it will enter a polar orbit to map the Moon and
help locate future potential landing sites. Its instruments
will include high-resolution cameras, sensors to charac-
terize the lunar orbit radiation environment and to
detect hydrogen and other volatiles in polar regions,
systems for imaging and temperature mapping in perma-
nently shadowed areas, and an altimeter.
LRO should operate for at least a year in a 30--50 km
orbit, which would require frequent adjustments to
counter the effects of mascons (page 143). Later it
might be moved to a higher low-maintenance orbit for
an extended mission. A mission similar to LRO, the
Lunar Polar Orbiter (LPO) was studied throughout the
1970s and 1980s but never funded.
Like Lunar Prospector (page 393), LRO will seek
evidence of water with an impact in a permanent shadow
area. This mission component, LCROSS (Lunar Crater
Observation and Sensing Satellite) would crash the LRO
launch vehicle upper stage in a shaded area at the south
pole (page 410). The upper stage would make two
orbits of Earth before impacting early in 2009. Before
impact it would release a small Shepherding Spacecraft
to observe the impact, fly through the ejecta plume, and
then crash near the upper stage site, sampling a different
point. Observations from Earth would also be made of
each impact. Initially, a target in Shackleton crater
(Figure 369) was suggested. Other sites suggested at a
workshop at NASA Ames Research Center in 2006 were
southern Shoemaker (Figure 356C) and south of
Malapert Mountain (Figure 367B).
Preliminary plans in 2006 suggested that the next
mission in the LPRP sequence, LPRP-2, would be a
large lander in 2010, targeted at the rim of Shackleton,
probably near point A in Figure 369. A roving or hop-
ping component would enter the shaded area to seek and
study ice deposits. A second lander, LPRP-3, might fly in
2012 or 2013.
2012: Luna-Glob (Russia)
This mission included an orbiter for global mapping and
a network of landed components. A proposal was devel-
oped in the 1990s but never funded. As Russia's econ-
omy improved after 2000 an updated version of the
mission was discussed. A large orbiter would emplace
ten small penetrators, two large penetrators and a large
polar station. The penetrators would be released before
the main spacecraft entered orbit. The small high speed
penetrators, released in two cassettes (carriers), would
impact without braking, while the two large penetrators
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would brake before impact. All penetrators would carry
seismometers. The polar station would land at the south
pole, carrying cameras and spectrometers (Surkov et al.
1999; Galimov 2005). In 2004 this was considered as a
possible joint mission with China, and in 2006 it was
approved for flight in 2012 (Covault 2006). A lunar
rover may follow in 2015 or 2016.
The small penetrators would land in southern Mare
Fecunditatis (188 S, 528 E) in two groups of five, one set
in a circle 10--15 km across, the second in a circle 5 km
across within the first. The two empty cassettes would
crash nearby. The two large penetrators would be aimed
close to the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 landing sites, at
0.78 N, 23.58 E and 38 N, 23.48 W (Galimov 2005). This
second position is inside crater Reinhold, so 38 S may be
intended. The orbiter would then enter a polar orbit and
deploy its polar station into a permanent shadow area in
Shoemaker crater (Figure 356C) at 888 S, 388 E.
Mission proposals
Moonrise (USA: NASA)
Moonrise was a farside sample return mission modified
from a Discovery proposal (page 411) in 2004 for
NASA's New Frontiers program, to fly in or before
2009. In the Discovery version, Moonraker, one lander
would use a rake-like sampler to gather hundreds of
small rock chips from the regolith during a one-day
stay on the surface, communicating via a relay satellite.
Moonrise would place two identical landers in the South
Pole-Aitken basin to collect about 2 kg of the oldest,
deepest material available. Two landers increased the
likelihood of success. Stay time would be increased,
and the more capable relay satellite might have been
placed at the Earth--Moon L2 point. Precise landing
sites would be selected closer to launch, but an area of
interest (Figures 365, 366) was identified in both propo-
sals (Duke 2002).
Figure 365 shows the Moonrise target area.
Clementine multispectral images (Pieters et al. 2001)
revealed areas of unusual composition in the vicinity of
craters Bose and Bhabha. The background is a USGS
mosaic of Clementine UVVIS images. Also shown is a
site at 608 S, 1608 W suggested by Haskin et al. (2003) for
the return of typical South Pole-Aitken material rela-
tively uncontaminated by other ejecta. The boxed area is
shown enlarged in Figure 366, which also shows the
ESAS site (Figure 384).
''Bose borehole'' is a small crater whose bright ejecta
exposes material excavated first by South Pole-Aitken
(SPA) and then by Bose itself. Bhabha central peaks,
and similar hills in Bose, are made of similar material.
Figure 365 The Moonrise target region.
Figure 366 Moonrise sample return target areas.
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''Olivine hill'' is an area of SPA impact melt or later
volcanism. All these materials are likely to have originated
at great depth in the lower crust or uppermost mantle.
MORO (Europe: ESA)
MORO (Moon Orbiting Observatory) was proposed but
not selected for a medium-sized science mission in the
1990s. It would have been placed in a circular polar
orbit about 100 km or 200 km high. Two versions were
contemplated, large and small. The large MORO had the
objectives of performing a global characterisation of the
lunar surface (geology, composition, topography, tem-
perature) and interior (geodesy and gravity). The smaller
version was similar but less capable and might not achieve
global coverage. A precursor, POLO (Polar Orbiting
Lunar Observatory), was studied in 1980. It had similar
objectives and included a separate relay satellite.
LEDA (Europe: ESA)
LEDA, the Lunar European Demonstration Approach,
was a planning exercise conducted in 1994 and 1995. Its
spacecraft would land in 2002, carrying a rover, a
robotic arm, soil analysis equipment and other instru-
ments. An orbital phase prior to landing could have
included landing site mapping observations if data had
not been acquired by other missions.
The landing area would have been within 208 of the
south pole on the nearside, with an area between 838 and
858 S, near 08 longitude, preferred (Figure 367). Science
goals included studying South Pole-Aitken ejecta and
areas of permanent shadow (Kassing and Novara 1995).
Figure 367 illustrates the LEDA landing area.
EuroMoon 2000 (Europe: ESA)
EuroMoon 2000 was conceived in 1996 to celebrate the
Millennium year and abandoned in 1998. It would have
placed a lander at a nearly continuously sunlit site on the
rim of the crater containing the south pole, to sample
South Pole-Aitken basin ejecta (page 340) and probe
possible ice deposits in permanently shaded areas
nearby. The lander would deliver several rovers, winners
of a university/industry contest, for a 'Millennium
Challenge' race to the nearby pole, located in permanent
darkness 3000 m deep in the (then unnamed) polar crater
Shackleton (Figure 369). Naming rights for the crater
would have been one of the prizes (Ockels 1997; Foing
and EuroMoon Team 1998).
Figure 367 The LEDA landing area.
Figure 367A: Clementine mosaic compiled by USGS, showing
the preferred landing area for LEDA.
Figure 367B: mosaic of Clementine HIRES images. LEDA
would have been directed to the upper half of this image. The
informally named Malapert Mountain, forming the south side of
the irregular depression Malapert, was also the target impact
site for Transorbital's Trailblazer spacecraft (page 413). Mosaic
of HIRES South Pole, North Periapsis mosaic tiles g84sn011,
g84sn348, g86sn018 and g86sn341.
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Scientific goals included mapping the south polar
region, with a 50 m/pixel digital elevation model having
a vertical precision of 20 m, and 5 m/pixel mapping of
potential landing sites; mapping the permanently shaded
areas at 100 m/pixel; monitoring lighting conditions
within 108 of the pole through the seasons; thermal
mapping especially in cold areas, multispectral stereo-
scopic imaging for compositional mapping of the land-
er's surroundings, and characterization of ice and
volatiles in dark areas.
EuroMoon 2000 would enter a circular, polar
200 km orbit for a month of gravity measurements,
then drop to 100 km where the 300 kg orbiter, a 1.4 m
cube, would separate from the lander. The orbiter
would map the polar region with stereoscopic images
and measure the gravity using a small subsatellite. Its
50 kg payload would address many of the earlier
MORO objectives, including multispectral and high-
resolution imaging, radar altimetry and geochemistry.
In a later variation the orbiter would fly in 2000 as a
separate mission called Lunarsat, followed in 2001 by a
smaller lander, which would also have made observa-
tions from orbit.
The 1000 kg lander, derived from LEDA, would drop
toa50kmorbitforfiveorbits,thentoa50kmby20km
transfer orbit and finally descend under power to the
surface. During a two-minute hover below 1 km altitude,
controllers would select a safe landing spot using navi-
gation radar and live images, landing within 100 m of its
target on the highest point of the rim of Shackleton. The
lander would have four 0.9 m by 1.4 m propellant tanks,
four landing legs, one solar panel fixed to the tanks and
one deployed on a mast, and a thermal radiator. It would
generate power from the near-permanent sunlight, carry
instruments to study regolith composition, heat flow and
possibly seismic activity, and deploy the Millennium
Challenge rovers. A hopping method might have been
used for mobility if a hazard was found at the original
location.
The initial plan was to land on or just outside the
rim crest of Shackleton (Figure 369, point A), aiming
for the small area with the best lighting conditions.
Orbital images would be used for final site selection.
Here the sun would vary in elevation seasonally by 38,
and Earth by about 118 over a lunar day, being above the
horizon about half the time. A Russian/German 'micro-
lunokhod' rover with a range of a few km would
explore the nearby illuminated area and deploy instru-
ments. A longer range rover or rocket-propelled tethered
instrument package would examine a nearby perpetually
dark area.
Figure 368 shows the south polar region.
Figure 368 The lunar south polar region.
Figure 368A: major features out to about 808 S. Most of the polar area is in shadow.
Figure 368B: the area within 58 of the pole. The location of the Lunar Prospector impact (Figure 356) is shown. Base maps:
Clementine mosaics produced by the US Geological Survey.
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Figure 369 is a Clementine high-resolution mosaic of
the so-called ''peak of eternal light'' at the south pole.
Later plans called for landing in one of three areas
(points A, B or C), all having good lighting, to provide
more flexibility. A small probe might have been dropped
into Shackleton during the descent.
Coordinates of the landing points are: A, 89.858 S,
166.528 W; B, 89.458 S, 142.148 W; C, 89.108 S,
93.888 W (Foing and EuroMoon Team (1998), coordi-
nates from conference poster).
Figure 370 extends the EuroMoon site planning with
seven potential landing sites in this area (numbered
points here and in Figure 369). Each has good illumina-
tion and visibility from Earth, but also provides access to
South Pole-Aitken samples in the ejecta of small fresh
craters. The map shows feasible rover routes from those
seven points to permanently shaded areas in nearby
craters (Stooke 2003).
Discovery missions
The Discovery Program was initiated by NASA in 1994
to fund relatively small, scientifically focused missions
which could be built and launched within three years.
The program was a response to criticism that the large
missions of previous decades (Viking, Voyager, Galileo
and so on) were too infrequent to provide a steady
stream of new results, especially if one failed as Mars
Observer had in 1993.
Every few years a competition would be announced,
missions would be proposed by teams from industry and
academia, and one or two would be selected for funding.
The program has seen great successes, including Lunar
Prospector (page 393), Mars Pathfinder and NEAR
(Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous), and also failures
(CONTOUR, the Comet Nucleus Tour mission, which
exploded as it was leaving Earth orbit on 15 August
Figure 369 Euromoon 2000 landing area.
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2002). Table 47 lists lunar missions proposed for
Discovery competitions. This list may not be complete,
but as a rule Discovery proposals are not made public.
Another lunar mission concept in the early 1990s was
Artemis, a robotic lander designed at NASA/JSC. The
concept was never funded, but some ideas for missions
were circulated. The name Artemis has also been used
for a private lunar base (page 418). This 1990s Artemis
was intended to deliver 200 kg of payload to within 3 km
of a target anywhere on the Moon (Meyer 1993).
Figure 370 Rover routes into the shadows.
Table 47. Discovery Program proposals for lunar missions.
Competition
date
Mission name
Description
1994
Lunar Prospector
Lunar Orbiter (page 393)
Pele
Rover to examine evidence of volcanism near Aristarchus/Cobra Head
Diana
Orbiter, 14 months of lunar mapping including farside gravity mapping using a
subsatellite, then departure to rendezvous with a comet nucleus
Icy Moon
Orbiter using a radar scatterometer to search for polar ice deposits
Interlune-1
Two rovers to characterize Helium-3 in Mare Tranquillitatis
Lunar Discovery Orbiter Revised version of a 1970s proposal for a lunar polar orbiter, including gravity
subsatellite, orbital spectroscopy, imaging, altimetry
1997
Lunar Ice
Rover to search for and examine ice in polar shadowed areas
2000
Victoria
Rover to examine rocks from South Pole-Aitken basin
Moonraker
Sample return from South Pole-Aitken, forerunner of Moonrise (page 407)
2000 or 2003 Lunar Star
Reflight of Lunar Prospector with advanced remote sensing instruments
2003
Polar Night
Orbiter to locate polar ice deposits and drop penetrators into them
2004
Moon Mineralogy Mapper Instrument to fly on Indian Chandrayaan-1 mission (page 406)
2006
GRAIL
Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory, a geophysical orbiter
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One scenario for the first Artemis lander was a walk-
ing rover which would land near the Apollo 15 LM (page
308). It would walk to the North Complex hills which
the Apollo 15 crew failed to reach (page 311), then to
the rille, and south to the Apennine Front (Figure 371).
Objectives included examining Apollo hardware for
changes and studying rock layers in the rille wall. An
alternative Artemis mission would place two small
rovers in Mare Tranquillitatis near 48 N, 388 E to exam-
ine potential lunar natural resources (Hoffman and
Weaver 1992). An alternative resource site in Mare
Tranquillitatis was 158 N, 228 E.
Commercial lunar missions
Harvest Moon (page 349) was an early proposal by a
private group to fly a lunar mission. More recently and
on a much smaller scale, several private lunar missions
have been proposed as commercial enterprises, but
attracting funding has been difficult. The best known
of these ideas are summarized here.
LunaCorp
LunaCorp of Arlington, Virginia operated from 1989 to
2003. Its goal was to place rovers on the lunar surface
which could be guided from Earth for either scientific
studies or recreation. For the latter, high-resolution
video and motion sensor data would be used to control
simulators on Earth which would duplicate the experi-
ence of driving on the Moon. Simulators would be set up
in theme parks to allow public participation in the mis-
sion, and with proper controls customers would also be
able to drive the rover briefly. The rover design was
developed by the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon
University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
LunaCorp described three versions of its lunar rover
missions. The first, called the Grand Apollo Tour, was
primarily directed towards theme park recreation as
described above. The landing would be near the Apollo
11 site (Figure 372). The rovers would approach the LM
Figure 371 Artemis walking rover route.
Figure 372 LunaCorp Grand Apollo Tour.
Base map: as Figure 80.
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carefully in order not to disturb this historic site. They
would be driven to the Surveyor 5 and Ranger 8 sites
nearby, and then north to the Apollo 17 landing site and
finally to Lunokhod-2. The full distance covered would
be about 1000 km. Along the way there would be numer-
ous opportunities to inspect dramatic scenery on crater
rims and mare ridges.
Not mentioned in LunaCorp plans but also possible
would have been an attempt to find Ranger 6 (page 36).
An unpublished study by Megan Arntz (University of
Western Ontario) in 2000 suggested that this could be
added to the itinerary, with the rover searching the area
until the debris field was found. Numerous other stops
for scenic viewing (ridges, hills, crater rims) would have
been possible, and many detours to avoid hazards would
have been necessary.
There was some controversy at the time regarding any
disturbance of the Apollo sites, including astronaut foot-
prints. LunaCorp pledged not to approach too closely.
This may be a forerunner of future conflicts over the
protection of historic sites on the Moon and elsewhere.
A system of lunar historic parks may be required even-
tually (Stooke 1988).
The next LunaCorp plan, the Icebreaker rover, was to
land in 2002 in an illuminated area in northern Peary
crater (Figure 373) and drive southwards across the floor
into an area of permanent shadow near Peary's southern
rim. The rover would carry lights for operation in sha-
dow or at night (as would the Grand Apollo Tour rovers
for night-time operations), and equipment for detecting
and studying ice, with scientific goals in addition to any
recreational purposes.
The Lunacorp Icebreaker rover would have landed
on the plains near the pole and driven south towards the
permanent shadow area near the letter S in Figure 373.
In fact this shadow area might have been too small to
contain ice. Peary crater, occupying most of the center of
Figure 373, is 75 km in diameter.
This plan evolved into a 2003 south polar mission
designed to demonstrate the presence or absence of ice
deposits in shadowed areas and to help estimate the
amount of ice if it was found. The solar-powered rover
would use batteries during work in dark areas, retreating
to illuminated areas to recharge them. It would have
carried a drill to find ice buried up to 1.2 m deep, and
ground-penetrating radar to search for deeper deposits.
The Grand Apollo Tour was then being promoted as a
follow-on mission. Icebreaker itself was closely related
to the Lunar Ice and Victoria rovers proposed as
Discovery missions (page 411), with LunaCorp acting
as an industrial partner.
LunaCorp also planned a small lunar orbiter mission,
SuperSat, to relay high-definition video from orbit for
commercial purposes. It would have been carried up to
the International Space Station on a shuttle, assembled
by astronauts and then propelled to the Moon with an
ion thruster. This was a late addition to LunaCorp's
plans, intended as a forerunner to the rover missions. It
would be cheaper to operate and so easier to obtain
funding for, while building credibility for the rover plans.
Transorbital
Transorbital, Inc. of La Jolla, California, was estab-
lished in 1998 to develop commercial lunar missions, in
orbit and on the surface. Their first mission, a lunar
orbiter called Trailblazer, was intended to launch late
in 2006 after many delays, but is now in doubt. A test
article for this spacecraft was launched into Earth orbit
on a Kosmotras Dnepr booster (modified ballistic mis-
sile) from Baikonur on 20 December 2002 to test the
payload separation and other systems. Transorbital
also accomplished the complex approval procedures
necessary to have a US satellite launched from a foreign
site, and to transmit data from the Moon. Trailblazer's
images and video were to be used for both science and
commerce, with products including a lunar atlas, high-
resolution imaging of Apollo and other landing sites,
and material suitable for commercial sponsorship such
as Moonrise/Moonset video.
Figure 373 LunaCorp's Icebreaker landing area.
Clementine UVVIS image lud 5681r.034.
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Transorbital's Trailblazer was delayed repeatedly by
difficulties in raising funds, a common situation for all
proposed commercial lunar missions. When launch was
anticipated in 2001 the spacecraft was referred to as
''2001 Trailblazer.'' It was to return video throughout
its voyage to the Moon, image the lunar surface at high
resolution during an orbital mission lasting several
months, and would eventually impact the lunar surface.
Trailblazer was to carry a hardened penetrator-type
probe which should survive the impact, though the rest
of the spacecraft would be destroyed. The penetrator
would carry small cargo items paid for by customers,
including business cards, electronic messages and cre-
mated remains of several individuals. The final orbit
would approach the south pole from the illuminated
farside, transmitting live video as it descended. Impact
would occur in darkness on the south flank of Malapert
Mountain near 878 S (Figure 367). The last images
would have shown the ridge between Shackleton and
de Gerlache craters (Figure 369) from very low altitude.
Transorbital also had plans for two landing missions
to follow Trailblazer. Their Electra 1 lander would be
very small and simple, perhaps carrying very small
amounts of cargo to the Moon for a fee like the
Trailblazer penetrator, and returning video for science
and sponsorship purposes. An Electra 2 might carry
small rovers to increase opportunities for public involve-
ment in the mission. The launch dates and landing sites
were not publicized. Transorbital Inc. was founded by
members of a private lunar base initiative, Artemis
Society International. Artemis had been developing
plans for a base for science, commerce and tourism
since 1994 (page 418). Thus an early plan for an
Electra mission called for landing at the preferred
Artemis site in Mare Anguis just east of Mare Crisium
(22.68 N 67.78 E, Figure 381). A polar lander mission
was also considered (Kruep et al. 1999; details in unpub-
lished paper).
Applied Space Resources
Applied Space Resources (ASR) of Hicksville, New
York was founded in 1998 with the goal of conducting
a private lunar sample return mission called Lunar
Retriever. Samples would have been sold for scientific
research and to collectors, jewellers or other commercial
markets. Difficulties in raising money caused it to fold
after about five years.
The mission profile would have resembled the Soviet
sample return missions (Lunas 16, 20, 24), including the
accessible area for this type of mission, within about 208
of the equator on the eastern part of the nearside. The
landing target was Mare Nectaris, with the intention of
collecting 12--15 kg of mare basalts and Theophilus ejecta,
which would include some Nectaris basin rim material.
Apart from the samples, Lunar Retriever would have
returned images and video of mission operations and
the landing site. A micro-rover was also considered.
Future spacecraft in ASR's series of projected mis-
sions were generically referred to as the Lunar Transfer
Vehicle and were to be given other canine names such as
Lunar Husky. Their missions could be more varied,
including long-range rovers and lunar resource experi-
ments, and their potential landing sites could have
included Alphonsus, Kopff, Lichtenberg, Tycho,
Reiner Gamma and the south pole (Manifold and
Norris [1999], and the ASR company website).
The specific target site for the first mission was shown
on the company website at about 168 S, 358 E, near the
center of the dark area of Mare Nectaris. P. Stooke,
acting as an advisor to the company, suggested moving
closer to Theophilus to increase the amount of that
crater's ejecta collected, a site near 148 S, 318 E being
preferred. Later the company considered moving to a
more scenically dramatic site on a smooth plains area
just south of the central peak of Theophilus itself. These
sites are shown in Figure 374.
Observatories and other studies
Lunar observatories have often been considered, on the
assumption that the advantages of stability and lack of
atmosphere would outweigh the potential for dust con-
tamination, pointing limitations and reduced access to
sunlight compared with a deep-space location.
Stability might be particularly necessary for interfero-
metry, but the precise pointing ability of the Hubble
Space Telescope and other spacecraft has tended to
weaken that advantage of a lunar site.
The International Space University (ISU), founded in
1987 and based in Strasbourg, France, has organized
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summer sessions on lunar projects. In 1991 a project
directed by W. W. Mendell of NASA JSC examined an
International Lunar Farside Observatory and Science
Station, ILFOSS (Mendell 1991). Precursor missions
would map the surface for site selection and set commu-
nication satellites in place. Rovers, either pre-
programmed or controlled from Earth, would set up a
very low frequency array (VLFA), and later a crew
would arrive to set up an optical interferometer. Sites
had to be more than 308 into the farside to avoid terres-
trial low-frequency radio interference. Areas in which
other science studies could be conducted were especially
desirable.
Fairly smooth areas at least 50 km across would be
needed to set out the VLFA equipment, and two sites
were considered: plains south of the central peaks of
Tsiolkovskiy crater (228 S, 1298 E, incorrectly stated in
the report), and the floor of Aitken crater at 178 S, 1738 E
(Figure 375). An ESA study (Woan 2005) also identified
Tsiolkovskiy as a potential site. Figure 376C shows three
spiral arrays of small antennae on the mare plains in the
crater.
Other observatory sites have also been suggested
(Maccone (2000); Miller et al. (2002); Takahashi
(2003); www.spacedaily.com/news/lunar-04zd.html),
usually within farside craters such as Icarus,
Hertzsprung, Saha and Daedalus or near the south pole
(Figure 375). The International Lunar Observatory, pro-
posed by the Space Age Publishing Company and studied
by SpaceDev, Inc., a California space industry company,
would be a small radio telescope operating from a lander
on one of the peaks with optimal illumination near the
south pole. Near-polar shadows just south of Malapert
Mountain (Figure 367) are also favored for easy cooling
of infrared detectors or reduced terrestrial radio interfer-
ence. Paul Lowman (NASA Goddard) proposed a lunar
observatory staffed by astronauts on Orientale basin
ejecta at 808 W on the equator, or on the central peaks
of Riccioli crater (Lowman (1990, 1995).
Paul Lowman's observatory suggestions formed part
of a larger plan. If only one site could be developed,
either of those shown in Figure 376B would be accepta-
ble, and the nearby floor of Grimaldi would serve as a
backup. A preferable scheme would add robotic tele-
scopes at each pole and in Mare Smythii to give full
sky visibility. The Riccioli site or one of its alternatives
would be either robotic or tended by astronauts during
occasional visits, or might be developed into a perma-
nently occupied base. Geological exploration of the sur-
roundings would also be undertaken.
Figure 374 Applied Space Resources landing sites.
Base map: Figure 80.
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In 1999 another ISU summer study directed by
Helmut Spitzl proposed a rover race on a looping path
in eastern Mare Serenitatis (Figure 377). Ten privately
funded rovers and a separate media rover to observe the
proceedings would be delivered using a single landing
spacecraft near the Apollo 17 site in the Taurus-Littrow
Figure 375 Farside lunar observatory sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 376 Lunar observatory sites.
Figure 376A shows polar observatory sites mentioned in the
text.
Figure 376B shows sites near Mare Orientale.
Figure 376C illustrates the ESA radio telescope array on the
floor of Tsiolkovskiy.
Base maps. Figure 376A: USGS shaded relief drawing.
Figure 376B: see Figure 125. Figure 376C: Mosaic of four
Defense Mapping Agency LTO sheets: 101b2, 101b3, 102a1,
102a4, original scales 1:250 000, 1973 and 1974.
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valley (Figure 309). They would race via a series of
checkpoints to the vicinity of Lunokhod 2 (page 350),
and back, ending at Taurus-Littrow. The race would last
less than one lunar day and cover about 380 km. Its
purpose would be technology development and stimula-
tion of public interest in lunar exploration (Spitzl 1999).
A later offshoot of this ISU study, called the Sooner
Lunar Schooner, would have used two hard-landing
rovers for a more scientifically oriented investigation.
One would investigate engineering materials left at the
Apollo 17 site, especially the LM, while the other was
driven to the Lunokhod 2 site.
Figure 377 shows the proposed route for the ISU
rover race between the Apollo 17 and Lunokhod 2 land-
ing sites.
Lunar base studies
Lunar bases have been discussed since the dawn of the
Space Age (pages 14, 22, 147), and only a few of the more
recent studies can be included here.
A 1988 study by the NASA JSC Advanced Programs
Office, later adapted to fit President George H. W. Bush's
Space Exploration Initiative (page 425) imagined a
''Lunar Outpost'' base in Lacus Veris (Figure 378), sup-
ported by a transportation node in Earth orbit. The five-
level habitation facility would be partly buried and
shielded with bagged regolith for protection from radia-
tion. A solar- or nuclear-powered oxygen plant would
supply two tonnes of oxygen per day, and a landing pad
would be sited 2.5 km north of the habitation facility.
The Lacus Veris site (Figure 378B) at 87.58 W, 138 S
was preferred over three other sites considered by JSC, in
the Taurus-Littrow valley, Mare Nubium and the south
pole. Astronauts at the outpost would conduct explora-
tion out to distances of 100 km in open rovers similar to
the Apollo LRV, and undertake wide-ranging expedi-
tions in convoys of pressurized rovers (Alred 1989).
A scaled-down version of this plan, the First Lunar
Outpost (FLO) was directed instead at Mare Smythii,
though the Aristarchus Plateau (238 N, 488 W) was also
considered (NASA-JSC 1992). A report by Paul Spudis
(1989) illustrated one view of activities contemplated at
Mare Smythii (Figure 379A). The base would be set up
on the plains at 08 N, 908 E, with a communications
outpost at 08 N, 80.58 E and a radio telescope at 08 N,
100.58 E.
The base would be within the libration zone, occa-
sionally hidden from Earth, but the communication site
would always be visible from Earth and the radio tele-
scope always hidden, shielded from radio interference.
Long surface exploration traverses would be undertaken
from the base. Examples of possible routes are shown in
Figure 379A.
The Lunar Outpost and First Lunar Outpost plans
had precursors in several studies during the 1980s. A JSC
study in 1984 envisioned using shuttle-derived hardware
Space Station to establish a base in the 2005--2015 per-
iod. A report by NASA astronaut Sally Ride (1987) also
assumed use of the existing hardware to reduce develop-
ment costs.
This report evolved into an August 1989 proposal by
NASA's Office of Exploration for a base in southern
Mare Tranquillitatis. The area was chosen as it was close
to the equator, allowing constant access to low lunar
orbits, and because the regolith there was rich in ilme-
nite, a potential source of oxygen. The orbital constraint
was the same as for the first Apollo landings (page XX).
Figure 377 ISU rover race track.
Numbered points (small squares) indicate confirmational
checkpoints. The base map is a composite of ACIC charts LAC
42 and 43, as in Figure 308.
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A specific point on the equator at 248 E was used as a
case study in this report (Figure 379B).
Yet another study destined only to be abandoned was
the Human Lunar Return (HLR) scenario developed by
NASA in 1996. HLR was intended as a ''faster, better,
cheaper'' program to land two people near Aristarchus
crater (26.48 N, 44.18 W, Figure 379C), using supplies
delivered robotically before the crew arrived. This first
landing would be followed by others to build infrastruc-
ture and to go to other sites including the south pole.
An important goal for future lunar activities is to
learn to use local resources. If construction materials,
water or fuel can be produced locally rather than
imported from Earth, money is saved and base security
is enhanced. Most lunar base studies incorporate at least
some ISRU (in situ resource utilization) plans. Possible
deposits of ice at the poles (pages 391, 394) are an
obvious target for this work, but other sites are also of
potential interest.
Coombs et al. (1997) described ISRU plans as part of
the HLR study, but preferred landing sites on the
Aristarchus Plateau where volcanic materials offered
oxygen and other resources. These sites are illustrated
in Figure 380.
The Artemis Society International, a private non-profit
organization, began planning a lunar base in 1994. The
location suggested for this commercial lunar outpost is in
Mare Anguis (referred to by the Artemis Society as
''Angus Bay''), northeast of Mare Crisium, where Earth
would be seen hanging low over the mountains of the
Crisium basin rim. Figure 381A shows the Mare Crisium
region and the location of Mare Anguis.
Figure 381B shows Mare Anguis in more detail, with
three specific locations proposed for the Artemis Project
lunar base. These sites are at (1) 268 500 N, 638 200 E; (2)
248 400N, 678 100E and(3)218 400N, 678 100E. This
section is based on the Artemis Society International
website, www.asi.org, available in June 2005.
Transorbital, Inc. (page 413) began as an offshoot of
this project with a goal of landing its Electra spacecraft
in Angus Bay to characterize it for the Artemis Project.
Figure 378 Lacus Veris lunar base site.
Figure 378A shows the Johnson Space
Center lunar base site in Lacus Veris,
a basalt ''pond'' between separate
ranges of the Rook Mountains (Montes
Rook). The base map is the same as
Figure 125.
Figure 378B is part of Lunar Orbiter 4
frame 187H2 showing the Lacus Veris
site in more detail. A location near the
western edge of Lacus Veris would
be necessary to allow Earth to be
visible above the mountains east of
the plains.
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Figure 379 Proposed lunar base sites
described in the text.
Base maps. Figure 379A: USGS shaded
relief, annotated by P. Stooke;
Figure 379B: ACIC charts AIC 60 C (Arago),
March 1966, and 78B (Torricelli), April 1966,
1st editions, original scales 1: 500 000;
Figure 379C: DMA Lunar Topographic
Orthophotomap LTO39A3(250), 2nd edition,
April 1974, original scale 1: 250 000.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 419

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Another lunar base concept was described by Stanley
Borowski of NASA's Lewis Research Center in 1992. In
this scheme an Earth--Moon transportation system
relied on lunar-derived oxygen (LOX) combined with
hydrogen heated by a nuclear reactor (LOX-
Augmented Nuclear Thermal Rocket, LANTR).
One possible site for this would have been in Mare
Serenitatis near 218 N, 298 E, just west of the Apollo 17
landing site and south of the old Littrow site
(Figure 308). The pyroclastic dark mantle materials
at this location would provide the oxygen (http://
www.astronautix.com/craft/lannbase.htm).
A complex and detailed lunar colonization plan has
been described by Schrunk et al. (1999). A base would be
established on Malapert Mountain (page 408), pow-
ered by solar energy from generators ringing the south
pole (Figure 382). Ice in permanent shadows would
provide important resources. Electric trains would link
power plants, bases and manufacturing facilities, gradu-
ally expanding outwards as the Moon was developed
economically. A magnetic levitation (MAGLEV) train
would run northwards up the 3458 E (158 W) meridian to
more distant bases and operations on the maria and at
the north pole.
Future goals
If robots or people return to the Moon, where should
they go? Several studies have described sampling sites
which would provide important new information, or
fill gaps left by Apollo. Don Wilhelms, an Apollo-era
Figure 380 ISRU sites in the Aristarchus Plateau described
by Coombs et al. (1997).
Base map: DMA Lunar Map LM 38 (Seleucus), original scale
1 : 1 000 000, 1st edition, November 1979.
Figure 381 Artemis lunar base sites.
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geologist with USGS in Menlo Park who was involved
in the Apollo site selection process, listed 25 desirable
sites for future robotic sample return missions, appro-
ximately in order of importance (Table 48). He also
promoted an orbital remote sensing mission and a
broad network of seismometers as additional compo-
nents of a new phase of lunar exploration (Wilhelms
1985).
Ryder et al. (1989) also considered future lunar sam-
ple return missions. They imagined two types of mission,
reconnaissance and field study. The first would involve a
robotic lander similar to the Soviet Union's Luna 16, 20
and 24 vehicles, but with the capability to collect small
rock chips with a rake, and a scoop of bulk regolith as
well as a 150 cm deep drill core sample. The total sample
mass would be about 2.1 kg per mission. Reconnaissance
missions would be directed to simple, uniform sites
including mare basalts, impact ejecta deposits and melt
sheets.
The second type, field study, would be targeted at
complex sites where human input and control would
be needed, either with astronauts or via sophisticated
robotics and teleoperation. They would allow long
stay times, the use of instruments or other equipment,
and repeat visits if necessary. Ryder et al. identified 31
reconnaissance sites and 28 field study sites (Table 49,
incorporating numerous corrections to errors in the ori-
ginal source). Hansteen Alpha is now known as Mons
Hansteen.
Some targets might be combined into long surface
traverses. Cintala et al. (1985) described an example of
a 4000 km traverse by a crew of six to eight geologists and
Figure 382 Lunar infrastructure described by Schrunk et al. (1999).
MM indicates Malapert Mountain. S: solar power plants. Solid lines: rail lines. Dashed line: cable car.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 421

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technicians, using a large vehicle capable of providing
shelter, life support, an analytical facility and research
instrumentation. Two-person small rovers would permit
short side trips.
The expedition would be spread over a consider-
able but unspecified time, with periodic resupply from
a previously established lunar base. The traverse is
shown in Figure 383, and details of stops are given
in Table 50. Many additional stops would be made
between the main geological targets indicated here,
and the entire traverse would probably have to be
modified to take into account the location of the lunar
base.
The vision for space exploration
This story of lunar exploration ends with a new begin-
ning. After the triumph of Apollo, NASA was given less
dramatic goals: to build a re-useable space shuttle
(Richard M. Nixon, 1972) and a space station (Ronald
Reagan, 1984). After the shuttle Columbia broke up
over Texas during re-entry on 1 February 2003,
NASA's objectives came under intense scrutiny.
Should lives be risked merely to operate an orbiting
science lab? The scientific justification of the
International Space Station (ISS) had long been ques-
tioned and the lack of an inspirational exploratory goal
Table 48. Lunar sample return sites proposed by Don Wilhelms in 1985.
Site Description
Location
Objectives
1 Nectaris basin ejecta
358S,428E
Age and composition
Nectaris impact melt?
228S,418E
2 Copernican mare
318N,678W
Age and composition
3 Terra plains, Albategnius
128S,58E
Non-mare volcanic plains or
buried mare basalts?
Terra plains, Ptolemaeus
98S,28W
4 Gruithuisen Delta or Gamma 368 N, 408 W
Non-mare volcanism?
Hansteen Alpha
508S,128W
5 Tsiolkovskiy floor
218 S, 1298 E
Source composition
Mare Ingenii
c.368 S, 1588 E
6 Orientale impact melt
South of Orientale
Age of Orientale, crust composition
7 Copernicus floor impact melt
108N,208W
Age and composition
8 King rim or floor impact melt 5.58 N, 1218 E
Age and composition
9 Ancient crust
Near 308 N, 1608 E
Age and composition
10 South Pole-Aitken basin massifs 21.58 S, 1608 W
Age and composition
11 Schickard basalts
458S,558W
Age and composition
Basalts north of Balmer
168S,698E
12 Mare Marginis (Ibn Yunus) 148 N, 918 E
Age and composition (KREEP-rich?)
13 Eratosthenian mare
Southwest Mare Imbrium Age, calibration of multispectral imaging data
Surveyor 1 area
2.58 S, 43.58 W
14 Central Mare Serenitatis
208N,208E
15 Orientale lobate ejecta
538S,798W
Impact melt or unmelted ejecta?
16 Alpes Formation
458N,58E
Composition, impact melt content
17 Apennine Bench
278N,88W
Age, origin, composition, calibrate orbital
geochemical data
18 Reiner Gamma
7.58 N, 598 W
Age, magnetism, origin
19 Murchison fractured floor
18W,58N
Pooled Imbrium impact melt?
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Table 49. Lunar sample return sites proposed by Ryder et al. (1989).
Target type
Landing site
Location
Comments
A. Reconnaissance missions
Maria
(diversity of ages and
compositions of lunar
basalts)
1. Flamsteed
38S,448E
Surveyor 1 area, very young mare
2. Near Lichtenberg
328 N, 678 W Young basalts cover crater rays
3. Tsiolkovskiy
208 S, 1308 E Age and composition
4. Mare Ingenii
368 S, 1658 E Swirl pattern over mare basalts
5. Moscoviense
288 N, 1488 E Typical farside mare
6. Mare Smythii
38N,908E
Young mare, high titanium
7. Mare Marginis
128N,908E
Young mare, high thorium
8. Mare Australe
388S,918E
Old mare and light plains
9. Schickard
458S,558W
Old mare and Orientale ejecta
10. Imbrium flows
298 N, 298 W Young flow unit, high titanium, KREEP
11. Mare Serenitatis
208N,208E
Spectral calibration point, stratigraphic boundary
Impact melt (age,
composition of target
and impactor)
12. Copernicus
108N,208E
Age, composition of target area
13. Eratosthenes
148N,128E
Age
14. King
58N,1218E
Age, farside crust composition
15. Tycho
438S,108W
Age, composition of target area
16. Giordano Bruno
368 N, 1038 E Age (youngest large crater on the Moon)
Basin melt
(as above)
17. Orientale
258S,968W
Youngest large multiring basin on the Moon
18. Humboldtianum
558N,778E
Intermediate age basin
19. Schro¨ dinger
748 S, 1258 E Young two-ring basin
Highlands (composition,
history, role of
volcanism)
20. Near Mutus
668S,308E
Typical nearside highlands
21. Near Lebedinsky
108 N, 1658 W Typical farside highlands
22. Van de Graaff
268 S, 1708 E KREEP- or magnesium-rich magmas?
23. Ptolemaeus
108S,28W
KREEP- or magnesium-rich magmas?
24. Hertzsprung floor
48S,1248W
Magnesium-rich intrusion?
25. West of Tsander
78 N, 1538 W Ancient mare basalts?
26. Gruithuisen Gamma 368 N, 418 W Dome, spectral anomaly: highland volcanics?
Lunar resources
(understand sources,
plan future uses)
27. Rima Bode
138N,48W
Titanium-rich pyroclastic deposit
28. Sulpicius Gallus
198N,108E
Titanium-rich pyroclastic deposit
29. Aristarchus Plateau 268 N, 518 W KREEP-rich pyroclastic deposit
30. North of Orientale 08 N, 1108 W Nearly pure ferroan anorthosites
31. Polar shadows
Near each pole Sample if remote sensing detects volatiles
B. Intensive field study sites
Craters
(physical processes, ages,
target stratigraphy)
32. Copernicus
108 N, 208 W Target characteristics, central peaks
33. Tycho
438S,118W
Central peaks, impact melt
34. Aristarchus
238 N, 488 W Target characteristics, central peaks
35. Aristillus
348N,18E
Target characteristics, ejecta
36. Apennines/Conon
228N,28E
Target characteristics, stratigraphy
37. Eudoxus
448N,168E
Target characteristics, Imbrium basin deposits
38. Montes Pyrenaeus 158 S, 408 E
Nectaris ring, impact melt, anorthosite outcrops
39. Orientale floor
158S,858W
Impact melt, mare ponds, Montes Rook material
40. SPA basin massifs 258 S, 1558 E Largest lunar basin, compositional anomaly
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Table 49. (cont.)
Target type
Landing site
Location
Comments
Volcanism
(processes, composition,
possible resources)
41. Marius Hills
128 N, 558 W Domes and sinuous rilles
42. Hortensius domes
78N,288W
Small volcanic shields
43. Ru¨ mker plateau
418 N, 588 W Smaller version of Marius Hills
44. Herigonius Rilles
128S,368W
Sinuous rille and vent on a wrinkle ridge
45. Aristarchus plateau 248 N, 508 W Dark mantle, light plains, Schro¨ ter's valley
46. Ina (D-caldera)
198N,58E
Small collapse pit, young volcanic materials (p. 320)
47. Alphonsus vents
138S,28W
Cinder cones in floor-fractured crater
48. Near Lassell
148S,108W
Small cones and flows
Highlands
(processes, composition,
history and diversity)
49. Silver Spur
258N,48W
Large-scale layering (page 316): origin, composition
50. Montes Caucasus
328N,78W
Uplifted ancient crust
51. Tsiolkovskiy peak 208 S, 1298 E Uplifted farside crust in central peak
52. Mons La Hire
288 N, 258 W Inner Imbrium ring, spectral anomaly
53. Gruithuisen domes 368 N, 408 W Volcanic domes or basin massifs?
54. Hansteen Alpha
128S,508W
Spectral anomaly, volcanic dome or basin massif?
Unusual features
(origin, age,
composition)
55. Struve L
218 N, 768 W Orientale basin secondary, impact melt on floor?
56. Double ring crater 268 S, 838 E
In Humboldt; origin uncertain. Secondary?
57. Crater in Barbier
248 S, 1588 E Basin secondary or volcanic complex
58. Reiner Gamma
68N,598W
Swirl material, magnetic anomaly. Comet impact?
59. Marginis swirls
158N,908E
Swirl material, magnetic anomaly. Comet impact?
Figure 383 The geologic traverse described by Cintala et al. (1985).
424 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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was widely felt. On 14 January 2004 at NASA
Headquarters in Washington DC, President George W.
Bush announced a new vision for NASA, not a single
event like Apollo but a long-term program of explora-
tion. This had been preceded by a proposal called the
Space Exploration Initiative, having similar goals but
much higher costs. It was put forward by former
President G. H. W. Bush on 20 July 1989, but attracted
little support and was quickly shelved.
Bush directed NASA to return the space shuttle to
flight and use it to finish building the ISS, at which time
(about 2010) the expensive and fragile shuttle would be
retired. Next he proposed a human return to the Moon
as the beginning of a broader goal to extend human
presence across the solar system. The first step would
be a series of robotic lunar missions to prepare for future
human exploration, beginning in 2008. The Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter (page 406) is the first of
Table 50. Geological traverse described by Cintala et al. (1985).
Stop
Location
Comments
1
Murchison
Old crater, Imbrium ejecta, floor composition, Triesnecker crater ray
2
Rima Bode area
Imbrium ejecta and dark pyroclastic material
3
Mare Vaporum
Pre-Imbrian Vaporum basin structure and younger mare basalts
4
Ina (D-Caldera)
Young volcanic eruption site and surrounding mare material (page 320)
5
Conon
Crater ejecta revealing stratigraphy of Imbrium basin ejecta
6
Apennine Scarp
Imbrium basin stratigraphy, impact melt pools
7
Apennine Bench
Impact melt or younger volcanic material
8
Montes Archimedes
Thorium-rich spectral anomaly
9
Wallace
Pre-mare flooded crater crossed by Copernicus ray, young basalts
10
Eratosthenes ejecta
Ejecta age and processes, Imbrium basin rim, pre-Imbrian Aestuum basin
11
Eratosthenes floor
Impact melt, central peaks, walls, geophysics of a large crater
12
Copernicus outer ejecta
Ejecta emplacement processes, underlying basalts
13
Copernicus inner ejecta
Continuous ejecta, emplacement processes, Imbrian basin ejecta
14
Copernicus rim
Multispectral panoramic imaging, deep ejecta, impact melt, age of impact
15
Copernicus floor, peaks
Geophysics of a large crater, central peaks, floor impact melt
16
Montes Carpatus
Imbrium basin rim, Copernicus ejecta, pyroclastic deposits
17
Tobias Mayer area
Rilles and volcanic eruption sites, mare basalts, Copernicus ejecta
18
Euler
Crater ejecta and young mare basalts
19
Mons La Hire
Imbrium basin inner ring, spectral anomaly
20
Young lava flows
Young basalts not represented in Apollo samples
21
Gruithuisen domes
Volcanic domes or basin rim massifs? Spectral anomaly. Mare basalts
22
Prinz rilles
Rille-forming processes, Aristarchus ray material, highland blocks
23
Aristarchus crater rim
Ejecta, impact melt, survey of crater interior and stratigraphy
24
Aristarchus floor
Impact melt, central peaks, multispectral panorama, crater geophysics
25
Aristarchus Plateau
Dark mantle materials, Schro¨ ter's Valley, Aristarchus ejecta
26
Schiaparelli basalts
Young titanium-rich basalts, unlike any Apollo samples
27
Lichtenberg
Crater with pre-mare material in ejecta, and youngest basalts on the Moon
28
Struve L
Orientale basin ejecta and possible impact melt and secondary crater
29
Balboa
Geophysical survey of fractured floor crater
Chronological sequence of missions and events 425

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these. The second is expected to be a lander, probably
directed at the rim of Shackleton crater at the south pole
(Figure 360).
The first extended human expedition to the Moon,
making use of new launchers named Ares and a multi-
purpose Crew Exploration Vehicle, Orion, would take
place some time between 2015 and 2020. 2018 was the
target date for planning purposes in 2005 as this was
written. The purpose of these lunar missions would be
''to further science, and to develop and test new
approaches, technologies and systems, including use of
lunar and other space resources, to support sustained
human space exploration to Mars and other destina-
tions'' (NASA 2004).
NASA's initial response to these new goals was the
Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS), which
defined the new spacecraft, launchers and procedures
needed for the early stages of the ''Vision.'' Part of the
final report identifies potential targets for human activities
on the Moon, beginning with sorties involving a crew of
four and a stay time of about a week and expanding to
stays of several months with pressurized rovers and other
advanced hardware. One or more of these might become
permanent research facilities. The ten sites identified in the
ESAS final report (NASA 2005) are described in Table 51
and shown in Figure 384. This was intended as a prelimi-
nary study of potential sites to help future planning, and
does not preclude visits to other locations. The new
''vision'' has come to be known as Project Constellation.
Some mixture of sorties to numerous points of inter-
est, as described in the ESAS report, and a more perma-
nent scientific outpost is likely to emerge as plans
develop. One outpost alone will probably be too limiting
in scientific terms, while sorties alone will not address
ISRU and other issues needed for deep space voyages in
the more distant future.
Table 51. ESAS sites for future human exploration, 2005.
Site
Location
Comments
1. Shackleton crater rim,
south pole
89.98 S, 1808 W (Figs 369,
370)
Long periods of illumination, near potential ice deposits, SPA
ejecta, view of southern celestial hemisphere for astronomy
2. SPA basin floor near
Bose crater
548 S, 1628 W (Figs 365,
366)
SPA impact melt, lower crust material, requires communication
relay, potential low-frequency radio astronomy site
3. Aristarchus plateau
north of Cobra Head
268 N, 498 W (Figs 133,
380)
Easily accessible, potential ISRU site, Imbrium ejecta and volcanic
materials including dark pyroclastic mantle
4. Rima Bode, near the
vent
138 N, 3.98 W (Fig. 172,
page 210)
Titanium-rich dark pyroclastic mantle materials, possible deep
mantle materials, potential ISRU site with easy access
5. Mare Tranquillitatis
north of Arago crater
88 N, 218 E (Fig. 37)
Easily accessible titanium-rich mare area with ISRU potential
6. North pole, rim of Peary
B crater
89.58 N, 918 E (Fig. 353) Long periods of illumination, near potential ice deposits, Imbrium
ejecta, view of northern celestial hemisphere for astronomy
7. Flamsteed P, in Oceanus
Procellarum
38 S, 438 W (Fig. 76)
Easily accessible titanium-rich mare area with ISRU potential, on
very young mare basalts
8. Central farside site near
Dante crater
268 N, 1788 E (Fig. 375) Ancient highland crust, rich in Al and Ca for ISRU, potential low
frequency radio astronomy site but requires communication
relay
9. Orientale basin floor
near Kopff crater
198 S, 888 W (Fig. 183) Youngest large mare basin with an unusual crater, combined
highland and mare materials with ISRU potential, but libration
effects will occasionally make a communications relay necessary
10. Mare Smythii near Peek
crater
2.58 N, 86.58 E
(Fig. 379A)
Young basalts in an ancient basin, Fe-rich regolith with ISRU
potential, but libration effects will occasionally make a
communications relay necessary
426 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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One possible scenario from Lockheed Martin
involves a human base in or near Sinus Medii preceded
by a series of remotely controlled rovers. They would
land at locations across the nearside and be driven
towards the base site (Figure 385), collecting samples
and making observations. Their samples would be
retrieved by crews at the base, accomplishing more in
one mission than in the whole Apollo program. These
rover traverses are only schematic.
In 2001 the European Space Agency established its
Aurora program with the goals of exploration, ins-
piration and technology development. Aurora is a long-
term plan including robotic and human exploration of
Mars, the Moon and asteroids. Mars rovers and sample
return missions would be part of this, but a strong lunar
component is anticipated. A series of studies are docu-
mented in internal reports. Work continues on a series of
robotic and eventually human lunar missions, possibly in
collaboration with the US Vision for Space Exploration.
ESA's Human Spaceflight Vision Group in December
2003 (''Moon: The 8th Continent'') recommended
increased attention to lunar exploration in the medium
term, as Mars still presented great technological chal-
lenges. They also emphasized the scientific importance of
further lunar exploration. A farside radio telescope similar
to the ILFOSS design (page 415) is a possible goal.
A crew-tended lunar base study followed in January
2004, and a sustainable lunar exploration study in
December 2004. In 2005 there was a study of cargo trans-
port systems in May and a lunar robotic mission study in
December. In 2006 an Alcatel Alenia Space document
identified lunar science objectives and Mars-related
Figure 384 ESAS sites for future human activities.
Figure 385 Future rover/base operations.
Chronological sequence of missions and events 427

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technology to be tested during lunar flights (Coppinger
2006). Other studies have taken place outside ESA itself,
including a 2002 Lunar Base Design Workshop organized
by the Institute for Design and Building Construction of
the University of Technology in Vienna.
In August 2005 the US company Space Adventures
Ltd. announced a plan to allow private citizens to pur-
chase seats on a Soyuz flight around the Moon and back
to Earth. The Soyuz spacecraft was designed to travel to
the Moon (page 108) but had until then only been used
for Earth orbit and space station flights. Space
Adventures had previously organized visits to the
International Space Station (ISS) for several private
individuals, the first ''space tourists,'' beginning with
American businessman Dennis Tito on 28 April 2001
in the Soyuz-TM-32 mission.
Space Adventures' Deep Space Expeditions would be
partnerships between Russia's Federal Space Agency,
the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, the succes-
sor to Sergei Korolev's Experimental Design Bureau
(page 9), and Space Adventures. The price of a seat
was reported as US$100 million. Two seats would be
sold. The third Soyuz seat would be occupied by a
Russian cosmonaut. The Soyuz would fly a trajectory
similar to the Zond 5 to Zond 8 missions and would
require an improved heat shield and other systems.
First flight was expected no sooner than 2010, and
would be called DSE-Alpha. Two versions were contem-
plated, one including a one week stay on the ISS, the
other direct. In each case the Soyuz would have to dock
with a separately launched upper stage to allow it to
leave Earth orbit. Later missions might include lunar
landings.
If these visions come to pass, they will have grown
from the foundation depicted in this atlas. The first crew
to return to the Moon will be standing on the shoulders
of giants, of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev and Wernher von
Braun, and all who worked with them.
428 International Atlas of Lunar Exploration

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Important websites
Websites are notoriously ephemeral, but the following
were available as the compilation of this atlas drew to a
close in 2006.
Most mission descriptions are based on data from the
National Space Science Data Center:
http://nssdc.gsfc. nasa.gov/planetary/chrono.html
Additional information, especially on the Soviet Union's
evolving plans, comes from Mark Wade's Encyclopedia
Astronautica:
http://www.astronautix.com/
An invaluable guide to the Apollo lunar landings is Eric
Jones' Apollo Lunar Surface Journal:
http://www.hq.nasa. gov/office/pao/History/alsj/
NASA's History Office makes many out-of-print books
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http://history.nasa.gov/
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Robert Christy's Zarya website is a good resource for
Soviet and Russian lunar missions:
http://www.zarya.info/
Sven Grahn has some useful details regarding lunar
missions at:
http://www.svengrahn.pp.se/
Important sources of lunar data used for
mapping include the following websites
US Geological Survey, Flagstaff:
http://astrogeology. usgs.gov/DataAndInformation/
NASA's Planetary Data System Imaging Node:
http://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/
The Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston:
http://www. lpi.usra.edu/
Arizona State University's Space Exploration Resources:
http://ser.sese.asu.edu/
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Index
AAP (Apollo Applications
Program) 130
ABMA (Army Ballistic Missile
Agency) 13, 19
ACIC (Aeronautical Chart and
Information Center) 2, 5
AES (Apollo Extension System) 57
AirForce,U.S.2,5,7,22
Aldrin, E. 207
ALEO (Apollo Lunar Exploration
Office) 172
Allen, D. 374
Allen, J. 297
ALPO (Association of Lunar and
Planetary Observers) 372
ALSCC (Apollo lunar surface closeup
camera) 214, 230, 240, 276
ALSEP (Apollo lunar surface
experiment package) 117, 137,
165, 225, 227, 249, 267, 295, 304,
309, 326, 328, 332, 336, 339,
347, 369
ALSS (Apollo Logistic Support
System) 60
America (Apollo 17) 337
Anders, W. 179, 207
Anderson, M. 401
Angus Bay 418
Antares (Apollo 14) 265
Apollo 1 fire 79, 108, 180, 294, 371, 401
Apollo Zone 71, 33, 58, 122
Aquarius (Apollo 13) 240
Arkani-Hamed, J. 30
Armstrong, N. 207
Army, U. S. 5, 14
Arntz, M. 413
ARPA (Advanced Research Project
Agency) 7, 11
Artemis (base) 418
Artemis (lander) 411
Arthur, D. W. G. 5
AS (Augmented Surveyors) 134
Asiasat 3 403
ASSB (Apollo Site Selection Board)
56, 79, 317
Atlantis (Shuttle) 374
Aurora 427
Babakin, G. 311
Barmin, V. 150
Bazilevsky, A. 185
Bean, A. 222
Bellcomm, Inc. 58, 146
Bendix Corp. 108
Bennett, F. 297
BIS (British Interplanetary Society) 7
BMDO (Ballistic Missile Defense
Organization) 382, 398
Bondarenko, V. 294
Borman, F. 179
Brand, V. 295
Brezhnev, L. 42
Brown. D. 401
Bugaevsky, L. 4
Burba, G. 320, 328
Burgess, E. 7
Bush, President G. H. W. 425
Bush, President G. W. 425
Byrne, C. 138
Casper (Apollo 16) 326
Cassini 399
CAST (Chinese Academy for Space
Technology) 406
Celestis, Inc. 394
Cernan, E. 195, 265, 336
Chaffee, R. 108
Challenger (Apollo 17) 337
Challenger (shuttle) 371, 401
Charlie Brown (Apollo 10) 195
Chawla, K. 401
Chelomei, V. 42
Clark, L. 401
Clarke, A. 7
Collins, M. 207
Columbia (Apollo 11) 207
Columbia (Shuttle) 399, 422
Conrad, C. 222
CONTOUR (Comet Nucleus
Tour) 410
Cook, A. 390
Cooper, G. 394
Crew Exploration Vehicle 426
Cunningham, W. 180
Deep Impact 399
Diana 411
DMA (Defense Mapping Agency)
16, 368
Dobrovol'skiy, G. 294
Doohan, J. 394
Dugan, D. 30
Duke, C. 240, 321, 337
Eagle (Apollo 11) 207
Earthrise 180
Earthset 176, 257
EASEP (early Apollo science
experiment package) 213
Eggleston, J. 144
Eggleton, R. 30, 243
Eisele, D. 180
El-Baz, F. 178, 204, 245, 327
Electra 414, 418
ELM (Extended LM) 146, 164, 168,
199, 206
Endeavour (Apollo 15) 295
Energia 428
Engle, J. 265
ESAS (Exploration Systems
Architecture Study) 426
EVAs (extravehicular activity see also
traverses)
Alphonsus 108, 134, 325
Aristarchus 134
Censorinus 168
Copernicus 134, 247, 252
Descartes 317
early 50, 153, 165
Flamsteed 136, 147
Fra Mauro 245, 267
Gassendi 326
Hadley 165, 247, 275, 304
Marius 164, 198, 247, 252
Prinz 247
437

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EVAs (extravehicular activity (cont.)
Taurus-Littrow 327, 333, 352
Tycho 247
Evans, R. 265, 336
Explorer 1 satellite 19
Explorer 59 satellite 402
Falcon (Apollo 15) 295
Falmouth Conference 50, 55, 185
First Lunar Outpost 417
Gagarin, Y. 22, 32
Galileo 410
Geotail 403
Giacobini-Zinner, Comet
Giotto 403
GLEP (Group for Lunar Exploration)
129, 143, 162, 249
Glushko, V. 40
Gold, T. 30
Gordon, R. 222, 295
GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and
Interior Laboratory) 411
Grand Apollo Tour 412
gravity anomaly see mascon
Green, J. 23
Grissom, V. 108
Haise, F. 207, 236, 321
Halley, Comet 403
Hartmann, W. 5
Hayabusa 399
Heacock, R. 51
Head III, J. 300
Heinlein, R. 7
Herring, A. 5
Hess, W. 129, 143
HGS 1 satellite 404
HLR (Human Lunar Return) 418
Hodges, C. 292
Horizon, Project 14, 23
HST (Hubble Space Telescope) 347,
397, 414
Husband, R. 399
IAU (International Astronomical
Union) 108, 215, 338, 371, 401
ICE (International Comet
Explorer) 403
ice in polar craters 23, 391, 394, 406,
408, 413, 426
Icy Moon 411
IGY (International Geophysical
Year) 7
ILFOSS (International Lunar Farside
Observatory and Science
Station) 415
impacts seen from Earth 15, 53, 71,
374, 394, 402, 406
Inada, A. 398
Interlune 411
International Lunar Observatory 415
Intrepid (Apollo 12) 222
Irwin, J. 222, 295
ISAS (Institute of Space and
Astronautical Science) 372,
398, 403
ISEE-3 (International Sun-Earth
Explorer 3) 402
ISRO (Indian Space Research
Organization) 406
ISRU (in situ resource utilization)
418, 426
ISTP (International Solar-Terrestrial
Physics) 403
ISU (International Space University)
414, 416
James, D. 217
Jarvis, G. 371
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency) 404
Jodrell Bank 75
Kennedy, President J. F. 1, 22, 30, 56,
146, 168, 207
Khlebtsevich, Y. 19
Khrushchev, N. 21, 42
Kitty Hawk (Apollo 14) 265
Kohoutek, Comet 358
Kolodin, P. 294
Komarov, V. 108
Korolev, S. 9, 21, 28, 31, 42, 71, 72, 428
Kosmotras 413
Kozyrev, N. 49, 55
Krasnopevtseva, B. 176
Kubasov, V. 294
Kuiper, G. 4, 5, 30, 39, 51
Lacus Veris 418
Lavochkin Design Bureau 311
LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation
and Sensing Satellite) 406
Leary, T. 394
Leonov, A. 294
LESA (Lunar Exploration System for
Apollo) 60
LEWG (Lunar Exploration Working
Group) 101, 146
LFU (Lunar Flying Unit) 117, 129,
137, 147, 165, 185, 199
Libration xxii, 1, 5, 372, 426
Lipsky, Y. 4, 71
Lockheed Electronics Company 221
LOOM (Lunar Orbiting Observatory
Mission) 405
Lovell, J. 179, 198, 207, 236
LPO (Lunar Polar Orbiter) 406
LPRP (Lunar Precursor and Robotic
Program) 406
LRRR (Laser Ranging Retroreflector)
213, 235, 267, 293, 305, 310
LRV (Lunar Roving Vehicle) 225, 236,
290, 295, 309, 326, 336
LSSM (Lunar Scientific Survey
Module): see Rovers
Luna Incognita 128, 372
Lunar Discovery Orbiter 411
Lunar Ice 411
Lunar Outpost 417
Lunar Retriever 414
Lunar Star 411
Lunarsat 409
Lunex 22
Lunokhod see rovers
MAGLEV (magnetic levitation) 420
Malapert Mountain 402, 406, 408,
415, 420
Mars Observer 410
Mars Pathfinder 410
mascon 128, 170, 179, 360
Masursky, H. 51, 164, 178, 219
Mattingly, T. 236, 321
McAuliffe, S. C. 371
McCauley, J. 63
McCool, W. 399
McDivitt, J. 195
McNair, R. 371
Mechta (Luna 1) 13, 17, 376
Messenger 399
MET (modular equipment
transporter) 272
Midcourse Space Experiment 398
Milwitzky, B. 107, 201
Mitchell, D. 329, 360
438 Index

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Mitchell, E. 265, 321
MOBEX see rover
MOCR (Mission Operations Control
Room) 338
Moon Mineralogy Mapper 411
Moonraker 411
Morris, E. 37, 63
MRO (Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter) 399
Mueller, G. 44, 56
MUSES-A (Mu Space Engineering
Satellite A) 372
MUSES-C 399
NASA (National Aeronautics and
Space Administration) 8
NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid
Rendezvous) 398, 410
New Frontiers 407
Newell, H. 23, 44, 56
Nixon, President R. 212, 422
Nyrtsova, T. 278
Odyssey (Apollo 13) 240
Onizuka, E. 371
Operation Mona 7
Orientale (basin, mare) xxiii, 5, 72, 120,
122, 131, 165, 176, 185, 278, 347,
377, 386, 415, 422, 423, 426
Orion (Apollo 16) 326
Orion (CEV) 426
OSSA (Office of Space Science and
Applications) 57
Patsaev, V. 294
Pegasus 57
Pele 411
Penetrator 404, 406, 414
Perrine, C. 217
Petrone, R. 297
Phillips, S. 145, 201, 202
polar night 411
POLO (Polar Orbiting Lunar
Observatory) 408
Porco, C. 394
Prospector 22
Ramon, I. 401
Reagan, President R. 422
Resnik, J. 371
RLEP (Robotic Lunar Exploration
Program) 406
Roddenbury, G. 394
Rodionova, J. 353, 360
Roosa, S. 265, 321, 337
Rosetta 399
rovers
ABMA 20
ALSS 60
Artemis 412
Electra 414
EuroMoon 408
Icebreaker 413
Interlune 411
Khlebtsevich 19
LESA 60
LRV see main entry
LSSM 101, 129
Lunacorp 412
Lunar Ice 411
Lunokhod 33, 97, 187, 261, 350, 369
MOBEX 101
Pele 411
Prospector 22
ROGER 348, 349
Selene (Micro-5) 405
Sooner Lunar Schooner 417
Surveyor 22
Victoria 411
SAA (Saturn-Apollo Applications) 101
Sakigake 403
Salyut 294, 300
Santa Cruz 129--134, 179, 185
Sasser, J. 136
Schaber, G. 300
Scherer, L. 245
Schirra, W. 180
Schmitt, H. 50, 56, 134, 295, 336
Schweickart, R. 195
Scobee, F. 371
Scott, D. 195, 222, 294
''Scotty'' 394
SDIO (Strategic Defense Initiative
Organization) 382
Set A, Set B etc. 103, 111, 145, 160, 162,
168, 172
SEVA (Stand-up EVA) 300
Shepard, A. 36, 265
Skylab 130, 146
Shevchenko, V. 17, 287
Shingareva, K. 176, 242, 278, 372
Shoemaker, E. 1, 5, 23, 30, 37,
51, 394
Silver, L. 297
SIM (Scientific Instrument Module)
bay 336, 348, 349
Smith, M. 371
Sonett, C. 30
SOUC (Surveyor/Orbiter Utilization
Committee) 56, 65, 137
Soyuz 1 accident 108
Soyuz 11 accident 294
Snoopy (Apollo 10) 195
Snowman 226
SPA (South Pole-Aitken) basin 17, 72,
176, 376, 385, 387, 402, 407, 422,
423, 426
Space Adventures Ltd 428
SpaceDev, Inc. 415
Space Exploration Initiative 425
Space Services Inc. 394
Sputnik 7, 22
Stafford, T. 195, 198
Stardust 399
STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations
Observatory) 404
Stryk, T. 374
Suisei 403
Supersat 413
Swann, G. 297
SWC (solar wind collector) 228, 235,
269, 303, 330
Swigert, J. 236
SWP (Science Working Panel)
249, 338
Tito, D. 428
TLP (transient lunar
phenomenon) 50
Tombaugh, C. 20
Trailblazer 413
Trask, N. 224
traverse plans 7, 56, 60, 64, 101, 131,
165, 179, 185, 410, 412, 413, 416,
417, 421, 427
Tsiolkovskiy, K. 5
Tsiolkovskiy (crater) 249, 257, 294,
415, 422, 423, 424
Urey, H. 23, 30, 51, 391
USGS (US Geological Survey) 4, 23,
63, 138, 358
Van Dorn, D. 350
Vaughan, O. 136
Index 439

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Vega-1, Vega-2 probes 403
Victoria 411
Viking 410
VIP site 308, 330, 347
Volkov, V. 294
Von Braun, W. 7, 428
Voyager 398, 410
VRAD (very long baseline
interferometry -- radio) 405
Wade, L. 243
West, M. 214, 394
Westfall, J. 372
Wilhelms, D. 243, 420
Wilkins, H. 5, 7
Willingham, D. 51
Wind 403
Whitaker, E. 5, 36, 39, 51, 58, 84, 116,
156, 242, 289, 311
White, E. 108
WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe) 404
Woods Hole study 55
Worden, A. 222, 295
Yankee Clipper (Apollo 12) 222
Yeung, B. 222
Young, J. 195, 236, 321, 337
440 Index