Collins
r«
FIELD GUIDE
BIRD NESTS, EGGS
AND NESTLINGS
Britain and
Europe
COLIN HARRISON
PETER CASTELL
NEW EDITION
FIELD GUIDE
BIRD NESTS, EGGS
AND NESTLINGS
Britain and Europe
•	An updated edition of the only field guide to the nests, eggs and
nestlings of European birds, with fully-revised text. Every bird
species found from the North Pole to the Sahara Desert, and
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ural Mountains is included.
•	The main text is arranged taxonomically with family descriptions
followed by information on each species; additional illustrations of
typical nests, side views of nestlings and mouth markings arc also
included. Sixty-five colour plates show the nestlings and eggs of
the species described.
•	I he introduction gives background information to breeding
behaviour and the development of young birds, while detailed
keys provide a way of quickly identifying a particular species.
Other Titles in the Collins Field Guide Series
Bird Songs and Calls of Britain and Northern Europe
by Geoff Sample
Birds of Britain and Europe, 5th Edition
by Roger Tory Peterson, Guy Mountfort and P. A. D. Hollom
Butterflies of Britain and Europe
by Tom Tolman and Richard Lewington
Caterpillars of Britain and Europe
by D. J. Cater and B. Hargreaves
Insects of Britain and Northern Europe, 3rd Edition
by Michael Chinery
Mammals of Britain and Europe
by David Macdonald & Priscilla Barrett
Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe
by E. N. Arnold, J. A. Burton & D. W. Ovenden
Spiders of Britain and Northern Europe
by Michael J. Roberts
Trees of Britain and Europe
by Alan Mitchell
COLLINS FIELD GUIDE
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND
NESTLINGS
OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
with North Africa and the Middle East
COLIN J. O. HARRISON
and
PETER CASTELL
HarperCollins7W&Z>ers
Collins an imprint of
Harpe rCol \insPuhlishers
77-85 Eulham Palace Road
London
W6 8JB
The collins website address is:
www.collins.co.uk
Hirst published 1975
Reprinted 1980
Reprinted 1985 with revisions
Reprinted 1987
Reprinted 1988
Revised edition 1998
This revised edition first published in 2002
05 07 06 04
3 5 7 6 4 2
© Colin Harrison and Peter Castell
The authors assert their moral right
to be identified as the authors of this work
All rights reserved
ISBN 0 00 713039 2
Revised edition typeset and designed by D & N Publishing
Lambourn Wo< dlands, Hungerford. Berkshire
Printed and bound in Hong Kong by Printing Express Ltd.
Contents
The Law and Birds’ Nests	10
Foreword to First Edition	11
Foreword to Present Edition	12
How to Use this Book	13
Introduction	14
Nest Record Schemes: Nest Finding and Recording
with a Purpose	31
Divers: Gaviidae	33
Grebes: Podicipedidae	36
Petrels and Shearwaters: Hydrobatidae and Procellariidae	40
Gannets: Sulidae	45
Pelicans: Pelecanidae	46
Cormorants: Phalacrocoracidae	47
Darters: Anhingidae	49
Herons: Ardeidae	50
Spoonbills and Ibises: Threskiomithidac	57
Storks: Ciconiidae	59
Flamingos: Phoenicopteridae	61
Waterfowl: Anatidae	62
Swans: Cygnus species	62
Geese and Ducks: Anserinae (other than swans) and Anatinac 64
Ospreys: Pandionidae	82
Hawks, Eagles and Vultures: Accipitridae	83
Falcons: Falconidae	98
Grouse: Tetraonidae	104
Typical Gamebirds: Phasianidac	108
Buttonquail: Turnicidae	119
Rails: Rallidae	119
Cranes: Gruidae	124
Bustards: Otididae	126
Oystercatchers: Haematopidae	127
Avocets and Stilts: Rccurvirostridac	128
Crab Plovers: Dromadidae	130
Painted Snipe: Rostratulidae	131
Stone Curlews: Burhinidae	131
Pratincoles and Coursers: Glareolidae	132
Plovers: Charadriidae	134
Sandpipers. Snipes and Phalaropes: Scolopacidae	142
Skuas, Gulls and Terns: Laridae	158
Skuas: Stcrcorarinae	158
Gulls: Larus, Rissa and Pagophila species	160
Sea Terns: Gelochelidon, Hydroprogne and Sterna species 170
Marsh Terns: Chlidonias species	178
Auks: Alcidae	180
Sandgrouse: Pteroclididae	182
Pigeons: Columbidae	186
Parrots: Psittacidac	190
CONTENTS
Cuckoos: Cuculidae	190
Owls: Tytonidac and Strigidae	192
Nightjars: Caprimulgidae	199
Swifts: Apodidae	201
Kingfishers: Alccdinidae	203
Hoopoes: Upupidae	204
Bee-eaters: Meropidae	205
Rollers: Coraciidac	206
Woodpeckers: Picidae	206
Larks: Alaudidae	210
Swallows and Martins: Hirundinidae	219
Pipits and Wagtails: Motacillidae	223
Waxwing and Hypocolius: Bombycillidac	227
Bulbuls: Pycnonotidae	228
Dunnocks: Prunellidae	229
Thrushes: Turdidae	232
Redstarts, Robins and Bush-chat: Phoenicurus, Tarsiger,
Erithacus, Luscinia, Irania and Cercotrichas species	232
Chats: Saxieola, Monticola and Oenanthe species	237
Thrushes: Turdus species	374
Warblers: Sylviidae	377
Grass Warblers: Locusiella species	377
Reed Warblers: Acrocephalus species	381
Bush Warblers	386
Tree Warblers: Hippolais species	389
Typical Warblers: Sylvia species	392
Leaf Warblers: Phylloscopus species	399
Goldcrests: Regulus species	404
Sunbirds: Nectariniidae	405
Flycatchers: Muscicapidae	406
Babblers: Timaliidae	408
Babblers: Turdoides species	408
Parrotbills: Paradoxornithinac	410
Long-tailed Tits: Aegithalidae	410
Penduline Tits: Remizidae	411
Tits: Paridae	412
Nuthatches: Sittidae	416
Treecreepers: Certhiidae	419
Wrens: Troglodytidae	421
Dippers: Cinclidae	422
Shrikes: Laniidae	422
Crows, Magpies and Jays: Corvidae	425
Orioles: Oriolidae	431
Starlings: Sturnidac	431
Sparrows and Snowfinch: Passeridae	433
Weavers: Ploceidae	437
Waxbills: Estrildidae	437
Finches: Fringillidac	439
Buntings: Emberizidae	451
Index	459
Nestling Plates, p.240
All nestlings are painted by Philip Burton
1.	Divers to Darter
2	Herons, storks, ibises
3.	Flamingos, swans, geese, shelducks
4.	Dabbling and diving ducks
5.	Sea ducks and diving ducks
6.	Birds of prey
7.	Bustards and grouse
8.	Typical gamebirds
9.	Cranes, rails and buttonquai
10.	Sandpipers and snipe
11.	Larger waders, coursers and plovers
12.	Terns and gulls
13.	Gulls, skuas, auks
14.	Parrots to owls
15.	Nightjars to woodpeckers
16.	Songbirds
Egg Plates, p.272
17.	Divers and grebes
18.	Petrels and shearwaters
19.	Cormorants to pel leans
20.	Herons, ibises and spoonbills
21.	Flamingos, storks and Branta geese
22.	Grey geese
23.	Swans
24.	Shelducks and dabbling ducks
25.	Ducks
26.	Ducks
27.	Ducks, ospreys, Honey Buzzard, kites
28.	Sea eagles to buzzards
29.	Common Buzzard and typical eagles
30.	Golden Eagle and vultures
31.	Griffon Vulture to falcons
32.	Falcons and grouse
33.	Grouse and typical gamebirds
34.	Typical gamebirds and cranes
35	Bustards, cranes and rails
36.	Rails to plovers
37	Plovers
38.	Plovers to stints
39.	Sandpipers
40.	Sandpipers
41.	Sandpipers, snipes, phaiaropes and stilts
42.	Stone Curlews to skuas and gulls
43.	Gulls
44.	Gulls, marsh and sea terns
45.	Sea terns
46	Auks
47.	Guillemot
48	Sandgrouse, pigeons, parrots
49.	Cuckoos
50.	Owls
51.	Owls, nightjars, swifts, rollers
52.	Kingfishers to woodpeckers
53.	Larks, swallows and martins
54	Pipits, wagtails, waxwings, Bush-shrike
55.	Shrikes, bulbuls, dunnocks, warblers
56	Warblers
57.	Warblers
58.	Flycatchers and chats
59.	Rock thrushes, redstarts, robins and thrushes
60	Thrushes, babblers, tits
61.	Nuthatches to sparrows
62.	Jays, magpies and crows
63.	Sparrows and finches
64.	Finches, buntings, orioles and starlings
p.368
65	Nests and nestlings, selected photographs
Please Begin Here
It is a pity to begin a book with a plea or a warning to the reader, but we feel that we
should make these comments at the start; for we are dealing with the nesting of birds,
and while this is one of the most interesting aspects of their lives it is also the period
at which they arc most vulnerable, and it would be deeply regretted if the publica-
tion of this work resulted in harm to birds and their young.
During the latter part of the nineteenth century, when collecting of all kinds of nat-
ural objects became almost a mama, nesting birds suffered heavily from the attention
of egg collectors. The bright and varied colours of egg-shells, their hard form and
clean surfaces made them convenient objects to collect. Apart from curiosity there
was little reason for such collecting other than a desire, in some instances, to add to
our knowledge of birds. This knowledge is now at a stage where little can be added
except by careful and controlled scientific study, with any collecting required done
under licence. As far as the western Palaearctic region is concerned there is no longer
any justification for the random, unofficial collecting of birds’ eggs by amateurs.
The casual destruction of nests and nestlings such as occurred in the past in some
rural areas was not justified at any time.
A more immediate danger to nesting birds at the present time, and one to which
even the most well-meaning bird enthusiast may subject them, is unwise disturbance.
The bird is a creature which normally evades its enemies by flying or running away.
When incubating eggs or brooding young it is tied to one place. If a predator of some
kind does attack then it is better that the parent bird should survive and nest again,
and so the bird leaves the nest to the attacker. Under natural conditions the predator
that finds the nest will destroy it. and probably search there again, and it is therefore
safer if the bird does not return. Unfortunately the bird cannot discriminate between
a harmful predator and an inquisitive human, so a clumsy inspection of a nest when
a bird is sitting may cause a bird to desert the nest and its contents completely.
Birds are particularly likely to desert during nest-building and in the early stages of
laying and incubation. In addition, when the young of songbirds are growing feathers
but still within a few days of being ready to leave the nest, they may leave it prematurely
if the nest is touched. This is another device which is designed to save something from
a predator, but it may result in most of the brood being lost. If large seabird colonies or
such assemblies are disturbed harm may come to eggs or young in the ensuing panic,
and once the nests are exposed birds such as gulls will quickly move in to take eggs and
young. Disturbance is at its worst in colonics of flamingos and pelicans where distur-
bance may result in a whole colony deserting and failing to nest for that season.
In addition to all this, the slight disturbance of twigs, leaves or grass, necessary in
order to see into a nest, may be sufficient to indicate to a sharp-eyed predator the
presence of a previously hidden nest; and lingering near a nest may prevent the birds
returning and cause eggs and young to become fatally chilled.
The basic rules therefore are as follows: disturb as little as possible; preferably
examine nests only when the owners are absent; be as quick as possible; and at all
times exercise the greatest care and caution, remembering that a little carelessness
can bring about the accidental destruction of nest and brood.
Most countries now have laws prohibiting the collecting of eggs and protecting
nestlings, and sometimes the disturbance of nesting birds may be against the law.
Anyone hoping to study nesting birds must take care that he or she knows and
complies with such laws.
The Law and Birds’ Nests
As stated earlier, laws protecting birds and their nests may vary from one country to
another. In Britain, birds are protected by the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act.
This protection is extended to all naturally occurring species, with a few specified
exceptions. More detailed information on current legislation can be obtained from
the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire.
There are two aspects of the law which are of special importance to anyone inter-
ested in nests. In general, all eggs are protected and under the Act it is an offence to
take the eggs of birds. Contravention of this can result in a fine for each egg, con-
siderably higher in the case of rarer birds, and loss of eggs and any equipment used.
There is an exception for a small handful of species regarded as pests, the eggs of
which can be removed by someone authorised to do so by the owner of the land on
which they occur.
In addition, in order to prevent the harm that may arise from the disturbance of nests
of rarer species, legislation has been introduced which provides penalties for ‘wilful
disturbance’ of such nests. The nests of these rarer birds cannot now be disturbed if
you know that they are there, whether your interest is casual, photographic or scien-
tific. If there is a justifiable reason for examining such a nest specific approval must
be obtained in the form of a permit from English Nature, Scottish National Heritage,
Countryside Council for Wales, or from the British Trust for Ornithology.
Foreword to First Edition
In most of the field guides to birds that are now available the reader is offered infor-
mation which assists in the identification of a bird, and some information is given on
the habits of the bird and the type of surroundings in which it will be found. The pre-
sent volume is intended to supplement this by providing additional information on
the nesting habits of the species within the area covered. Birds tend to show more
variation in their breeding than might be expected, and the information is less easily
fitted into a work of this kind than are the data on ordinary species identification. In
the present volume the basic information on the nesting cycle has been given, nec-
essarily brief in view of the number of species involved, and covering the habitat and
nest-site, the appearance of nest, eggs and young, the season of breeding, and
information on the incubation, and the care of the young in the early stages.
I earnestly hope that this work will be regarded as an aid to broadening our know-
ledge and appreciation of birds as living creatures, and not be an incentive to the
pointless acquisition of eggs as petty trophies. If there is a need now it is to study the
breeding cycle as a whole and to be able to document it to a successful conclusion
with the final independence of the fledged young.
It is not possible to prepare a work of this kind without the help of existing sources
of reference, and any worker in this field must gain his temporary advantage by
building on the labours of earlier workers, adding his own contribution to theirs in
the hope that by so doing he will enable those that follow to build still further. In
passing I would like to pay tribute to the work of E C. R. Jourdain and others in their
compilation of the data on breeding in the Handbook of British Birds. Their standard
docs not seem to have been subsequently surpassed, and in many respects is still a
model for work of this kind.
I would like to acknowledge gratefully, among others, Mr John Williams, who
drafted the original layout of the egg plates, and Mr Michael Walters for his help in
some of the earlier drafting of the text. I am most grateful to Mr R. Etchecopar and
Capt. J. McNeile for their loan of egg specimens.
I would like to thank the Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History) for per-
mission to consult the collections. And last, but by no means least, my grateful
thanks to the artists: Dr Philip Burton, who painted the plates of young birds and did
the line drawings for the introduction; Mr Andrew Burton, who illustrated most of
the nests, and also Mr R. Piller who contributed three of these; and Mr E Greenaway,
who took the egg photographs.
Colin Harrison
Foreword to Present Edition
In the current edition happily it has been possible to fill most of the earlier gaps where
no information was available. The few that are left tend to be birds in areas where
longer observation - such as the length of an incubation period - is difficult, or hole-
nesting species in which there is no opportunity to see the appearance of the nestling.
New information on taxonomy and distribution has led to the inclusion of additional
species. Such additions and species-splitting have led to the removal of some ten
species entries and the addition of some thirty-nine more.
Witherby’s Handbook of British Birds, referred to in the original Foreword, has
now largely been superseded by Cramp and Simmons’s Handbook of the Birds of
Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, less accurately known as the Birds of the
western Palaearctic. This is, however, an assembly of published data rather than a
critical summary, and one can get lost amid a plethora of information.
In addition to those people mentioned in the previous editions, thanks are also due
to Cyril A. Walker, Michael Walters, Barbara Aloneftis, Grant Demar and Dr Roland
Rost for further help and for additional information. Alfred Limbrunner, Hannu and
Jens Eriksen, Hannu Hautala and Eduardo Garcia del Rey supplied photographs
from which certain new descriptions could be made. Peter Burton, Lynda Castell,
Richard Castell, Jcffory Coburn, Barbara Hudson, Peter Lancashire, John Mason,
Bernard Pleasance, Tom Quittenden, Brian Standley, Roger Thomas, Nick Williams,
Steven Williams, and Jennifer Williams have all been involved in the texts for cer-
tain species, and all have taken part in various field expeditions to remote parts of
the region in order to assemble some of the data presented.
Richard Castell prepared the mouth marking diagrams from photographs and
Lynda Castell diligently typed numerous drafts and revisions. Many other people,
too numerous to mention, supplied small pieces of helpful information. Our thanks
are due to all of them.
We have an impression that the problems of egg-collecting that to some extent
overshadowed the first edition of this work have now diminished, but we fear that
pollution, use of toxic chemicals and the increase in habitat destruction have resulted
in further loss of wildlife, including birds, in spite of all the fine words uttered about
conservation. We would like to repeat the sentiments of earlier editions, hoping that
this work will help people to a greater appreciation of the life around us, and arouse
a desire to ensure its continued existence.
Colin Harrison and Peter Castell
How to Use this Book
The information given in this book is intended to add to that already available in the
ordinary field guides to birds. It covers the same area and same range of species as
the guide by H Heinzel, R. Fitter and J Parslow to the Birds of Britain and Europe,
including Africa and the Middle East. It is assumed that the reader will already have
available information on the adult birds, their distribution and general habitats, and
the present volume gives information on the nesting of the species that breed within
the area covered
Within the main body of the text the species are arranged in the same sequence as
that of the field guide by Heinzel, Fitter and Parslow (based on Voous, 1977, and
revised 1995) The Contents List at the beginning gives a list of bird families and
subsidiary groupings arranged in this sequence. Because of changes that have
occurred since earlier editions in the sequence used for species, it has not been pos
sible to follow these exactly in the arrangements on colour plates.
The Introduction gives the background information needed in using the informa-
tion that occurs under each heading in the mam text on any particular species. The
sections deal with habitat and nest-site, nest, breeding season, eggs, incubation,
nestlings and the nestling period. Within the introduction each of these is treated in
turn, giving the meaning of some of the terms used, and the general background of
each section including the scope and limitations of the informal on on each bird.
The Main Text is in the form of a systematic list. Each section begins with a gen
eral note on the family or species group, giving the general information common to
the whole group of birds, and then each species is dealt with in turn, the available
information being given in slightly abbreviated form The families and groups may
be traced from the index or the contents list at the beginning, while individual species
can be traced from the indices to common and Latin names at the end of the book.
The Illustrations consist of colour plates and black-and-white drawings in the text.
The egg plates show examples of almost every species in the volume. Eggs may vary
and in most cases it has only been possible to show a single example, although in some
instances more than one are included and may indicate the range of variation rather
than the typical single example In the other instances, however, the degree of varia-
tion is indicated on the caption pages and can be further checked with the text. The cap-
tion pages also give for each group the general information on the eggs and nest-site.
The nestling plates show young birds at the nestling stage. There is often a close sim
ilanty between the nestlings of related species and, apart from some distinctly patterned
downy chicks, in most instances single typical examples representative of a small group
of species are shown Some black-and-white figures of down patterns of chicks as seen
from above have been included in the text section. These supplement the colour plates,
which show a view of young birds from the side, and assist in the identification of downy
young which are more often observed from above as they attempt to hide by crouching.
The colour plates, used in conjunction with the keys and text, should make it
possible to identify most eggs and young.
The nest illustrations are also black-and-white drawings in the text. They have
been chosen to show the typical nests of the various groups of birds, and also the
more striking and more readily identified of the exceptional nests which some birds
make. It was not thought necessary to show nests normally concealed in holes.
Introduction
The Scope of the Book
The area and range of species covered by this book is similar to that of the Birds of
Britain and Europe by Hermann Heinze!, Richard Fitter and John Parslow, save that
in this instance it is only the birds nesting in the area that are included - a total of
620 species.
The area covered is the natural region comprising Europe and the Mediterranean
basin. It includes the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores; and the North African
region north of a line from these islands to the Gulf of Suez, the line extending east-
wards to include the northern tip of the Persian Gulf. From here the boundary runs
northwards through Iran and the middle of the Aral Sea to the Urals, and north to the
Arctic. It includes Nova Zcmblaya, Spitzbergen and Iceland.
In the main text the basic information of the breeding cycle of each species has been
summarised. For species with a wide distribution many of the statements found in lit-
erature concerning the nesting refer to particular, limited areas, and statements con-
cerning nest-material, nest-site, egg pattern and other aspects of nesting which may
be true for a particular region may not hold good for the entire range of the species.
As a result, some of the information given here is necessarily more generalised and
less dogmatic than that found in works referring to more circumscribed areas.
In some instances there is also some uncertainty and doubt about the information
now available, and in such instances this has been indicated by a question-mark in
the text. The text also gives a clearer picture of the gaps in our knowledge of this part
of the lives of many species. It is just possible that in some instances the information
was available somewhere, but has been overlooked; but undoubtedly in many cases
there is a real lack of information.
The influence of past egg-collecting is apparent in that nest and eggs have usually
been described, although some collectors took the eggs without commenting on
the appearance of the nest. However, information on the incubation period and the
appearance of the nestling is sometimes lacking; and the period when the young are
in the nest, and more especially the period between leaving the nest and final inde-
pendence, are very poorly documented.
Some of the information common to all the species within a family or species
group has been summarised under a general heading at the beginning of that group,
and it is therefore advisable, where checking information on a species, to look also
at the information under this more general heading. However, in the cases where a
family or group is represented by only one or two species, it was not considered nec-
essary to repeat information which would also appear under the species concerned.
For each species information has been arranged in what seemed to be a natural
sequence - nest habitat, nest-site, nest, breeding season, eggs, incubation, nestling
and nestling period - to give in the space available an overall picture of this impor-
tant part in the bird’s life cycle.
The introductory notes which follow here give the general background informa-
tion on each of these stages in the cycle, explain some of the terms used, and indi-
cate where caution is necessary in interpreting the information given. One point that
will become apparent from the following notes is that even with a considerable
knowledge of nests and eggs the variation in these is such that it is not always
INTRODUCTION
15
possible to identify a species with absolute certainty from its nest and eggs. In many
cases the only sure identification lies in recognising the bird itself, and it must be
understood that a guide to nests and eggs does not provide an alternative means of
recognising the bird species involved.
Nest-site
To begin with we indicate the typical habitat in which breeding occurs, and the type
of sites in which the nest will be found. Each species of bird is limited to some extent
in its distribution by the surroundings, or habitat, which it is prepared to tolerate; and
when breeding occurs there are further limitations imposed by the site and nest mate-
rials which it is prepared to use. Each species therefore has a typical nest-site and
nest structure. Most, however, show some degree of tolerance in adjusting to slightly
less suitable sites, the tolerance varying considerably from one species to another.
This can create problems in identification of the nests of the more adaptable species.
For example, Carrion Crows normally nest high in trees in urban and rural areas, but
in barer windswept places may utilise small stunted trees, little more than shrubs, on
coasts and bare moorlands they may use rock ledges, and on odd occasions they have
been found nesting on the ground. The site is not, therefore, a certain clue to the
species, although it does indicate the probable occupier. Another problem of identi-
fication arises where birds use the old nests of other species. Owls and falcons may
use old nests of larger birds such as crows; a cavity in a tree, such as a woodpecker
hole, may have a succession of very different tenants; sparrows will use swallow and
martin nests; and, perhaps oddest of all, the Green Sandpiper, although a wader, will
utilise old nests in trees, such as those of thrushes, for its nesting. If there is evidence
of an old nest being reused one therefore needs to sec the bird to be sure which
species is nesting there.
Nests and Nest Building
A difficulty that all birds have to overcome is that their future offspring must spend a
period as an egg that requires continual protection from predators and needs also
warmth. The variety of nests that have evolved represent partial success in overcom-
ing these difficulties. Nests may form platforms that lift the eggs to a safer site; struc-
tures may hide the eggs from view; and insulated cavities may shelter the eggs from
cooling winds and allow the body heat of the parent bird to be used to best advantage.
In spite of their considerable diversity we can recognise a limited number of obvi-
ous types of nest. Some species make no nest at all other than for the bird to lower
itself until the breast rests on the site and then rotate a little to form a shallow hol-
low if the substrate is soft enough. Such birds usually nest on flat open places, or on
rock ledges, or occupy hollow cavities in trees or rocks. Examples of these within
our region are the bustards, nightjars, owls, falcons and kingfishers
Most of the birds nesting in more open places line their shallow scrapes with mate-
rial of some kind, the quantity varying, even in one species, from almost nothing to
a very substantial layer. Most of these birds build by an indirect method called
sideways-throwing. From the time that the site is chosen either of the pair when mov-
ing away from, or about, the site picks up nest material or small objects and throws
these back to either side or beneath them. Such items therefore gradually move
towards the nest-site and accumulate there. The sitting bird performs a similar action
called sideways-building, pulling in such items and tucking them alongside it. The
16
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
resultant nest depends almost entirely on the material to hand near the nest, and on
the degree of disturbance experienced by the birds. The need to use nearby material
results in Ringed Plovers lining scrapes with tiny pebbles, and Stone Curlews using
flint flakes and rabbit droppings. The fact that increased disturbance can cause a bird
to add more material to the nest is of value in the instance where a bird on a less suit-
able site, perhaps damp and cold, reacts to increased discomfort by increased build-
ing activity, which in turn produces a thicker nest and more effective insulation for
the eggs and brooding bird. This type of building occurs widely in divers, ducks,
gamebirds, cranes, buttonquail, waders and most terns and auks.
Ducks and geese make this type of nest, but add to it an insulating inner layer of
down from the breast of the female. Within the above groups some other species
build more elaborate nests by this method. Swans pile up their heaps of plant
material by sideways-throwing and sideways-building.
Most of the other types of nests are built by birds carrying material directly to a
site, and the type of nest is determined to some extent by the size and rigidity of the
pieces of nest material used. Birds using lax plant material - for example, grebes with
pondweed, shags with seaweed, and kittiwakes with mud and grass - build a solid
platform or mound with a small hollow in the top for the eggs, the nest being
usually consolidated by the trampling of the birds.
Birds using rigid twigs usually build in trees and may produce no more than a thin
platform. When the twigs are put in place a small lateral quivering of the bill while
it is still holding the twig helps to work the latter into the existing structure. Pigeon
nests show this type in its s mplest platform stage. Continual additions to nests of
this type, such as often occurs where nests are reused in subsequent seasons, pro-
duces very bulky structures. Even with the simpler twig nests there is usually some
evidence of a tendency for birds, in the later stages of nest-building, to select thin-
ner and finer material which can be used as a lining and may shape an inner cup in
which the eggs will lie. One good example of this change in material selection dur-
ing building is shown by the Bullfinch, the nest of which is a rather ragged structure,
mainly of fine projecting twigs, but with the inner hollow lined with an almost sep-
arate cup of fine rootlets and hair in which the eggs arc laid.
Most of our birds build cup-shaped nests. The material used is usually fairly pli-
able and the bird sits in the structure as it builds, placing material, pulling in loose
ends and tucking them into the existing framework to one side or the other and grad-
ually producing the typical rounded shape. As the softer lining is added the bird
shapes the cup to its own body, sitting in it with bill and tail uptilted, rotating a lit-
tle, pressing with chin and undcrtail coverts, and flexing bill and tail downwards to
consolidate the rim. It also pushes backwards with the feet, enlarging the lower cup
a little, and the final structure fits snugly around the sitting bird, with room for the
eggs beneath it.
Domed nests with side entrances are fairly uncommon, the only larger bird using
one being the Magpie, with a thin twig roof to its nest; while more typical ones
are built by the Wren and Dipper, the leaf warblers, the Long-tailed Tit, and the
introduced waxbills.
Although spiders' webs are used in nest-building by a number of tropical song-
birds, in the European regions their use appears to be limited to birds using fragments
of moss and lichen and needing something to bind it. The chaffinch uses webs for its
cup nest, the Long-tailed Tit for its domed structure, the Fan-tailed Warbler for bind-
ing together the upright rushes concealing and supporting its deep cup, and the tiny
Goldcrest for attaching its pendent cup to the underside of a twiggy conifer branch.
INTRODUCTION
17
There are only four other species with pendent nests within the region, although the
reed-nesting warblers that build their cups between the vertical reed stems might be
included in this group. One is the Golden Oriole, which has a cup nest built with long
strips of material which are passed over twigs of a natural fork and built into the struc-
ture, so that the nest is suspended and bound to the twigs by its rim. Another is the
Pcnduline Tit, with perhaps the most elaborate structure of all, built on much the same
principle as that of tropical weaverbirds. A loop of long fibres is attached to the end
of a drooping twig; fluffy plant down is built into this to form a hanging loop; and the
bird builds out from this in one direction to form a closed nest chamber, in the other
to form a long, downward-slanting entrance tube. The material consists of down and
fibre felted together with rapid jabbing movements of the bill until it forms a felt-like
material. Lastly there are two sunbirds. These make rather loosely pendent nests,
bound to a supporting twig by a mass of fine fibres and some spiders’ webs.
In addition to normal materials some species use mud extensively. Such diverse
birds as storks and crows incorporate mud into their twig nests to bind the structure;
and nuthatches use it to reduce the diameter of the entrance holes of their nest cavi-
ties. Thrush species may build in a mud layer between the outer nest cup and the
inner lining, and the Song Thrush omits the latter and uses the cup of mud and wood
pulp for its eggs. The swallow family uses mud most extensively, building up nests
of mud and plant-fibre pellets placed like bricks in a wall, and creating nests which
can be stuck to vertical surfaces providing that they are sheltered from the rain.
The swifts also require adhesives for their nests but create it themselves, using
saliva which sticks the materials of the nests together when these are built in cavi-
ties, and in the case of the Little Swift helps to create a martin-like nest with plant
material glued together and stuck to a wall.
Although birds show some selection of material when nesting, there is a tendency
to use the material most readily available, and there may be a noticeable variation in
the nest structure due to this which may make identification more difficult. Obvious
examples of this are the seaweed nests of cormorants on cliffs and the twig nests in
trees of inland pairs of the same species; or the tree twig-nests and marsh reed-nests
of herons. Striking differences may also be apparent in the nests of pairs of species
using the sideways-throwing method of building relative to the amount of material
present in the vicinity of the nest.
Provided that they fulfil certain criteria, apparently unlikely man-made materials
may be used. Pieces of wire resemble flexible twigs and may be used tor the nest,
while rags and paper form acceptable substitutes for dead leaves. One man-made
adjunct to nesting which causes confusion is the niche which is one of a series of
identical compartments or divisions in a row, such as occur on some buildings or
where a ladder rests against a wall. A bird is not adapted to cope with such situations,
which do not occur in the wild. If it selects one such compartment as a nest-site it is
likely to become confused and build a series of nests to varying degrees of comple-
tion in adjacent identical compartments, and to lay eggs in more than one of these.
The purpose of some unusual aspects of nest-building is not properly understood.
Many species of larks may build up the edges or partly pave them with small stones.
Some species of wheatears will carry relatively large and heavy pebbles to form a
rampart on the outside of the nest. The Blackstart will pave the entrance tunnel to
its nest with flat pebbles. Accumulations or ramps of small stones are often placed
at the entrance holes to the nests of Cory Shearwaters. It is not clear if these
instances are intended as stronger nest structures, better protection from predators,
or a part of courtship.
18
BIRD NESI'S, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Building a nest is an act that usually occurs before egg-laying starts, but some
species may continue to add material during incubation and even the rearing of
young. Sideways-builders, from shearwaters to rails and shorebirds, often continue
to add items as they visit the nest. Hole-nesters such as starlings may bring more
leaves or stems. Many birds of prey tend to add green leaves and leafy twigs to the
nest lining when returning to a nest containing eggs or young.
Breeding Season
Within the temperate regions birds usually breed in spring and early summers. The
urge to breed appears to be controlled by endocrine gland secretion, which in turn is
affected by the increasing day-lcngth in the early part of the year. Temperature also
appears to have some immediate control on the breeding behaviour of birds and can
cause variation in the date of commencement of breeding from one year to another.
The actual date of commencement of breeding differs from one species to another,
and it has been suggested that the hatching of the young is timed to coincide with the
period when the necessary food supply is most readily available.
Since commencement of the breeding cycle differs from species to species and
year to year only a very general indication of it can be given. It may also differ from
one part to another of a species range, usually commencing earlier in the south and
west. In the main, text references to ‘south’ or ‘north* in the sections on breeding
seasons refer to those extremes of species' breeding range within our area. In the
most northerly species, nesting on the arctic tundra, breeding must await the
summer thaw, and in cold seasons no breeding may take place in such regions.
There is a human tendency to note the beginning but not the end of things, and
while we know when breeding commences we have little information on when the
cycles finish. There are a number of factors that may affect such calculations.
Theoretically it is easy to calculate how long the laying, incubation and nestling
period of a single brood would take to complete, and we have indicated the number
of broods known for the species. Yet a single brood may be destroyed, and although
in a few species this may finish breeding attempts for the year, in others a replace-
ment clutch will be laid and the whole cycle may occur, but at a later date. Where
several broods are involved these may be spaced, or may overlap to a point where
the male is feeding the young of one brood while the female is already incubating
the eggs of the next one. In addition, where there are several broods replacements
may occur more rapidly if one is lost; and so it is difficult to predict firmly the stage
of the breeding cycle at any particular date.
In some species, under favourable conditions the breeding season may be pro-
longed. In some this is the normal state of affairs and nests may be found in almost
any month. This docs not imply that pairs breed continuously. All are likely to need
a period of rest. However, conditions allowing breeding at most times may not limit
birds to specific periods and different pairs may use different dates.
The breeding season usually terminates in late summer or autumn with the moult of
feathers of the parents. Some resident species continue producing broods until late in
the season; the Swallow and House Martin, which moult in their winter quarters, may
continue breeding until so late that they desert a last, incompletely reared, brood in
order to migrate. Physiologically, birds may be ready to breed again after the autumn
moult and it appears to be the decreasing daylength that inhibits them from doing so.
Very occasionally, during periods of abnormally fine autumn weather, individual pairs
of some species may attempt to breed.
INTRODUCTION
19
Clutch Size
The clutch is the number of eggs laid by a bird and incubated by it at one time. The
number of eggs in a clutch may vary with the species. Some species, occasionally
referred to as determinate layers, have a fixed clutch size and will produce just that
number of eggs and no more. The pigeons with their two eggs are an example of this.
Many other species of birds tend to vary the number of eggs a little above or below
an average figure, and some appear to continue laying until they have a comfortable
number which satisfies the sitting birds, and if eggs are removed they may lay more
to make up the number. Birds of the latter type are known as indeterminate layers and
if eggs are constantly removed they may lay a very large number. The domestic hen
is an example, since under natural conditions it may be satisfied with a clutch of about
six eggs but can be induced to lay many more.
A widely distributed species may show variation of clutch size within its range. In
the smaller songbirds there is a consistent tendency for the size of the clutch to
increase from south to north, or from south-west to north-east. It is suggested that
this is related to the fact that the northern birds have a longer summer day in which
to find food for a larger brood. This is, of course, offset by the shorter breeding
season and possibly fewer broods than more southerly birds.
It has been suggested that clutch size is determined by the number of young that a
pair of birds can successfully rear. Other factors which have been thought to affect clutch
size are the number of eggs that the female is physically capable of producing at one
time; the number of eggs that a bird can successfully cover and warm when incubating;
and in addition there appears to be some correlation between the size of the clutch and
the survival rate and likely length of life of the average individual of the species.
Egg Shape
Eggs show a wide range of small individual variations in shape, but only four main
shapes are usually recognised. The nomenclature proposed by E W. Preston is a con-
venient one for this purpose. At one extreme is the elliptical shape, elongated with
equally rounded ends and broadest about the middle. A long, normal and short form of
each shape are recognised, and in the case of the elliptical egg a very short version of
the shape would be spherical. The subelliptical egg is again rounded at the ends but a
little more elongated, tapering more towards the rounded ends, with the broadest part
nearer one end than the other. The oval egg has the typical egg-shape, rounded and
largest at one end, and tapering distinctly towards a narrower end. The term ‘ovate’ is
sometimes used for this. The last shape is the pyriform, with the larger end distinctly
blunt and rounded, and tapering to a narrower point at the other end. This type of egg
is sometimes called ‘pear-shaped’, but the taper is more even than that of a pear. Two
special types that one might like to add to these four are the ‘spherical’ shape already
mentioned, sometimes approached but rarely achieved, and a shape sometimes found
in grebe eggs which may have a marked taper towards both ends, producing what is
perhaps a special instance of the subelliptical but sometimes referred to as ‘biconical’.
Egg Size
In varying slightly in shape eggs also vary individually in size, not only between
clutches, but also between one egg and another within the clutch itself. The mea-
surements we have given in the text arc averages of length and breadth. If one takes
a large sample of eggs and measures them there are likely to be variations ranging
20
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Egg shapes.
through about ten to twelve per cent on either side of the average measurements.
This must be taken into account when attempts are made to use comparative
measurements in identifying eggs.
Abnormal-sized eggs occasionally occur, usually single ones in a normal clutch.
Exceptionally large ones are unusual in wild birds, but dwarf eggs appear at inter-
vals. These may be tiny yolkless examples produced when an egg is formed around
a small piece of loose tissue, and since they do not hatch they may be found in a nest
when a brood has left. They are likely to be more spherical than normal eggs, thick-
shelled, and often rough surfaced.
Eggshell Colour
The shells of most eggs are partly translucent, and when in the nest and complete
with their contents they tend to appear darker and deeper in colour than the empty
shells that appear in collections. Allowance must be made for this when looking at
the colour plates of the eggs. Apart from this eggs kept away from the light show lit-
tle colour change save that a fine pinkish flush apparent on some newly laid eggs
such as pigeons’ eggs disappears fairly rapidly. This pink tint is due to a fugitive
pigment that is rapidly destroyed.
In spite of the considerable range of tints apparent on eggshells, only two kinds of
pigment, in addition to the fugitive one mentioned above, appear to be present in the
eggshells under consideration. One is a blue or greenish-blue pigment. When pre-
INTRODUCTION
21
sent this occurs through the whole shell structure, so that the basic shell may be either
white or some shade of blue.
The other pigment is a variably tinted one that may appear as brown, red or black,
or intermediate shades of these. When it tints the whole shell it is normally only
present in the thin surface covering. For example, small quantities of superficial
brown colour make the white shell appear yellow or buff and the blue shell green or
olive. This pigment also produces the shell markings. In the gamebirds such mark-
ings are present only on the surface with the superficial tint, but in most other fami-
lies these markings are applied at intervals as the shell is formed and occur at varying
depths within the shell. The shell being partly translucent, and when in very thin lay-
ers partly transparent, markings such as these show through a thin layer of shell, if
near the surface. Markings that arc black, red or brown may appear grey, pink or buff,
in varying degrees of paleness according to their depth, on white shells; and if the
shell is blue may appear in shades of purple, lilac and mauve.
If the eggs of a species are patterned they are likely to show considerable minor
variation within certain limits. In illustrating the eggs it has usually been possible to
show only one of a species and an effort has been made to select a typical ‘average’
type, although a species may have several distinct types of pattern. Where more than
one egg can be shown these have been selected to give some idea of the range of vari-
ation rather than the average type. It must therefore be remembered that if only one
or a few eggs of two related species have been seen, and appear very different, either
may have an unusual variety which may be almost indistinguishable from eggs of the
other species; and one must be very cautious of identifying species from their eggs.
Eggs of consistent colour and pattern are usually laid by one individual, but some
species show fairly consistent variations within clutches. For example, clutches of
eggs of some crows and house sparrows often have one or two eggs which are much
paler and less patterned than others in the same clutch.
For many species the colour and pattern of the eggs appears to form a camouflage
concealing them from potential enemies. The almost invisible eggs of Ringed
Plovers and Little Terns on shingle beaches are a good example of this; and it can be
assumed that this is true in a number of other instances. Species whose eggs show
great individual variation are more difficult to explain. In the case of the Fan-tailed
Warbler the deep nest virtually concealing the eggs may have obviated the need for
consistent camouflage; but it is difficult to see how this applies in the case of the Tree
Pipit. We know that birds come to recognise the colour and pattern of eggs in a par-
ticular clutch, and it has been suggested that the very variable pattern and colour of
Guillemot eggs allows the parent bird to recognise its own egg among the shuffling
crowd on the bare ledge or stack.
The eggs of birds nesting in dark cavities or holes are usually pale blue or white,
and this probably helps to ensure that the bird can locate them easily. Where species
derived from a group with patterned eggs take to closed nests or holes the eggs tend
to be pale but to retain some pattern. Examples of this are the Willow Warblers and
Chiffchaffs among the warblers, and the Puffin among the auks.
Abnormal Eggshell Colour
There is always a likelihood that abnormally coloured eggs will appear from time to
time. This is usually due to some genetic or physiological peculiarity of an individ-
ual bird affecting its entire egg production. It usually takes the form of a failure to
produce some part of the normal pigmentation. For example, if the superficial pig-
22	BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
ment is absent an egg normally buff or olive may appear uniform white or blue. An
absence of blue can produce a white egg. and may have surprising effects on a pat-
terned egg where spots which normally appear as black or dark brown may appear
buff or red when the blue is lost. Other variations occasionally encountered are
replacement of black by brown or red, or of brown by red; and there may be increase
of pigments to produce very heavily marked or dark eggs, or the other extreme of
total loss of colour.
These abnormal colours have been recorded more frequently for some species than
for others, but might potentially occur in most species; and we have not attempted
to deal with them in describing eggs in the text. An excessive attention was paid to
them during the heyday of egg-collecting, but they are mainly of interest in provid-
ing clues to shell pigmentation and are also of interest in species whose eggs are cam-
ouflaged and are assumed to be so coloured in order to escape the notice of predators.
In these species abnormally coloured eggs should be more conspicuous, and it is of
interest to see to what extent they survive to hatch in comparison with the normally
coloured eggs.
Egg-laying Intervals
Producing eggs makes considerable physical demands on birds. It depends to a sig-
nificant extent on feeding prior to nesting, and it has been shown that the courtship
feeding of the female by the male that occurs in some species can assist in egg-
production. An egg is formed during the passage of the egg-cell from the ovary down
the oviduct, with successive layers added. This takes about a day in many species,
and the bird is likely to lay as soon as the egg is complete.
In most smaller birds - songbirds, and some gamebirds and waterfowl - eggs are
laid daily until the clutch is complete. As the typical interval this has not necessar-
ily been included in the text. Some birds, particularly larger ones, take longer. In
some the eggs may be laid at intervals of between 24 and 48 hours. If a large clutch
is being produced and the laying interval is large enough, this may become apparent
as an eggless day in the laying sequence.
A number of species have a two- or three-day interval between eggs. These range
from the larger gulls to swans and birds of prey such as eagles. Where incubation begins
with the first egg, the young may be hatched at intervals of several days and show obvi-
ous difference in size. Smaller and weaker ones may be at a disadvantage in competing
for food, with parents feeding the most obviously demanding young. In cranes and some
eagles, the two or sometimes three eggs that arc hatched normally only result in the sur-
vival and rearing of a single young. In birds of prey the older chick may actively attack
a younger sibling. Some owls have large laying intervals, and a nest may contain young
with a wide range of stages of development. The number successfully reared may ulti-
mately be linked to the supply of food available. The egg-laying interval will therefore
be a significant factor in individual chick survival in some species.
Incubation
The embryo requires constant warmth if it is to develop inside the egg. This is provided
by the body warmth of the parents, usually from the underside where in most species
special bare ‘brood patches’ are present during the breeding season. Exceptions are the
waterfowl and the pelicans, cormorants, darters and gannets. The last provides heat
from the webs of its feet, covering the egg with these before settling on it.
INTRODUCTION
23
The incubation period of an egg is the time between the laying and the hatching
of a single egg; but unless the eggs arc marked as they are laid and closely watched
as they hatch this period is difficult to determine. There are other factors that may
cause this period to vary and we have therefore given an incubation period which
refers not to the individual egg but to the sitting bird, being the period during which
a bird incubates and hatches its eggs. Eggs are usually laid at intervals of one to
two days. If the parents begin to incubate when the first egg is laid the young may
hatch at similar intervals and there will be nestlings of varying age and size in the
nest. If the proper incubation is delayed until the last egg is laid the earliest eggs
will have been present for some days and may have received some intermittent
warmth and undergone some development. The eggs in such a clutch normally
hatch in fairly rapid succession, but the precise period of incubation will differ
from one egg to another.
Hatching of a clutch occurring over a period of some days, as when incubation
begins with the first egg, is called ‘asynchronous hatching’; with a less prolonged
period beginning with one of the later eggs it is ‘partially asynchronous hatching’;
and when all hatch over a short time, as when incubation begins with the last egg, it
is ‘synchronous hatching’. The point at which real incubation begins, and with
which egg, is sometimes difficult to determine because adult birds may rest on a nest
without really incubating the eggs. In the Nutcracker, with a 3-4-egg clutch, breed-
ing early in cold climates, the birds cover the eggs from the first, but incubation does
not begin until the last egg is laid.
Since the incubation period is determined by the response of the embryo to
warmth, it can be affected by outside temperatures as well as those supplied by the
parent birds. A higher temperature may shorten the incubation period. There is evi-
dence that incubation periods of a species in one locality may be a little shorter in
summer than in spring; and for the same reason, incubation periods for a species with
a large distribution range may be shorter in the warmer south than in the north. As a
result, the incubation period for a species is usually quoted as a range of days instead
of a single length of time.
In the very early stages of development of the embryo lack of warmth will delay
further progress but is not apparently harmful. Later in incubation a period of chill-
ing may prove fatal. A striking exception here arc the eggs of shearwaters and petrels
which appear to be adapted to possible periods of neglect and can undergo a period
of days without incubation during the normal period and still hatch. This is presum-
ably a safeguard in species where the adults change places only at long intervals.
There is also some evidence that in ordinary songbirds cold conditions may prolong
incubation to some extent, and perhaps add a day or two to the normal period
without necessarily harming the young bird.
During incubation the eggs are frequently stirred and turned by the brooding birds.
This is said to be necessary for the development of the embryo, although eggs have
hatched successfully after being embedded in nest material in such a way that they
could not be moved. It also seems that this stirring may be useful in some species for
ensuring that the egg, at hatching, is resting in the position in which the chick can
most easily emerge.
The part played by the sexes in incubation varies in different species from equal
sharing to one sex only incubating. The attentiveness may vary from a constant
covering of the eggs by some species to a tendency in others, chiefly those of hotter
climates, to leave the eggs uncovered for varying periods.
24
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breaking out ofthe egg, above, by rupturing shell after chipping rough hole: Curlew.
At hatching, such eggs are usually in a position where the chick is lying on its back,
chipping the shell immediately above it, finally breaking it roughly in two while
attempting to straighten up Below, by turning in shell and making line of weakness
producing two neat pieces: Partridge
Hatching
The chick may be in vocal contact with the outside world a day or two before it
emerges from the egg. It will make calls to which the parent responds, and may
become silent in response to an alarm call from the parent. Its typical position at
hatching is resting on its back or left side, with the head lying on the breast and the
bill turned to one side and tucked under the right wing. In some gamebird species,
when the developing chick pushes its bill through the membrane and into the air-
space in the egg before hatching, it begins to make clicking noises. 1 hese appear to
produce a response from the embryos in the other eggs in the clutch, which results
in a closer synchronisation of hatching. Eggs laid days apart may hatch within a short
period. Th s is an advantageous adaptation in species in which all young normally
leave the nest as soon as the down is dry
The bill is usually equipped with a small hard excrescence on the tip of the upper
mandible - the egg-tooth. This is often white, and visible on the bill of the newly
hatched young bird, but drops off after a while. A few birds show a similar tooth on
the tip of the lower mandible as well
The chick in the egg is very limited in its movements but is able to raise the bill
so that this egg-tooth at the tip comes into contact with the shell and pushes up a
small ‘pip’, a break in the structure. Some chicks move very little: but as they attempt
to bring the head up to a more comfortable position, and continue the bill raising
movement, they make a diagonal break extending from their right to left and up
towards the larger end of the egg. At the same time convulsive straightening move-
ments put pressure on the ends of the already weakened shell, and sooner or later it
breaks in half and releases the chick.
Chicks ot some species are able to move more easily within the shell, and with a
senes of small movements gradually turn over inside it, pipping it as they go, and
making a complete circle, causing the shell to separate into two neat parts
The time taken to escape from the shell may vary from a matter of minutes in the
case of small songbirds to one or two days in the case of some larger species. The par-
ent birds may help a little, possibly inadvertently, by pecking at the broken edge of
the shell. Once the young bird has emerged the adult either breaks and cats the shell
INTRODUCTION
25
Nestling types: Left, naked, altricial nestling: 1. gape flanges. 2. tongue. 3. palate.
4. tongue-spurs. 5. down filaments. 6. wing quills. 7. thigh. 8. tarsus. 9. belly.
10. breast. Right, downy, precocial chick: 1. moustache streak. 2. forehead. 3. lores.
4. forecrown. 5. eyestripe. 6. hindcrown. 7. ear coverts. 8. nape. 9. mantle. 10. back.
11. flank. 12. rump. 13. tarsus. 14. thigh. 15. belly. 16. wing. 17. upper breast.
fragments, or more usually carries them away and drops them some distance from the
nest. Were they to remain at the nest they might betray it to passing predators. Birds
such as partridges whose young leave the nest soon after hatching may not bother to
remove the shells, and the eggshells of ducks are merely trampled in the nest.
Young birds may retain the egg-tooth for some days, or in some instances a week
or two after hatching, the period varying with different species.
The Nestling
There are two main types of nestling. One is the down-covered chick which is active
soon after hatching and able to leave the nest if necessary. This type of nestling is
called precocial, or sometimes the term ‘nidifugous’ is used. The other type is exem-
plified by the typical songbird nestling, hatched naked, blind and helpless, and
wholly dependent on its parents. This type of nestling is called altricial, or some-
times ‘nidicolous’. These are convenient categories, but arc not wholly exclusive
since the precocial young have varying degrees of dependence on the adults, and may
remain in the nest for some days before leaving it.
The appearance of the young bird at the nestling stage is not always well docu-
mented. This may be due in part to a perhaps commendable reluctance of ornitholo-
gists to disturb the nesting bird unduly in order to examine the young closely. In the
present text we have tried to provide as good a description as possible of this stage
in the development of the bird.
Precocial young can be identified by the colour and patterning of the down, and
by the size, shape and colours of the bill, legs and feet. There is1 usually a contrast in
the colour of down between the upper and lower parts; the underparts are usually
unmarked, plain and paler, whereas the upperparts are darker, often with cryptic dark
patterning, particularly on the head, back and wings. This patterning can be quite
sparse, indistinct and simple in some species (certain gulls), or dense, darker mot-
26
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Stages in growth of an altricial nestling, a
House Sparrow. Stages: 36 hours, 4 days,
6 days, 8 days, 10 days.
tling, with bold lines or stripes (some waders and grebes), and complex reticulate
patterns (sandgrouse). After hatching, when the down is dry, patterns are distinct and
well defined, but gradually become less distinct during growth.
In the altricial nestlings one important point that may aid recognition is the colour of
the mouth In order to receive food and to compete with other nestlings the hungry
young one must raise its head and gape widely. The returning parent will then thrust the
food that it is carrying into the open mouth To aid this the mouth is brightly coloured
INTRODUCTION
27
Stage? in grow th of a precocial nestling, a Gull-billed Tern.
Stages: 30 hours. 9 days. 20 days
inside and at the edges to emphasise the target area for the parent, and this must be of
particular importance for species nesting in dark cavities.
The interior of the mouth may be red, pink, orange or yellow. It is bordered by the
‘gape flanges’, slightly or markedly swollen bill-edges that have a colour which is a
lighter version of the mouth or contrasts with it The whole presents a brightly coloured
patch outlined in a d ffenng colour.
The eyeballs are dark globes in the head of the nestling, and when the mouth is widely
stretched their undersides may show through the skin to some extent so that the upper
part of the gape appears to have an ill-defined area of darker colour on either side, pur-
plish on red mouths, green on yellow ones. This appears to be an accidental effect that
is not a planned part of the advertising colour
In addition, some songbird species show a pattern of small black spots in the
mouth. These may aid identification Some warblers have a pair of spots on the
tongue, while larks typically have three on the tongue and one inside each
mandible tip that show when the nestling gapes. Young of the Bearded Tit and
introduced waxbills have complex spotted patterns. Mouth colours and patterns
may change slightly as a nestling develops, and are usually lost as the bird matures.
There are also occasional individual variations in spotted mouth patterns withm
some species.
The colours of bills, legs, bare skin and irides may change to some extent as the
nestling grows. The text of the present volume now includes considerable detail on
these features, but the colour plates of nestlings, which were painted for inclusion in
the original (1975) edition, have not been amended. At that time, it was necessary
for the artist to deduce probable colours from preserved material or from juvenile
birds; the colours shown m the plates should, therefore, be treated with some cau-
tion, and reference should be made to the text
Nestling Period
This is the period during which the young bird is dependent on its parents for its sur-
vival It is sometimes called the fledging period, but to fledge is to fly, and the point
28
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Methods offeeding young: a. pelican, young taking food directly from throat: b. hawk,
young are fed on small morsels taken from larger prey; c. Turtle Dove, young fed on
semi-liquid food by placing the bill crosswise in that of the adult; d. Common Gull,
young fed on regurgitated food: e. warbler, adult places food into the bill of the young
bird; f. young Cuckoo at fledging fed by a foster-parent Wren.
at which the young bird learns to fly and at which it learns to fend for itself usually
occur at different times in its development. During the earlier part of this period the
young bird is still unable to control its own body temperature and must rely on the
adults to brood it and keep it warm. It relies on the parents for food in most species,
and also for protection from, or warning against, predators.
INTRODUCTION
29
For many species with altricial young the pattern is one in which the young arc
hatched blind, with little or no down, and are unable to control their temperature; they
must therefore spend a period in the nest developing. During this they are brooded by
the parents to keep them warm, the one not brooding bringing food. Gradually the
young become more active and aware of their surroundings. They grow feathers and
become able to keep themselves warm. Finally, they leave the nest and follow the par-
ents, still being fed by them for some weeks, but gradually becoming increasingly
neglected by them and learning to fend for themselves. Precocial young may be fed
for the first few days of their life, and subsequently they still rely on the adults for
warmth and warning of danger even though they may feed themselves. Even though
they do not feed the young, adults may indicate where the food is to be found and,
possibly, how to feed on it.
A more precise classification has been proposed by Margaret M. Nice. For the pre-
sent range of families the grouping under this system would be as follows:
Precocial. (Eyes open, down-covered, leaving nest in a day or two.)
(a)	follow parents but find own food. Swans, geese, ducks, grouse, plovers,
sandpipers, snipes, Avocet. stilts, phalaropes, sandgrousc, stone curlews.
(b)	follow parents, and are shown food. Grouse, typical gamebirds, oyster-
catchers. plovers.
(c)	follow parents, and are fed by them for varying periods. Divers, grebes, but-
tonquail, cranes, rails, bustards, oystercatchers, snipe, stone curlews, pratin-
coles and coursers.
Semi-precocial. (Eyes open, down-covered, stay at or near nest although able to walk.)
Flamingos, skuas, gulls, terns, auks, nightjars.
Semi-altricial. (Down-covered, unable to leave nest.)
(a)	eyes open. Petrels, shearwaters, herons, bitterns, storks, ibises, spoonbills,
birds of prey, crab plovers.
(b)	eyes closed at first. Owls.
Altricial. (Eyes closed, little or no down, unable to leave nest.)
Pelicans, gannets, cormorants, darters, pigeons, parrots, cuckoos, swifts,
kingfishers, rollers. Hoopoe, woodpeckers and songbirds (passerines).
The young of some species may remain with the parents after achieving indepen-
dence, and the family party may not break up until nesting occurs in the following
spring. When several broods arc produced in a season the fledged young of the first
brood may help feed those of a later brood, as can often be seen with birds such as
Moorhens. The babblers are exceptional in that the young usually join a social group
and may help with nestings in successive years.
The roles played by the respective parents vary from one species to another. This
may vary from sharing of duties, to independent roles for each, and to complete
neglect by one or the other. Intensive observation has revealed that in a variety of
species, ranging from grebes to some songbirds, the parents may divide the brood
between them as soon as these leave the nest; and one adult will accept full respon-
sibility for feeding some of the young, but will neglect others of the brood or even
behave aggressively towards them, these being the responsibility of the other parent.
The severing of contact between adults and young is a gradual process and not a
sudden one triggered at the same instant in all individuals, and so the period of days
quoted as the nestling period is necessarily an approximate period rather than a pre-
cise one.
30
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
New Species
Some bird species, especially those with extensive distributions, have their breeding
range fragmented by natural barriers caused by the presence of water, mountains,
changes in vegetation, deserts and similar physical features. Where such separated
populations do not fully interbreed they gradually acquire small genetic differences
from each other, and these tend to multiply as the period of isolation increases. Such
differences often produce the characteristics by which we recognise and define sub-
species. We are aware that ultimately they may lead to the evolution of new species,
but their importance is difficult to assess and species have usually been recognised
by their failure to interbreed.
In recent years attempts have been made to measure such differences more objec-
tively by studying the DNA and its interactions in the forms concerned. Evidence
of consistent difference has been found which m some instances has been aigued as
sufficient to separate the populations as different species, although there does not seem
to be agreement on a consistent level that justifies this. When encountering this prob-
lem we have followed the species list of the 1995 edition of Heinzel, Fitter and
Parslow’s Birds of Britain and Europe, on which earlier editions of this book were
based.
The effect of such subdivisions, is to split a previous unit into a group of very sim-
ilar species, usually separable by small differences of appearance or voice. However,
in most cases there does not seem to be evidence of separation in the breeding behav-
iour other than that which might be an accidental result of local habitat difference. It
therefore seems preferable, for the present, to retain some of the original species
units while recognising that this may be a useful area for further study.
Nest Record Schemes: Nest Finding and
Recording with a Purpose
David Glue, BTO
To find a bird’s nest invariably provides one with a feeling of pleasure. To make fur-
ther careful visits and to note the subsequent fortunes of the eggs and young contained
therein can greatly enhance one’s appreciation of aspects of the behaviour, general
nesting ecology and lifestyle of that species. It can provide a revelation. Most people
interested in birds casually chance across half a dozen nests during the course of their
pursuits each year. Some observers decide deliberately to concentrate their nest find-
ing on a particular species, or group of birds, and to compare the relative numbers and
their success from year to year. Whether observations are casual or in depth, their value
will be enhanced by contributing them to the relevant national Nest Record Scheme.
In Britain, the Nest Record Scheme is administered by the British Trust for
Ornithology (BTO), the main research body, which co-ordinates its research to include
a range of surveys via a membership of over 10,000 dedicated amateur members.
Started in 1939, the Nest Record Scheme is the longest ongoing project of its type in
the world. It is also the largest, housing over a million Nest Record Cards covering 215
species. Worldwide, similar schemes are in progress in some 40 countries.
You can take part in the BTO’s scheme without necessarily becoming a member of
the Trust, or you can receive a list of the schemes and relevant addresses of those
taking place elsewhere, by writing to: BTO, Nest Record Scheme, The Nunnery,
Thetford, Norfolk, 1P24 2PU (tel 01842 750050, fax 01842 750030).
Nest recording is a relatively simple task, fieldworkers completing a single Nest
Record Card per nesting attempt by the birds. However, on no account should an
active nest be deliberately disturbed. Only where one can examine the nest without
harm should one proceed to note the basic details required by most schemes: locality,
date, time of visit, nature of the nest-site and surrounding habitat, height of the nest
from the ground (if any), the number of eggs and young, and (where relevant) aspects
of behaviour by both young and parents. A Code of Conduct supplied free by the BTO
(as part of an instruction booklet) advises on the intelligent planning of nest visits and
how to take care in eliminating disturbance. A specially designed Colony Nest
Record Card is available to help cover various colonially nesting species, including
certain seabirds, Grey Heron, House Martin, Sand Martin and Rook.
Nest histories on card are required for scarce as well as common species. In Britain
a range of rare birds is especially protected under the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside
Act amended by the 1990 Environmental Protection Act. The nests of these species
can only be visited for nest recording if you hold a licence issued by the relevant
appropriate country agency - English Nature, Scottish National Heritage or the
Countryside Council for Wales. It is also possible to apply to the Licensing Officer at
the BTO, Thetford, for an application form to examine such nests.
With thousands of cards on file, people may question whether their handful of nest
histories each year, often of common and well-known birds, will make any difference.
The answer is that filling in Nest Record Cards represents one of the easiest ways
that an observer can help, not only in unravelling aspects of a key point in the annual
cycle of a species, but also to monitor nesting success in the long term, with its future
32
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
conservation in mind. Just as the Canary was once taken underground by miners to
help detect noxious gases, so today the nesting fortunes of birds are being used as
indicators not only of their well-being, but also of the ‘health’ of the environment.
The simple act of nest recording is increasingly being used to provide an early warn-
ing system - to the benefit of both birds and humans. In Britain, for example, nest
records were examined to confirm marked reductions in the breeding performance of
birds of prey such as Peregrine and Merlin associated with the greater use of harmful
pesticides in the 1950s and 1960s. This resulted in the subsequent limitation of such
pesticides. The dramatic declines in populations of many seed-eating farmland passer-
ines, such as Yellowhammer and Linnet, have also been linked to the detrimental
effects of pesticides and herbicides via nest-record analysis. Similarly, historical obser-
vations on nest records have also demonstrated how the reduced status of birds such
as Lapwing, Stone Curlew and Corn Bunting have been influenced by changes in farm-
ing practices. The BTO requires 30,000 multi-visit Nest Record Cards each year, cov-
ering a broad spectrum of ‘monitoring species’ from Mute Swan and Kestrel to
Blackbird and Chaffinch, in order to maintain this important monitoring role. The fill-
ing in of Nest Record Cards and contribution of information therefore adds an extra
positive conservation dimension to personal nest finding. The BTO has details of nest
record schemes in other countries, and will look after cards from those countries which
do not yet operate a scheme. For more information about the BTO contact
http:Zwww.bto.org
DIVERS
33
DIVERS Gaviidae
These breed on waters of the northern regions. They are unable to walk properly on
land and nest at the water’s edge for easy access, but falling water levels during incu-
bation may leave the nest further from the water’s edge. More rarely nests are
mounds of material in shallow water near the edge. Nest material is accumulated by
sideways-building and the nest may vary from a bare scrape to a mound of vegeta-
tion built by both sexes. The nest hollow is often damp. Young are precocial; downy,
with a rather short stubby bill. They follow the adults in the water and may be car-
ried on the backs of swimming birds. They are tended by both parents. When small
they may hide in waterside vegetation if alarmed.
RED-THROATED DIVER Gavia stellata	Pls 1,17
Breeds on both large and small lakes, and small pools; in open or wooded situations.
Nest usually on the shore at water’s edge. Usually in sohtaiy pairs but may be
sociable with a number of nests near together, at times only a few yards apart.
Nest. A shallow scrape on a site slightly raised above water, with very variable nest
material; or a heap of vegetable material, moss, etc., built up in shallow water near
the bank. These nests may be built up higher if water rises. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. I .ate May or early June to September. Single-brooded.
Nest of Red-throated Diver. Typical bare scrape by water.
34
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Normally 2, rarely 1 or ?3. Usually long subelliptical but variable. Often
glossy, more so than in other species. Olive-buff, sometimes greenish or dark brown;
marked with sparse blackish spots or blotches. 74.9 x 48.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes but mainly by
female, usually beginning with first egg but some young hatch on same day. 24-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Hirst down thick and short. Variable blackish-brown,
blackish-grey, or paler greyish-brown on back; slightly paler on cheeks, throat, fore-
neck, upper breast and flanks; underparts pale grey. Pushed out by paler second down
coat. Iris brown. Bill blackish-grey. Legs and feet dark grey, paler on inner sides.
Webs (and most of central toe) flesh coloured, with grey margins.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, who may fly some distance for food,
bringing it back in the bill. Possibly feeding themselves by 4 weeks, first flight at
about 6 weeks.
BLACK-THROATED DIVER Gavia arctica	PI. 17
Breeds on deeper and larger lakes in bare or wooded country, more rarely on small
waters, usually further south than Great Northern Diver. Nest usually on a small
island, sometimes on shore, very close to water.
Nest. A shallow scrape on a raised site, or with varying amounts of vegetation and
at times a large heap; occasionally a raised heap of vegetation in shallow water. Built
by both sexes.
Black-throated Diver. At a site with plentiful material.
DIVERS
35
Breeding season. Beginning early May in south of range, to mid-June in northern
part. Single-brooded; replacement clutches usually have a single egg.
Eggs. Normally 2, sometimes ?3, replacement clutch 1 Subelhptical to long sub-
elhptical, sometimes oval Slightly glossy. Olive-brown, sometimes greenish oi dark
brown; with black spots, blotches or streaks. 83.7 x 52.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with the first egg. 28-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy Down thick and short Back, head and flanks dark
brownish-grey, head and neck to upper breast pale grey, underparts greyish white.
Iris brown. Bill dark grey. Legs, feet and webs dark greenish-grey.
Nestling period. As for other divers Tended by both parents Adults may remain
with young, which may feed themselves at about 5 weeks. First flight at about 2
months.
GREAT NORTHERN DIVER Gavia irnmer	PI. 17
Breeds on larger, deeper lakes m bare country; at varying altitudes. Nest site is usu-
ally on an island or small island mound, or on a bare promontory; usually at the
water’s edge; more rarely on the edge of a reedbed
Nest. Usually a slight hollow scrape with little nest material, but in reedbed sites a
large heap of vegetation may be assembled. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Late May or early June to September Single-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2, rarely 1 or ?3. Elliptical oval to long oval. Slightly glossy with a
slightly granular or rough texture. Olive-brown, sometimes more greenish; with a few
small blackish spots, or larger blotches, or sometimes immaculate 89.8 x 57.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with the first egg 29-30 days
Nestling. Precocial and downy Down thick and short, blackish-brown, paler on
throat, foreneck, upper breast and flanks. Belly and lower breast grey-edged, becom-
ing white. First down pushed out by second, paler down with the first attached to its
tips. Ins dull reddish-brown. Bill light grey, becoming dark slaty or blackish towards
the base. Legs and feet grey, blackish towards the outside.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, but one adult more active and some-
times only one remains until the end of the period Young may ride on parents’ backs
for first 2-3 weeks. May feed themselves after 6 weeks; fly at about 12 weeks.
WHITE-BILLED NORTHERN DIVER Gavia adamsii
Breeds on bare arctic tundra, north of the tree-line. Nest usually on a raised site at
the water’s edge, a small mound in the water, or on a small island or peninsula; on
one of the larger rivers, a lake or large pool.
Nest Material usually scanty or absent, but the appearance of the mounds suggests
an accumulation of muddy material. Hollow usually damp. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Beginning June to early July, depending on a thaw. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2. Variably shaped, usually subelhptical. Like those of Great
Northern Diver but at times paler and more buff. 89.3 x 56 3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, 27-29 days.
Nestling. Like Great Northern Diver Down dark brownish-grey, but paler than that
of Great Northern, with throat to upper breast and flanks paler still Lower breast and
belly white Iris dark brown. Bill bluish-grey, dark basally and around nostrils. Legs
and feet grey.
Nestling period. Young brooded on nest or elsewhere on shore for first few days.
Fended by both parents. May remain with them until autumn.
36
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
GREBES Podicipedidae
They breed on freshwater lakes and sometimes rivers. The nests are accumulations of
soggy, rotting plant material, in the water, often floating. Both sexes build, the material
being carried to the nest by swimming birds from a little distance. It has been suggested
that heat generated by rotting nest material assists incubation. The eggs are bicomcal in
shape, thicker at the middle and tapering towards both ends. They are usually quickly
covered with a layer of moist nest mater al by the bird when it leaves the nest, and dur-
ing incubation become heavily stained brown or buff. The young are precocial, their
down patterned in str pes. They follow the adults in the water and may be earned on the
backs of swimming adults. They are fed on fish and insects, and given feathers to help
form pellets for casting up fishbones. Adults usually divide the brood between them.
GREAT CRESTED G REBE Podiceps cristalux	Page 38, PL 17
Breeds on freshwater lakes and larger pools, normally with cover at the water’s edge.
Often solitary At times in large colonies Bare island or land sites may be used if
normal sites are unavailable.
Nest. An accumulation of aquatic and waterside vegetable matter, usually among
growing reeds or similar plants, in deep water among lilies or near the water’s edge,
sometimes floating, or resting on bottom in shallows, or on partly submerged
branches. A shapeless structure with a small hollow on top. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. May to July, more rarely April or earlier, and until September.
Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 4, sometimes 3-6. Long elliptical to subelliptical with marked
biconical taper Smooth but not glossy, white at first. 54.8 x 36.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals; incubation by both sexes, usually from the
first egg, with hatching spread over a period of days. 25 -29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down short and thick, with bare red patches between
eyes and bill, and red triangular patch on the crown. Head and neck longitudinally
striped in black and white with central stripe white; back and sides more drably lon-
gitudinally striped in buffish-whitc and brownish-black, while the central underside
is white. Stupes broken on cheeks and chin, and dark throat stripe dividing on lower
Great Crested Giebe
c. 30 cm across.
GREBES
37
throat to make an inverted V Later down is retained on the head wh le body feath-
ers push through with down on the tips. Iris blackish. Bill whitish-pink with white
tip with two almost vertical black bands around both mandibles, one at base and the
other (broader at hatching) next to tip Legs dark grey, feet greenish-grey with nar-
row brownish-pink outer edges to toe lobes.
Nestling period. Young follow adults from the nest after all have hatched, and can
dive from very early age. Probably independent at about 6 weeks, when second
brood may begin; but young may remain with adults for up to 12 weeks becoming
increasingly independent.
RED-NFCKED GREBE Podiceps grisegena	Page 38, PI. 17
Breeds on freshwater lakes, lagoons, floodwaters, and calmer rivers; with some
vegetation cover but sometimes in very open situations. Solitary or loose colony.
Nest. A low mound of rotting aquatic and waterside vegetation, floating in deep or
shallow water, or built up in shallows, lower than Great Crested Grebe’s, with small
hollow on top. Building continues during laying Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins end of April to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 4—5, more rarely 2-7. Variably shaped, long elliptical to sub-
elhptical with biconical tendency. Smooth and white 50 6 x 34.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by both parents, probably from
first egg. 22-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like Great Crested Grebe, but white of crown stripe
narrower especially at rear and pair of bordering dark stripes wider. Pale neck stripes
are duller, more buff; and dark stripes narrow on neck and poorly defined on upper
mantle Back and sides ot body unstriped, black stripes at side of neck broken about
halfway, and pair of dark stripes bordering lower throat join to form a V. Centre of
underside white. Bare scarlet patches on lores and bare patch on crown. Iris olive-
brown. Bill buffish-pink with white tip, with two vertical black bands around both
mandibles, one near base and one near tip. Legs dark grey. Feet mainly olive-grey,
grey on outer and upperside of toes.
Nestling period. 8-10 weeks The brood and parents appear to remain together for
a long period
SLAVONIAN GREBE Podiceps auritus	Page 38, PI. 17
A northern species of large and small lakes and ponds, floodwaters, and calmer river
and stream backwaters; where vegetation is present. Often solitary, but with a num-
ber of nests near each other at times Nests usually in small bays, with tall vegeta-
tion in the water providing cover
Nest. A low mound of rotting aquatic vegetation built in shallow water, with a
shallow nest hollow. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. At S.W end of range from mid May, elsewhere begins late May
to July. Normally single-brooded, possibly occasional second brood.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3-5, rarely 8; larger clutches in north of range. Long
subelliptical or biconical. Smooth and white. 45.6 x 31 mm
Incubation. Eggs laid at c. daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes, with the female
taking the ma or share; normally beginning about the th rd or fourth egg. 22 25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy Bare pinkish spot on crown. Longitud nally striped
Pale stripes on head and throat buff tinted, on neck and back narrower and greyer than
on Great Crested Grebe; and black stripes more prominent, making appearance darker.
Iris orange-brown. Bill pink with white tip, with vertical black band around top of upper
38
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPF
Head patterns of grebe chicks from the side and from above, a. Great Crested Grebe;
b. Red-necked Grebe; c. Black-necked Grebe; d. Slavonian Grebe; e. Little Grebe.
Pattern of throat and lower face tends to be variable, but the dorsal head pattern is
usually diagnostic. Bare areas of coloured skin have been indicated by stippling.
GREBES
39
mandible near base and a narrower vertical black band around both mandibles next to
tip. Legs and feet blackish-grey, with narrow flesh-coloured outer edges to the toe lobes.
Nestling period. Both parents tend young. Sociable, broods often assemble in a sin-
gle creche group, fed by any adult Fly at c. 35-45 days. Some adults may leave
group, or start second brood which young of first brood may help to feed
BLACK-NECKED GREBE Podiceps nigricollis	Page 38, Pl. 17
A more southerly species than the last, breeding on open freshwater lakes, flood levels,
pools, or river backwaters, with reed or vegetation cover. Usually nest colomally, often
in close proximity Often nests near Black-headed Gulls or marsh tems, which may deter
predators. Nest usually in vegetation cover such as reeds and often in very shallow water.
Nest. A low mound of aquatic and waterside vegetation Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Beginning from mid-Apri! in south, late May and June in north.
Double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Normally 3-4, sometimes 5, rarely 2-8 Elliptical to subellipticai Smooth and
white at first. 43.1 x 29.7 mm
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 24-48 hours Incubated by both parents,
beginning with first egg. 20-21 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy With bare pink spots on lores and bare crown spot. The
latter can change by flushing. Down darker than on other species, with stripes poorly
defined and broken. Upperparts, including back of head and neck, blackish; with nar-
row greyish, poorly defined head and neck stripes and none on the back. Broken, irreg-
ular stnpes on the sides of head and neck, a narrow inverted black V on sides of chin.
Occasional dark central chin streak. Centre of underside white, sides blackish with white
flecks. Ins dark brown. Bill flesh-pink with white tip and with two narrow vertical black
bands around both mandibles, one near base and one next to tip. Legs and feet black-
ish-grey, with narrow brown outer edges to toe lobes; feet become greyish-olive.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents which sometimes divide the brood,
or young may assemble in a creche. Independent in c. 22 days. Fly at c. 45 days.
LITTLE GREBE Tachybaptus ruficollis	Page 38, Pls 1,17
Breeds on fresh water, lakes, ponds and rivers, large or small. Occasionally on brack-
ish waters Nest usually in cover of vegetation, often near the water's edge
Nest. A heap of vegetation built up above water level, in shallow water, or floating,
anchored to growing vegetation, in deep water. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Usually April to July, but may be late February to early Septem-
ber. Double-brooded, possibly treble brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. occasionally 2-7, rarely up to 10 Elliptical to subelliptical,
biconical Smooth and white at first. 37.8 x 26 2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 24-48 hours. Incubation by both sexes usually
beginning with first egg; later at times. 19-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Hind-neck and hind-crown blackish-brown, forecrown
whitish-grey. Orange-buff narrow stripe over eye, chin off-white and mottled brown;
whitish stripe behind eye. ear-covert patch and chm Paired narrow black stnpes down
pale buff throat Hmd-neck and back black, narrowly striped rufous buff Centre of
underparts white; sides black Iris dark brown with greyish-blue eye nm At hatching,
bill yellowish-pink, unmarked, legs and feet blackish-grey, with narrow greyish-blue
outer edges to toe lobes. Later, a vertical black band across upper mandible near base.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents but male may take over while hen
begins new nest. Independent at 42 days, flying at 44-48 days.
40
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
Hvdrobatidae and Procellariidae
Seabirds with poor powers of movement on land, and reluctant to come to land. Nest in
a burrow or natural crevice on island, mainland shore or mountain; coming to site only
by night (except for Fulmar). Often colonial nesters. Nest material veiy variable in quan-
tity; accumulated at mouth of burrow by sideways-throwing and sideways-building and
gradually moved down burrow. They produce only a single egg, not replaced if lost; and
incubate in long spells, sometimes continuously for several days at a time. There may
be long intervals between feeds for the young, which are downy, with usually two suc-
cessive down coats, one attached to the tips of the next, which in turn is attached to tips
of first feathers. They become very fat, much larger and heavier than the adults. They
take regurgitated food from the bill of the parent, and they are usually finally deserted
by the parents and remain in the nest, emerging at night to exercise as the feathers grow
and losing weight during this period. They usually leave for sea at night alone.
MADEIRA or ZINO’S PETREL Pterodroma madeira	Pl. 18
Breeds on Madeira, in a limited area of the high central plateau, in burrows on steep
ledges at с. 1,600 m. visiting at night.
Nest. A horizontal, angled burrow dug into earth. Nesting material is sparse; vegeta-
tion and some feathers.
Breeding season. Return to nest sites in March, eggs in Мау/June, hatching late
July/August, fledging mid-Octobcr.
Eggs. One in clutch. Short subelliptical to short oval. White and non-glossy. 56 x42 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Long down, shorter round eyes and bill, throat
bare. First down unknown. Second down grey.
Nestling period. No information.
CAPE VERDE or FEA’S PETREL Pterodroma feae
Breeds on Desertas Islands off Madeira, on steep slopes, flat ground or screes, and
on the Cape Verde Islands in mountain areas at 500-2,200 in. In small loose colonies.
Nest. A horizontal, angled burrow c. 45 cm to 1 m long in soil, between rocks, in a
natural cavity, sometimes in old Cory’s Shearwater cavity. Sparse nesting material.
Breeding season. In Desertas begins May-June, laying c. July-August, hatching in
September, leaving by end of January. In Cape Verde Islands noted with eggs
December to February, leaving in April.
Eggs. One in clutch. Short subclliptical to short oval. White and non-glossy. 60 x 45 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Long down, shorter round eyes and bill, throat
bare. First down unknown, second down grey.
Nestling period. No information.
FULMAR Fulmarus glacialis	PI. 18
Breeds on cliffs with suitable ledges, or on similar sites on rock outcrops or cliffs at
times some miles from the sea. More rarely on level tops of cliff stacks or islands,
or old buildings on coast, or level ground on the shore, preferring a slight eminence
but needing some shelter at the site. Colonial or dispersed.
Nest. A bare rock ledge or slight hollow in a softer substrate. The hollow may
contain a few small stems or fragments.
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
41
Breeding season. Mid- to late May. until late September, but adults may be present
on the breeding ledges at intervals from November onwards. Single-brooded, with
no replacements.
Eggs. Usually 1, rarely 2 reported. Usually subelliptical. Dull white with a slightly
rough texture. 74 x 50.5 mm.
Incubation. By both adults in spells of about 4—5 days. 55-57 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long and thick, short and close on crown and
chin. In first down head, neck and underparts white, with a triangular pale blue-grey vent
patch. Upperparts pale blue-grey. In second down upperparts are darker grey; and head,
chin and throat become a similar grey; and white breast and underside are slightly tinted
grey. Bill mainly blackish-grey, flesh-pink at base of lower mandible, with pale greyish-
buff tips on both mandibles. Legs, feet and outer edges of outer toes greyish-pink; inner
sides of toes and inner toes and webs flesh-pink; claws pale grey. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young one brooded, and fed usually once a day at first but at longer
intervals later, both parents taking part. The chick can eject oil. as adults do, from
the moment of hatching onwards; and at first even the parents must approach with
caution. 46-51 days in nest.
BULWER’S PETREL Bulweria bulwerii	PI. 18
Breeds in colonies on islands in the Madeiran and Canary islands.
Nest. Usually under fallen rocks and boulders near the water at the foot of sea cliffs,
or in shallow hollows and crevices. Also uses holes in old stone walls, and burrows of
other petrels or small shearwaters. Nest hollow bare or with a few fragments of debris.
Breeding season. Late May or early June onwards. Single-brooded.
Eggs. A single egg. Records of 2 probably involve a second bird. Elliptical to sub-
elliptical, or long oval. White, non-glossy. 42.9 x 31.2 mm.
Incubation. By both parents, for spells of up to 5 days. c. 43 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long and thick, thin around bill and eyes.
Upperparts dark sooty-brown tinged with grey, underparts a little paler. In larger
young, bill is black, legs and outer sides of toes mainly flesh-coloured; inner sides
of toes and webs grey.
Nestling period. Eyes open at hatching. More active than most other petrel chicks. Fed
at night by both parents. Deserted before leaving at 57- 67 days. Fledge at c. 62 days.
CORY’S SHEARWATER Calonectris diomedia	PI. 18
Breeds in colonies on islands. Under boulders, in crevices, caves and burrows in hard
ground; or on rocky or laval slopes. Will use sea caves, venturing up to 20 m inside.
Usually single pair at each nest hole, but several pairs sometimes share large cavi-
ties. all using the same entrance hole.
Nest. Varies from nothing to an accumulation of plant debris and feathers in the nest
hollow. On rocky sites the nest may have a base of many small pebbles, and there is
often a ramp of small stones at the nest entrance.
Breeding period. From late May onwards to late October. Single-brooded.
Egg. Only 1 egg. Shape rather variable, subelliptical to oval. Dull white. Mediterranean
race 73.3 x 50 mm, Atlantic island race 68.1 x 45.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes for spells of c. 6 days. 52-55 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long and soft. Almost bare around eyes,
base of bill, and upper throat. In first down upperparts grey-brown, browner and
darker than on Manx Shearwater; underparts, lower throat and upper breast white;
centre of breast very pale. Second down longer and rather darker on upperparts.
42
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS ОЕ BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Upper mandible yellow, dark grey along ridge of culmen, but yellow at tip; lower
mandible yellow with dark grey patch at tip. Legs, feet and webs greyish-pink, pale
pink on inner toes, greyer on outer edge of outer toe. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young one tended by both parents. Brooded continuously for about
first week, then fed at night. Fledges after up to 96 days.
MANX SHEARWATER Puffinus puffinus	Pls 1,18
Breeds on offshore islands or mainland cliff slopes, in turf slopes or rocky screes and
boulders. In colonies, at times very large.
Nest. A burrow in the turf or a natural crevice in fallen rocks. The burrow is exca-
vated by both sexes and is usually over 1 m. long, sometimes only half that length.
Usually some nest material, plants and feathers, is present.
Breeding season. Late April to September. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1 egg. Subelliptical to oval. White, with a non-glossy surface 60.9 x
41.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, in spells of 1-4 days, more rarely 5-6. Sitting bird
apparently fed by mate, at night. 47-55 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down thick, soft and long over most of bird;
shorter on lores, chin, and around eyes. First down dull brown to grey-brown. A broad
grey ish-white band from the chin down to centre breast then dividing down either side
of the belly. Mid-belly and other underparts grey-brown. Second down is darker but
similar to the first. At hatching, bill pale bluish-grey, slightly darker at base of upper
mandible; by fledging, bill is darker grey, pale grey at edges near base. Legs, feet and
webs flesh-pink, dark grey on sides of lower leg and foot and on sides of toes.
Nestling period. Brooded for first week, then only fed nightly by parents. Parents desert
at about 59-62 days, chick remaining in burrow for another 8-9 days before leaving.
YELKOUAN or LEVANTINE SHEARWATER Puffinus yelkouan
Breeds in Mediterranean on islets off Spain and France, Corsica, Sardinia and east
to Adriatic and Aegean seas, wintering into Black Sea. Nests in colonies, in burrows,
on slopes or flat ground by or near sea, visiting at night.
Nest. Nest a cavity at the end of a burrow usually с. 1 m long, with variable amount
of plant debris pulled in while visiting.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. One in clutch. Short subelliptical to short oval. White and non-glossy. 62 x 42 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, in spells of c. 5-6 days, sitting bird apparently fed at
night by mate. 47-55 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down thick, soft and long, but shorter on chin,
lores and around eyes. First down dull brown to grey-brown. A broad greyish-white
band from chin to centre-breast, then dividing down sides of belly with other
underparts grey-brown. Second down is similar but darker.
Nestling period. Young one tended by both parents, brooded for first week, then fed
nightly by parents. Parents desert at c. 59-62 days. Chick leaves burrow after another
8-9 days.
BALEARIC SHEARWATER Puffinus mauretanicus
Breeds on coasts of Balearic Islands and islets on slopes, higher level ground, rocky
areas and screes, in colonies of burrows, visiting at night.
Nest. A horizontal or slanting burrow, excavated by both sexes and usually over 1 m
long. Usually some plant material is pulled in gradually to form a nest pad.
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
43
Breeding Season. Begins late March to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. One egg in clutch. Subelliptical to oval, white and non-glossy. 62 x 42 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes in spells of 5-6 days, sitting bird apparently fed by mate
on night visits. 42-55 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down thick, soft and long, shorter on lores, chin
and around eyes. First down dark sooty-grey above, paler grey below, with a broad
greyish-white band from chin to centre-breast, dividing onto either side of belly.
Second down similar.
Nestling period. Young one tended by both parents. Brooded for first week, then
only visited and fed nightly by parents. Parents desert at c. 59-62 days. Chick leaves
burrow after another 8-9 days.
LITTLE SHEARWATER Puffinus assimilis	PI. 18
Breeds on islands, in the Madeiran and Canary islands, in turf or fallen rocks and
boulders. In colonies, close together or dispersed.
Nest. An existing natural hole or crevice among rocks and boulders, or burrow
probably made by both birds. Usually no nest material.
Breeding season. Begins February to April. Single-brooded.
Egg. Only 1 egg. Variable in shape, subelliptical to oval. White, with non-glossy
surface. 50.2 x 34.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 52-58 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down long and soft; but short on lores and
chin, and around eyes. Upperparts greyish sooty-brown, variable in shade. Pale grey
band at base of forehead and pale grey around eye rim. Underparts grey. Broad
greyish-white band from chin down to breast and divided on abdomen by a narrow,
tapering grey-brown patch on vent. Second down darker and thicker in structure,
with whitish tips. Legs mainly dark grey, with variable area of flesh-pink on front
sides. Outer and upper sides of toes dark grey; inner sides and webs flesh.
Nestling period. Young one tended by both parents until 8-11 days before fledging.
Leaves nest at c. 70-75 days.
EUROPEAN STORM PETREL Hydrobales pelagicus	Pls 1,18
Breeds on bare offshore islands with turf or rocky sites. In colonies of varying size,
sometimes a few scattered pairs.
Nest. A tunnel burrowed by birds in soft soil, with nest-chamber; or cavity in fallen
stones, under boulders, or in stone buildings or drystone walls. Sometimes scanty
nest material.
Breeding season. Late May to August, mainly mid-June to mid-July. Single-brooded.
Egg. Single egg. Elliptical to subelliptical, blunt-ended. White, non-glossy;
occasionally with a zone of fine reddish spots at the larger end. 28 x 21.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, each taking unbroken spells of 2-3 days. 38-40 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down dull greyish-brown, paler on under-
parts. Soft and long. Pushed out by slightly darker second down, which is long and
coarse on the body, but short on the head. Almost absent around eyes, base of bill
and a spot on the hind-crown. At hatching, bill flesh-pink with long black tip on
upper mandible; legs, feet and webs flesh-pink; claws black. Bill becomes black
within first two days. Legs, feet and webs change to blackish-grey within a few days;
webs change more gradually to blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents at night, at times at 2-3-day intervals.
Leave at 56-64 days.
44
BIRD NESI’S, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
LEACH’S STORM PETREL Oceanodroma leucorhoa	Pl. 18
On offshore islands on turf or rocky slopes, usually bare sites but in North America
will use wooded islands. Nests in colonies.
Nest. A burrow excavated in soil, in soft ground, usually 1 m long and angled but in
some instances up to 2 m with several pairs in separate nest-chambers; or natural
cavity in fallen rocks, under boulders or buildings, or ruins. Burrow excavated by
male in c. 3 nights. Some plant debris accumulated in nest.
Breeding season. Late May to October. Single-brooded.
Egg. Single egg. Elliptical to subelliptical, blunt-ended. White; non-glossy; usually
with a zone of fine reddish spots at the larger end. 32.8 x 23.85 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, each taking an unbroken spell of about 4-6 days. 41-42 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down bluish-grey, long and soft, slightly
paler on underside; down absent around eyes, lores, and around base of bill, and bare
spot on hind crown. Second down is longer and coarser, especially on body; black-
ish-grey. In early stages, bill pale grey with black tip; legs and feet greyish-pink,
greyer on outer edges of toes; claws blackish-grey; bare skin around base of bill and
lores dull flesh, bluish-grey around eyes. Bill becomes black in first few days; legs,
feet and webs become blackish grey.
Nestling period. Eyes closed when first hatched. Brooded by one parent for first
5 days, then tended by both regularly. Eyes open at c. 15 days. Deserted when large
and fat at c. 40 days. Lives on fat reserve and exercises at night, leaving for sea at
63-70 days.
MADEIRAN STORM PETREL Oceanodroma castro	PI. 18
Breeds on islands, around Madeira, Canary Islands and on Selvagens (or Salvage
Islands), on turf or rocky slopes. Usually in small colonics with nests well-spaced.
Nest. Usually a fairly long, winding burrow, up to 1 m, dug by both parents, but also
in old burrows of other species, deep holes in stone walls, and rock crevices on small
islets.
Breeding season. Eggs found in all months, but two main peaks, June to September,
October to January.
Eggs. A single egg. Elliptical to subelliptical, blunt-ended. White, non-glossy; with
or without a zone of tiny red spots at the larger end. 33.5 x 24.8 mm.
Incubation. 39-42 days. By both sexes.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Resembles that of Leach's Storm Petrel. First
down pale grey, second down dark grey. At hatching, bill flesh-pink, with black tip
on both mandibles; legs and feet flesh-pink. Later, bill becomes black; legs and feet
blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults, usually at 2-day intervals. Feathering
begins at c. 4 weeks. Young deserted at c. 7 weeks, leaving for sea at c. 9-10 weeks.
FRIGATE or WHITE-FACED STORM PETREL Pelagodmma marina PI. 18
Breeds on the Selvagens (or Salvage Islands) and Canaries. On turf or sandy sub-
strate; in large colonies.
Nest. A burrow in sandy soil; usually no nest material. Burrows usually deep and
close together. Excavated by both birds.
Breeding season. Birds assemble in January. Egg-laying begins late March and early
April. Young fledged by early August. Single-brooded.
Eggs. A single egg. Elliptical, blunt-ended. White, non-glossy; with a well-defined
zone of tiny red or violet spots around, or capping, the larger end. 36.1 x 26.5 mm.
GANNETS
45
Incubation. By both sexes, the female taking the main share, for spells of 3-5 days.
55-56 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down very long, soft and silky, shorter on the
underparts, absent on lores, chin and upper throat, and concealed bare spot on crown.
Slate-grey on upperparts, pale grey on breast, and paler still underneath. No second
coat apparently recorded. At hatching, bill blackish-grey; legs, feet and outer and
upper sides of toes grey; inner sides of toes and webs flesh.
Nestling period. Chick hatches with eyes open, very active. Fed by both parents.
Becomes very fat, heaviest at 33-36 days, but apparently not deserted by parents.
52-67 days.
RED-BILLED TROPICBIRD Phaethon aethereus
Breeds on uninhabited islands in the Red Sea, also recently discovered breeding in
the Azores. Nests in holes and crevices in cliffs or in rocks; rarely in dense vegeta-
tion on the ground. In small colonics, with nests well-spaced; or as close as 1 m.
Nest. A scrape, formed by both adults, with little or no material.
Breeding season. Variable and prolonged; possibly throughout year. Single-
brooded. Outside region, pairs breed at intervals of between 9 and 12 months.
Eggs. One. Oval and non-glossy. White, buff or pinkish, variably marked with fine,
often dense, speckling, or dark spots and blotches of purple. 65 x 45 mm.
Incubation. 42-44 days. By both birds, in alternating periods of about 6 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long; pale grey above, white below. First
feathers appear at 13-15 days; fully feathered at 55 days. Bill cream at hatching,
becoming red before fledging. Legs creamy-yellow. Webs and toes mainly blackish-
grey. creamy yellow near base.
Nestling period. The nestling is tended and fed by both adults on regurgitated fish
and squid. Leaves nest at 80-90 days, and can at once fly strongly.
GANNETS Sulidae
GANNET Sula bassana	Pls 1, 19
Breeds mainly on islands, usually with steep cliffs, nesting on the more level top or
upper slopes, more rarely on large cliff ledges of islands or coasts. In colonies, often
very large, with nests a bill-stab apart.
Nest. A variably sized rounded mound of material, mostly seaweed, but plants,
feathers and other debris also used. Relieving birds may bring in seaweed during
incubation period and this is added to heap by both birds with elaborate ceremony.
Shallow nest hollow on top.
Breeding season. Normally from early April, but May further north in range.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 1, very rarely 2. Long subelliptical. Dull chalky-white outer layer of
irregular thickness, in places showing the bluish shell beneath. Outer layer may
become stained buff or brown, and may flake away to reveal the underlying shell.
78.1 x 49.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. There are no brood patches and egg is covered by web
of foot, one over the other, then the bird resting on top. 43-45 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin on body dark greyish-purple, blackish-grey on
breast and neck; all skin soon becoming black. At first, very sparsely covered with
short creamy-white down tapering to hair-like tips; less sparse on crown. This is
46
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
replaced by longer white down, woolly in appearance, absent only from chin and
around eyes. At hatching, bill is brownish-grey with creamy-buff tips on both
mandibles; bill becomes blackish-grey. Legs, feet, and webs dark grey, paler on
upperside of two inner toes; claws pale grey.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents, taking regurgitated food from inside the
gullet. Tended for 13 weeks, then neglected for about 10 days before leaving for the
sea. At sea cannot fly until after с. 1 week.
PELICANS Pelecanidae
Large fish-eating birds nesting in marshes, islands in lakes, and on coasts. Colonial
nesters, with nests placed close together. Sensitive to disturbance and whole colony
likely to desen. The young are ugly, quick growing but slow maturing. They tend to
leave the nest and huddle together in large groups while still unfeathered. Food, and
water, is brought by the adults, and the young put head and neck down into the gul-
let for it; a method at times accompanied by a struggle and some slight damage to
participants. Very small young take regurgitated liquid food from the inside of the
tip of the adult's bill.
WHITE PELICAN Pelecanus onocrotalus	Pls 1,19
Breeds by large stretches of water on low sandbanks or islands, or drier raised areas
in reedbeds and marshes, or offshore islands of a seacoast. Sociable breeding with
nests spread regularly over a limited space, about the reach of a neck and bill apart.
Nest. Often little or none. A hollow may be produced by a sideways shovelling
movement of extended neck and bill scraping the ground. Material may be col-
lected by male pulling up stems and turf with the bill and carrying them to the
female on the site, who arranges them. Even where material is plentiful nest is only
a thin layer.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Single-brooded. A lost clutch replaced.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 3, rarely 4-5 with possibly more than one bird involved.
Long elliptical to long subelliptical. White, with a thick uneven chalky layer outside,
becoming scratched and stained. 97.1 x 61.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days, incubation beginning with first egg. By
both sexes, for relatively long sessions. 29-36 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial. Naked for first two weeks. At hatching, bare skin purplish-
pink, but dark grey around eyes and on lores; upper mandible black at sides and at
tip. and greyish-purple near base; lower mandible mainly pink, but black for third
near tip; pouch pink; claws whitish-grey. Within first few days, skin darkens to
blackish-grey, pouch paler; bill black. From c. 2 weeks, thick and woolly chocolate-
brown down grows on back, sides, wings and thighs, shorter on nape and rear of
neck, sparse on throat and upper breast: at c. 4 weeks, bare skin on crown, around
eyes, and on pouch dark grey, paler grey on legs, feet and webs; claws black. Down
becomes paler and feathers on wings and tail grow at c. 5-6 weeks, on body at c.6-1
weeks. Bill and pouch develop slowly, becoming paler after eight weeks and pouch
yellow by ten weeks; legs and feet become yellowish-pink.
Nestling period. Young are brooded at the nest for most of first fortnight and fed
mainly on liquid food. Subsequently they may leave the nest and huddle together, the
adults seeking the young in the huddled groups. To induce begging they may seize
young by neck and shake them violently, but after 6 weeks young appear to recognise
parents and beg. At about 8 weeks huddles break up. Independent at c. 10 weeks.
CORMOR/XNTS
47
DALMATIAN PELICAN Pelecanus crispus	Pl. 19
Breeds on low islands in lakes and lagoons, on islands of floating vegetation or in
reedbeds. Nests usually in secluded sites, or occasionally on the edge of a colony of
other pelican species or cormorants. Nests close together, or touching and consoli-
dated into one mass, with larger, higher nests in the centre. In small colonies of a few
pairs, occasionally solitary pairs.
Nest. Of variable size but usually a large heap of material - reeds, grass, sticks or
stones - brought by the male, and built in by the female. The final mass consolidated
at times by droppings. Floating island nests may settle deeper in water as the young
grow and weight increases.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May in different localities. Usually
single-brooded, possibly some second broods.
Eggs. 2-4, sometimes 5, rarely 6. Long elliptical to long subelliptical. White, with
an uneven chalky outer layer, becoming scratched and stained. 93.6 x 59.7 mm.
Incubation. Mostly by female, with short sessions by male. Beginning with the first
egg. 30-32 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial. Naked and blind at hatching; skin pink; bill pink with paler
tip. Eyes open c. 4-5 days. White down develops from c. 5 days, quickly becoming
thick. Bill becomes dark grey. Feathers begin to appear at c. 4 weeks. Legs become
flesh-pink. Pouch subsequently becomes yellow.
Nestling period. Young hatch over a long period and are of different sizes within the
brood. Young can swim if alarmed from the second week; become independent at
c. 10-14 weeks.
CORMORANTS Phalacrocoracidae
Fish-eating birds of seacoasts and fresh waters, nesting on ledges, trees, bushes, or
on the ground. Coastal nests may be simple seaweed heaps with hollow tops, but at
inland sites may be larger twig structures with finer linings. Material may be carried
to the nest in flight from a distance. Young birds take food by reaching well into the
parent’s gullet, or pick up disgorged food. Young regurgitate food if alarmed.
SHAG Phalacrncarax aristotelis	Pl. 19
Breeds on rocky coasts, occupying more sheltered ledges, niches, and caves of sea
cliffs; and hollows under and among large boulders on shores and islands. Usually
in colonies, and nests may be in close proximity.
Nest. An accumulation of seaweed, other plant material and stems where available,
as well as rubbish, the hollow lined with finer material. The male usually brings
material, the female adding it to the nest.
Breeding season. From March onwards, but from November in Mediterranean.
Early clutches may be destroyed by storms and replaced. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-5, rarely 6. Subelliptical to long subelliptical. Shell
pale blue with an uneven chalky-white superficial layer, often with some blue
showing through; and easily scratched and stained. 62.9 x 38.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of more than I day. Incubation beginning from
second egg. By both sexes. 30 days.
Nestling. Altricial. Naked at hatching; skin on body, neck, wings, legs and feet black-
ish-purple, quickly becoming black; purplish-pink on crown, forehead and around eyes,
becoming black; bill blackish-grey, yellow on underside of base and at edges of lower
mandible; pouch flesh-pink; webs orange-flesh; underside of legs and feet yellow; claws
48
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
dark grey. Down appears within a week; thick and brown, paler than Cormorant; sparse
on throat and absent around eyes and on lores and chin. Whitish down grows later on
throat. In larger young, bill is variable; dark grey or greyish-pink, or lower mandible
mainly yellow or greenish-yellow; webs are dark grey or pinkish-grey. Iris greyish-blue.
Nestling period. For first 2 weeks young are brooded while other adult brings food. Later
young are fed by both parents. After c. 55 days young leave the nest for rocks at the
water’s edge, where they are fed for a further 3 weeks before becoming independent.
CORMORANT Phalacrocorax carbo	Pls 1,19
Breeds in colonies on cliffs of sea coasts or by inland waters on cliff ledges; or by lakes
and rivers in trees, or bushes; or on the ground on islands. Usually nests close together.
Nests. On sea coasts and offshore islands a heap of seaweed and sticks; but at inland
sites a more solid structure of sticks, lined with long leaves, grasses, or water plants.
Other debris may be incorporated. Male brings most of material while female builds.
Breeding season. Beginning early April in south, to early June in north. Exception-
ally occurs from February to September. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 5, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Pale blue shell with an
uneven chalky-white outer layer, mostly concealing undershell, but becoming
scratched and stained. 65.8 x 40.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at about 2-day intervals. Sitting usually begins with the first
egg, but serious incubation not until most are laid. By both sexes. 28-29 days.
Cormorant: a. stick nest, c. 60 cm across: b. seaweed nest, c. 45-60 cm across.
DARTERS
49
Nestling. Altricial. Naked at hatching; skin on body, neck, wings and thighs glossy
blackish-purple, quickly becoming black: flesh-pink on crown, forehead, and pouch;
dull flesh on lower legs, feet and webs; claws grey; bill flesh-pink with black patch
on upper mandible near tip. Eyes closed for first 4-5 days. Down appears within a
week; thick and dark brown on body and thighs, blacker on head and neck; sparse on
throat and absent around eyes, on lores and chin. Mouth pink. Legs, feet and webs
become blackish-grey; upper mandible mainly dark grey, creamy yellow at base (and
on lores); lower mandible mainly creamy-yellow, dark grey near tip. Iris greyish-blue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults In very hot weather they may bring
water to the chicks. Young remain in nest for c. 5 weeks but can leave and return
when younger. They are fledged at 50-60 days, but take 11-12 weeks to become
independent. Young regurgitate food if alarmed.
PYGMY CORMORANT Phalacrocorax pygmaeus	Pl. 19
Breeds on inland and coastal fresh waters, with large reedbeds or waterside vegeta-
tion. Colonial nesters, often together with other water birds. Nest in trees, or in dense
reeds over water, or on the ground in reedbeds.
Nest. Rcedbed nests are mainly of reeds; others are of twigs, lined with finer material.
The twig nests have deep cups. Nests are reused in successive years, reedbed nests form-
ing large pyramids and tree nests becoming massive. Both sexes bring material and build.
Breeding season. Beginning late April to late May; variable, and later than
Common Cormorant where both nest together. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-7. Long elliptical, more elongated than those of
larger cormorants. White, an irregular outer layer of roughened chalky material, con-
cealing a pale blue shell which may show through faintly at times. 46.9 x 30.5 mm.
Incubation. By both parents, beginning with first egg. 27-30 days.
Nestling. Altricial. Naked at hatching; skin on head, neck, legs and feet dull pink,
grey on rest of body; bill greyish-purple, pale yellow-brown at base; foot fleshy, blue
on outer side. A dark brown coat of down soon grows, developing last on head and
neck. Wing feathers appear after 14 days; young feathered by 6 weeks.
Nestling period. Young, hatching at intervals, vary in size. Fed by both parents,
being brooded by each in turn during early stages. Young regurgitate food if alarmed.
Young leave the nest at about 6 weeks but remain in the colony. They are fully
independent at с. 10 weeks.
DARTERS Anhingidae
DARTER Anhinga anhinga	Pls 1,19
Breeds by fresh, brackish or salt water; still or slow moving. Often in colonies and
with colonies of other water birds. Nests in trees or bushes, sometimes low.
Nest. Built of twigs, or nest of other bird such as a small egret used. Nest lined with leafy
twigs. Nests tend to be small. The male brings material which the female incorporates.
Breeding season. No information.
Eggs. 3-5, rarely 2. Subelliptical to long subelliptical. Shell bluish with an outer
chalky-white layer of irregular thickness. 52.5 x 34.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 1-2 days. Usually both sexes incubate. Rare
instances of male incubating and rearing alone. 25-28 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial. Naked at hatching; skin yellowish-buff. White down grows from
c. 2 days, later becoming buff-brown on head, neck and mantle. Bill pale brown, becom-
ing grey-green. Legs and feet whitish-pink becoming pale grey, tinged green or brown.
50
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling period. Both sexes tend young. After 2 weeks young will leave nest if dis-
turbed and try to return later. Young regurgitate food if alarmed. Young fly at c. 6 weeks.
HERONS Ardeidae
Long-legged, long-billed wading birds; rather awkward at perching in trees In spite of
this nests are often in trees or bushes. In such sites they are of twigs; ground nests in
reedbeds are of reeds. The twig nests are often thin but are added to annually and may
become very large. There is little lining. Nest-building is simple, consisting largely of
laying the twig on the existing structure and working it in with lateral quivering bill
movements. The male usually brings twigs to the female on the nest, and she builds them
in, twig presentation being accompanied by some ritual display. The young are downy,
with bristling down on the crown, giving a typical shock-headed appearance. Adults
bring food in the crop and are induced to disgorge it by the young seizing the adult’s bill
in its bill. The adult regurgitates and the young may take the food directly from the par-
ent's bill or, particularly in the case of larger items and when the young are larger, will
pick up disgorged food from the nest. The young disgorge food when alarmed.
BITTERN Botaurus stellaris	Pls 2, 20
Breeds in reedbeds and tall vegetation at the edge of fresh water. Nest on the ground,
usually in shallow water in a reedbed. Solitary, but several females may nest in suit-
able areas, with nests as close as 15 m. Male may be polygamous.
Nest. A pile of reeds, sedges and similar material. The hollow lined with finer
material. Built by the female alone within male’s territory.
Bittern, c. 60 on across.
HERONS
51
Breeding season. Variable, usually beginning about the end of March. Single-
brooded, but male may mate with up to five females.
Eggs. 4-6, rarely 3-7. Elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth but not glossy. Olive-
brown, sometimes finely sprinkled with darker brown at larger end. 52.6 x 38.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with first egg. 25-26 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long, silky tipped. Absent round eyes, on
back of neck and sides of body; scanty elsewhere, especially on underside. Upper-
parts vary from dull red-brown to light chestnut; underparts rufous-buff; chin and
throat whitish. At hatching, irides orange-brown; bare eye patch greyish-blue; bill,
legs and feet flesh-pink, with black spot at the tip of upper mandible, tiny one at tip
of lower mandible; mouth red; claws grey. By age 16 days, bill is creamy-pink, or
creamy-yellow, tinged pink, and tinged pale green at base and on bare skin around
eye; tiny black spot at tip of upper mandible; irides greenish-yellow; mouth crimson;
legs pale olive-green, darker shade on feet.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only. Young can leave nest and move
around at 2-3 weeks; become independent at 8 weeks.
LITTLE BITTERN Ixobrychus minutus	Pls 2,20
Breeds on fresh water bordered with reeds and thickets. Solitary, but pairs may nest
fairly near each other. Nest on the ground in reedbeds or floating vegetation; in low
branches of swamp shrubs, just above water level; or in trees.
Ijttle Bittern, c. 25 cm across.
52	BIRR NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A shallow and slight saucer of sedges, reeds and plant steins, lined with finer
plant material.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south, late May to early June in north of
range. Usually single-brooded, occasionally a second brood.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4—10. Short elliptical to subelliptical, rarely more
tapered. White, non-glossy. 34.9 x 25.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes; may begin
with first egg but variable. 16-19 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down shorter than on other species. Absent
around eyes, on lores, back of neck and central breast. Down warm reddish-brown
above and on sides; whitish on throat and below. At hatching, bare eye patch bluish-
grey; bill pale pink; legs and feet flesh-pink; claws whitish-grey. On larger young,
bare frontal eye patch greenish-yellow; bill paler pink; legs green.
Nestling period. Fed by both parents. 7-9 days in nest. Young can fly at c. 30 days.
SQUACCO HERON Ardeola ralloides	Pl. 20
Breeds in or near freshwater marshes and recdbeds. Nest in trees or bushes, or on the
ground in reedbeds or marsh vegetation. Sociable, often together in crowded
colonies with other small heron species, but usually in scattered or single pairs
among them.
Nest. Of variable size, depending on material to hand. Substantial reed or sedge
structures, in reedbeds or marshes, thinner twig structures in trees. Built by both
sexes, but mainly by female, using material brought by male.
Breeding season. Usually begins mid-May to early June; may be synchronised with
other species in a colony. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-6, rarely 7. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Light greenish-
blue. 38.4 x 28.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 22-24 days. Begins with last egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down thin and whitish, buffish on mantle. The
bristly upright crest of stiffer down is brownish-buff. Bill yellowish-pink with small
black spot at tip. Legs and feet pale yellowish-green. Bare eye patch greenish-
yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 32 days in nest. Fly at c. 45 days.
STRIATED HERON Butorides striatus	Pl. 20
Occurs on lowland streams and rivers, swamps, mangroves, lagoons, muddy shores
and coral reefs. Breeds in Sinai, nesting low near the ground in mangroves. Often
nests in bushes or low trees standing in water, or on branches overhanging water.
Nest singly, or in small colonies, or among other herons.
Nest. A shallow, flimsy saucer of twigs, c. 30 cm across. Built by female with mate-
rial brought by male.
Breeding season. Begins May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2-4. Oval to elliptical. Non-glossy. Pale blue-green. 37 x 28 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, 21-25 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down light grey, with white hair-like tips on
head. White streak down centre neck onto underparts. Skin blackish. Bill yellow,
facial skin greenish-yellow. Legs flesh or brown, changing to green.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fed on regurgitated food. Fed for
4 weeks or more after leaving nest-site.
HERONS
53
NIGHT HERON Nycticorax nycticorax	Pls 2, 20
Breeds in trees and bushes near fresh water, more rarely in reedbeds. Colonial nester,
often together with other small herons and water birds, in crowded colonies.
Nest. Variable, according to available material. Usually a platform with a shallow
hollow, of twigs, reeds, etc. The material often tends to radiate from the nest centre.
Where heavy twigs are used a finer lining is usually apparent. Male builds the first
structure, later brings material to the female who builds but may also collect.
Breeding season. Variable, late April to May. Probably synchronised within a
colony. Some second broods.
Eggs. 3-4. sometimes 5. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Pale
greenish-blue. 49.5 x 35.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at about 2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes; beginning
with the first egg. 24-26 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down sparse with long silky tips, stiff and
bristly on crown, producing a crested appearance. Absent about eyes, on lores, chin,
throat, lower hind-neck, and middle and sides of belly. Down rufous-brown above,
with pale tips: forming crest on head; white on thighs. Later grey-brown above,
darker and more rufous on head and neck. At hatching, bill flesh-pink, with small
dark spot at tip of each mandible; legs and feet flesh-pink; claws grey; irides grey-
ish or greenish. Later, bill grey along bill edges, pink at base. At fledging, bill flesh-
pink with small dark spot at the tip of upper mandible and smaller, less distinct, spot
at tip of lower mandible; legs and feet olive-green, becoming paler yellowish-green;
claws black; iris amber.
Nestling period. Both adults feed young. Feathers grow between c. 12 days and
4 weeks. Young begin to leave nest at 2-3 weeks, returning to be fed for first week.
Fly at 6 weeks.
CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis	Pl. 20
Breeds in a variety of sites, usually near water. Nest often in large trees, not neces-
sarily by waterside; or on small trees or bushes, growing in water or reedbeds; or in
dense reedbeds or on small rocky islands, exceptionally on sea cliffs. Nests in
crowded colonies, sometimes with other small heron species or White Storks.
Nest. A shallow structure of varied material; small twigs, sticks, dead reeds or other
handy vegetation. Smaller twigs are used for lining. Male usually brings material and
female builds it in.
Breeding season. Variable, beginning late April to mid-May. Nesting usually syn-
chronised within a colony. Usually single-brooded in Europe, but double-brooded
south of Mediterranean.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 6. Elliptical to subel 1 iptical, usually blunt-ended. Smooth,
non-glossy. Very pale blue or whitish-blue. 45.7 x 34.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. Intermittent incubation from the first egg. 21-25 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down white, or greyish-white, with fine tips, stiff
and upright on the crown. At hatching, down is absent from nape, throat, and along
spine; upper mandible mainly brownish-pink on top. brownish-yellow at base, in front
of eye, and at tip; lower mandible brownish-yellow, pink at base; legs and feet grey-
ish-pink; claws pale grey; irides white to pale greenish-yellow. Within 5-10 days,
whole bill darkens to black with a small brown patch at tip. At fledging, bare facial
skin black; legs and feet blackish-grey; claws black; irides lemon or greenish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. I latching interval produces variable-
sized young in nest. Fly at 40 days, probably not independent until 60 days.
54
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
GREAT WHITE EGRET Egretta alba	PL 20
Breeds in large reedbeds near shallow water. Nests usually in large tracts of reeds,
in water 1-1.5 m deep, and often on raised site, up to 2 m, more rarely on shrubs or
trees. Outside our region trees are used more frequently. Sociable, but with nests
scattered individually some way apart, in loose association.
Nest. A large structure of dead reed stems, built up to 1-2 m above water
level; or of twigs in tree nests which are thinner than those of the larger heron
species. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Usually late March onwards, but some pairs begin later. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 5, rarely 6. Variably shaped, elliptical to subelliptical.
Smooth, non-glossy. Pale blue. 61.5 x42.4 mm.
Incubation. Beginning from first or subsequent eggs. By both adults. 25-26 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long and white with fine silky tips.
Stiffer on crown, producing crest; sparse on neck and underparts, absent around
eyes, on lores, chin, throat, back of neck, and central upper breast. At hatching,
bare skin around eye pale blue; bill flesh-pink (changing to greenish-yellow
within 2 days), with a black patch at the tip of each mandible, and narrow black
bill edges, wider on upper mandible; irides yellow; legs and feet brownish-pink;
claws grey. Later, bare frontal eye patch lemon yellow; bill yellowish-orange,
lacking the black bill edges, with black patch at tip of upper mandible; irides pale
yellow; legs blackish-grey at front and back, olive green at sides; feet blackish-
grey; claws black.
Nestling period. Both parents tend young, c. 42 days in nest. Feather between
7 and 35 days, leave nest at c. 20 days, returning for food for c. 7 days; fly at
35-42 days.
WESTERN REEF HERON Egretta gularis
Breeds in coastal water and on inshore islands. Nests in mangroves, shrubs and low
trees, typically at 2-3 m up, or in saltmarsh plants or among boulders. Usually nests
colonially in small groups, rarely with other herons. Sites are reused and nests may
become substantial.
Nest. A thin to thick platform with shallow cup, of twigs and seaweed. Larger sticks
are used at the edge of the nest cup, graduating to finer material in the centre. Built
by both birds but mainly by female, the male bringing material.
Breeding season. Begins early April.
Eggs. 2-3, occasionally 4-5. Oval, smooth but not glossy. Pale greenish-blue. 45 x 34 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, 23-26 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down colour may differ with different adult
colour morphs. Head has crest of hair-like white down. White or pale grey on
sides of head, neck and back, paler on wings, flanks and underparts. At hatching,
bill yellowish-orange, upper mandible dark grey at base, with small dark spot at
tip; irides black; legs and feet olive-green; toes greyish-pink; claws grey. Mouth
yellowish-orange. At fledging, upper mandible has changed to mainly dark grey
and claws to black; legs and feet pale olive-green or olive-yellow; irides greyish-
blue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fed on regurgitated food. Young
climb out of nest 2-3 weeks and seek shade, returning when adults bring food. They
remain in nest for 4-5 weeks, then seek food for themselves. Fully fledged at c. 8
weeks, but remaining with adults (period unknown).
HERONS
55
LITTLE EGRET Egretta garzetta	Pls 2, 20
Breeds on raised sites near marshes, rivers, streams, etc.; using thickets, or wood-
land or isolated trees in, or away from, water; or in bamboos or reedbeds. In crowded
colonies, often together with other small heron species.
Nest. A shallow, thin twig structure on the tops of bushes in marshes or reedbeds, or
on larger trees near by. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Variable, usually beginning in late April. Usually single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. rarely 6. Variable. Elliptical to subclliptical, blunt-
ended to biconical at times. Smooth, non-glossy. Light greenish-blue. 46.6 x 33.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at l-2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, beginning with
the first egg. 21-25 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down white; like that of Great White Egret; stiff
and upright on crown. At hatching, irides black; bare skin around eye greyish-blue;
upper mandible pink in central area, dark grey at base and dark grey patch at tip; lower
mandible pink with dark grey patch at tip; legs and feet greyish-green; claws grey.
Later, irides bluish-grey; both mandibles grey-black; legs and feet green; claws grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 30 days in nest.
GREY HERON Ardea cinerea	Pls 2, 20
Nests usually in trees near water. Usually breeds in colonies, sometimes solitary. The
nests may be close to each other, a number occurring in one tree if sites are avail-
able. High trees are often used, but nests also occur in low trees, in bushes, on cliff
ledges, small islands, or on the ground and in reedbeds.
Nest A twig platform with a shallow hollow centre. In first year may be thin enough
for egg to show through, but usually reused and added to annually, becoming very bulky.
Usually of fairly substantial twigs and small branches, with ends protruding untidily.
Lined with thinner twigs, occasionally with grass roots, or similar material. Nests in
reedbeds usually of reeds. Male brings twigs to nest and female builds them in.
Little Egret, c. 30 an across.
56
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins February to early March. Usually single-brooded, occa-
sionally a second brood.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. sometimes 6, rarely 2-7. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth but
not glossy. Pale greenish-blue. 59.9 x 43.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at c. 2-day intervals. Commencement of incubation relative
to clutch size varies. 23-28 days. By both sexes.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on upperparts and flanks long, and on the
crown down has long, bristle-like tips and stands up to produce a bristling wig. It is
sparser on sides of back and mid-belly; absent around the eyes and on lores, chin,
throat and back of neck. Upperparts are dark greyish-brown, sides pale grey, under-
side white. Crown is brown with white bristling crest. Bill is relatively short and
blunt. Iris yellow throughout nestling period. At hatching, bare eye patch blackish-
grey, darkening to black; upper mandible blackish-grey, occasionally brownish-yel-
low along ridge and at top of base; lower mandible pinkish-yellow, quickly
becoming brownish-yellow; legs and feet greenish-grey; claws grey, becoming
black. Later, thighs arc pale yellowish-green, shanks and feet dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents Young leave nest to climb in nearby
branches at 3-4 weeks. They fledge at c. 42-55 days, returning to nest for food for
c.3 weeks, gradually becoming independent.
GOLIATH HERON Ardea goliath
On the margins of large rivers and lakes, especially with reedbed borders, on estuaries,
creeks, borders of mangroves and coasts. Nest on the ground in reeds or sedges, or in low
bushes or trees often standing in water, occasionally near water among boulders. Usually
breeds in single pairs, occasionally in small colonies of other herons and cormorants.
Nest. A large platform of reeds and sticks, often on a trampled-down base if in reeds,
lined with thinner twigs. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. No information, nearest northern African birds beginning in
September. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, occasionally 4. Long oval. Pale blue. 75 x 52 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, c. 28 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down greyish-brown fading to grey. Bill
greenish-grey with dark brown lower mandible. Facial skin olive-green. Legs and
feet pale lime green.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Fledge at c. 40 days.
PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea	Pl. 20
More of a marsh species than the Grey Heron. Usually breeds cotonially. but with
nests usually scattered individually some way apart, in loose association. Nests usu-
ally in thick tall reeds, sometimes up to 2 m above water; occasionally in low bushes
or trees.
Nest. Usually of reed stems, but when in bushes or trees uses twigs like Grey Heron.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. In south begins in early April, further north in May. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6, rarely 7-8 (? two females). Variably shaped, ellip-
tical to subelliptical, short to long. Smooth, non-glossy; pale greenish-blue. 56.3 x
40.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at c. 3-day intervals. Commencement relative to clutch size
variable, both sexes incubating. 24-28 days.
SPOONBILLS AND IBISES
57
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down long, but sparser than on Grey Heron.
Bristly crest shorter and sparser; and down absent from around eyes, on chin, throat,
neck and between feather tracts. Upperparts have blackish-brown down, dark brown
on crown with long white bristle-like tips; underparts white. In early stages, irides
grey; bare eye patch yellowish-green, greyish-blue above and on forehead; lower
mandible dull yellow; upper mandible mainly dull brownish-yellow, greyish-brown
at base, with a dark grey patch near tip; legs and feet flesh; claws grey; mouth pink-
ish-red. Later, irides yellow; upper mandible mainly dark grey, with some brownish
yellow remaining on sides; legs and feet change through olive-brown to dark grey.
Nestling period. Both parents feed young. Young able to fly at c. 42 days. Indepen-
dent at 60 days.
SPOONBILLS AND IBISES Threskiornithidae
Long-legged, long-billed wading birds. Able to perch in trees. Nest on the ground in
marshes and reeds, or build nests in trees, the latter quite strongly and competently
built by both sexes, although the birds are clumsy on perches. Twigs are fixed by
insertion followed by a small lateral shake. The young feed by taking regurgitated
food from the throats of adults. When ground nests are used, and possibly elsewhere,
young tend to wander from the nest before they can fly.
SPOONBILL Platalea leucorodia	Pls 2,20
Breeds in marshes, thick reedbeds, or low bushes. Elsewhere may nest in trees. Nests
colonially, at times only up to 30 cm apart.
Nest. A rough platform of reed stems and debris, or of twigs and branches when in
bushes or trees. Reedbed nests are 30 -45 cm high and surrounding vegetation
becomes beaten down. In the south on low mangroves, and large stick nests on dry
mud islands. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Varies between colonies. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5, rarely 6. Long subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy.
White, sparsely spotted or blotched with reddish-brown. Occasionally heavily
marked. 67.2 x 45.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of several days. Incubation by both sexes;
beginning before completion of clutch. 21 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down with silky tips. Absent around eyes, on
chin and centre of throat. Down sparse and dull white or whitish-grey. Second coat
of short thick creamy-white or pale grey down grows when feathers begin to
appear. At hatching, bill, legs and feet orange; bare skin around eye greyish-green;
claws grey. Later, bill is orange (or sometimes flesh pink) with a small dark, but
indistinct, spot at centre of tip of upper mandible, covered by white egg tooth in
early stages. At fledging, bill is changing to dark grey. Bare eye patch changes
through bluish-grey to darker grey. Legs change gradually in early stage to dark
grey; claws black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults; may leave the nest after c. 4 weeks;
flying freely by 7 weeks.
GLOSSY IBIS Plegadis falcinellus	Pls 2, 20
Breeds in freshwater marshes and swamps. Colonial nesters, at times in large num-
bers, often with other species of water birds. Nests on the ground in reedbeds, or on
bushes, or trees growing in water. In dry woodland in Israel.
58
BIRD NESTS, ECGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. Small but well built. Of reed stems in reedbeds, or of twigs in bushes and trees,
lined with leaves. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Variable, beginning late April to June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, occasionally 5, rarely 6. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth with
very slight gloss. Deep uniform blue, darker than heron eggs which they otherwise
resemble. 52.5 x 36.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days; incubation by both birds, but mainly by
female. 21 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down loose and sparse; dull black with narrow
white patch from top of eye to crown. Bare eye patch dark grey. Bill pink with black
bands at base, middle and tip. Feet yellowish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, one always present for first 5 days.
Young wander from nest at c. 2 weeks, returning to be fed. Fed away from nest by
6 weeks, flying a little and finding some food. Accompany parents at 7 weeks.
BALD IBIS Geronlicus eremita	Pl. 20
Breeds on ledges and crevices of rocky cliffs; in colonies, at times with other species.
Nest. Variable accumulation of stems and roots. Built by both birds. Nest boxes used
in Turkey.
Breeding season. Begins March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, rarely 5-6. Subelliptical. Smooth. Very pale whitish-blue, with small
spots and occasional faint blotches of reddish-brown. 63.4 x 43.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 1-3 days. Incubation by both sexes begins with
first egg. 27-28 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down grey, pale on underside. Absent from
around eyes, and on lores and forehead, but present over the rest of the head. At
hatching, bare eye patch greyish-blue; bill mainly black, with pink at base of upper
mandible and at tip of both mandibles; legs and feet greyish-pink. At fledging, bare
facial skin dull pink; bill mainly pink, dark grey at area near base; legs and feet grey-
ish-pink. Iris grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fed by regurgitation. Older young
wander from nest to nest in colony. Fledge in 40-50 days.
SACRED IBIS Threskiornis aethiopicus
Breeds usually near water in trees, or in trees or bushes growing in water.
Nest. Varies from a small platform to a fairly bulky structure, possibly reused
annually. Mainly of twigs, indifferently lined with finer twigs and odd feathers and
sometimes grass. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Large young and eggs seen simultaneously
in July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Long oval to subelliptical. Smooth. White or very pale greenish.
Sometimes with small, sparse brown spots or blotches, usually most numerous at the
larger end. 62.3 x 42.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 28-29 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down white on body; black on head, and back
and sides of neck with white spot on crow n. Pale bare skin around eyes, lores and
sometimes forehead. Bill short. Bill and legs pink or whitish. In large young, bill is
black with smooth sides; legs and feet dark grey; claws black. Iris smoke-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 46-51 days. Guarded for first 7-10
days. Leave nest at 2-3 weeks, staying in group near colony, fed once daily.
STORKS
59
STORKS Ciconiidae
Long-legged, large birds of marshy meadows and woodlands; build large stick nests on
raised sites. Grass tufts and earth are incorporated with the sticks to bind the structure.
The young are fed by reguigitation of food on to the nest, from where it is picked up.
WHITE STORK Ciconia ciconia	Pls 2, 21
Breeds in a variety of sites in open grassland or marshy places, usually near human
settlement. Occasionally solitary, but may form colonies. Nests are in trees, on ruins,
on huts or buildings of all kinds, on poles with baskets or wheels at the top erected
as nest-sites, and on telegraph poles, pylons and haystacks. Very rarely on the
ground.
Nest. A large structure; often reused for a number of years. Of sticks and branches
with grass tufts and earth; the shallow cup lined with a variety of plant material,
feathers and rubbish. Both sexes may bring material but more often the male brings
it and the female builds.
While Stork, c. 90 cm to 1.5 m across.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTl INGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins end of March to early April in south, mid-April to early
May in north. Single-brooded
Fggs. Usually 3 5, rarely 1-7. Variable, elliptical to subclliptical. Smooth,
sometimes glossy White with yellowish inner membrane 73 2 x 51.8 min.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals or longer. Incubation by both birds, the
female usually sitting at night; beginning with the first or second egg. 30 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy Down white, short and sparse, very short on
head After a week a more complete covering of longer and coarser down appears.
Irides brown. At hatching, b’ll black with brown tip; bare eye patch and chin black;
thighs and topmost area of shanks greyish-blue; shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws
pale grey, mouth pink. At fledging, bill is black, legs and feet grey-black.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. May leave the nest at 53-55 days but
arc fed for a further fortnight.
BLACK STORK Cicoma nigra	Pl. 21
Breeds in woodland mixed with open marsh or grassland, or more open rocky areas
with trees. Solitary nesters. Nests in large trees, usually well up in a large fork; more
rarely on ledges or caves of cliffs.
Nest. Nest reused annually, becoming very large; but new nest may be small. Of
sticks with earth and grass tufts; lined with moss, grass or dung. Built by pair
Breeding season. Usually begins mid April to early May. Single-brooded.
Black Stork, c. 90 cm to 1.2 m across.
FLAMINGOS
61
Eggs. 3-5, usually 4 Short subelliptical, sometimes more oval. Smooth; white with
green inner membrane. 65.6 x 48.7 mm.
Incubation. Fggs laid at e. 2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, but mainly by
female; beginning with first or second egg 30-35 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial, and downy Down white, first down sparse and short,
second down longer and denser. Bare skin around eye dark grey. At all stages, bill
orange-yellow on half nearest to base, remainder pale brownish-yellow. At hatching,
legs and feet flesh-pink, changing to pale olive.
Nestling period. Both parents tend young. 63-71 days in nest.
1 LAMINGOS Phoenicopteridae
GREATER FLAMINGO Phoenicopterus ruber	Pls 3, 21
Breeds in shallow water, on the edges of lakes or lagoons, usually brackish or saline.
Strongly sociable, nesting close together. Birds very sensitive to disturbance and
entire colony may readily desert.
Nest. A small conical mound in shallow water, with a shallow hollow in the lop. Very
vanable in size, often about 30-40 cm high. Made of mud scooped up by a bird
standing at the nest, and drying to form a hard structure. It may be based on a stony
core. Cast feathers may be incorporated. Built mainly by the female assisted by male.
Breeding season. Early April onwards, but variable, depending on water level and
temperature. Single-brooded, lost eggs not replaced.
Eggs. One. Long subelliptical. Greenish-white with an outer white, chalky layer,
rather soft and becoming scratched and stained. 88.8 x 54.6 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 28-32 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down short and close, but absent from lores.
Greater Flamingo, c. 25 cm across.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Pale grey above, whiter below. Replaced at c. 4 weeks by a dark grey down. Feath-
ered at c. 6 weeks. Iris brown. Legs are very short at first, the young chick being
gosling-like in appearance. Bill is short and straight until after first 2 weeks, when it
begins to curve downwards. At hatching, legs and feet are bright pink, becoming
mainly brown or black, dull pink on front of shanks and on webs; at first, bill is bright
pink with a black tip to each mandible, later becoming duller in shade.
Nestling period. Both birds tend young, which can run or swim after a few hours if
alarmed but remains on nest for about 10 days and is fed by adults on liquid taken
from adult bill-tip. After 10 days young joins others and wanders in large swarm in
the vicinity of the nest. It continues to be fed until fledging, and subsequently feeds
itself, but the bill is not developed for full adult-type feeding until c. 6 weeks after
hatching. Flies at 70-75 days.
WATERFOWL Anatidae
SWANS Cygnus species
Large waterfowl living and feeding mainly in the water, and nesting at its edge. Nest
a large heap of plant material accumulated by sideways-throwing and sideways-build-
ing; the female usually sitting on the site pulling in and placing material; the male in
the water with his back to her, passing material back for the female. Small amounts
of down are added to the lining by the female. The precocial, downy young are
brooded on nest or shore, but otherwise swim with the parents, climbing on their backs
to rest when small. Fledged young generally remain with adults until the next season.
WHOOPER SWAN Cygnus cygnus	Pls 3, 23
Breeds in arctic and subarctic on lakes of varying size, flooded swamps or shallow
rivers. Nest at the water’s edge, usually on an island or islet, or a raised bank in
swamp or away from waterside on open tundra with reedy lakes or pools. Nest in
solitary pairs. Site may be used for a number of years.
Nest. A large heap of nearby plant material, including water plants and moss. Large
white down tufts and small feathers present in nest. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Early May in more southerly parts, late May to June further north.
May depend on thaw. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, occasionally 4-8. Subelliptical to long elliptical. Creamy-white,
partly glossy with slightly granular surface texture. 113.4 x 72.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation from completion of clutch;
female incubating, male on guard. 31-42, usually 35, days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down greyish-white above, a little darker on head and
nape; white below. On lores extends to posterior end of nostril. At hatching, upper
mandible pink, dark grey at tip, with grey nail; lower mandible pink, grey along cutting
edges; legs, feet and webs pink; mouth pink. In older young, upper mandible pink with
black tip; lower mandible black; legs, feet and webs darker, greyish-pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Probably similar to Mute Swan. Young tended by both parents.
Remain with adults. Fly at c. 90 days.
BEWICK’S SWAN Cygnus bewickii	Pl. 23
Breeds in similar type of habitat to Whooper Swan. Nesting at the water’s edge on
small islands in estuaries, or shores of shallow waters. Fairly sociable, pairs may nest
in close proximity, but usually well-dispersed.
WATERFOWL
63
Nest. A large conical mound of moss and lichens, rather smooth, with a deep nest
depression. Some down in nest. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins about second week of June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Creamy-white. Smooth, slightly
glossy, with a finely granular texture. 107 x 68 mm.
Incubation. 29-30 days. By female, but male may sit on uncovered eggs. Beginning
on completion of the clutch.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pale greyish-white with some indication of darker
patterning; white on underside. Similar to Whooper Swan but down does not extend
so far to the bill in the loral region. At hatching, bill pink, dark grey at tip with grey
nail; legs, feet and webs pale orange-pink. In older young, upper mandible pink with
black tip; lower mandible mainly black; legs, feet and webs greyish-pink, becoming
dark grey after fledging. Mouth pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, and remain with them. Fledged in
about 40-45 days.
MUTE SWAN Cygnus olor	Pls 3,23
Breeds on any waters, large or small, fresh or brackish, and in swamps and drainage
ditches and sheltered coastal sites. Usually solitary, aggressive pairs; but semi-
domesticated birds may nest colonially, in close proximity to each other. Nest usu-
ally at the water’s edge on land or small islands, or built in shallow water in reedbeds.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A large heap of plant material with a raised hollow at the centre. A small
amount of down. Usually begun by male, later joined by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-7, exceptionally 4-12. Smooth, slightly glossy, slight granular texture.
Some almost white, but more often with a pale blue-grey or blue-green tint. Sub-
elliptical to long elliptical. 115 x 74.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation beginning with last egg or a
little earlier; by female mainly, with shorter periods by male. 34-38 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale grey-brown above, underparts white. At
hatching, bill dark bluish-grey with buffish or grey nail; legs, feet and webs dark
bluish-grey. In larger young, near to fledging, bill is dark bluish-grey, black at base
of lower mandible; legs, feet and webs are paler, pinkish-grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young stay on the nest for a day or two; then follow parents. Pro-
tected by both adults. Young feed themselves but female pulls up and breaks up
plants and roots. Independent by c. 4 months.
GEESE AND DUCKS Anserinae (other than swans) and Anatinae
Water birds. Geese mainly waterside grazers, ducks more aquatic. Islets and mounds
in water are preferred nest-sites for many species. Nest usually a scrape lined with
down and small feathers from the breast of the female, in an open site or cavity; but
material is accumulated by sideways-throwing and sideways-building, particularly
in some species of geese. The amount of nest down varies widely between species,
as does the use of nest material. Large clutches of cream-coloured or pale greenish
eggs. Incubation usually begins with completion of clutch. Hatched eggshells are not
removed and are usually trampled in the nest. Young precocial and downy, brooded
by adults but feeding themselves. In some species broods of young tend to join
together to form a creche guarded by a few adults. Young of geese usually remain
with adults until the next breeding season; young of duck are normally tended only
by female until independent, and separate in the autumn.
GREY-LAG GOOSE Anser anser	Pls 3, 22
Breeds near water on offshore islands, on moorland, in marshes or swamps, in
reedbeds, or by lakes or rivers. Nests in slightly scattered pairs but usually a number
in the same region. Domesticated or feral birds may occur in some areas.
Nest. Usually a scrape with a scanty lining of local vegetation; but in wet sites may
be an accumulated mound of reeds or rushes. Down lining often scanty. Down tufts
small, grey, with light centres. Small feathers also present.
Breeding season. In southern and south-eastern range c. late March; to late April in
north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. In wild birds usually 4-6, rarely 3-8. Subelliptical to oval. Creamy-white with
slight fine granular texture, but otherwise smooth. 85.3 x 58 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at intervals of slightly more than 24 hours so that one
day may be missed in large clutches. Incubation by female alone, with the male near
by; beginning with the completion of the clutch. 27-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Thick down with longer filaments. Greenish-yellow
on underside, forehead, face, sides of neck and bar across wing, elsewhere olive-brown
but longer filaments may be greenish-yellow; and on some individuals, sides of face
may be brown, or face yellow and underside and wing-bars yellowish-white. At hatch-
ing, bill dark olive-grey or dark bluish-grey with buffish tip; legs, feet and webs dark
WATIiRFOWL
65
grey. By fledging, bill has changed gradually to orange, tinged pink near tip, with black
tip; legs, feet and webs to flesh-pink. Iris brown. Eye-ring yellow. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young leave the nest soon after hatching, finding their own food
but guarded and brooded by adults, and remaining with them after independence at
c. 8 weeks.
BEAN GOOSE Anserfabalis	Pl. 22
Breeds on open tundra by lakes, swamps or rivers; or in open forest near water, or
on islets. Nests usually well-dispersed, but sometimes in loose colonies.
Nest. A shallow scrape, usually sheltered by low vegetation, lined with plants, moss,
lichens and down. Built by female. Down tufts brownish-grey with pale centre.
Feathers dark greyish-brown.
Breeding season. Begins early June in south; late June to early July further north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 3-7. Creamy-white; smooth, with a coarse granular
texture. Subelliptical to oval. 83.8 x 55.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only, with male on guard; beginning with completion of
clutch. 27-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down olive-brown above and on sides of flanks and
thighs, with longer filaments greenish-yellow; underparts whitish-yellow. Yellow on
wing-bar, and spot below wing, and under eye. Dark line through eye. Bill dark grey
with pinkish-buff nail; legs and feet dark grey. Bill remains dark grey until shortly
before fledging. By fledging, bill dark grey at base and tip, flesh-pink in central area
and along cutting edge to base; legs, feet and webs pink-orange. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young tended and guarded by both parents, and remaining with
them; fledging in about 2 months.
PINK-FOOTED GOOSE Anser brachyrhynchus	Pl. 22
Breeds in arctic regions, preferring ledges of gorges, cliffs and rock outcrops, or river
islands; but occasionally on open tundra. Breeds in colonies. Nest-site may be used
repeatedly in successive years.
Nest A shallow scrape lined with plants, mosses, lichens and down. Down tufts
brownish-grey with or without paler centres. Feathers grey with pale tips.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes up to 8. Shape variable, elliptical to oval. Creamy-
white, smooth with fine granular texture. 80.4 x 53.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone, with male on
guard; beginning with completion of clutch. 25-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Colour variable but usually brown above including
crown of head and around eye, and whitish below, suffused with greenish-yellow. Pale
wing-bar, spot below wing, and area under eye greenish-yellow. Some individuals may
lack yellow tint. At hatching, bill blackish-grey with pinkish-buff nail; legs, feet and webs
dark grey. By fledging, bill is blackish-grey at base and tip, flesh-pink in central area and
along cutting edge to base; feet and webs greyish-pink, greyer on legs. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Tended by both parents, leaving nest-site for vicinity of water as
soon as down is dry. Begin to feather at 4 weeks, fledged at 8 weeks, but remain with
adults until following season.
WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE Anser albifrons
Breeds on tundra on islands in rivers, or raised places in bogs.
Pl. 22
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
White-fronted Goose, c. 30 cm across.
Nest. Shallow scrape, with lining of local vegetation, down and some feathers. Built
by female only. Down tufts pale grey; and feathers usually larger than those of Lesser
White-front and more variably coloured than those of most geese.
Breeding season. Begins about mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-6, rarely 4-7. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth, slightly glossy. Creamy-
white. 79 x 51.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid every second day. Incubation by female only, with male on
guard; beginning at completion of clutch. 27-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Brown above; greyish-white or yellowish below.
Forehead, face, throat and front of neck yellowish-white with dark streak from bill
to eye. Pale bar across wing. At hatching, bill dark grey with pinkish-buff nail; legs
and feet dark grey. Before fledging, bill gradually changes to pale pink with black-
ish tip; legs, feet and webs change to yellowish-pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults and remaining with them until next
season. Young leave nest at 1-2 days, flying at 42-49 days.
LESSER WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE Anser erythropus	Pls 3, 22
Breeds at higher altitudes; by swamps or bogs, in thickets or on ridges clear of snow.
May be forced to lower sites by late thaws.
Nest. A hollow scrape on a slight ridge, lined with plants, moss, down and feathers.
Down tufts brownish-grey with lighter centre. Feathers, like those of White-front,
variably coloured.
Breeding season. Late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5, rarely 3-7. Long subelliptical or oval. Creamy-white, smooth. 76.5 x
48.9 nun.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with last egg. 25-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like that of White-front but darker above. Brown
above and greyish-white below; with yellowish-white wing-bar, yellowish-buff tint on
WATERFOWL
67
face and neck, a brown line from bill to eye, and a warm brown forehead. At hatching,
bill dark olive-grey with pinkish-buff nail; legs and feet olive-grey; webs darker grey.
Bill becomes pink; legs, feet and webs become pink-orange. Iris dark brown. Eye-ring
swollen and conspicuous at all stages; pale grey in small goslings, yellow later.
Nestling period. Tended by both parents and remaining with them through first
winter. Feathered in 5 weeks.
BAR-HEADED GOOSE Anser indicus	PL 22
An Asiatic species, feral and breeding in some parts of Sweden. Nest normally on
higher ground in swampy areas or lake islands. In normal range occasionally on cliffs
or in large disused tree-nests of other birds. Sociable or colonial ncster.
Nest. A shallow hollow on raised ground, or ledge, or twig tree-nest, thickly lined
with pale grey down.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, occasionally 2-8. Creamy-white. Subelliptical. 84.4 x 55.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only, male on guard. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale greyish-brown above, pale yellow below.
Yellow patches on wings and flanks. Head and neck yellower with grey patch on
crown and dark patch around eyes. Bill blue-grey with pinkish nail. Legs greenish-
grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults; remaining together until next season.
BRENT GOOSE Branta bernicla	Pl. 21
Breeds on raised areas of islands in estuaries or offshore. Sociable breeder.
Nest. Scrape with a lining of nearby vegetation and thick down lining. Among rocks
hollows may be built up with moss at edges. Down tufts large, brownish-grey with
paler centres, like Eider’s but smaller.
Breeding season. Begins in June, usually about middle of month. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-5, rarely 2-8. Elliptical to subelliptical, often long. Smooth and slightly
glossy. Cream-coloured or yellowish. 70.3 x 46.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. Male on guard. 24-26 days. Beginning on completion
of the clutch.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on upperparts drab grey; underside pale grey
with darker bases, and with white on chin and upper breast. Head and neck pale with
darker grey crown patch, dark patch on lores, and streak through eye. Whitish marks
on hind-edge and tip of wing, and on body below wing. Bill blackish-grey with paler
nail. Legs and feet blackish-grey. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, remaining with them until next sea-
son. Young leave nest within 1 day, usually led to shore. Swim and dive well, fly at
40-50 days.
BARNACLE GOOSE Branta leucopsis	Pls 3, 21
Breeds in arctic valleys on ledges of cliffs and rocky outcrops overlooking rivers or
marshes; or occasionally on low estuarine islands. Sociable, nesting in colonies.
Nest. A hollow with little plant material but quantities of down and some feathers.
Down tufts are dark grey with whitish centres; darker than those of Pink-footed
Goose, greyer and smaller than Eider’s. Nest reused in subsequent years.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-5, sometimes 6. Elliptical to subelliptical. Non-glossy with slight granular
texture. Creamy-white. 76.2 x 50.3 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. By female only, with male on guard. Beginning with completion of
clutch. 24-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Back olive-grey, and underside white, with an olive-
grey area on upper breast. Head and neck whitish with a brown crown patch, dark
streak from bill to eye, and brownish wash on nape. Small white areas on back and
tip of wing and below wing. The whitish down has pale brown bases. At hatching,
bill black with pinkish-buff nail; becoming black only. Legs, feet and webs black-
ish-grey at all stages. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young leave nest almost immediately and descend to the vicinity
of water. Tended by both adults. Fledged in 7 weeks, but remain with adults.
CANADA GOOSE Branta canadensis	PI. 21
Feral birds breed by waters in parkland, or marshes; on the water’s edge. Often on
small islands. Usually in hidden or wooded sites, but may utilise a range of sites.
Sociable nester but with nests spaced in small territories.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with plant debris, or low pile of material; the hollow
lined with finer material, down and some feathers. Down tufts large, greyish-brown
with white centres and pale tips.
Breeding season. Begins early April, occasionally late March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 2 11. Elliptical to subelliptical. White to creamy-white;
smooth and non-glossy. 87 x 58 mm in large races, 72 x 48 mm in small races.
Incubation. By female alone, male on guard. 25-30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down greenish-brown above, and on crown and
nape; greenish-yellow below, and on forehead, face and neck; with yellow patches
on front and back of wings, and on body below wings. At hatching, bill blackish-
grey with buff nail; legs, feet and webs dark olive-grey. By fledging, bill is black;
legs and feet olive-grey; webs darker grey. Iris pale bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Flying at 9 weeks but remain with
adults until next season.
SHELDUCK Tadorna tadorna	Pls 3,24
Breeds in a variety of habitats, usually near coastal or estuarine mudflats, sometimes
by fresh water. Nest in a burrow, usually a rabbit burrow in dunes or similar site, or
under thickets, in concealed hollows, hollow trees, under rocks, buildings or similar
sites, or in hay-barns. Nests may be well concealed, up to 2.5-3 m inside burrows.
Nest. A hollow with little plant material, but well lined with down and a few feath-
ers. Down tufts large, pale grey, brown-tinged; and variably tinted, appearing
mottled in the mass.
Breeding season. Variable, usually beginning in early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-15, more recorded, but some females may lay in nests of others.
Subelliptical. Creamy-white; slightly glossy. 65.8 x 47.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. Male remains near by but not in burrow. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern bold; basically dull brown above
and white below. Forehead, lores, checks (and thin eyestripe on some), edges of
wings, patch on central mantle, and streaks on sides of back and rump, all white.
Dark spot below and behind eye. which is absent in Ruddy Shelduck. At hatching,
bill pale bluish-grey, tinged pink near base, with buffish nail; legs, feet and webs
olive-grey. By fledging, bill has gradually changed to pink with faint grey near tip
of upper mandible; legs have changed to pinkish-grey, more pink on feet and webs.
Iris brown.
WATERFOWL
69
Nestling period. Young, soon after hatching, led to nearest water and mudflat feeding
site by both adults, or female alone; at times a long journey. Parents tend to leave young
later on, and broods aggregate to form a flock with a few adults remaining. Young can
dive to avoid predators when quite small; adults do not. Independent at e. 8 weeks.
RUDDY SHELDUCK Tadorna ferruginea	Pl. 24
Breeds by open waters, often in very open country; or in mountains. Nests in holes
in cliffs, or among rocks, in burrows, or in ruins. May use hollow trees, or large old
nests of other birds in trees.
Nest. A hollow with little plant material, lined with down and some feathers. Down
tufts pale grey, with warmer brown tint than those of the Shelduck.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, rarely 16. Subelliptical. Creamy-white; smooth and slightly
glossy. 67 x 47.1 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, male maintaining contact away from nest. 27-29
days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like that of Shelduck but lacking small pale patch on
central mantle and dark cheek spot. Paler brown above with yellowish tint. At hatch-
ing, bill bluish-grey with buffish nail; legs olive-grey; feet and webs greyish-pink. Bill
darkens to black; legs and feet to olive-grey, webs to darker grey. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young led to water and tended by both adults. Family may remain
together until autumn, but young broods sometimes form creches, tended by a few
adults. Fledge at c. 55 days, independent soon after.
EGYPTIAN GOOSE Alopochen aegyptiacus	Pls 3, 24
Nests in holes in trees, large old nests, or forks of trees, on rocky ledges, among rocks,
and in concealed ground sites under bushes or in long vegetation. In solitary pairs.
Nest. Of nearby vegetation, lined with down, and some feathers. Down tufts pale grey.
Breeding season. Begins March to April, from January in northern feral birds. Sin-
gle-brooded.
Eggs. 5-8, sometimes 9-10. Subelliptical to oval, rather short. Creamy-white;
smooth with slight gloss. 70.5 x 50.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only, 28-30 days, beginning after last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like a young Shelduck but with broader pale eye-
stripe. Dark brown above; greyish-white below. Forehead, face, neck and breast
whitish, with short pale streak over eye. Large whitish patches on wings, sides of
back and sides of rump. At hatching, bill pale grey, tinged pink, with pinkish-buff
nail; legs, feet and webs flesh-pink, grey on upperside of toes; iris pale greyish-blue.
By fledging, bill is pale greyish-pink, greyer at base, with black tip; legs and feet
greyish-pink, slightly darker on webs; iris yellowish-brown.
Nestling period. Young led to water soon after hatching; those in raised sites drop-
ping unaided without damage. Probably independent at c. 3 months, but tend to stay
with parents.
MANDARIN DUCK Aix galericulata	Pls 4,25
Feral in areas of deciduous woodland and parkland with streams and lakes, usually
with shrubs at the water’s edge. Nest usually in a tree cavity, often deep and 3-15 m
up. More rarely in tree fork.
Nest. No plant material other than that already there; a hollow lined with down and
some feathers. Down tufts white.
70
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins early April. Normally single-brooded.
Eggs. 9-12. Elliptical to short subelliptical. Creamy-buff; glossy. 48.8 x 36.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, male tending to maintain contact with female when
off the nest. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Brown above and buff below, with pale buff on edges
of wings, and small patches on sides of back and sides of rump. Crown and nape
brown. Neck and sides of head buffish-yellow. Dark brown streak from rear of eye
to nape and paler brown, less distinct, parallel streak from below eye to nape. At
hatching, bill dark brownish-grey with reddish-brown nail; legs dark grey at front
and on upper toes, olive-grey at sides; webs dark grey. Later, bill dark brownish-grey,
flesh-pink at base and along bill edges, whole bill gradually becoming pink; legs
olive-yellow; webs dark grey.
Nestling period. Young drop from nest within a day of hatching and follow female
to water. Tended by female only. Very active and independent, diving when scared.
Fledge at 40-45 days, independent soon afterwards.
MALLARD Anas platyrhynchos	Page 71, Pls 4,24
Breeds near any type of fresh water, in a variety of habitats. Nest usually in cover on the
ground, among tali vegetation, grasses, bushes, hedgerows, etc., and on small islands; or
in raised sites in tree forks or holes, in old nests of large birds, on buildings and ruins.
Nest. Built by female. A hollow lined with plant debris, leaves, grass, etc., the lin-
ing mixed with down and feathers. Down tufts are brown, with paler centres and tips.
Down covers eggs before incubation and when bird is away from the nest.
Breeding season. Usually March onwards, but feral populations breed at various
times through year from February to late autumn. Probably single-brooded normally,
but feral birds may have second brood.
Eggs. Normally 10-12, occasionally 7-16. Elliptical to subelliptical, fairly short.
Smooth, waxy rather than glossy. Usually very pale green or blue-green, sometimes
creamy with green tinge, buffish-green, or almost blue. 57.2 x 41 mm.
Incubation. By female alone; beginning with completion of clutch. 28-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Dark brown above and buffish-yellow below. Dark
streak from bill through eye to nape, dark mark at rear of ear-coverts, and often a
dark spot at base of bill; otherwise sides of head and sides and front of neck yellow.
Yellow wing-bar and patches at sides of back and sides of rump. At hatching, upper
mandible dark grey, with light brown nail, sometimes with narrow area of buffish-
pink along edges; lower mandible buffish-pink; legs and feet dark grey, buff-yellow
on sides of legs and on sides of toes; webs black. By fledging, upper mandible pale
bluish-grey; legs and feet yellow-orange, webs darker.
Nestling period. Young take to water soon after hatching; mostly tended by female
alone. Fledged at c. 7-8 weeks.
GADWALL Anas strepera	Page 71, PI. 24
Breeds by freshwater lakes, pools or slow streams; with waterside vegetation. Nest
usually in thicker vegetation and tall plants near water. May breed in close proximity.
Nest. A hollow lined with plant material, down and some feathers. Down tufts dark
with small pale centre and distinct pale tips.
Breeding season. Variable, beginning early May to June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, rarely 7-16. Elliptical, subelliptical or sometimes oval; usually rather
short. Cream-coloured or tinted very pale green. Smooth and waxy. 54.3 x 39.1 mm.
Incubation. By female alone; beginning with completion of clutch. 25-27 days.
WATERFOWL
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Dorsal and side views of heads of dabbling ducks: a. Mallard; b. Gadwall; c. Shoveler;
d. Garganey; e. Teal; f. Wigeon; g. Pintail.
72
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OH BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Crown, hindneck, and upperparts dark brown with
longer down filaments warm buff. A narrow dark brown midline on forehead from
bill to crown. Sides of head, underparts and patches on wing, sides of back and rump
cream-buff. A fine dark brown eye-line from base of upper mandible through to nape
and sometimes an indistinct spot at rear of ear coverts. At hatching, upper mandible
blackish-grey, flesh-pink on sides and at edges, with pinkish-brown nail; lower
mandible flesh-pink; legs and feet dark grey, pale olive-grey on sides of legs and on
sides of toes; webs black. By fledging, flesh-pink areas of bill have become yellow-
ish-orange, and legs and feet dull yellow, with dark grey webs. Distinguished from
small Mallard duckling by flesh-pink on upper mandible, narrower midline on fore-
head and by creamier (and less yellow) wing and body patches and underparts; and
by less distinct (or absent) marking at rear of ear coverts.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only, being taken to water almost
immediately after hatching. Fledged at c. 7 weeks.
WIGEON Anas penelope	Page 71, Pls 4, 24
Breeds in a variety of habitats but more often by freshwater lakes and streams, or on
lake islands; sometimes in more enclosed sites, including among rocks, by old build-
ings and in woodland; occasionally away from water. Nest hidden in a sheltered site
in low cover such as heather, grass or bracken.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby vegetation, down and some feathers. Down tufts
dark brown with paler centres and tips, the latter not as pale as those of Garganey.
Breeding season. Beginning end of April in south of range, and late May to June in
north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-8, rarely 6-10. Subelliptical to oval, cream-coloured. Smooth. 53.9
x 38.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with last egg. 22-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like Mallard but browner, with the longer filaments
of down and light dorsal patches warm buff, and the latter often ill-defined. Paler
parts of head and neck warmer buffish-brown. No streak through eye, but some with
a darker streak below eye. Underparts, from chin down, creamy or tinted warm buff.
At hatching, bill blackish-grey with reddish-brown nail; legs and feet dark olive-
grey; webs black. Later, bill, legs and feet become paler; bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young led to water by female and tended by her. Independent in
c. 6 weeks.
TEAL Anas crecca	Page 71, Pls 4, 24
Breeds near or on small to very small waters - pools, streams, bogs, and wet moor-
land and woodland.
Nest. A hollow concealed in ground vegetation - bushes, bracken or heather; some-
times in a raised marsh tussock. Made by female only, lined with leaves and nearby
plant material, down and some feathers. Down tufts small and very dark, with white
centres; but lacking white tips of Garganey’s.
Breeding season. Beginning late March to early April in south, mid-May in north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes up to 16. Elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth,
pale creamy to pale olive-buff. 45.5 x 33.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female only, on comple-
tion of clutch. Male may remain near by. 23-24 days.
WATERFOWL
73
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Crown, hindneck, back, sides of body and thighs
dark brown, with yellowish patches on wing, sides of back and rump. Underpans
cream-buff. Chest, throat and chin pale yellow. Cheeks and sides of head pale brown,
paler above eye. Two parallel dark brown streaks, one narrow from the upper nape
through the eye, and the lower broader and below the eye, the two converging as a
dark patch in front of the eye. The streaks are variable and may also converge behind
the eye, sometimes with the lower slanting downwards to the lower nape. At hatch-
ing, upper mandible blackish-grey with brown nail; lower mandible flesh or buff;
legs, feet and webs blackish-grey, paler grey on parts of sides of legs and on sides of
toes. Later, upper mandible becomes paler, bluish-grey; legs and feet are also paler,
bluish- or olive-grey, darker grey on webs.
Nestling period. Female tends young. Male may be present. 23 days, flying at
c. 44 days.
GARGANEY Anas querquedula	Page 71, Pl. 24
Breeds by shallow fresh water with vegetation, shallow lakes, pools, fens and
meadow ditches, or in nearby grassland. Nest concealed in long grass and rushes near
water; or in more open sites.
Nest. A hollow lined with plant material, down and some feathers. Down tufts
smaller than Teal’s, with white centres and characteristic white tips.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south, late May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-11, sometimes 6-14. Elliptical to short subelliptical, smooth. Warm
creamy-buff without greenish tints. 45.3 x 33.2 mm.
Incubation. By female only, beginning on completion of clutch. 21-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Crown, hindneck, upperparts and sides of body and
thighs dark brown, generally darker than Teal, with pale yellow patches on wing
(long, along wing edge), sides of back and rump. Underparts greyish-yellow. Chest,
throat, chin, cheeks and sides of head pale yellow, warmer pale brown near eye. A
narrow distinct dark brown streak from base of upper mandible through eye to nape,
with a parallel, and sometimes wider and less distinct, dark brown streak from base
of lower mandible below eye to nape; these two streaks usually converge in front of
the eye. to form an enclosed bright yellow or cinnamon spot next to the base of the
bill. Iris brown. At hatching, upper mandible dark olive-grey, buff along the edges
and with pinkish-brown nail; lower mandible flesh or buffish; legs, feet and webs
dark olive-grey, sometimes partly paler grey on sides and on sides of toes. Both
mandibles become bluish-grey or darker.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only. Fledged in 5-6 weeks.
PINTAIL Anas acuta	Page 71, Pls 4, 24
Breeds on freshwater lakes, pools and lagoons; usually with drier margins. Usually
sociable, nesting near each other. Nest in low vegetation, heather and grasses near
water; or on islands.
Nest. A hollow; exposed, or concealed in low vegetation; lined with plant material,
down and some feathers. Down tufts longish, light brown with pale centres, like
Shoveler’s or Wigeon’s.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south, to mid-June in north. S ngle-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-9, rarely 6-12. Subelliptical to oval, occasionally long. Variable,
yellowish-cream to greenish to bluish. 54.2 x 37.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only, beginning with completion of clutch. 25-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Crown, hindneck and lipperparts brown, longer

BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
down filaments creamy-buff, with whitish-buff patches along rear of wing, on rump,
and on side of back, the latter sometimes extending towards rump. Underparts,
cheeks and sides of head creamy or whitish-buff, with narrow brown streak through
eye to nape and parallel broader brown streak below eye. At hatching, bill dark
bluish grey, with pinkish-brown nail, legs, feet and webs dark grey Later, bill is
bluish-grey, legs and feet ohve-or bluish-grey; webs dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female, but male usually present Fledg ng at
c 7 weeks.
SHOVELER Anas clypeata	Page 71, Pis 4, 25
Breeds on fresh water with vegetation at edges; or in more overgrown pools,
marshes, bogs and ditches Nest on an open site by water. Usually on a dry site.
Nest. A hollow with some shelter from low vegetation, lined with nearby plants, down
and some leathers. Down tufts brown with light centres, like Pintail’s or Wigeon’s.
Breeding season. Begins early April to late May Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, occasionally 7-14. Elliptical to subelliptical. Creamy-buff or
olive-tinted. Smooth. 52 x 37.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female alone; beginning
with last egg 26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy Crown, hindneck and upperparts dark brown, longer
filaments reddish-buff, with yellowish-buff patches on sides and on rump Under-
parts whitish-yellow or yellow, foreneck greyish buff. Face warm buff with brown
streak from bill through eye to nape and irregular brown marking below and behind
eye to nape. Iris brown. Bill proportionately large, with upper mandible brownish-
grey with reddish-brown nail; lower mandible flesh or dull orange. Legs and feet
dark olive-grey. Upper mandible subsequently becomes paler, bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female. Fledged at c 40-45 days.
MARBLED TEAL Anas angustirostris	Pl. 25
Breeds in tall vegetation and thickets on shores of lakes and marshes sometimes a
little way from water; nesting on the ground in concealed site or occasionally a
burrow; more rarely in thatched roofs of old huts.
Nest. A hollow lined with plant material, down and some feathers. Down tufts light
grey-brown.
Breeding season. Begins May to June. Single brooded
Eggs. 9-13, occasionally 5-18. Elliptical to subelliptical. Creamy or pale yellowish-
buff. 46 2 x 34 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 25-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Crown, hindneck and upperparts greyish-brown,
longer filaments buff, with buff patches on wing, side of back and on rump. Under-
parts and sides of head cream or whitish-yellow, with brownish-grey streak through
eye to nape At hatching, upper mandible greenish-grey with brown nail; lower
mandible flesh, legs and feet ohve-grey; webs brown Later, bill bluish grey or
darker grey, webs dark bluish- grey
Nestling period. No information
RED-CRESTED POCHARD Netta rufina	Pl. 25
Breeds on freshwater and saline pools with vegetation cover, in thickets, reedbeds,
sedge-beds, or on small islands The nest is usually well concealed in cover, frequently
at the end of a tunnel formed by growing vegetation, but at times in a more open site.
WATERFOWL
75
Nest. Hollow with lining, or low heap of nearby vegetation with down and feathers.
Down tufts brownish with small pale centres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6—12: up to 21 recorded but may involve two females. Elliptical to sub-
elliptical. Variable light creamy to pale green, varying at times within clutch. 58.2 x
42 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with completion or near completion of
clutch. 26-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Warm brown on forehead, crown, hindneck and
back, with greenish-yellow tips to filaments. Light yellow patches on wing, sides of
back and rump and top of thighs. Whitish below. Cheeks, sides of head and neck yel-
lower, with narrow brown streak behind eye and sometimes a streak from below to
front of eye. Iris brown. At hatching, upper mandible reddish-grey with reddish-
brown nail: lower mandible pink or orange; rear and front of legs, upperside of toes,
and webs blackish-grey; sides of legs and sides of toes greyish-flesh. By fledging,
bill is bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female. Pledging at 45-50 days.
TUFTED DUCK Aythyafuligula	Pls 4,25
Breeds by fresh water, on islands in lakes or by small pools. A number of pairs may
nest sociably. Nest near water, under low shrubs or in long vegetation.
Nest. A hollow lined with grasses, down and feathers. Down tufts sooty-brown with
indistinct pale centres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south, to late June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-12, occasionally 14, up to 18 recorded; more where two birds lay in same
nest. Eggs large for size of bird. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy.
Pale green to greenish-grey. 58.3 x 40.8 mm.
Incubation. Incubation by female only, beginning with last egg. 23-25 days, longer
at times.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down very dark, uniformly blackish-brown over
much of bird with some yellowish-white or greenish-yellow on mid-breast and mid-
belly. Sides of face yellowish with a sooty wash and darker streak through the eye.
Chin, throat and sides of neck may be sooty-yellow. Iris greyish-blue, becoming
paler yellow before fledging. At hatching, upper mandible dark olive-brown with
brown nail tipped white by egg tooth; lower mandible flesh-pink; front of legs and
toes olive-grey, rear of legs and webs dark grey. Bill becomes bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only, very independent, able to dive in a
few hours and to fly at c. 6 weeks.
SCAUP Aythya marila	PI. 25
Breeds by fresh water on open moorland and tundra, often using lake islands.
Frequently sociable with many pairs together. Sometimes breeds in association with
Black-headed Gulls or terns. Nest usually well hidden in vegetation, occasionally in
fairly open sites.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby vegetation, down and feathers. Down tufts dark
sooty-brown with indistinct pale centres.
Breeding season. Beginning from end of May to end of June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-15, occasionally 17. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. Pale
greenish to olive-grey. 63.2 x 43.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, remaining on nest for long periods. 24—28 days.
76
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down blackish-brown over much of body, sometimes
with yellow-brown patches on wing and sides of rump. Breast and belly creamy-yel-
low, upper breast buffish-brown. Sides of head faintly buffish and dark poorly defined
eye-streak and indistinct darker streak bordering yellowish throat. Iris greyish-blue,
becoming lemon-yellow shortly before fledging. At hatching, upper mandible black-
ish-brown with brown nail; lower mandible flesh-pink; legs and feet dark grey, olive-
grey on front and at sides of toes, with dark grey webs. Bill becomes bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young are tended by female, but male present at times. 5-6 weeks.
POCHARD Aythyaferine	Pls 4,25
Breeds on fresh waters; lakes, pools and slow-moving streams, with thick waterside
vegetation. Nest-site usually at water’s edge in vegetation, or over water in rushes,
sedges or reeds; well hidden.
Nest. Often built up as a heap of nearby plant material in vegetation growing in
water. Lined with down and feathers. Down tufts large; brown with pale centres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6 11. occasionally up to 18. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy.
Pale greenish to greenish-grey, occasionally tinged with buff. 60.7 x 44.2 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone, beginning on completion of clutch. 24-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down brown with greenish tinge above, greenish-
yellow below. Sides of head, throat, sides and front of neck, yellow or greenish-yel-
low with indistinct brownish line under eye back to nape. Wing-bar and patch at
cither side of back and of rump greenish-yellow. At hatching, iris blue; upper
mandible dark bluish-grey with reddish-brown nail; lower mandible flesh or buffish;
legs, feet and webs black, usually with olive-grey at sides of legs and sides of toes.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. 7-8 weeks.
FERRUGINOUS DUCK Aythya nyroca	PI. 25
Breeds by fresh waters, in tall vegetation and reedbeds by the edges of lakes and
pools. Nest by the water's edge, concealed in vegetation.
Nest. A hollow thickly lined with nearby vegetation, down and feathers. Down tufts
brownish-grey, with small light centres and palish tips.
Breeding season. Beginning early May in south, to early June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. 7-11, occasionally 14. Elliptical to subelliptical. Creamy-yellow to yellowish-
buff or yellowish-grey. Smooth, non-glossy. 52.3 x 38.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 25-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down dark brown above, yellow below. Yellow
extends up breast, front and sides of neck and sides of head leaving dark nape and
crown. Brown around thighs and vent. Small pale wing patch and patch on either
side of back. At hatching, iris blue; upper mandible dark greyish-blue, flesh pink
along bill edges and at base near edges, with reddish-brown nail; lower mandible
flesh pink; legs and feet blackish-grey; webs black. Later, bill becomes paler, grey-
ish-blue; iris paler, greyish-blue.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only. Can fly in 56-60 days.
EIDER Somateria mollissima	Pls 5, 25
Breeds on coast, or offshore islands, or on lakes or rivers near the sea. Usually on
exposed sites. Nest a hollow selected by female reluctantly accompanied by male.
Sociable, often nesting in colonics.
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77
Nest. A hollow hued with nearby plant material or seaweed, and copious down and
feathers. Down tufts light greyish-brown with ill-defined pale centres and palish
tips.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-Junc in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-6, sometimes 3-10. Shape variable, elliptical to subelliptical, sometimes
oval. Smooth, slightly glossy. Pale green, olive, greyish or bluish, rarely buffish.
76.7 x 51.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, sitting closely and leaving only rarely for short
periods. Eggs laid at 24-hour intervals. 24 27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down mostly blackish-brown, whitish on the lower
breast. A broad buffish stripe from the lores, over the eye to the nape, and a similar
tint on the chin. A darker streak through the eye. At hatching, bill dark bluish-grey
with brownish-pink nail; legs, feet and webs dark olive-grey. Later, bill is paler,
bluish-grey with darker grey nail; legs and feet arc also paler.
Nestling period. Young led to water and tended by female, sometimes accompanied
by female without young. Young very active and independent. Broods scatter and
join up to form larger groups. Independent c. 60-75 days.
KING EIDER Somaieria spectabilis	Pl. 26
Breeds on lakes and pools of tundra regions usually near the sea, in solitary pairs.
Nest. A shallow hollow in grass or heather stems, with little plant lining, but thick
down and some feathers. Down tufts sooty-brown, darker than Common Eider’s,
with indistinct pale centres; occasional whitish tufts.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June to mid-July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-7, occasionally 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth, slightly glossy. Pale olive. 66.5 x
43.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 22-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Sooty-brown above, lighter than Common Eider,
whitish-buff below. Sides of head pale buffish with narrow dark streak through eye
to nape. Chin, throat and breast whitish-buff. At hatching, bill dark olive-grey with
brown nail; cere pink; legs mainly dark grey, greyish-pink on front of legs and on
toes; webs dark grey. Later, bill becomes paler; bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. Young of several broods tend to
group together, attended by only some of the females, or by one only.
STELLER’S EIDER Polysticta stelleri	PI. 26
Breeds on level tundra by freshwater pools.
Nest. A hollow lined with some nearby plant material, down and some feathers.
Down tufts very dark brown with occasional white tufts.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June to mid-July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-8, occasionally 10. Short subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. Pale
yellowish-olive, greenish, or olive-buff. 61.4 x 42 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. Period not known.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down dark brown above, whitish on underside.
Buffish ring round eye and narrow streak from eye to nape, and buffish chin. At
hatching, bill blackish-brown with brown nail; legs and feet olive-grey, darker on
webs, with yellowish nails and outer web edges. Later, bill is paler, bluish-grey; legs
and feet grey or olive-grey, with dark grey webs.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. Broods may join to form larger groups.
Fly at c. 7 weeks. Left by adults before this.
78
BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
HARLEQUIN DUCK Histrionicus histrionicus	Pls 5, 26
Breeds on swift-flowing northern rivers, nesting sociably on rocky islands in rivers.
Nest on the ground, usually concealed in thick shrub cover.
Nest. A hollow, lined with a little plant material, and with down and feathers. Down
tufts light brown with pale centres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May to early July, usually in early June. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-8, occasionally 3-9. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth, slightly
glossy. Pale creamy to pale buff. 58.3 x 42 inm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning from the last egg. 27-33 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down blackish-brown above, white below. Sides of
head, and throat white, crown of head down to below eyes dark brown with small
white patch above and before each eye. A whitish patch on wing and either side of
back, and a whiter one above the thigh. A relatively long and pointed tail. At hatch-
ing, bill dark grey with brown nail: legs and feet grey; webs blackish-grey. Bill
becomes paler.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only, but the male occasionally present at
first. Young can fly in 40 days.
COMMON SCOTER Melanitta nigra	Pls 5,26
Breeds on freshwater lakes and pools on higher open ground and moorland. Nest
usually close to water, or on an island, in a slightly sheltered site.
Nest. A hollow lined with a little plant material, down and some feathers. Down tufts
medium-sized: dark brown with paler centres.
Breeding season. Begins end of May in south to early July in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-7, occasionally 5-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale
creamy to creamy-buff. 65.4 x 44.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone on completion of the clutch. 27-31 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down mainly dark brown with whitish lower breast
and belly; and white cheeks and throat. Tiny white spot over eye. At hatching, upper
mandible blackish with reddish-brown nail: lower mandible olive-yellow; legs and
feet dark grey-green; webs blackish. Later, bill, legs and feet are paler; bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. 6-7 weeks.
VELVET SCOTER Melanitta fusca	Pls 5, 26
Breeds around fresh water or on offshore islands in wooded, bushy or overgrown
sites, or in concealed or bare sites in open tundra.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby plant material, leaves or twigs, and with down and
feathers. Down tufts larger than those of Common Scoter, dark brown with indistinct
pale centres.
Breeding season. Begins late May in south to mid-June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 7-10, sometimes 6-11. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Pale creamy to
buff. 71.1 x48.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with the last egg. 27-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down mainly dark brown above. Cheeks, throat and
upper neck white; underside also white, separated by dusky-brown band across
upper breast. Small w'hitc patches on upper wing and sides of rump. Bill dark grey
with buffish-pink nail. Legs and feet greenish-grey; webs blackish.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone, which tends to desert them for
increasingly long periods. Young independent c. 4-5 weeks, fly at c. 6-7 weeks.
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GOLDENEYE Bucephala clangula	Pls 5, 26
Breeds by lakes and rivers in forest country. Nest in natural cavities in trees or stumps,
or in Black Woodpecker holes; will also nest in nest-boxes, or in rabbit burrows.
Nest. No material other than that present, down and some feathers added. Down tufts
greyish-white.
Breeding season. Beginning early April in south, to June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-11, larger clutches probably from two females. Subelliptical. Smooth.
Bluish-green; bright at first but fading. 59.6 x 42.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of c. 1% days. Incubation by female alone;
beginning on completion of clutch; male remaining near by. 27-32 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down blackish-brown above, almost white below
with upper breast dusky-brown. Dark cap extends just below eyes, but cheeks pale.
Greyish-white on wing-bar, patches on either side of back and rump, and above
thigh. Iris light brownish-grey. The bill is longer and squarer than Barrow’s Gold-
eneye bill. Bill blackish-grey with reddish-grey nail. Legs and feet yellowish- or
greenish-grey; webs blackish.
Nestling period. Young scramble out of nest and drop unharmed. Tended by female
only. Able to fly at 51-60 days.
BARROW’S GOLDENEYE Bucephala islandica	PI. 26
Breeds by lakes or rivers. In Iceland in holes in cliffs or rock outcrops, or holes in
walls; will use nest-boxes.
Nest. Only material present in cavity, with down and some feathers. Down tufts white.
Breeding season. Begins mid May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 8-14. Elliptical. Smooth. Bluish-green. 61.8 x 44.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning on completion of clutch. 30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like young of Common Goldeneye, but a little larger
with a larger appearing head. Bill shorter, more tapering than that of Common Gold-
eneye with a much wider nail. Iris blue. At hatching, bill blackish-grey with reddish-
brown nail; legs and feet greenish-grey; webs blackish. Later, bill becomes paler;
grey, black at nail; legs greyish-pink, grey at rear; webs blackish.
Nestling period. Young tended by female. First flight estimated at 8 weeks.
I ONG-TAILED DUCK Clangula hyemalis	Pls 5,26
Breeds in northern forest and tundra; on open tundra, lakeside edges, lake islands
and fjord islands. Nest concealed in low vegetation or sheltered by rocks.
Nest. A hollow, lined with a little nearby plant material, down and feathers. Down
tufts dark greyish-brown with paler centres.
Breeding season. Begins late May in south, to July in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-9, occasionally 5-11. Subelliptical to elliptical, sometimes oval.
Smooth. Yellowish or with faint olive tint, or more greenish. 53.7 x 38.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. Male near by at first. 23-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Brown with golden tips above, greyish-white below
with dusky-brown upper breast. Cream spot on lores, whitish streak from rear eye
to nape, pale patch above and below eye. Some pale marks may be absent or vari-
able in individuals. Pale down has brownish bases. At hatching, bill bluish-black,
with brown nail; legs and feet bluish-grey, paler on sides of toes, darker on webs.
Later bill, legs and feet bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Tended by duck alone. Some broods may combine. Independent in
c. 5 weeks. Youns swim and dive well from the start.
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BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
GOOSANDER Mergus merganser	Pl. 27
Breeds by freshwater lakes or rivers, in wooded or, more rarely, open areas. Nest
frequently in tree cavity, or in hole in bank or cavity among boulders; will use
nest-boxes. Nest-site may be reused annually.
Nest. Hollow, lined with nearby plants, but no addition in tree cavities other than
down. Down tufts large and pale grey.
Breeding season. Beginning mid-March to late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 7-14, rarely 15. Elliptical to subelliptical, slightly long. Smooth and slightly
glossy, creamy-white to yellowish. 66.4 x 46.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female alone. 28-32 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Dark brown above and white below. Crown appears
larger and rounder than that of Red-Breasted Merganser. Sides of neck, nape and sides
of head rufous-tinted. Narrow whitish streak from bill below eye, and pale loral spot.
White patch on wings and either side of rump; and fore and hind thigh white. Iris grey-
ish-blue. At hatching, bill black with whitish nail: legs, feet and webs dark grey, yellow-
ish-grey on sides of toes. Later, bill becomes greyish-pink; legs and feet yellowish-grey.
Nestling period. Tended by female alone. Young said to remain in nest a day or two
before leaving with female. Independent in c. 5 weeks. Fledge at 60-70 days.
RED-BREASTED MERGANSER Mergus serrator	Pls 5, 27
Breeds both by fresh water and on offshore islands and sea lochs. Nest is concealed
under thicket or in tunnel under vegetation, extensive at times, or in cavity among
rocks or tree-roots, more rarely hollow in bank, or in burrow, but sometimes in very
open site.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby plant material, down and some feathers. Down
tufts darker grey than Goosander’s, brown-tinged, with pale centres and palish tips.
Breeding season. Beginning mid-May in south, to early June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-12. but up to 21 recorded. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth, but
non-glossy to slightly glossy. Creamy-stone to greenish-buff. 65.6 x 45.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with completion of clutch. 28-35 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Much like Goosander, but crown appears higher and
angular. Brown above and white below. Crown dark brown, extending to just below
eye, cheeks rufous, and throat white. Rufous spot before and above eye and white
spot below it. White wing-bar, and white patches either side of back and rump. Iris
greyish-blue. Upper mandible dark bluish-grey, flesh-pink at lower base, with light
brown nail; lower mandible yellowish-pink. Legs and feet brownish-pink; webs dark
grey.
Nestling period. Tended by female alone; broods tending to gather in larger packs
with a single female. Flying by 59 days.
SMEW Mergus albellus	Pl. 26
Breeds near fresh water in northern forests. Nest in a hole in a tree. Nest-boxes used
when available.
Nest. No material other than is present except down and feathers. Down tufts small,
very pale grey with whitish centres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south, to mid-June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-9, sometimes 5-14. Elliptical to subelliptical. Smooth and slightly
glossy, with thick shell. Cream to pale buff. 52.4 x 37.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 30 days.
WATERFOWL
81
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down with strongly contrasting pattern. Blackish-
brown above, white below. Upper breast blackish; throat and cheeks white, and black
cap extending just below the eye. White patches on wings, either side of back and of
rump, and at top of thigh. Small white mark on the black just below the eye. At hatch-
ing, bill blackish-grey with chocolate-brown nail tipped white at outer edge; legs,
feet and webs blackish-grey. Later, bill, legs and feet bluish-grey, darker on webs.
Nestling period. Tended by female alone. Flying in 7-8 weeks.
WHITE-HEADED DUCK Oxyura leucocephala	Pls 5, 27
Breeds on waters, usually brackish, with good reed or plant cover around the edge
where the birds can hide. The nest is a partly floating structure built among growing
reeds, or using the old platforms of other waterfowl nests, or in cover at the water’s
edge; usually well concealed.
Nest. Of nearby plant material, some down in cup lining, but very little. Reeds or tall
plants appear to be pulled in over it for concealment.
Breeding season. Begins late April to mid-June. Single-brooded.
E gs. 5-12, sometimes 2-15; possibly two females involved in large clutches. Large
for the size of the bird. Broadly elliptical or short subelliptical. Coarse textured. Dull
white. 66.4 x 50.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female alone. 25-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Dark brown above and whitish below. Crown and
nape blackish-brown. A diagonal buffish-white line from the bill base slants up
below the eye to the nape. A narrow dark line below this separates pale buff cheeks,
white chin, and greyish throat and upper breast. Small white wing patch. Bill dis-
tinctly spatulate with high bridge and narrow nail. At hatching, bill bluish-black,
white or pinkish-white at bill edges near base, and with black nail ; legs, feet and webs
black. Later, legs paler at front and on upper toes.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. They are active and dive well, and
show the stiff raised tail at an early age. Independent in c. 5 weeks in related species.
RUDDY DUCK Oxyura jamaicensis	Pl. 27
Feral in parts of Great Britain. Breeds on freshwater lakes with tall reeds or other
water plants.
Nest. A partly floating structure attached to growing plants, built up above water
level, with plants pulled together over it. Of reed stems, weeds or other nearby plants,
very little down in lining.
Breeding season. Begins late May to June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-10, rarely to 20. Elliptical or short subelliptical. Rough and granular. Dull
white. 64 x 42 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, the male remaining close by. 24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Dark grey-brown above, white below. Dark cap
extending to below eye; white line from nape to bill below eye; and slanting dark
line below this one separating it from the cheeks and throat, which are white freck-
led with brown. A pale spot on either side of the back. Bill distinctly spatulate with
high bridge and narrow nail. At hatching, bill black, pink at bill edges near base, with
small pinkish-brown patch at centre of nail; legs, feet and webs black. Later, bill
becomes bluish-grey; legs and feet grey.
Nestling period. Exceptional among ducks in that the male remains and accompa-
nies the brood. The young are clumsy on land but swim and dive well. Young fledge
in 42-49 days, when often already independent.
82
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
OSPREYS Pandionidae
OSPREY Pandion haliaetus	Pls 6, 27
Large, fish-eating raptor. Breeds near water on lakes, rivers, estuaries and coasts. The
nest-site usually on a tree-top or rocky outcrop overlooking a stretch of water. Some-
times on ruins, low bushes or the ground on undisturbed sites; and artificial sites, e.g.
cartwheels, on poles, may be used. Solitary at times, but in colonies in suitable areas.
Nest. A massive accumulation of sticks and various debris, reused and added to in
successive years. The cup lined with finer material, stems and grasses. Both sexes
build, the male tending to bring material and the female incorporating it.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March in south (January-February in Egypt) to early
June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, rarely 2 4. Shortish subelliptical. Slightly glossy. Creamy to yel-
lowish, spotted and blotched variably with chestnut-red to dark brown, and some
pale greyish markings. 61.6 x 46.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with the first egg: female taking the greater
part and being fed by the male. 35-38 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down short and thick. Mottled smoky-
brown above and creamy-white below. A sandy-buff streak down the central back
and on the head. Second down from c. 11 days similar above but dorsal streak
whitish; and speckled with brown tips on pale underside. Feathering begins at c. 4
weeks. At hatching, cere pale blue-grey; bill black or dark blackish-grey; bill edges
pink; shanks and feet blue-grey. Later, cere is slightly darker; bill is black, grey-blue
at base of lower mandible; bill edges bluish-grey; shanks and feet grey, tinged pale
green or pale blue; claws black. Mouth pink. Iris orange-brown.
-—
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
83
Nestling period. Young varying in size and the smallest may die if food is scarce.
They become active at c. 2 weeks. For c. 30 days female remains at nest brooding,
feeding and tending young; male bringing food. Young feather towards end of this
period; pick up food after c. 42 days; first fly at 51-59 days. Family remains about
nest for up to 8 weeks. Young said to become independent c. 1 week after flying.
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES Accipitridae
Includes hawks, harriers, kites, eagles and Old World vultures. Raptors, varying in
size from large to small, and hunting live prey or scavenging. Nests are large cups
of twigs and various debris; on trees, rock ledges or on the ground. Leafy twigs may
be added to the lining during incubation. Fggs are usually rather rounded, often
slightly rough-textured, white or with brown blotchings. and frequently stained by
leafy nest linings. The young hatch at intervals and vary in size; and the smallest may
die of starvation or be killed and eaten by the older ones if food is short. The young
arc downy, with two down coats, and relatively helpless at first. As they grow they
perform bouts of wing-flapping and practise seizing objects. They may leave the nest
for nearby branches and return at times before the first real flight. They rely on the
parents for food for a period after leaving the nest, while they learn to hunt, but
information on this is relatively incomplete.
WHITE-TAILED SEA EAGLE Haliaeetus albicilla	Pls 6,28
Breeds by coasts, large rivers or lakes. Nests high in a large tree if present, otherwise
on smaller trees, bushes, or on the ground or a rock outcrop. In solitary pairs, using
several alternative nest-sites within a territory.
Nest. A massive structure, built slowly and added to continually. Of branches and
twigs, the cup lined with green plants, leafy twigs and sometimes wool. Both sexes
build, the male tending to bring most material and the female incorporating it.
Breeding season. Begins late February in south to mid-May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. sometimes 1-3, rarely 4. Short subclliptical to elliptical. Slightly
glossy. Dull white. 75.8 x 58.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-4-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes or by female
alone, beginning with the first egg. Green branches for lining brought during
incubation. 35-45 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down thin and long, creamy to greyish-
buff. darker on wings and rump, paler on throat. Replaced at c. 3 weeks by second
down; longer, coarse and woolly. Pale greyish-buff above, darker on sides and under-
side. Feathering begins at c. 30 days. No information on bare parts at hatching. Later
irides dark brown; cere and bare eye patch blackish-grey; bill black, with yellow
edges; feet yellow; claws black; mouth pink; tongue brownish-yellow, pink at base.
At fledging, bare whitish-yellow skin between eye and cere; eye ring yellow.
Nestling period. Young brooded and tended closely by female for 2 weeks, female
in attendance near by for further 2 weeks; male bringing all food during this period.
Young become active at c. 10 days, pick up food at c. 35-40 days, move from nest
at c. 56 days. No loss of smallest. They fly at c. 70 days, remaining near nest and
relying on parents for food for a further 35-40 days.
PALLAS’S SEA EAGLE Haliaeetus leucoryphus	PI. 28
Breeds on large rivers and lakes, at times at high altitudes. Nest in a tree, or on rock
outcrop, sand bar. or in reedbed.
84
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A massive structure of sticks, reeds and debris; reused and added to annually.
Sparse lining of green branches and grasses. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes up to 4. Short elliptical, coarse textured, non-glossy.
Dull white. 69.7 x 55.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation usually by female only,
beginning with the first egg; fed by the male. 30-40 days?
Nestling. Semi-altricial.and downy. First down thin, long and brownish-grey. Sec-
ond long, woolly and greyish-brown.
Nestling period. Young brooded and tended at first by female; fed by male. Later
fed by both parents. Young fly at c. 70 days.
BLACK KITE Milvus migrans	Pls 6, 27
Breeds in open country with trees, often near human activity. Nest usually in a tree,
more rarely on a rock outcrop or building. 6-30 m up. Often solitary pairs, but may
nest colonially.
Nest. Usually built, although old nests of other large birds may be used. New nests are
small, but may be reused and enlarged annually. Mainly of twigs, but incorporating a
great variety of debris; with paper, rags and fur in the lining. Built mainly by the male.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to mid-May, but may be later in east, and from Feb-
ruary' in Egypt. Single brooded.
Eggs. 2-3, sometimes 1-5. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy and dull white.
Unmarked or variably marked with spots or blotches of reddish or purplish-brown
and faint purple-grey markings. 53.2 x 43.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation mainly or entirely by the
female; beginning with the first egg; mainly fed by the male. Period variously
claimed as 25-38 days, more probably around 28.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
long, especially on head, and shorter below. Pale pinkish-brown above, paler below.
Head and neck white with dark mark on lores and around eye. Second down, from
c. 5 days, shorter and coarser; grey above, paler on crown and throat, rufous-buff
above. At hatching, cere flesh-pink, tinged green; bill black; bill edges orange-yel-
low; shanks and feet flesh-pink, toes yellowish-grey; claws grey. Later, cere and bill
edges yellow; bill black; shanks and feet pale yellow; claws black; mouth p nk;
tongue grey, pink at base, with grey tongue spurs; irides dark brown.
Nestling period. Female broods and tends young closely for first week, later remains
near. Chicks feathered and active by 30 days, pick up food by 35 days. Both adults
bring food but only the female feeds the young. Young will move out of the nest at
c. 40-42 days, fly at c. 42 days. The young remain near the nest for a few weeks.
Independent at c. 28 days after leaving nest.
RED KITE Milvus milvus	Pl. 27
Breeds normally in wooded country with nearby open spaces. Nest is in a tree at
6-30 m up, preferably based on the old nest of a larger bird such as Raven or
Buzzard. Will also use pylon or similar site.
Nest. The old nests used arc built up with sticks and various debris, including rags
but not leafy twigs. The male brings most material and the female builds. Material
may be taken from the ground, or twigs broken from trees by perched or flying birds.
Breeding season. Begins early March in south to early May in north. Single-
brooded, lost clutches rarely replaced.
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
85
Eggs. 2-3, sometimes 4, rarely 5. Short elliptical. Non-glossy. White, variably
spotted or blotched with reddish or purplish-brown. 56.8 x 45.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-day intervals. Incubation mainly or entirely by female,
beginning with first egg; partly fed by male. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down long
with fine tips, especially long on crown of head. Buffish-brown above, creamy-white
below. Top of head paler, buffish or creamy, with brown loral patch in front of eye.
Second down a more rufous darker brown. At hatching, cere and bill edges pink, both
turning yellow within 2 days; shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws pink, soon turning
grey; mouth and tongue pink. Later, shanks and feet yellow; claws black; tongue
grey, pink at base, with grey tongue spurs.
Nestling period. Female broods young and feeds them for first 2 weeks, until they
begin to feather, the male bringing food. Later she brings food to the nest, partly from
the male, feeding the young; but after 4 weeks leaving them to break it up. Young
vary in size and the smallest may die of starvation. First flight at 50 days, returning
intermittently to nest for c. 2 weeks after. After 3 weeks young follow parents.
Independent c. 26 days after first flight.
BLACK-SHOULDERED KITE Elanus caendeus	Pl. 27
Breeds in open countiy, usually with scattered trees or bushes. Nest in a solitary tree,
1.5-18 in up.
Nest. A thin flat twig structure, built annually and not reused. Male usually brings
most material and female incorporates it. Grass may be used for a lining.
Breeding season. Begins February to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 5. Short elliptical. Smooth. Cream or pale buff with spots,
blotches or streaks of dark brown or pale purplish-grey. Often heavily marked at
times as a cap at the larger end. 39.4 x 30.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation normally by female alone,
fed by male, and beginning with the first egg or when the clutch is nearing comple-
tion. 31 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down dense and short; pinkish-buff, paler
below, and darker loral patch around the eye. Second down, from с. 1 week, grey
above, paler below; tinged brown on the head, with darker loral patch. At hatching
cere yellowish-pink; bill black; shanks and feet pink. Later, cere and bill edges yel-
low; irides brown; bill blackish-grey; feet yellow; claws black; mouth pinkish-red;
tongue grey, reddish-pink at base, with grey longue spurs.
Nestling period. At first young are brooded closely and tended by female, the male
bringing food. Later the female brings most of the food and she alone feeds the
young. The young show considerable s ze variation and the youngest sometimes
dies. When young are feathered at c. 20 days they begin to pick up food. They first
fly at c. 5 weeks, but remain with the adults for another 2-3 weeks.
SHORT-TOED EAGLE Circaetus gallicus	PI. 31
Breeds in open or sparsely wooded country. Nest on the top of a tree, usually a fairly
low one, but inconspicuous; rarely in higher trees or on cliff ledges. Usually builds
a new nest but may reuse an old site.
Nest. A rather thin twig structure; of slender twigs, with a hollow sparsely lined with green
leafy twigs or bunches of pine needles. Built by both parents; male supplies material.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early June. Single-brooded.
86
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Only 1. Large, short elliptical to short subclliptical. Fairly smooth, wh te. 73.5
x 57.8 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female alone, fed by male; rarely the male incubates a little.
47 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Head noticeably large. Down on head, body and
thighs. First and second down both white. Second down coarser and thicker. At
hatching, cere and bill edges grey; bill black, bluish-grey at base; shanks and feet
pale greyish-pink; claws black; eye black; mouth pink; tongue pinkish-grey. Later,
shanks and feet whitish-yellow; some bluish-grey bare skin around, but mainly in
front of the eye; tongue pink, grey at base; eye changes from pale grey to pale yel-
low to yellow; ail other bare parts as at hatching.
Nestling period. The female broods the young and tends it until feathering begins
at c. 25-30 days. Male brings food, mostly reptiles, and may feed the young one;
which at an early age learns to swallow whole snakes and will pull them tail first
from the parental bill, but otherwise seizes them head first. Young is feathered at
c. 45 days; tends to leave the nest for branches at c. 60 days; flies at c. 70-75 days.
EGYPTIAN VULTURE Neophron perenopterus	Pl. 30
Breeds in dry open country. Nests in small crevices and natural cavities in rock
outcrops; more rarely on buildings or trees. In solitary, scattered pairs.
Nest. Site constantly reused. New nests thin but annual additions produce bulky
structures. Mainly of twigs, lined with debris, skin and fur, rags etc. Heavily
plastered with droppings. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April, and to May in North Africa.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Short subelliptical. Rough textured. Drab whitish,
buff or reddish, usually speckled, mottled or blotched with bold or faint variable
reddish-brown or purplish-red markings. The markings may be small and sparse, or
overall speckling with blotching, or ground colour may be completely obscured.
Heavy continuous blotching may cover the larger end. 66.2 x 50.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-4-day intervals. Both sexes incubate, beginning with the
first egg. 39-42 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs and upper shanks.
First and second down buff on body and thighs, light brown on head. Second down
slightly paler, white on parts of body. Bare eye-patch bluish-grey. At hatching, lower
shanks and feet flesh-pink, later greenish-yellow. Bill creamy-yellow at first, chang-
ing to bluish-grey, cream at tip of mandibles. Cere, bill edges, base of mandibles
olive-green, changing to creamy-yellow in later stages. Bare facial skin olive-green.
Claws whitish-grey at hatching, later black. Mouth pink, tongue dark grey.
Nestling period. Both parents brood and feed young, which may differ noticeably
in size. c. 12 weeks to flying.
LAMMERGEIER Gypaetus barbatus	PI. 30
Breeds in mountain regions, pairs occupying large territories. Nest in a hollowed
niche, cavity or cave in the face of a rocky crag; sheltered by an overhang. Several
alternative sites are used. Solitary breeder.
Nest. Large and relatively shallow, on a ledge; of branches and twigs, the hollow
lined with animal bones. The site is heavily marked with droppings. Built by both
birds.
Breeding season. Begins January in the south to March in the north. Single-brooded.
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
87
Eggs. 1-2. Short elliptical. Fine textured. Whitish, blotched with brown and purple;
or with a heavy yellowish or buff wash. 85.6 x 66.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only, beginning with the first egg. 55-60 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs and upper shanks.
First down short; white or pale grey, with barring on the sides of the head. Second
down long and coarse; pale grey, darker on head, shading later to grey-brown. No
information on bare parts at hatching. Later, cere, bare facial skin, and bill edges
bluish-grey; bill pale yellow, black at tip; lower shanks and feet cream or pale grey;
claws black; mouth and tongue pink.
Nestling period. Both parents tend and feed the young for first 3 weeks; later they are left
alone more. Young can swallow large portions, including large pieces of bone, from an
early age. They fly at c. 107-117 days, but may revisit nest at long intervals after leaving.
LAPPET-FACED VULTURE Torgos tracheliotus	PI. 30
Breeds in desert regions. Nest on top of a flat-topped thorn tree, low at times; or high
in other trees; more rarely on a rock outcrop. Solitary. New nests sometimes built
each year, or nests re-used annually, or with nearby alternative sites.
Nest. A large shallow structure of sticks, the cup lined with fur, dung and grass. Built
by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins January to March. Single-brooded. Possible nesting at less
than annual intervals.
Eggs. Only 1. Short elliptical. Fine textured. Dull white, spotted and blotched with
brown. 91.1 x 68.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 55-56 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down thick and woolly, short on thighs and
upper shanks; grey. Bill dark bluish-grey. Cere pinkish-blue. Facial skin pale grey,
sometimes tinged pink. Legs and feet grey. In larger young, cere and bare skin on
head and neck mainly pale grey, with areas nearest to bill tinged pink or blue; bill
bluish-black, brown at tip and cutting edges; legs and feet whitish-grey; claws black;
iris brown; mouth pink; tongue pink, grey at edges of tip.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both adults. Nestling brooded or shaded
for first 60 days, begins to stand erect after 100 days. 122-126 days in nest, and after-
wards dependent for a long period.
BLACK VULTURE Aegypius monachus	PI. 30
Breeds below the tree-limit of mountain regions. Nest usually on a large, isolated
tree, or rarely on a ledge. In Spain typically on bushy hillsides with large scattered
cork oaks. Often solitary, loosely colonial at times.
Nest. Reused annually. New nest large, old ones enormous. Of large sticks. Lined
with leafy branches, bark and skin. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins February to March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Short elliptical. Rough surfaced. White or buffish, variably marked
with chestnut-red, brown or purple; sometimes very thickly marked. 90 x 69.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 52-55 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, and short on upper
shanks, absent from sides and back of neck and face. First down short and thick; buff-
ish-grey. Second down thicker and woollier; dark grey, brown on head. At hatching,
cere and bare facial skin greyish-blue; bill black, greyish blue at base of lower
mandible; bare skin on neck, shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws grey; mouth pink;
tongue grey, pink at base, with grey tongue spurs. Later, cere and bare skin on neck.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
shanks and feet whitish-pink; claws black; bill black, whitish-pink at base of lower
mandible. Well-developed young have darker facial skin and a pink eye ring.
Nestling period. Young are fed by both adults on regurgitated food, and one adult is
present for most of the period. The nest becomes very foul. Feathering occurs in 30-60
days, and first flight at c. 100 days. Young remain near the nest for a further 6 weeks.
GRIFFON VULTURE Gypsfulvus	Pls 6,31
Breeds on crags and rocky outcrops. Nests in natural cavities and crevices, and
occasionally on more open ledges, in loose colonies.
Nest. Rather flat twig structures, material sometimes scanty; lined with leafy
branches and debris. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins late January to mid-February. Single-brooded, replace-
ment of lost eggs after c. 2-month interval.
Eggs. Only 1. Short subelliptical. Fairly smooth or finely granular surface. White,
sometimes sparsely spotted with red-brown. 92.4 x 69.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 48-54 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs and upper shanks,
very short on head and neck. First down whitish-grey, white on head. Pink skin show-
ing in parts; bare on centre of breast and belly. Second down longer and thicker;
whitish-buff. Bare skin on face and lower mandible greyish-blue. Cere blackish-
grey. At hatching, bill dark blackish-grey, shading to pinkish-buff towards tip; later
only the mandible tips are pinkish-buff. Lower shanks and feet pinkish-grey; later
the lower shanks are yellowish-grey, feet are dark grey. Claws black. Mouth pink;
tongue grey.
Nestling period. Young are brooded and fed by both adults at first, fed by regurgi-
tation. At c. 70 days they are feathered and left more alone by adults. They become
active, exercising and wandering from the nest; and may visit other nests. Adults
only visit to feed, about once a day. For large young food is disgorged onto the nest.
First flight is at c. 110-115 days.
MARSH HARRIER Circus aeruginosus	Pl. 31
Breeds in large marshes and fens, usually in the cover of large reedbeds, and at times
in cornfields. Nest is on the ground, sometimes in very shallow water or raised in
reedbeds; occasionally reused in successive years.
Nest. A large mass of sticks, dead reeds, etc.; lined with grasses. Larger than that of
other harriers. Built mainly or entirely by the female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-8. Short subelliptical. Bluish-white, smooth, but
non-glossy. Sometimes stained by nest material. 50.1 x 38.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male; usually beginning with first egg, some-
times with second or third. 33-38 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
short and scant, with much pink skin visible; pale grey on back, pale buff on wings,
white on head and upperparts. Second down thick and coarse; buffish-grey on body,
bullish-white on head and underparts. At hatching, cere and bill edges creamy-pink;
upper mandible black; lower mandible flesh-pink, black at tip; shanks, feet and claws
flesh-pink; mouth and tongue pink, with grey tongue spurs. Later, cere, bill edges,
shanks and feet yellow; bare eye patch blackish-grey; bill black, bluish-grey at base
(later black only); claws grey (later black); mouth deep pink; tongue pale grey.
Nestling period. Hatching interval varies. Female broods and tends closely for 7-10
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
89
days, male bringing food. Later both adults hunt. As soon as they are active young
may leave the nest and return freely. They feather in 21-28 days and fly at 35-40
days. They fly weakly and remain near the nest for about a fortnight, but follow
parents after this and are independent in a further 2-3 weeks.
HEN HARRIER Circus cyaneus	Pl. 31
Breeds on moorland, and open marshland. Nest on the ground; usually in the shelter
of taller vegetation, shrubs or grasses. Built mainly by the female. The same area but
not the same site may be reused. Pairs associate in a loose colony at times.
Nest. On dry sites a thin layer of small sticks and reeds, lined with grass. On wet
ground it is a larger and substantially thicker structure. Built mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April in the south to late May or early June in the north.
Single-brooded. Replacement clutches may be laid.
Eggs. 4-6, rarely up to 12. Short subelliptical. Bluish-white, rarely blotched with
light brown; inside of shell green. 46.2 x 35.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2 days or more. Incubation by female alone,
beginning with second to fourth egg. 29-39 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy, Down on head, body and thighs. First down
short, sparse below; mainly white, buffish on back, wings and sides of head and neck.
Second down coarser and thick; greyish-buff, paler on head and below. At hatching,
cere, bill edges, shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws pink; bill black; mouth and tongue
pink, with grey tongue spurs. Later cere, bill edges, shanks and feet yellow; bare eye
patch grey; bill black, bluish-grey at base (later black only); claws black; bill black,
bluish-grey at base (later black only); claws black.
Nestling period. Young closely brooded and fed by female for c. 2 weeks, the male
bringing food and passing it to the female in mid-air. The young begin to feather at
e. 14 days and this is complete in c. 35 days. During this period they leave the nest
and hide in nearby vegetation, returning when the parent brings food. Very small
young often die. Young fly at c. 37 days, at first remaining near by while the adults
bring food, later accompanying them. The point of independence is not known but
maturation may be slow Males occasionally have 2 or 3 females but this forces the
females to hunt too, with a greater likelihood of nest loss.
PALLID HARRIER Circus macrourus	PI. 31
Breeds on open grassland and steppes. Nest on the ground on slightly raised areas in
grassland or swamp. Sheltered by tall plants, shrubs or reeds.
Nest. A shallow hollow in the ground, lined with grasses. Built by female; male
occasionally bringing material.
Breeding season. Begins late April to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Short subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Bluish-white,
occasionally with small pale brown spots; sometimes more heavily blotched brown.
44.8 x 34.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at c. 2-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with first egg, and fed by the male. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down buffish-white. Second down pale
warm buff, paler below. Down on head, body, and thighs. Bare eye patch dark grey.
Bill black. At hatching, cere, gape edges, bare shanks and feet flesh-pink; all yellow
in first few days. Claws pale grey at first, later black. Mouth and tongue pink; later,
tongue has a black base or is completely black. Iris brown, later changing to pale
grey in male.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
*NestIing period. Young vary greatly in size and smaller ones may die. Young are
brooded and fed by female for the first 3 weeks, the male bringing food. They feather
in the third and fourth week; and fly at c. 35-40 days. They remain with the parents
for 2-3 more weeks.
MONTAGU’S HARRIER Circus pygargus	PI. 31
Breeds on open marshland, in cornfields, or on rough moorland or heathland. Often
pairs are associated in a loose colony. Nest on the ground, among taller vegetation,
built mainly by the female.
Nest. A rather flat structure; of reed stems, twigs and coarse grass, lined with fine
grass. Vegetation immediately surrounding nests tends to be beaten down.
Breeding season. Begins May to early June (April in N. Africa). Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5. sometimes 3-10. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. Bluish-white, rarely marked with small red-brown markings. Shell green
on inside. 32.7 x 41.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1 % to 3 days. Incubation by female alone, beginning with
the third or fourth egg, the male bringing food. 27-30 days for 1 egg; 27-40 days for
a typical clutch.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
short, sparse below; whitish-or greyish-buff, paler on head and underparts. Second
down, from c. 7 days, longer and coarser; pale buff, whitish-grey on head. At hatch-
ing, cere and bill edges creamy-pink; bill black; shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws
grey: mouth pink; tongue pink, with grey tongue spurs; pink only or with narrow
black markings along edge, or with narrow black band across base. Later cere, bill
edges, shanks and feet yellow; bare eye patch bluish-grey; bill black, bluish-grey at
base (later black only); claws black; tongue grey, with pink tip or grey with pink cen-
tre and tip.
Nestling period. Young vary considerably in size and smaller young tend to die.
Young are brooded and fed by the female for the first 3 weeks, the male bringing
food to her. The young cannot stand properly until c. 12 days, when they become
active and begin to feather, completing this by fourth week. The female remains near
by later and the male brings most of the food. Young fly at c. 35 40 days, remain-
ing near the nest and becoming independent in c. 10 days more.
SPARROWHAWK Accipiter nisus	Pls 6,28
Breeds in woodlands. The nest is built in a tree at a variable height. An old nest of
another bird may be used as a base.
Nest. A flattish structure, of dry twigs loosely put together and roughly lined with
leafy twigs. Mainly built by the female, with some assistance from the male.
Breeding season. Begins in April in the south to early June in the north, the cycle
being completed in c. 122 days. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4—5, sometimes 2-7. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. Bluish-white, variably
marked with irregular dark brown spots, blotches or streaks, sometimes as a wreath
around the large end, or a dark cap. 39.8 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-4 days. Incubation by the female alone,
beginning with the second or third egg, the male bringing food. 32-35 days for a
single egg. up to 42 for a clutch.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
short and silky, sparse below; greyish-white. Second down, from c. 7 days. longer,
coarser and woollier; buffish-white, white on underparts. At hatching, cere and bill
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
91
edges pinkish-cream; irides black; bill black, pink at base of lower mandible; shanks
and feet flesh-pink; claws grey; mouth and tongue reddish-pink. Later, cere and bill
edges yellow; bare eye patch pale greenish-grey, changing to bluish-grey; eye ring
pale yellow; bill blackish-grey, bluish-grey at base, becoming black; shanks and feet
orange-yellow; claws black; irides greenish-grey.
Nestling period. The female broods closely and feeds the young for 4 or 5 days, with
the male bringing food to the nest. Brooding continues for a few more days, with the
female leaving to collect food from the male, then both parents hunt. The young
feather in 13-28 days. After 15 days they can feed themselves; at c. 32 days they can
fly, but are dependent on their parents for another c. 27 days.
SHIKRA Accipiter hadius	Pi. 28
Breeds on savannah grasslands with scattered trees. Nest is in a tree c. 4.5-15 m
up.
Nest. A shallow structure of slender twigs, sparsely lined with leafy branches. Built
by female alone, a new nest being built annually.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2-4. rarely 7. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. Pale bluish-white. 40.4 x 31.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-3 days. Incubation by female only, fed by
male. 28-29 days. Beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down buffish above, white on head and below.
Second down coarse and thick. No information on bare parts at hatching. Later, cere
and bill edges pale yellow; bill black; irides grey-brown; legs light greenish-yellow.
Nestling period. Female broods young closely in the earlier part of the period,
feeding on food brought by the male. Later both parents hunt. Young fly at
30+ days.
LEVANT SPARROWHAWK Accipiter brevipes
Breeds in woodland in the river valleys of more open country. Nest in a tree 4.5-
9 m up.
Nest. A small shallow structure, of twigs, the hollow lined with green leaves.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5, sometimes 3. Short subclliptical. Non-glossy. Bluish or greenish-white,
with small faint spots of brown or grey. 40.5 x 31.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with the first egg. ? 30-35 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down white. Second down thick; whitish-
buff on upperparts, paler on head and below. No information on bare parts at hatch-
ing. Later, cere and bill edges pale yellow; bill black; mouth pink; tongue grey; irides
black, changing to grey.
Nestling period. The young are fed at the nest by both parents. They fly at c. 40-45
days, but remain in the locality for c. 2 weeks afterwards.
GOSHAWK Accipiter gentilis	PI. 28
Breeds mainly in mature woodland. Nest is in a tree, usually high up; built by the
bird, more rarely based on a nest of another species. Old nest may be reused and a
series of alternative sites in the territory utilised.
Nest. A large, shallow, untidy structure of dead twigs, lined with pieces of bark and
leafy twigs or bunches of conifer needles which arc constantly renewed. Built
mainly, or in the case of a new nest entirely, by the male.
Breeding season. Begins in April in the south to mid-June in the north. Single-brooded.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. 3 4, rarely 1-6. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy and rough-textured. Pale
bluish-white. 57.4 x 44.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-day intervals. Incubation mainly or entirely by the
female, fed by the male. 35-38 days. Beginning from next to last egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down short,
silky and thick above, sparser below; whitish-grey. Second down longer and wool-
lier; grey, paler on head and below. At hatching, cere creamy-yellow; bill edges pink;
irides black; bare eye patch grey, darker in front of eye; bill blackish-blue, bluish-grey
at base; shanks and feet flesh-pink: claws grey; mouth pink; tongue pink, with grey
tongue spurs. Later, cere, bill edges, shanks and feet yellow; claws black; bare eye
patch grey; irides change to pale greyish-blue by fledging, subsequently to yellow.
Nestling period. The female closely broods and feeds the young for 8-10 days, and
after this remains near by, the male bringing food. The young feather in 18-38 days.
They tear up food from c. 28 days. The female brings leafy twigs for renewing the
nest lining through most of the period. The young leave the nest to perch at c. 35
days, and fly at c. 40 days, after which the female also hunts. The young begin
hunting at c. 50 days and are independent at c. 70 days.
DARK CHANTING GOSHAWK Melierax meiabates	Pl. 28
Breeds in dry woodland, scrub or more open country. In solitary pairs, nesting in
trees, usually thorn trees, at 4.5-9 m up. Nest re-used, or new nest built nearby.
Nest. A small and shallow, saucer-shaped structure. Of twigs, with mud incorporated
and lined with a variety of debris - rags, grass, dung and stones. Both sexes build;
construction is slow.
Breeding season. Begins March to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 1, sometimes 2. Elliptical to subelliptical. Non-glossy. Bluish-white.
52.6 x 41.3 mm.
Incubation. Over 30 days. By female only.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down greyish-white; long on crown and back.
Cere and bill edges yellow; bill greyish-black; shanks and feet pale yellowish-
orange; irides dark hazel, later grey.
Nestling period. Young, if more than one, of very different size and the smaller
usually dies. Fledge at 36-50 days.
COMMON BUZZARD Buteo buteo	PI. 29
Breeds in wooded country with open areas. Usually on trees, or on cliffs and rock
outcrops in more open regions; very rarely on the ground. The nest may be reused
annually, or alternative sites used.
Nest. A bulky structure; of sticks, twigs and stalks, lined with greener material from
leafy twigs to seaweed, constantly renewed during nesting. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins late March or early April in the south, to late May in the
north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 1-6. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Non-glossy. White,
variably blotched with chestnut-red or brown and faint purplish or greyish-brown
blotches; sometimes with only a few faint markings. 56.8 x 45.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, mainly, some-
times solely, by female. 33-35 days for a single egg. Up to 42 days for a clutch.
Beginning with first or second egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down grey
to huffish or brownish-grey above, white on throat and underparts. Second down thicker
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
93
and coarser; buffish-grey to dark greyish-brown. At hatching, cere pink or pale yellow;
bare eye patch pale bluish-grey; bill black, bluish-grey at base; bill edges orange; shanks
and feet orange or flesh-pink; claws grey; mouth pink. Later, cere, bill edges, shanks
and feet yellow; claws black; bill black; bare eye patch darker shade of bluish-grey;
mouth pink; tongue pink with grey or dark grey tongue spurs; irides brown or grey.
Nestling period. Young vary in size and the smallest may die. The female broods
and tends young closely for 8-12 days, the male bringing food. After this both par-
ents hunt, but only the female actually feeds the young. The second down of the
young grows at c. 7 days; they feather at 12-30 days, feed themselves after c. 30
days, and fly at 40-45 days.
ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD Buteo lagopus	Pl. 28
Breeds in bare, open and mountainous country, or in open woodland. Nest usually
on a ledge or a rock outcrop in more open regions, or in a tree in wooded regions.
Nest reused annually or several sites used alternately.
Nest. Smaller than that of Common Buzzard, of twigs, thickly lined with green
vegetation or moss.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to June in north. Single-brooded; no
replacement clutches laid. Young from late clutches have poor chances of survival.
Eggs. 2-3, 5-7 in good lemming years. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Non-
glossy. White, usually variably marked with blotches or streaks of chestnut-red or
brown. 55.3 x 44.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes or by female alone, beginning with the first egg. 28-31 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down long but
sparse, longest on head; pale grey above, lighter below. Second down coarser and thicker;
grey. At hatching, cere pale greenish-yellow; bill black, greyish-blue at base of each
mandible; bill edges pale orange; shanks and feet flesh-pink; mouth and tongue pink.
Later cere, bill edges, shanks and feet yellow; claws black; bare eye patch bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Female broods the young closely and feeds them; the male bring-
ing food. Later she remains near by but does not hunt until the young are well-
feathered. The young vary in size and small ones may die and be eaten at c. 2 weeks
old. Young acquire the second down by c. 10 days and feather by c. 35 days, flying
at c. 41 days.
LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD Buteo rufinus	Pl. 28
Breeds in arid open habitats - steppes, mountains, and semi-desert. Nest on a ledge
of a rock outcrop, often fairly low and sheltered by bushes; or where outcrops are
absent on a bank or the ground; rarely in a tree.
Nest. A large structure of dry twigs, the hollow lined with finer stems, grasses, wool, etc.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2-3, occasionally 4 or 5. Short subelliptical or elliptical. Non-glossy.
Greenish-white to white with blotching of brown, pale grey and purple. 60 x 47 mm
in Asia; 55 x 44 mm in North Africa.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female, c. 28 days. Beginning before
completion of the clutch.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down longer on head. First down white. Sec-
ond down coarse and thick; varies from yellowish to creamy-white. No information
on bare parts at hatching. Later, cere and bill edges yellow; bare eye patch bluish-
grey; bill black, bluish-grey at base (later black only); legs pale yellow; mouth pink.
Nestling period. Both adults bring food to young. Young fly at c. 40-42 days.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
HONEY BUZZARD Pernis apivorus	Pl. 27
Breeds in woodland, often close to a ride or clearing. Nest high in a tree, often built
on an old nest of another large bird. New nests may be built each year, or alternative
nests used; or the same nest may be used for several years in succession.
Nest. Variable in size. Of sticks, lined with leafy twigs, both sexes build.
Breeding season. Begins late May in south to late June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2 (1-3). Short elliptical. Smooth. White to creamy-buff, usually vari-
ably marked, speckled to blotched, with chestnut-red to reddish-brown, which some-
times almost covers the eggs. 50.8 x 41.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-5-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, although
mainly by the female, beginning with the first egg. 30-35 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down long
and silky above, shorter below; pale buffish-grey above and white below, with a
creamy or whitish-yellow head. Second down thicker, coarser and shorter; pale yel-
lowish-buff on head and back, white on wings. In early stages, cere and bill edges
pale yellow; bill black, flesh-pink at base of both mandibles; bare skin between eye
and cere bluish-grey; shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws grey. Later, cere.and bill
edges yellow; bill black; shanks and feet brownish-yellow; claws black; mouth pink;
tongue blackish-grey, pink at base.
Nestling period. Young brooded and fed by both parents for the first few days, and
after this left more alone. They feather at c. 25 days; exercise actively at 28 days
onwards; fly at 40-44 days but may return to nest occasionally for a further 2-8
weeks. Wasp larvae are extensively used for food and wasp combs may be left on a
used nest, thereby identifying it.
BONELLI’S EAGLE Hieraaetus fasciatus	Pl. 29
Breeds on the lower wooded slopes of mountain regions. Nest on a large rock out-
crop, crag or tree, or on a building. Nest is reused in later years, but several
alternative sites may be used.
Nest. Smaller at first, but becoming massive over the years. Large for the size of the
bird. Of large thick twigs, leafy twigs being used in the lining and also added during
incubation. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins February to April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2, sometimes 1, rarely 3. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. White, sparingly
marked with brown and pale lilac spots and streaks. 69 x 54 mm.
Incubation. 37-40 days, mainly by the female, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial, and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, and very short on
shanks. First down whitish-grey. Second down longer and coarser on head and body,
short and thick on thighs and shanks; whitish-grey above, paler below, and whitish-
buff on head. At hatching, cere and bill edges pale yellow; bill blackish-grey, grey-
ish-blue at base; bare eye-patch pale bluish-grey; feet brownish-yellow; claws grey.
Later, cere and bill edges yellow; bill black, or black with greyish-blue at base; bare
eye-patch blackish-grey; feet pale yellow; claws black; mouth pink; tongue grey,
pink at base.
Nestling period. Young are brooded closely by both parents for first 2 weeks,
and fed by both at times. After this they are less in evidence. With two young,
one usually kills the other. The young one feathers at 30-45 days and usually feeds
itself by then. It flies at c. 65 days and remains with the adults for a further 8 weeks
or more.
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
95
BOOTED EAGLE Hieraaetus pennatus	Pi. 29
Breeds in woodland, usually in mountain country. Nest is usually on a tree 6-15 m
up; or on a rock outcrop in more open country. The nest is reused annually and
alternative sites may be used.
Nest. A large structure of sticks, with a lining of green leaves or bunches of pine
needles. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. White, variably
marked with brown, very faint at times. 55 x 44.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of several days. Incubation by female alone,
beginning with first egg. 35-38 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. The adults are dimoqphic in plumage colour. The
down is white in pale-phase young; grey in dark phase. First down on head, body, thighs
and shanks. Second down, from c. 6 days, denser on all parts. Bare eye-patch dark grey.
Bill black at tip, dark blue at base. At hatching, cere and gape edges yellow-buff and feet
flesh-pink; all yellow by 5 days. Claws pale grey at hatching, later black. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. The young are tended closely at first by the female. The male brings
food. The smaller young usually die. Feathering on wings and tail in 10-23 days,
complete at 45 days. Young fly at c. 8 weeks, remaining with the adults for some
time after this.
GOLDEN EAGLE Aquila chrysaetos	Pls 6.30
Breeds in mountain regions. Nests on rock ledges of outcrops or cliffs, or in trees,
individuals using either or both. Several sites within a territory are used alternately.
Nest. New nests on ledges tend to be large but thin, those on trees are thicker; but
both become massive with reuse. Building may occur at more than one site during a
year. Nests are of thick branches, twigs and stems of any kind, and are lined with
leafy twigs or tufts of conifer needles, which may be added continually during the
nesting period. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late January to early February in the south (North Africa)
to late May to June in the north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1, rarely 3. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy, white, usu-
ally spotted or blotched with brown, chestnut-red and pale grey; the two in a clutch
often varying with one unmarked. 76.7 x 59.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-4-day intervals. Incubation usually by female alone,
sometimes by both, beginning with first egg. 43-45 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, and very short on
shanks. First down white or with pale grey tips. Second down, from 6-15 days,
thicker and coarser; greyish white. At hatching, cere and bill edges pinkish or grey-
ish-yellow; upper mandible pale greyish-blue, blackish-grey towards the tip; lower
mandible pale greyish-blue; bare eye-patch bluish-grey; feet flesh-pink; claws pale
grey. Later, cere, bill edges and feet yellow; claws black; both mandibles blackish-
grey, pale bluish-grey at base; bare eye-patch dark grey; mouth pink; tongue elon-
gated. grey, with flesh-pink edges and tip, pink at base, with grey tongue spurs.
Nestling period. Young are closely brooded by the female at first, brooding ceasing
at c. 30 days, the young feathering at 30-50 days. Usually the smaller young one
dies. The female feeds young on food brought by the male, continuing until c. 40
days when young feed themselves. Later both parents bring food. The young exer-
cise and practise pouncing while on the nest at c. 50 days and fly at c. 63-70 days,
but are weak on the wing for another 3 weeks.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
SPANISH IMPERIAL EAGLE Aquila adalberti
Breeds in lower, parkland-type regions, open with scattered trees, in central and
S.W. Spain and S. Portugal. Nest in or nearly at the top of a large tree.
Nest. Large mass of branches and twigs, cup lined with small twigs, fur, grass and
debris. Green foliage added to cup throughout nesting. About 1.5 m across and half
as high, reused and gradually more than doubling this size. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-February. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Broad oval, non-glossy. Dull whitish with small and sometimes
few brown, purplish and grey markings. 73 x 57 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation 43 days per egg. By both
sexes but mainly by female, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, and very short on
shanks. First and second down coats white. No information on bare parts at hatch-
ing. Later, irides pale blue; cere and feet yellow; claws black; bill black, with yellow
bill edges.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female for first c. 17
days, amount decreasing after 7 days. Male hunts at first for female and young, then
joined by female. Young fledge at c. 63 days. Independent after 35-67 days from
fledging, with first soaring flight halfway through this period.
EASTERN IMPERIAL EAGLE Aquila heliaca	PI. 29
For breeding prefers park-like habitats, mainly in broadleaf lowland areas, and trees
near or mixed with grassland or wetlands, but will also use solitary trees in cultiva-
tion or steppe-type areas. Uses tall trees for nesting, but exceptionally will use shrub
or cliff ledge. Nest in top of a tree or on high lateral branch.
Nest. Larger mass of branches and twigs, with a cup lined with small twigs, grass,
fur and debris. Green foliage is added to lining throughout nesting. About 1.5 m
across and half as high, becoming larger. Reused, and 2-3 sites used intermittently.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins end of March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Short oval, non-glossy. Dull white or pale buffish, with small
scattered marks or blotches of brown, purplish and grey. 73 x 57 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. 43 days per egg. By both sexes but
mainly by female, possibly fed by male, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, short on shanks. First
and second down white; second down thicker and woollier. In all stages, cere and bill
edges yellow; bill black; bare eye-patch blackish-grey. No information on feet and
claws at hatching; later, feet yellow, claws black. Mouth pink; tongue grey, pink at base.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for first c. 17
days, male bringing food. Later joined by female. Often only largest chick survives,
attacking others. Fledge at 65-77 days, tended well after fledging, and may remain
with parents through winter.
SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila clanga	Pl. 29
Breeds in river valleys with swamps and woodlands, or river valleys of more open
areas. Nest is in a tree in woodland where possible, otherwise in lower trees or bushes
of more open country. Reused annually or alternative sites may be used in succession.
Nest. Small and shallow for the size of the bird when newly built, becoming very
large with reuse. Of sticks, lined with some grass, and with leafy twigs added
throughout the breeding season. Built by both birds.
HAWKS, EAGLES AND VULTURES
97
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. sometimes 1-3. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. Greyish, some-
times with sparse brown and grey spots or blotches. 67.5 x 54 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with the first egg. 42-44 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs and very short on
shanks. First down white or greyish-white. Second down thick and coarse; pale grey,
darker on head. No information on bare parts at hatching. Later, cere and bill edges
yellow; bill black, bluish-grey at base; eye lids olive-green, with black eye-ring, sur-
rounded by round patch of bare creamy-yellow skin; feet yellow, claws grey; mouth
pink; tongue grey, pink at base.
Nestling period. The young differ markedly in size, and the smaller young one usu-
ally dies. The young feather at c. 60 days; fly at 60-65 days. They remain near the
nest for a further 3 weeks.
LESSER SPOTTED EAGLE Aquila pomarina	Pl. 29
Breeds in woodland, less frequently near water than does the Spotted Eagle. The nest
is in a tree, usually on the edge of the forest or a clearing, 6-25 m up, but not at the
top of a tree. Alternative sites reused.
Nest. New nests are small but become enlarged with repeated use. Of sticks, lined
with dry grass and leafy twigs. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early April to mid-May. Single-brooded; lost clutches
sometimes replaced.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Short subelliptical. Non-glossy. White, variably
marked with spots of reddish-brown and grey. 62.9 x 50.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs are laid at 3-day intervals. Incubation mainly by the female,
beginning with the first egg. 38-45 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs and shanks. First down
short and greyish-white. Second down, from c. 10 days, long and coarse; greyish-white,
darker or pale buff on head. In early stages, cere and feet pink; claws flesh; bill black;
mouth pink; tongue grey, pink at base. Later, cere, bill edges and feet yellow; claws black.
Nestling period. The young vary in size and the smaller usually dies in the first
week. The female broods the young closely and feeds them for c. 10 days; remains
at the nest for a further 4 days: thereafter less frequently. The male brings food. The
young feathers at 20-24 days. At 33 days it begins to feed itself and the female begins
to hunt at 28 33 days. The young one flies at 50-55 days and remains near by for c.
3 weeks more.
STEPPE EAGLE Aquila nipalensis
Breeds in dry open steppe or semi-desert, onto hill slopes but mainly in lowlands.
Nests most frequently on ground, on sites such as small eminences, heaps of rocks,
dunes; and man-made structures such as haystacks and empty buildings.
Nest. A large, deep mass of twigs, on the ground on a raised structure or site, some-
times a low bush. The cup is lined with grass or straw. Often reused in other seasons.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Short oval, non-glossy. White, unmarked or with
faint brown markings, or spots and blotches of reddish-brown. 69 x 54 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-day intervals. By female only, c. 45 days, beginning with
first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down white, second down greyish-white.
Cere and feet yellow; bill edges pale yellow; bill black.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling period. Female shelters, broods and feeds young, the male bringing food.
Less chick mortality; sometimes 2, rarely 3, reared. Fledge at c. 60 days.
TAWNY EAGLE Aquila rapax	Pi. 29
Breeds in rocky and mountainous regions, usually in open area with some trees. Nest
is on a tree, occasionally on a low shrub.
Nest. A bulky structure on the top of a tree, often a thorny one. Out on a lateral branch
or more central, c. 90-120 cm across and 30 cm deep, the cavity lined with grass or
straw. Both sexes build, the male usually bringing material, the female building.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Short oval, non-glossy. White, unmarked or with
faint brown markings, or spots and blotches of reddish-brown. 69 x 54 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-day intervals. By female only, c. 45 days, beginning with
first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. First down white to pale grey. Second down,
from c. 10 days, denser and greyer. Cere, bill edges and feet pale yellow; bill black.
Nestling period. Female shelters, broods and feeds young, the male bringing food.
Usually only a single young survives. Fledges at 76-85 days. Tended by adults for
c. 6 weeks more.
VERREAUX’S EAGLE Aquila verreauxi
Breeds in dry open country, rocky and mountainous; or arid grassland with or with-
out scattered trees, in widely dispersed pairs. Nests on a rock ledge of outcrop or
cliff, often under overhang, rarely in a large tree.
Nest. A large flatfish mass of branches and twigs with a shallow cup, about 2 m
across and 0.5-2 m deep. Green leafy twigs added to lining during nesting. Usually
two nest-sites used alternately. Built by both sexes, but mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins January. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. Oval to long oval, non-glossy. White with faint bluish tinge, with
or without small reddish-brown markings. 81 x 59 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 3-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes but mainly by
female, 43-46 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body, thighs, and short on shanks.
Both down coats white. Second down thicker and woollier. In early stages, cere and
bill edges whitish-yellow; (cere pale pink at hatching); bare eye-patch pale bluish-
grey; bill pale bluish-grey, black at tip; feet flesh-pink; mouth and tongue pink. Later,
cere, bill edges and feet yellow; claws black; bare eye-patch and bill dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fed mainly by female. Only larger
chick usually survives, attacking smaller. Young can feed itself at 45-50 days.
Fledges at 84—99 days, roosting on nest-ledge for several subsequent months,
remaining with adults for up to 6 months.
FALCONS Falconidae
Small to medium-sized raptors, usually capable of swift flight and capturing prey on
the wing. They breed in solitary pairs or colonies. They make no nest, using a nat-
ural cavity or ledge, or the nest of another large bird. The eggs are rather rounded
and usually mostly, or entirely, deep chestnut-red in colour. The young are downy on
head, body and thighs, with two successive coats before feathering. The first down
is short and thin, and usually white or greyish-white. Pink skin is sometimes visible
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99
through the down, creating a pinkish tinge overall. The second down, normally from
c. 7-10 days, is longer and coarser and is usually a darker colour, ranging from
shades of grey to buff, and brown in Eleanora’s Falcon. At hatching, bare shanks and
feet are commonly flesh-pink but, within a few days, change to yellow or whitish-
yellow. Cere and bill also change in colour, often from paler to darker shades. A bare
patch of skin around the eye is usually paler in recently hatched young, but this often
darkens. A narrow ring of bare flesh around the eye, known as the eye-ring, or orbital
ring, is blue or yellow and, in the later stages of growth, when the bare eye patch is
feathered, a crescent shaped patch of bare skin remains at the front of the eye; this is
usually the same colour as the eye-ring, except in Peregrine and Lesser Kestrel.
Within a brood, young usually hatch at intervals, varying in size; the smallest may
die if food is scarce, but not through the aggression of other young.
GYR FALCON Falco rusticolus	Pl. 31
Breeds in open tundra regions and within the northern forest limits. Nest usually on
a ledge of a cliff or outcrop, often of a river gorge; at times nests of other large birds
are utilised on ledges, and more rarely in trees. Breeding frequency varies with
weather conditions, and pairs appear not to breed every year.
Nest. A hollow scrape with no additional material, or an old nest of another bird such
as a raven or buzzard. Ledge nests are usually under overhangs. The site is usually
heavily stained with droppings.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 2-7. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth, non-
glossy. Pale buffish or yellowish-white, rarely white; finely spotted with red or
reddish-brown. 58.9 x 45.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at c. 3-day intervals. Incubation usually by female alone,
beginning with the first egg, and disturbance of the sitting bird may cause fatal
chilling. The male rarely assists, but normally brings food. 28-29 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down short;
creamy-white. Second down longer and coarser; greyish-white. In early stages, cere
and bill whitish-pink becoming pale bluish-grey; shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws
grey; bare eye patch whitish-grey. Later, bare eye patch blackish-grey; cere pale bluish-
grey; bill blackish-grey, pale blue at base; shanks and feet whitish-yellow; claws black.
Mouth pink. Eye-ring pale blue, with crescent of bare pale blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. The female closely broods the young at first, feeding them, the
male bringing food. Later both adults hunt and feed young. Young feather at 31-35
days, and fly at 46-49 days. The young remain near by for another 4 weeks, relying
on the adults for food, before becoming independent.
SAKER FALCON Falco cherrug	PI. 31
Breeds in more southerly regions than the previous species; on open, dry plains,
mountains or steppes. Nests on a ledge of a rock outcrop or cliff, or in a tree, using
a large nest of another species. Several sites are used alternately. Will use artificial
sites.
Nest. A hollow scrape with no lining, or the old nest of another species.
Breeding season. Begins late March in south to early May in the north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3-6. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. Creamy or buffish-brown, heavily speckled or spotted with shades of
deep red, occasionally purplish or almost black. 54.2 x 41.6 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Eggs laid at more than 1-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, but
mainly by the female, beginning with the first egg. 28 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; white. Second down, from c. 10 days, longer and coarser; dull-grey white.
At hatching, cere and bill pale bluish-grey; shanks and feet flesh-pink. Later, bill is
pale bluish-grey, dark grey-blue at tip; shanks and feel whitish-yellow; claws black;
bare eye patch bluish-grey. Mouth pink. Eye-ring blue, with crescent of bare blue
skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. Female broods and feeds the young during the early part of the
period. Later both parents bring food. Young feather in 14-30 days, and fly at 40-45
days. They spend a further 30-40 days near the nest.
LANNER FALCON Falco biarnticus	PI. 31
Breeds in drier open country than the Peregrine, including savannah and desert
regions. Nest is usually on a rock outcrop, on a bare ledge or old nest of another bird;
more rarely in the nest of another large bird in a tree; occasionally on a pile of rocks.
Nest. A hollow scrape with no additional lining, or old nest of another bird;
occasionally taken over from the original owners.
Breeding season. Begins January in the south to mid-March in the north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 5. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. White
or pale cream but heavily marked overall with fine speckling or larger blotching in buff,
red or purplish-brown, at times until the ground colour is obscured. 52.3 x 40.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-3 days. Incubation by both sexes. 30-31
(28 35) days. Beginning from early eggs.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down white
or greyish-white. Second down longer and coarser; whitish-grey. In early stages, bill
pink; shanks and feet pale orange; claws pale grey. Later, bare eye patch blackish-grey;
cere pale bluish-grey; bill blackish-grey, paler at base; shanks and feet pale yellow;
claws black. Mouth pink. Eye-ring blue, with crescent of bare blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. Young brooded at first by female, and fed by her, the male bringing
prey and leaving it nearby. The young feather in 13-36 days, feed themselves at c. 30-36
days, and fly at c. 45 days, remaining near the nest with the adults for another 4 weeks.
PEREGRINE Falco peregrinus	Pl. 32
Breeds in a wide range of habitats. Nest normally on a ledge of a cliff or rocky out-
crop; more rarely on a raised mound on the ground in bare open regions; or in the
top of a hollow stump. Sometimes on ledges of large city buildings or in nest-box.
Nest. A hollow scrape with no material added to it.
Breeding season. Begins in March in the south to July in the north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 2-6. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth, non-
glossy. Creamy or buff, very heavily marked and usually obscured by dense fine red
or chestnut-red specklings, irregularly marked at times with pale patches and grey or
purple blotches. 52 x 40.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, but mainly by
the female, beginning with the second to third egg, the male bringing food. 28-29
days for a single egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
sparse; short and creamy-white. Second down long and woolly; buffish-grey above
and creamy below. In early stages, shanks and feet flesh-pink; claws pale grey; cere
FALCONS
101
and bill pale grey, with small dark grey spot at bill tip; bill edges pink; eye-ring blue;
mouth pink. Later, bill blackish-grey, pale bluish-grey at base; cere and bare eye
patch blackish-grey; shanks and feet yellow; claws black; mouth pink; tongue yel-
low, pink at base. A prominent crescent of bare creamy skin at front of the eye is in
contrast to the blue eye-ring. Cere is pale grey in well-developed young.
Nestling period. The female closely broods and feeds young for the first 14 days,
but later leaves them more. For most of the period she feeds the young and the male
brings food for all; but after the first period of intensive care he will feed the young
if she is absent. Young begin to feather at c. 18 days, and exercise at 21 days. Dur-
ing the later period they tear up prey themselves. They fly at 35-42 days, but appear
to be dependent on the adults for a further 2 months.
BARBARY FALCON Falco pelegrinoides	Pl. 32
In most aspects of its nesting appears to closely resemble the Peregrine. Breeds on
islands and in desert and semi-desert areas. Nest on a ledge of cliff, crag or rocky
outcrop, or the nest of a large bird in more wooded regions.
Nest. A slight hollow with no material added; or an old nest of another species.
Breeding season. Begins March to April, possibly earlier in places. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3-4. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Pinkish-white
to pinkish-buff, often speckled or smeared with deep reddish-brown, at times
obscuring other colour. 51.6 x 39.1 mm.
Incubation. By both but mainly by the female, the male bringing food. 28 -30 days.
Nestling and Nestling period. Similar to that of the Peregrine. Young Hedge at
32-39 days.
SOOTY FALCON Falco concolor
Breeds in deserts, on arid coasts, or dry rocky islands. Nest in cliffs, of mainland or
islands, rocky outcrops, or small rocky mounds in open desert. Nest in a shallow hole
or niche, or ledge under a rocky outcrop; or on the ground in the shade of a rock or
thick shrub. Loosely social in nesting, but not colonial, nests being well spaced.
Nest. A shallow unlined scrape sheltered from above.
Breeding season. Begins late July and August. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and non-
glossy. White with chestnut-red sparse markings, or pale buff with buffish-brown
markings. 40.2 x 31.2 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, fed by male. 27-29 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
white. Second down long and coarse; grey on upperparts, paler below, pale buff on
head. In early stages, cere, bill, shanks and feet pale pink. Later, cere, bare eye patch,
and bill bluish-grey, bluish-black at bill tip; shanks and feet yellow; claws black.
Mouth pink. Eye-ring pale blue, with crescent of bare pale blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fed mainly on small migrant birds
on their early autumn migration. Fledge at 32-38 days, fed for some weeks more;
independent at c. 46 days.
ELEONORA’S FALCON Falco eleonorae	PI. 32
Breeds on coasts and islands. In colonies of up to 100 pairs. Nest on a cliff ledge or
on sloping ground, in the shelter of a bush or rock, in a shallow cavity, or a cavern.
Rarely old nests of other birds may be used.
Nest. A slight hollow with no nest material; or old nest of another species.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Docs not begin until mid-July to August, so that the hatching of
the young coincides with the autumn bird migration. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2-3, sometimes 1-4, rarely up to 7. Short subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy.
White or pinkish-white, variably marked or blotched with shades of light brown or
pinkish-brown. 42.2 x 33.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by the female alone,
beginning with the first or second egg, the male bringing food. 28-33 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; creamy-white or greyish-white. Second down longer and coarser; brown.
At hatching, cere and bill whitish-blue; bill edges flesh-pink; bare eye patch pale blue;
shanks, feet and claws brownish-pink; mouth pink. Later, cere pale blue; bill blue,
black at lip; in dark morph birds, the mandibles are black from 10-12 days; shanks
and feet pale yellow. Eye-ring blue, with crescent of bare blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. The female closely broods and feeds the young for 10 days, then
remains close by, taking food from the male and feeding the young. The male is
mainly responsible for bringing food. The young fly at c. 28-35 days.
HOBBY Falco subbuteo	PI. 32
Breeds in open country with scattered trees or patches of woodland. Nests in the nest
of another large bird or on a squirrel drey.
Nest. The nest of another bird species with nothing added; but where a newly made
nest is taken over, part of a thick lining may be removed.
Breeding season. Begins late May in the south to late June in the north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, occasionally 2. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth, non-
glossy. Yellowish-brown densely speckled with fine reddish-brown, obscuring the
ground tint but tending to fade more rapidly than with other falcons. 41.8 x 32.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation, usually beginning with the
second egg, mainly by the female, fed by the male. 28 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; greyish-white. Second down, from c. 7 days, longer and coarser, grey
above, paler below, head whitish-buff. In early stages, cere and bare eye patch very
pale bluish-grey; bill greyish-blue, paler at base, with pale pink bill edges; shanks
and feet flesh-pink; claws grey. Later, bare eye patch blackish-grey; bill edges and
bill blue, paler at base, black at tip; shanks and feet yellow; claws black; mouth pink;
eye-ring pale blue, with crescent of bare blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. The female broods the young for the first week, feeding them on
prey brought by the male. Subsequently she also hunts. The young feather in 2-3
weeks, and fly at 28-32 days. The young continue to be dependent for an unknown
period after leaving the nest.
MERLIN Falco columbarius	PI. 32
Breeds on open moorland, rough pasture, steppe, desert, dunes, coastline or marshes; more
rarely in forest or sparse woodland bordering laige open areas. The nest is usually on the
ground; more rarely on cliff ledges; or in trees, where large nests of other birds are used.
Nest. Normally a bare hollow; but nests in dunes may have a grass lining apparently
pulled in by the sitting bird; while old nests have their original material.
Breeding season. Begins from early April in south to late May or June in the north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, occasionally 2-7. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. Pale buff, obscured by a heavy sprinkling of red, 40.3 x 31.2 mm.
FALCONS
103
Incubation. Eggs laid at about 2-day intervals. Incubation mainly by the female,
beginning before completion of the clutch, the male bringing all food. 28-32 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; creamy-white. Second down, from c. 8 days, longer and coarser; brownish-
grey above, pale grey below, and white with grey bases on chin, throat and belly. At
hatching, cere pink; bill pale pinkish-blue; bill edges pink; shanks and feet flesh-pink;
claws grey; bare eye patch pale bluish-grey; mouth pink. Later, cere changes through
pale grey to yellow; bill blackish-grey or black, blue at base; bill edges blue; bare eye
patch dark blue-grey; shanks and feet yellow; claws black; tongue grey, pink at base,
sometimes pink only. Eye-ring blue, with crescent of bare blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. Young closely brooded by female in the early stages, the male
bringing food but rarely feeding the young. Later both adults hunt. The young are
mainly feathered by 18 days, and fly at 25 -30 days. They remain near by and take
c. 6 weeks to become independent.
KESTREL Falco tinnunculus	Pls 6, 32
Breeds in more open country or broken woodland. Nest in a ledge on a rock outcrop,
cliff or large building: or the old nest of another large bird; or a cavity in a broken or
hollow tree.
Nest. A slight hollow with no material added, although ledge-nesting birds may pull
in odd stems of grass.
Breeding season. Begins February in Canary Islands, April in North Africa, late
March in southern Europe to early June in the north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes up to 9. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. White or yellowish-buff, but usually so heavily speckled with dark red-
brown that ground colour is obscured. Sometimes variably marked or blotched with
reddish-brown, purple, grey or yellowish-brown. 39.7 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-3, rarely 4, days. Incubation mainly by the
female, beginning with the first or a later egg. 27-29 days.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; white. Second down, from c. 8 days, thicker, longer and coarser; buff-grey.
In early stages, cere, bill, bill edges, shanks and feet flesh-pink; mouth reddish-pink;
eye-ring blue: bare eye patch bluish-grey. Later, cere is pale yellow; shanks and feet
yellow; claws black; bill blackish-grey, pale blue at base; eye-ring yellow, with cres-
cent of bare yellow skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. The female closely broods and feeds the young, the male bringing
food. The young feather at 12-20 days and the female then also hunts, but continues
to do all feeding until c. 22 days when they feed themselves. Young fly at 27-39 days,
and remain with the parents, dependent on them for several weeks afterwards.
LESSER KESTREL Falco naumanni	PI. 32
Breeds in open country, nesting in colonies of varying size of 2-100 pairs. Nest a
hole, niche or natural cavity; usually on a large old building; or cliff face; or rarely
a large tree full of holes or old corvid tree-nest.
Nest. A slight hollow with no added material.
Breeding season. Begins late April to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Short subelliptical or short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. White or pale buff, finely speckled with light yellowish-red, or some-
times blotched with red or reddish-brown; usually paler than typical Common
Kestrel eggs. 34.8 x 28.8 mm. Eggs laid at intervals of 1-2 days.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Mainly by the female. 28-29 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down thin
and short; white. Second down, from c. 7days, thicker, longer and coarser; pale grey.
At hatching, cere, bill, bill edges, shanks and feet flesh pink; claws grey. By 7 days,
shanks, feet and cere are turning brownish-yellow and subsequently pale yellow;
bare eye patch pale green. Mouth and tongue pink. When young are about half
grown, bill is bluish-grey, later changing to blackish-grey, blue at base. Claws yel-
lowish-brown. Eye-ring mainly pale greyish-blue, later yellow at front of eye. with
crescent of bare creamy-white skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. Female broods the young closely at first, the male bringing food.
Later in the period both adults bring food, the male bringing most. Young emerge to
the hole entrance at c. 15 days, and fly at 26-28 days; remaining with the parents for
some time after this.
RED-FOOTED FALCON Falco vespertinus	Pl. 32
Breeds in open country with scattered trees and small woods. A colonial nester where
possible, breeding in the old nest of Rooks, or recently vacated nests, while Rooks
are still present in the rookery. Higher nests are preferred. Also breeds solitarily in
old nests of magpies or crows.
Nest. No material is added to the existing structure.
Breeding season. Begins end of May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, occasionally 2-6. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy. White or pale buffish-brown. variably marked, blotched or obscured by
dark reddish-brown. 36.8 x 29.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs are laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes. 22-23 days,
exceptionally up to 27. Beginning with first or second egg.
Nestling. Semi-altricial and downy. Down on head, body and thighs. First down
short and white. Second down, from c. 10 days, longbr and coarser; buffish-grey
above, paler below. No information on bare parts at hatching. Later, cere pale yel-
low; shanks and feet yellow; claws yellowish-brown changing to dark grey; bill dark
blue, greyish-blue at base; bill edges yellow; mouth pink; bare eye patch blackish-
grey. Eye-ring greyish-blue, with crescent of bare greyish-blue skin at front of eye.
Nestling period. The female broods and feeds the young for 2 weeks, then gradu-
ally helps with food-hunting, which is mainly for frogs and insects. The young
feather at 15-22 days, and fly at 26-27 days, not venturing far for 3-4 days, but
apparently independent within a week or two.
GROUSE Tetraonidae
Gamebirds of moorland, scrub and floors of northern woodland Nests are usually
open hollows made by females, rather exposed, relying on the camouflaged plumage
of the female birds for concealment. Very rarely an old nest in a tree is used by some
species. In ground nests sideways-throwing and sideways-building by sitting birds
may produce a substantial nest-lining of nearby grasses or other vegetation, espe-
cially in damper sites. Eggs are strikingly patterned for concealment against back-
grounds of moorland-type vegetation. The colouring is on the surface of the eggs and
may be smudged on newly laid eggs. The eggs may be partly covered with vegeta-
tion when the bird leaves the nest. The chicks can follow the female as soon as the
down is dry. In some species the male assists in care and protection of young. Young
birds are led to places where food is available, the position of food being indicated
GROUSE
105
by the pecking female, but the young are not fed directly. The wing feathers grow
very rapidly and the young may be able to flutter some distance at a few days.
PTARMIGAN Lagopus mutus	Pls 7,32
Breeds on arctic tundra and on high-altitude zones of similar vegetation further south.
Nest a scrape in an open site, sometimes slightly sheltered by a plant tuft or rock.
Nest. A rather bare hollow scrape, scantily lined with pieces of grass, plants and a
few feathers. Inner diameter 15-17 cm; depth 7.5 cm.
Breeding season. Begins usually mid- to late May in south to mid-June in north,
rarely to August. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-10, sometimes 3-12. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Tend to have paler
ground colour and darker markings than Willow Grouse. Whitish to pale creamy-
yellow with irregular blotching and mottling of dark chocolate-brown. 43.6 x 31.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 1-2 days. Incubation by female alone,
beginning with the next-to-last egg, the male remaining near by. 24-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy; down extending over legs and feet to toe-nails. The
pattern similar to that of Willow Grouse but tending to be bolder, with conspicuous
black zones edging the rufous and rufous-buff areas, and across the sides of the head.
The pale parts lacking most of the yellow, and a more pale greyish-buff. Bill more
pointed than in Willow Grouse; black, or black with white tip. becoming black.
Claws grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents at first; brooded by the female,
guarded by the male, but finding their own food. Wing-feathers grow first, and they can
fly weakly at c. 10 days. Potentially independent at 10-12 weeks. In the latter part of
the period the males tend to leave the family and flock together, joining unmated males.
Females and young remain together, joining with others later to form winter flocks.
WILLOW GROLSE and RED GROUSE Lagopus lagopus Page 109, Pls 7,32
Breeds in zones of willow, birch or juniper scrub, often in partially open and rather boggy
places. Red Grouse tend to nest on more open moorland areas in heather, or grassy heath-
land. Nests are often partly in the shelter of a small shrub or taller tuft of vegetation.
Nest. A shallow hollow made by the female, lined at times with a sparse layer of
grasses, moss and heather stems. Inner diameter 15-20 cm; depth 7.5-10 cm.
Breeding season. For Willow Grouse, begins early May in south to early June in
north. For Red Grouse, begins usually mid-April to May, rarely from February
onwards. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-11, sometimes 4-17. Subeiliptical. Smooth and glossy. Yellowish, or
sometimes slightly reddish; heavily and irregularly blotched and mottled all over with
dark chocolate-brown to reddish-brown. Markings very variable. 45.8 x 32.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 36-48 hours. Incubation by the female only,
beginning with the next-to-last egg or complete clutch. The male remains near by.
20-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy; the down extending to legs and feet but toe-nails bare.
Down pale sandy-buff below and on sides and extending to cheeks; throat a little paler,
upper breast warmer. Red Grouse chicks tend to be a warmer, more rufous-buff. Crown
of head chestnut-red with a blackish border, and patches of similar colour on the ear-
coverts. Pale sandy-buff streak from lores back over eye. Another pale streak breaks the
ear-coverts to join broad pale patches on either side of a dark nape streak. The body pat-
tern is irregular. A central dorsal stripe of warm or rufous buff is bordered with irregu-
lar blackish bands, and broadens into a saddle on mid-back, with darker bands extending
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
to the shoulders. There are irregular dark patches cither side of the rump. The wings are
rufous with black edges. Bill rounded; black at all stages. Claws grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young hatch in a short period, and are led away by the female soon
afterwards. The male helps to guard the young, which are brooded by the female but
find their own food. Wing feathers grow quickly while the young are still small. They
fly at 12-13 days. The young are independent at 8-10 weeks, but the family remain
together until late autumn and may group with others to form winter flocks.
HAZEL HEN Tetrastes bonasia	Pls 7, 32
Breeds in forests, usually conifers or mixed forests. Nests on the ground among trees;
often beneath trees, bushes or low cover.
Nest. A shallow scrape, lined with a little green or dead plant material, and
sometimes small twigs. Average diameter 20 cm; depth 4-5 cm. Built by female.
Breeding season. Mid- to late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6 -10, sometimes up to 15. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Yellowish-buff,
usually finely and sparsely speckled, spotted or finely blotched with reddish-brown.
41.5 x 28.5 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone, which sits very closely; the male apparently
remaining near by. Incubation begins on completion of clutch. 23-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale yellow below, more rufous on the upper
breast; warm rufous-brown above, darker over crown and nape, and on the lower
back. Sides of the head yellow, with black on lores, and a dark streak extending
around and behind the eye to the nape. Bill buffish-pink, becoming blackish. Legs
and feet buffish-pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. The young can run soon after hatching. After the first day they are
led by the female to open, drier glades with short vegetation. It is not certain if the
male always remains with the brood, but he is present in some instances. The young
can hide well if alarmed, and can flutter at a few days, but in the first 2 weeks hide
and do not attempt to take refuge in trees or bushes. They feather at 10-20 days, roost
in trees like adults at c. 3 weeks, and take c. 8 weeks to become fully grown.
BLACK GROUSE Tetrao tetrix	Pls 7,33
Breeds on woodland edge, heathland with scattered trees and shrubs, and on moor-
land edge, exceptionally in sites with little or no cover. The birds are promiscuous
or polygamous, the males displaying communally at a ‘lek’ on an open space. The
females visit the males, and mating occurs on the lek. The female nests alone, not far
from the lek. Nests are usually on the ground in the shelter of low plants; rarely in
old nests of large birds low in trees.
Nest. A shallow hollow with a sparse lining of nearby plant material. Diameter
15-20 cm; depth 4-6 cm. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins usually in mid-May, or rarely from the end of April in south,
to early June in north. Single-brooded; but replacement of lost clutches may occur.
Eggs. Usually 6-10, sometimes 5-16. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Creamy
buffish-ycllow, finely marked with small spots or blotches of buffish-brown to
reddish-brown. 51.3 x 37 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 36-48 hours. Incubation by the female only,
beginning with next-to-last or complete clutch. The eggs are sometimes covered
when the nest is left. The male plays no part in the nesting. 23-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of underside and most of head and neck
yellowish-buff, with slight orange tint on upper breast. Top of the head with dark-
GROUSE
107
edged rufous patch, sometimes mottled black. Black marks on fore-crown, lores,
behind eye and round edges of ear-coverts. Nape yellowish-buff with central dark
line. As on Willow Grouse the back has a more rufous-buff central streak with a dark
irregular edge, extending on the upper back towards the shoulders; and similar mark-
ings on either side of the rump; but the dark markings arc more rufous and the lighter
areas are yellowish-buff. The wings are rufous with blackish edges. The legs are
downy but not the toes. At hatching, upper mandible pink, soon becoming blackish-
grey with broadly rounded brown tip; lower mandible pink; feet and claws flesh pink.
Later, feet pinkish-buff; claws grey. Near fledging, upper mandible blackish-grey
only: lower mandible changes to blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended and brooded by the female only. They keep close
together and are led to areas of tall vegetation or shrubby growth, remaining in cover
much of the time, venturing out to feed at morning and evening. Wing-feathers begin
growing in 3-4 days; the young can flutter some distance at 1 week and fly at
1 month. Although able to flutter into trees at 1 week they roost on the ground until
c. 6 weeks. They remain together and join with larger flocks in winter.
CAUCASIAN BLACK GROUSE Tetrao mlokosiewiczi	PI. 33
Breeds in mountains at upper forest edge, in shrubs and alpine grassland. The nest is
usually hidden under shrubs or among rocks. Like other Black Grouse they are
promiscuous, the males displaying on communal leks, visited there by the females,
and the latter nesting alone. Nest on the ground, often on sloping ground, usually
well-concealed in dense cover, under bushes or in grass tussocks.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with grass, leaves and feathers. Outer diameter c. 24
cm: inner diameter c. 19 cm; depth 5-7 cm. Built by female.
Breeding season. Mid- to late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6. sometimes 2-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale creamy-
buff sparsely speckled and blotched with brown or reddish-brown. 52.8 x 35.6 mm.
Incubation. By the female only. 20-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Underside pale buffish-yellow. Upperparts and head
yellow with rufous tint on lower back and tail parts. Crown rufous-brown, forehead
yellow-rufous with black spots. Narrow black streak through eye and on upper ear-
coverts, dark streak on lores. Nape yellow-grey, throat white. Smail black marks on
sides of neck and nape, broader black streaking down back. Wings dull yellow-
rufous with black at edges. Legs downy. Upper mandible black-brown, with paler tip
and edges; lower mandible yellow-brown.
Nestling period. Young are tended and brooded by the female only, are led from the
nest immediately after hatching, and live in open alpine meadows. The young hide
if alarmed. Mortality of chicks is high. The brood remains together and joins others
in larger flocks during winter.
CAPERCAILLIE Tetrao urogallus	Pls 7,33
Breeds in forests, usually coniferous, more rarely in juniper scrub or on deep heather
moors. As with Black Grouse the males gather together for displays, and take no part
in the nesting. The nest is on the ground, often at the base of a tree and often, but not
necessarily, in thick cover; or rarely in the old nest of a large bird low in a tree.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with a little nearby plant material. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-8, sometimes 4-18. Pale yellowish-buff, usually with fine speckling and
with more sparse small blotches of yellowish-brown to reddish-brown. 57.3 x 41.5 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Covered with material during laying period
when female is off the nest. Incubation by female alone, beginning with next-to-last
egg or completion of clutch. 26-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale buffish-yellow below, paler on throat,
tinged orange-buff on upper breast. Head and neck more yellowish-buff, lacking the
rufous patch but slightly tinted rufous on the nape and marked with small black
blotches and lines, more distinct on forehead, lores, over eyes, on centre crown and
sides of neck. The forehead has an inverted black V. Upperparts patterned like
Willow Grouse, with more rufous broad stripe on back, edged blackish-brown, and
irregular patches over shoulders and on sides of rump. Wings rufous, edged with
black. Down on legs, but not on toes. At hatching, upper mandible black at tip, pink
at base; lower mandible pink; feet and claws buffish-pink. Iris dark brown. Later, bill
becomes uniform pale pinkish-grey; claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by the female only, leaving the nest the day after
hatching. The wings are feathered in c. 2 weeks and they can then fly weakly. They
remain in family groups, joining larger flocks in autumn.
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS Phasianidae
Birds of open spaces, scrub and woodland. Nest usually a hollow scrape on the
ground, made by the female. As with the grouse, the scanty nest lining is added by
sideways-throwing and sideways-building. The part played by the male varies from
full participation to relative indifference. Eggs are usually uniformly coloured or
finely marked. In some groups shells are very thick and hard. Incubation usually
begins when clutch is complete. The chicks are precocial and very active, leaving
the nest within a day of hatching. They are led to places where food is available,
and its position may be indicated by the pecking female, but the young pick it up
for themselves. They are brooded by the adults. The down is long and fluffy on the
body, shorter and closer on the head, and boldly patterned. Wing-feathers grow first
and grow quickly while the young are still small. They can flutter some distance at
a few days old. Parental care is not always effective and small young seem to be
easily lost from larger broods. Broods tend to remain together until the following
breeding season.
PHEASANT Phasianus colchicus	Page 109, П0, Pls 8,34
Breeds in reedbeds, on heathland, waste ground among cultivation, hedgerows,
scrub and woodland. Introduced in cultivated regions. Males are polygamous and
females nest alone. Nest normally on the ground in cover of tall plants, briers or
shrubs; rarely on raised sites on stacks or overgrown ruins, or flatfish old birds' nests
or squirrel dreys in trees.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined, or sparsely lined with nearby plants, grass or dead
leaves.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 7-15. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform olive-brown, sometimes
more definite brown, or olive, or blue-grey. 45.9 x 36 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with completion of the clutch. 23-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down varies in colour, dark parts dark brown to
rufous, pale parts creamy to rufous-buff. Rufous forms have less distinct pattern.
Creamy-buff below, extending to sides of neck and forehead. Dark mark behind
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS
109
Dorsal patterns of downy chicks of: a. Red-legged Partridge; b. Double-spurred
Francolin; c. Quail; d. Helmeted Guineafowl; e. Pheasant; f. Common Partridge;
g. Red Grouse.
110
BIRD NESTS, F.GGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Dorsal view, and side view of head of gamebird chicks: a. Rock Partridge:
b. Red-legged Partridge: c. Common Partridge: d. Quail: e. Pheasant.
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS
111
eye and narrow dark streak over it. Broad stripe over nape, rufous-centred and
dark-edged. Back dark brown, with a pair of longitudinal broad pale cream stripes
tending to terminate just before the tail-end. Wing rufous with pale edge. At hatch-
ing, bill pinkish-grey with narrow dark grey band along ridge of upper mandible;
legs, feet and claws pinkish-buff; iris dark brown. Bill soon becomes blackish-grey
on most of upper mandible; legs and feet become brownish-grey; iris much paler,
yellowish-brown. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young all hatch within a short period, and arc tended by the female
alone, led to food, and brooded. They can fly at 12-14 days. When the young are
half-grown they tend to roost in trees at night.
REEVES PHEASANT Syrmaticus reevesi
An introduced Asiatic species. Feral in Britain, France and Germany. Breeds on
wooded hills. They are polygamous. The nest is on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sparsely lined with nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 7-15. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Cream-coloured or olive-tinted
to olive-brown. 46 x 37 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone. 24-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down creamy on underside and throat, pale
warm buff on upper breast. Sides of head pale rufous-buff with bold dark streak
from eye to nape and dark brown stripe over centre head and nape. Back dark
warm brown with two thick creamy-buff longitudinal stripes. Pale bar across
wing.
Nestling period. Young are tended by the female. They are very active, and in
captivity tend to be aggressive towards each other.
LADY AMHERST’S PHEASANT Chrysolophus amherstiae
An introduced Asiatic species. Feral in parts of England. Polygamous. Normally
occurs in rocky hillsides in woodlands and scrub. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sparsely lined.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-12. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Creamy to light buff. 49.5 x
35.5 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone. 23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down creamy-yellow below, slightly orange on
upper breast. Sides of head yellow, becoming rufous over the eyes. Crown and
nape rufous-brown; a narrow black streak from base of upper mandible through
centre of forehead to crown; back rufous-brown with two narrow pale yellowish-
buff or pale rufous-buff longitudinal stripes terminating just before tail-end.
Rufous-buff on upper flanks, and band on upper wings and wing-tips. At hatching,
bill pale pink, dark grey at base of culmen; legs, feet and claws greyish-pink. Iris
dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone as in other pheasants.
GOLDEN PHEASANT Chrysolophus pictus
An introduced Asiatic species. Feral in parts of Britain. Breeds in thick scrub cover
or woodland. Said to be promiscuous. Nest on the ground, often in thick cover.
Nest. A shallow hollow, with a scanty lining of nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. 5-12. Short subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Creamy to yellowish.
44 x 34 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone. The hen sits extremely closely, apparently
without leaving the nest through most of the period. 22 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pattern like that of Lady Amherst’s Pheasant, with-
out obvious constant differences, but usually more yellowish. At hatching, bill pale
pinkish-yellow or buffish-yellow; legs and feet flesh-pink; claws grey; mouth yel-
low. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young are tended by the female. They are very active soon after
hatching.
SILVER PHEASANT Lophura nycthemera
An introduced Asiatic species. Feral in parts of Germany. Breeds in scrub and thick-
ets at forest edges. Polygamous, the female nesting alone, but the male retaining
some contact. The nest is on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined, or with sparse lining of nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 6-8, sometimes 5-12. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Pale to dark
rufous-buff. 51 x 39 mm.
Incubation. By female only, although the male may visit at intervals. 25-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down buffish-white below, yellower on upper
breast. Head yellowish-buff on sides, becoming browner on crown with a dark cen-
tral line on crown and nape. Narrow dark line from eye to nape. Back dark brown
with buffish-white, longitudinal stripes.
Nestling period. Young tended by female. After 2-3 weeks the various broods of
females of one male join together and subsequently remain as a group. In captivity
males may tend young if the female dies.
CALIFORNIAN QUAIL Lophortyx californicus
An introduced western North American species, feral in parts of Germany. Breeds
in scrubland and open woodland. The nest is usually on the ground; rarely in the nest
of another bird in a shrub or tree, or on a suitable raised site formed by branches,
creepers or a tree stump.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually lined with nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Usually begins late April to May. Single-brooded, but replacement
clutches may be laid after loss.
Eggs. Usually 12-17, sometimes 6-28. Short subelliptical to short oval. Smooth and
glossy. Creamy-white, spotted and blotched with pale golden-brown. 31 x 24 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 24+-hour intervals, averaging 5 per week. Incubation
normally by the female, with the male near by; the male may incubate if the female
dies. 21-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down drab white below with pale buff upper breast.
Sides of head and forehead palebuffish-brown; crown and nape rufous-brown with dark
edges, bordered by pale creamy-buff. Back dark brown with three broad longitudinal
creamy-buff stripes. Flanks and wings with broken pattern of dark brown and pale buff.
Nestling period. Young very active soon after hatching. Tended by both parents, but
often, perhaps regularly, female leaves male to tend young and re-nests, producing
second brood. Young drop from raised nests without harm. Wing-feathers grow
quickly; young flutter at 10 days. They are sociable, and family parties may join into
flocks while chicks are still small. They remain in flocks until spring.
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS
113
BOBVVHITE QUAIL Colin us vi rg i n ianus
Introduced North American species, feral in parts of England and Germany. Breed
in scrub, scattered cover and woodland edge, often among cultivation. Nest on the
ground, usually in low cover bordering an open space.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with nearby vegetation and with growing plants pulled
over to hide it. Both sexes build.
Breeding season. In America mid-March in South to late May in North. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 12-16, sometimes 7-28. Short subelliptical to short oval. Smooth,
slightly glossy. Dull white to creamy-whitc. 30 x 24 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes. 23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Greyish-buff on underside. Sides of head yellowish-
buff. Forehead rufous-buff, and crown and nape chestnut-red, deeper at edges, taper-
ing on to forehead. Blackish streak from eye to nape. Broad chestnut-rcd band
continues down middle of back, bordered with narrow creamy-buff stripes; flanks
mottled chestnut, blackish and buff. Some individuals show more rufous over all of
back. Bill, legs and feet buffish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, and brooded by them. Wing-
feathers grow rapidly and young can fly at 2 weeks. They feather in 4-8 weeks, are
fully grown in 2 months. They remain together until the spring. Often, perhaps reg-
ularly, male may take over brood while female re-ncsts, producing second brood.
Broods may form flocks while young are still small.
COMMON or GREY PARTRIDGE Perdix perdix Pages 109, 110, Pls 8, 34
Breeds on grassland, heathland, marram dunes and cultivation. Nest on the ground
in tall grasses or growing crops or in the base of hedgerows or shrubs, or young trees;
very rarely above ground in stacks.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually sheltered by taller plants, and lined with dead
grasses and leaves.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 9-20, sometimes 8-23, larger broods probably from two females. Subellipti-
cal to short oval or short pyriform. Smooth and glossy. Uniform shades of buff,
brown or olive. 36.5 x 27.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at l-2-day intervals, and covered with nest material until
incubation. Incubation by female alone, with the male in close attendance, beginning
on completion of clutch. 23-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Creamy-yellowish on underside; yellower on throat
and sides of head. Crown light orange-buff with four longitudinal blackish lines usu-
ally broken into short streaks or spots and more rufous between middle pair. Black
spots or broken lines around eyes and ear-coverts, nape and neck. Mantle mottled.
Back dark brown, rufous towards rump, with three pale cream longitudinal streaks;
pale streaks breaking up flanks. Wings dark, rufous-edged. with two pale bars. Bill
pale pinkish-yellow or pale pinkish-grey; becoming pale bluish-grey. Legs, feet and
claws buffish-pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young hatch within a short period, and may leave the nest on the
first day. They arc tended and brooded by both parents. They grow quickly. Wing-
feathers appear at 5-6 days; the young can flutter at 10-11 days, fly at 16 days, and
feather by 28 days. They remain together until the following spring.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE Alectoris rufa Pages 109, 110, Pls 8,33
Breeds on dry hillsides, areas of scrub, and in cover such as hedgerows or grow-
ing crops on farmland. Nest usually among growing plants, often sheltered by a
bush.
Nest. A shallow hollow, with scanty lining of nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Single-brooded, but female may lay two
clutches at one time (see Incubation).
Eggs. Usually 10-16, sometimes 7-20. rarely up to 28, but since two clutches may
be laid the average should perhaps be doubled. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy.
Yellowish-white to pale yellowish-brown, variably and often sparsely spotted or
finely blotched with reddish-buff or greyish markings. 41.4 x 31.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of c. 36 hours. Occasionally, possibly frequently,
the hen may lay two consecutive clutches in different nests, one incubated by the
male, the other by the female. The two broods are cared for separately. Incubation
probably begins with completion of the clutch(es). 23-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down whitish-buff below, slightly darker on
breast. Top and sides of head rufous-buff, rufous on nape, and with paler streak
over eye, darker streak on ear-coverts, and pale spots at sides of nape. Back mot-
tled rufous and blackish-brown, with three dark-edged cream stripes down back,
the central one narrow, two short ones on sides of rump; and two across wings. At
hatching, bill pale pink; legs and feet buffish-pink; claws grey. Bill turns dark grey
with yellow-brown tip, then grey only; later, pale red after fledging. Iris dark
brown.
Nestling period. Brood hatches rapidly and is led away from nest. Where the
male incubates separately he tends and broods his young like a female. With only
one brood the male is sometimes present. Wing-feathers grow rapidly and the
young can flutter at an early age. The brood remains together until the next breed-
ing season.
ROCK PARTRIDGE Alectoris graeca	Page 110, Pl. 33
Breeds on rocky, open hillsides, often at higher altitudes, with sparse vegetation. Or
in thicker scrub or more open desert. Nest on the ground, usually in the shelter of a
shrub, tuft of vegetation or rock; sometimes in a rock crevice.
Nest. A shallow hollow, with sparse lining of nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins March to May. Single-brooded but as in Red-legged
Partridge two clutches may be laid. Lost clutches may be replaced.
Eggs. Usually 8-14, sometimes 6-21; but the female may lay two clutches at one
period. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Creamy-yellow to pale buff, usually
variably and irregularly spotted and blotched with light reddish-brown. 42 x
31 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 24-36-hour intervals, and covered with nest material until
incubation. Incubation by female alone, but if two clutches are laid the male
incubates one independently. 24-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pattern like that of Red-legged Partridge. Creamy-
buff below. Head a light, sandy rufous-buff, and upper back similar. Mottled areas
of back less rufous, more sandy-brown. At hatching, bill, legs and feet buffish-pink.
Bill turns dark grey, later pale red after fledging. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by the parents which hatch them as separate broods.
Young can flutter by 6-7 days, but if alarmed tend to run and hide. They are adult-
sized by 2 months; remain together, and join in larger groups in autumn.
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS
115
CHUKAR Alectoris chukar	PI. 33
Breeds on rocky open hillsides with sparse cover, or on the edges of cultivation, at
times at lower altitudes than the Rock Partridge, down to sea-level. Nest on the ground,
usually under the shelter of a rock or shrub, or against a grass-tuft in more open sites.
Nest. A shallow hollow, with a variable, usually sparse, lining of nearby vegetation,
leaves and stems.
Breeding season. Begins March to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-15, up to 20 at times. On some occasions at least the female pro-
duces two clutches at one period. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale yellowish,
buff or brown, with fine light red speckling; often heavily marked. 43 x 31.4 mm.
Incubation. By the female only, on completion of the clutch. A separate additional
clutch may be incubated independently by the male. 22-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pattern like that of Red-legged Partridge. Creamy-
white below, more greyish on breast. Sides of head and thin streak over eye
cream-coloured, and blackish streak from eye to nape. Top of head light brown,
dark-speckled; browner on nape. Back mottled blackish-brown with three dark
edged cream stripes down the back, the central one narrow, two shorter lateral ones,
and one across each wing. In small young, bill is pinkish-yellow; legs, feet and claws
buffish-pink. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young cared for by the adult that incubates them. The brood
remains together and joins with others to form into larger groups in autumn.
BARBARY PARTRIDGE Alectoris barbara	Pl. 33
Breeds in more arid areas on bare rocky hillsides, scrub or woodland. Nest on the
ground sheltered by a low shrub.
Nest. A shallow hollow with little or no lining.
Breeding season. Begins March to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 8-16. but as in Red-legged Partridge two clutches are probably laid. Shortish
subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Yellowish to brownish-buff, finely
blotched with small reddish-brown markings. 42.3 x 31 mm.
Incubation. 24-25 days from completion of clutch..
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pattern like that of Red-legged Partridge, but paler,
creamy-buff below, light reddish-buff on head; upper back more pale buff and
mottled areas less rufous, with more creamy-buff bases showing. At hatching, bill
yellowish-brown. Legs and feet pinkish-buff. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. No information.
CAUCASIAN SNOWCOCK Tetraogallus caucasicus	PI. 33
Breeds on rocky slopes and alpine meadows at altitudes of 1,800-4,000 m. Nest on
the ground in the open, usually partly sheltered by a rock.
Nest. A shallow hollow, scantily lined with nearby vegetation. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Single-brooded; replacement clutches probably
laid since late clutches occur.
Eggs. Usually 8-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale yellowish, blue-grey
or greenish, sparsely marked with small reddish-brown specks, spots or blotches.
69 x 46 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, the male not being known to help in incubation or
rearing of the young. 28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Similar to that of the Himalayan Snowcock (pl. 8),
being pale cream, whitish or faintly yellow below; but sometimes more pinkish-buff
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
on back and head, with heavy sepia and black spots and bars. Bill blackish. Legs and
feet brownish-yellow. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young arc tended by the female alone. The young hide when
alarmed. Some broods appear to combine while the young are still small. The young
begin to feather while still very small and can fly at an early age.
CASPIAN SNOWCOCK Tetraogallus caspius	PI. 33
Breeds on steep rocky slopes with sparse grass and shrubs al altitudes of 1,800-
3,000 m. Nest on the ground, in the open, partially sheltered by a rock or shrub, or
in crevices, between boulders.
Nest. A hollow c. 10cm deep and c. 35cm in outer diameter lined with grasses, moss,
down and feathers; inner diameter c. 26cm. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-8, sometimes 10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale creamy-
buff with an olive tint, very finely and sparsely blotched with reddish-brown. 65.4 x
45.9 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone. Although apparently monogamous the male is not
known to take part in incubation or rearing the young, c. 30 days. Eggs laid at 2-day
intervals.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Downy plumage similar to that shown for
Himalayan Snowcock (pl. 8) in be ng pale and finely patterned with very thin wavy
black lines and speckling on back and head, but the main colouring is usually more
buff-tinted, with more profuse cinnamon-pink and grey mottling on upperparts. Bill
blackish. Legs and feet yellow.
Nestling period. Young cared for by female. Remain near nest at first but later
ascend to higher altitudes. Young grow slowly and arc fully grown by mid-October.
They remain together and broods combine into larger winter flocks.
DOUBLE-SPURRED FRANCOLIN	Page 109, Pls 8,34
Francolinus hicalcaratus
Breeds in open woodlands, palm groves and wasteland, or in vegetation by wadis
and marshland. Nest is on the ground, at times in grasses or by a bush.
Nest. A shallow hollow, scantily lined at times with nearby vegetation and feathers.
Breeding season. Begins in May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-7. Oval to short pyriform. Smooth and glossy. Thick-shelled. Sandy-buff,
sometimes with sparse minute while or dark pore spots. 42.3 x 32 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale creamy-buff below and pale orange-buff
on upper breast, sides of neck and forehead. Dark streak through eye to nape. Crown
and central nape rufous with narrow blackish edge. Mantle mottled. Two pale buff
longitudinal stripes on back. Intervening dark stripes rufous, and pale-centred and
dark-edged. Dark mottling on flanks. Wings mottled rufous and black. Legs yellow.
Nestling period. No information.
BLACK FRANCOLIN Francolinus francolinus	Pls 8, 33
Breeds in taller ground vegetation of low grassland, marshland, scrub, cultivated
ground or forest edge, usually near water. Nest on the ground, usually by a bush, or
at the base of a tuft of vegetation.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined, or scantily lined with grass and stems.
Breeding season. Begins late March to May. Single-brooded, but probably double-
brooded at times.
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS
117
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes 7-18. Short subelliptical to short oval. Smooth and
glossy. Shell very thick with distinct pores. Light brown, yellowish-olive, or olive-
brown, often sparsely marked with white spots. 41.2 x 33.1 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone, the male present near by. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down creamy below, with pale orange-buff on the
breast. Sides of head pale buffish. Mid-crown and nape rufous with dark edge,
bordered by pale streak and then narrow dark streak on either side. Darker edge to
ear-coverts. Mantle paler with dark centre. Back dark brown with a pair of broad pale
longitudinal streaks, with irregular dark edges extending to flanks. Wings with two
broad pale stripes. Bill, legs and feet buffish-pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. The young are tended by both parents. They can fly early at 9-22
days, full grown at c. 35 days. The brood remains together through the winter.
SAND PARTRIDGE Ammoperdix heyi	PI. 33
Breeds in rocky desert areas near a source of water. The nest is on the ground, often
sheltered by a bush or overhanging rock.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined or with fragments of vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins in March. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. 5-7. Short pyriform. Smooth and glossy. Sandy-buff, sometimes with greyish
or pinkish tint. 35 x 27 mm.
Incubation. 21-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Whitish below, greyer on upper breast, pale buffish
on throat. Sides of head pale buff. Crown and a narrow streak through the eye
blackish-grey. Upper down pale buff with fine blackish tips giving a smoky wash,
rufous on wings and lower back. Upper mandible of bill blackish, lower yellowish-
buff. Legs and feet pale buff. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young fledge at 9-20 days. Full grown at c. 30 days.
SEE-SEE PARTRIDGE Ammoperdix griseogidaris	Pls 8,33
Breeds in arid regions on sandy and rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. Nest on the
ground, usually sheltered by a plant tuft or rock.
Nest. A shallow scrape, with a scanty lining of grass or other nearby plant material.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April but apparently long. Either single-brooded with
late replacement of lost clutches, or long season due to double-broodedness.
Eggs. 8-12, rarely to 16. Oval to short pyriform. Smooth and glossy. Creamy-white
or creamy-yellowish to pale yellow-buff. 35.2 x 25.1 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone; the male may be near by. Period not definitely
known, but thought to be a little over 3 weeks.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pale buffish-white below. Rather uniform pale
sandy-buff above, faintly speckled with fine dark tips. A short black streak through
eye. Upper mandible of bill dark brown, yellowish at base; lower mainly yellowish.
Legs and feet pale buff.
Nestling period. Young tended by female. Male sometimes with the brood. Broods
appear to combine at times while young are still small. The young are very active
and independent at an early age, and wing-feathers grow quickly while the chicks
are still small.
QUAIL Coturnix coturnix	Pages 109,110, Pls 8,34
Breeds in grassland, rough woodland and among growing crops, usually in shorter
and more open herbage. Nest on the ground. Apparently polygamous, the males not
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A shallow hollow made by the female, with a scanty lining of grass and nearby
plant material.
Breeding season. Poorly understood. Wide variations in egg-laying dates within
individual countries and in whole region. Eggs mainly from March to August. Usu-
ally single-brooded, sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. 7-12, sometimes 6-18. Oval to short pyriform. Smooth and glossy. Whitish
or creamy-yellow to yellow, very variably marked but usually heavily patterned with
speckling, larger spots or blotchings of chocolate-brown, reddish-brown or light
brown. 30.4 x 23 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on successive days. Incubation by female only, beginning on
completion of clutch. 16-21 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Pale yellowish-buff below, becoming orange on
sides of head. Orange-buff above, with dark forehead spot and two parallel dark lines
over crown, joining on forecrown and on nape. Back blackish-brown, divided into
narrow stripes by two broad, longitudinal orange-buff stripes. Two dark bars on
wings. Some dark flank mottling. At hatching, bill pink, becoming bluish-grey by-
fledging. Legs and feet pinkish-red. Claws grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young all hatch in a short period, leaving the nest within a few
hours. Tended by female only. They feather rapidly, can flutter at 11 days, and fly at
19 days.
HELMETED GUINEAFOWL Numida meleagris Page 109, Pls 8,34
Breeds in the Atlas region in wooded ravines, possibly no longer present as wild
birds. Nest usually concealed in grass or ground vegetation, or under a plant tuft or
shrub.
Nest. A shallow hollow in soft earth, unlined, or sparsely lined with nearby
vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins end of March. Single-brooded?
Eggs. 8-12, sometimes up to 20 but huger clutches may be due to two hens. Subellip-
tical to short oval. Thick-shelled, smooth but pitted with innumerable fine pores, some-
times with fine dark spotting. Deep cream, creamy-buff or whitish-buff. 48 x 38 mm.
Incubation. Probably by the female alone. 24-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down heavily patterned. Whitish-buff below, light
yellowish-buff on the sides of the head, light orange-buff on head, nape, flanks and
breast. Head nine-striped. Broad black central stripe; two narrow parallel ones
between crown and eye, joining on the neck; another from eye to nape, broken; and
another below it. Lower neck and mantle mottled. A central stripe is black on mid-
back, chestnut-red with black edge on lower back; on either side is a pale buffish
stripe, and on the upper flanks the stripe is broken blackish-brown and yellow-buff.
Wing with two pale bars. Bill and legs orange-buff.
Nestling period. The young are tended by the female only. They can fly at an early
stage. The brood stays together and joins others to form large bands.
TURKEY Meleagris gallipavo
Introduced North American species, feral in parts of Germany. Polygamous, the
female nesting apart from the male. Breeds in woodland and scrub. Nest on the
ground, usually by or under shrubby cover, but at times exposed. Apparent sharing
of nests by several females recorded.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sparsely lined with nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins April to May. Single-brooded.
RAILS
I 19
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes 20. Elliptical to oval. Smooth, only slightly glossy.
Whitish, yellowish or pinkish-buff; finely marked with spots and specks of purplish-
brown. 62.6 x 44.6 mm.
Incubation. By the female alone. 28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of crown and back warm pinkish-cinnamon,
heavily spotted and blotched with dark brown, and with dark irregular patch along
mid-crown. Ground colour becomes lighter, warm buff on breast and flanks, pale
yellowish or pinkish-buff on sides of head and underside, yellower on the belly and
whiter on the throat. Bill light brownish-grey. Legs and feet buffish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone. They hatch over a short period and
quickly leave the nest, but may reuse it the first night. Wings feather fast. They can
fly in c. 2 weeks and roost above ground; but otherwise grow slowly. They run in
preference to flying. They remain in a group until the spring.
BUTTONQUAIL Turnicidae
SMALL BUTTONQUAIL or ANDALUSIAN HEMIPODE
Turnix sylvatica	Pls 9,36
Breeds in any low vegetation, grassland, crops and scrubland. The role of the sexes
is reversed, females being larger and more brightly coloured and polyandrous,
males caring for eggs and young. Nest on the ground, usually well concealed in
growing plants.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sparsely lined with grasses and nearby vegetation, built by
sideways-throwing and sideways-building. Tall grass may be pulled over to conceal it.
Breeding season. Prolonged, begins in May.
Eggs. Usually 4. Female thought to lay a number of clutches for different males to
tend. Eggs short subelliptical to short oval. Smooth and glossy. Buffish or greyish-
white, heavily and finely speckled, and more sparsely spotted with black, brown and
yellowish or reddish-brown. 21.3 x 17.3 mm.
Incubation. By the male alone, beginning with the completion of the clutch. 12-14
days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale buffish-white below. Sides of head more
buff, pale creamy stripe over eye to nape. Forehead, crown and nape dark brown,
divided by pale stripe commencing from crown back to nape. No down around cars.
Back with two narrow buffish-white streaks, the area between rufous-brown with
darker edge. Upper flanks mottled rufous-brown. Bill dark grey. Legs and feet pink-
ish-red. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by male, who broods and feeds them. Female said
to take no part but captive birds will help tend young. Young leave nest after first
day. Male offers young food with lowered head, but they find their own after a few
days. Feathering is rapid, wing-feathers being well grown by 1 week. Young inde-
pendent in 18-19 days; full-grown in с. 1 month.
RAILS Rallidae
Birds of swamp and waterside, usually long-legged and preferring to swim rather
than fly. They nest in low vegetation, by or just in water. The nests are bulky cups,
and material is carried to the site. Clutches are relatively large. There is evidence that
occasionally eggs or young may be carried to another site near by after disturbance
of the nest. Downy young have a claw at the carpal joint of the wing.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
CORNCRAKE Crexcrex	Pls 9, 35
Breeds in grassland and low herbage, usually in low-lying moist areas or in crops,
but also in small areas on mountains and islands. Nest on the ground, hidden in
thicker growing plants.
Nest. A small platform or pad of dry grasses.
Breeding season. Begins May to early June. Single-brooded, sometimes double-
brooded in north of range.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes 6-14. Subelliptical. Smooth. Pale greenish-grey or
tinted with reddish-buff; blotched and spotted with reddish-brown, purplish and
grey. 37.4 x 26.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation usually by female alone,
commencing with completion of clutch, but may begin earlier in the laying period in
northern part of the range. 15-18 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long with fine silky tips. Blackish-brown
below, and dark, rufous-tinted brown above. Bill pale pink, becoming blackish-
brown in 1 -2 days. Legs and feet dark olive-grey, becoming buff-brown.
Nestling period. Young cared for by both adults, or female only. They normally
hatch within a short period and leave the nest after a few hours. Young fed by adults
for 3-4 days, then feed themselves. They appear to leave the parents at an early stage,
can fly at c. 5 weeks, and begin feathering early but not fully feathered until 7- 8
weeks.
SPOTTED CRAKE Porzana porzana	Pl. 35
Breeds in swamps, bogs, fens and similar swampy areas bordering lakes. Nest is on
the ground, hidden in tall plants by the water, or in a tussock or similar growth in
water. Usually resting on a slight platform of stems, with growing plants pulled over
to hide it from above.
Nest. A thick cup of stems, leaves and similar material, lined with grasses and finer
plant material. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins from late May in the south to July in the north. Double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes 6-15. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Olive-buff, heavily marked with spots and blotches of reddish-brown and grey.
33.6 x 24.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning at or a little before completion of clutch.
18-21 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down longish and silky tipped. Black with a slight
greenish gloss on the back. At hatching, upper mandible pale pink at sides of base,
with a glossy red patch (appearing swollen) on upper base, a narrow black band, and
white tip; occasionally there are two black bands, the one nearer to the base is nar-
rower and the bill colour between the bands is ivory-white or pinkish-white. Lower
mandible is black at base, pale pink at centre, and black at tip. Pale pink areas soon
become yellowish and later blackish. Legs and feet dark or blackish-grey at hatch-
ing. becoming dark olive-grey. Claws grey.
Nestling period. The young hatch over several days. They are tended by both
parents.
LITTLE CRAKE Porzana parva	Pl. 35
Breeds in swamps, fens and marshy areas on the edge of lakes and waters with exten-
sive growth of nishes, sedges, etc., and floating vegetation. Nest on the ground, hidden
RAILS
121
in growing plants, or on tussocks, or raised above the water in sedges or similar sites,
or in the base of clumps of reeds and other plants in deeper water.
Nest. A cup. built by the female, of stems and leaves of rushes, sedges and similar
plants, lined with finer plant material and grasses. Growing plants are pulled over to
hide it.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-8, sometimes 4-11. Subelliptical. Smooth, moderately glossy.
Yellowish-buff, heavily marked with fine brown spots and small blotches. 30.4 x
21.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning before completion of clutch. 23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and silky tipped. Black with a more dis-
tinct greenish gloss on upper parts than Spotted Crake. Red skin on nape shows
through down. Bill white, tinged yellow or pink, black at base of lower mandible;
bill becomes grey, black on lower mandible and at tip. Legs and feet blackish-grey,
becoming olive-grey. Claws grey.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents, and brooded at the nest, but wan-
der and can feed themselves after a few days although still fed by parents. They
fledge at 45-50 days.
BAILLON’S CRAKE Porzana pusilia	PI. 35
Breeds in swamps, fens and lagoons, and on swampy edges of lakes, ponds and
rivers; in areas of thick sedge, rushes and similar plants. Nest on the ground in thick
growth by water, or raised on a platform of stems in plants growing in water, or in
the bases of bushes. Hidden by growing plants pulled over it.
Nest. A cup of dead leaves of reeds, leaves and stems of water plants and grasses;
smaller and neater than those of other crakes.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Double-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 6-8, sometimes 4-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Yellowish-
buff heavily streaked and spotted with yellowish-brown. 29 x 20.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs are laid on consecutive days. Incubation by both sexes. 20-21 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down longish and silky tipped. Black with a green-
ish gloss on the back. Like that of Little Crake. Red skin shows through down on
nape. Bill shorter and more curved than Little Crake’s, white to straw-yellow,
slightly greyer at base. Legs and feet blackish at hatching, becoming paler, dull flesh
in larger young.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents for c. 35 days.
WATER RAIL Rallus aquaticus	Pls 9,35
Breeds in reedbeds, swamps, ortho waterside vegetation of lakes, rivers and streams.
Nest is concealed in tall vegetation near or in water; often in the thick lower growth
of reeds and rushes, where it may be raised above ground level. The nest is an open
cup but taller plants around are usually pulled over to conceal it from above.
Nest. A bulky cup of dead leaves of reeds and parts of waterside plants. Both build.
Breeding season. Begins early April, eggs of second brood in June. Double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-10, sometimes 5-16. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Creamy-white to very pale creamy-buff with sparse markings, spots and occasional
blotches of reddish-brown or blue-grey, mostly near the larger end. 35.9 x 26 mm.
Incubation. Eggs are laid on consecutive days. Incubation by both sexes, but mainly
by the female; on completion of the clutch. 19-20 days.
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BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and silky tipped, velvety black with
metallic-blue gloss on head and back. Red skin shows through sparse down on hind-
crown. Bill proportionately longer at all stages than in other rails. At hatching, bill
ivory-white with minute black tip and black at base of cutting edges, gradually
becoming blackish-grcy, brown at base of lower mandible; legs and feet dark grey-
ish-pink or blackish, becoming reddish-grey. Claws grey, becoming black.
Nestling period. Young hatch over a short period and stay in the nest while food is
brought for first few days, one parent brooding. They then follow adults. Independent
in c. 7-8 weeks.
MOORHEN Gallinula chloropus	Pls 9,36
Breeds at the edge of waters of all kinds, from lakes and rivers to tiny marshes and
ditches. Nest usually on the ground by water, or among plants in water, but some-
times above ground in thick shrubs or in large old nests of other birds in trees.
Additional nests may be built in territory, especially in marshy sites, and are used for
brooding young.
Nest. Usually a bulky platform of dead plant material and debris. Tall growing plants
near by are pulled over to conceal it. Built by both sexes, the male bringing most of
the material.
Breeding season. Begins late March to April, exceptionally at other times. Usually
double-brooded. Sometimes three broods.
Eggs. Usually 5-11, sometimes 2-21. but larger clutches may be from two females.
Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greyish-white to pale buff or greenish, with spots
or small blotches of reddish-brown and blue-grey. 44.5 x 31.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation by both sexes, and may begin
at various times in the laying period. 19-22 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and black with long fine tips except on
head. Sparse round eye and bill. Black, glossed green above, browner below; and on
chin, throat and sides of head coarse, with whitish sheaths. Down thin on top of head,
skin shows light blue on crown, pinkish on nape. At hatching, bill yellow, often with
traces of black on cutting edges, glossy red at base and on lower forehead; some-
times with a narrow black line between the red and yellow areas. Yellow on bill grad-
ually darkens from near base to tip, giving appearance as a dark band in mid stages;
becomes greyish-green. At hatching, legs and feet blackish, becoming olive-green.
Claws black. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young may hatch together or over a period, and stay in the nest for
several days, tended by both parents. Young of earlier broods of same year may help
to feed later ones. Young able to feed alone in 3 weeks, independent in 5 weeks, and
can fly in 6-7 weeks. Tend to remain with adults for some period after, dispersing at
52-99 days.
PURPLE GALLINULE Porphyrio porphyrio	Pls 9, 36
Breeds in reedbeds, marshes, and marshy edges of lakes and rivers with tall herbage.
Nest on the ground by water, or in growing plants in shallow water; often concealed
among tall plants with ‘runs’ formed by birds, and rarely raised above ground in
thick cover. Additional nest platforms built, and used by young for resting.
Nest. A bulky, cup-shaped structure of dead leaves and stems of water and waterside
plants, rather small for the size of the bird. Taller plants around nest are bent over to
conceal it. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late March. Single-brooded?
RAILS
123
Eggs. Usually 2-5, sometimes 7. Subelliptical. Glossy. Creamy, or creamy-buff to
buff, sometimes suffused with red; and variably marked with reddish-brown, pur-
plish or grey spots and small blotches. 54.5 x 37 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes, but mainly by
female. 22-25 days. From last, or next to last, egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down thick with long fine tips. Black, with whitish
sheaths on back and wings of small young which are lost later. Bill very pale bluish-
white, looking white at a distance, with deep red bare skin around base, mouth crimson.
Thin down over dark red forehead patch. Eyelids purplish. Legs and feet pinkish-red.
In large young, bill and forehead patch are black; irides olive-brown; legs and feet
reddish-pink, later becoming grey-brown; claws grey-brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Food is broken up and fed directly
to them at first. In captivity grown young assist. Young remain in the nest for sev-
eral days after hatching. Later follow parents, and find their own food after a while.
COOT Fuh a atra	Pls 9, 36
Breeds on lakes, larger pools and slower rivers, usually with waterside vegetation.
Also in swamps with some open water and tall reeds or similar cover. Nest usually
on the ground among reeds or growing vegetation in or by water, or at water level in
branches lying in or hanging into water. Extra nest platforms may be built and used
by young for resting.
Nest. A bulky cup of dead leaves and stems of waterside plants. Often well raised.
Both sexes build, the male bringing most material, the female building it in.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March onwards. Double-brooded, sometimes three
broods.
Eggs. Usually 6-9, sometimes 5-15. Subelliptical, smooth and slightly glossy. Pale
buffish-stone, fairly uniformly marked with specks and fine spots of dark brown and
black. 52.6 x 36.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation by both sexes, beginning
early in the laying of the clutch, or with the first egg. 21-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down thick and soft, with long, fine hair-like tips
except on the underside. Greyish on underside, black on back and head. Reddish to
orange waxy tips on down of neck, throat and front of head; yellow sheaths on down
of mantle and wings. On laiger young reddish tips and sheaths arc lost and the bird is
black above, and white on the throat, front of neck and belly. Bare crown reddish, blue
skin over eyes. At hatching, deep red on lower forehead and at base of bill, orange-
pink near centre, remaining third white with black tip; legs and feet blackish-grey;
claws black. By fledging, bill is mainly grey, with whitish-yellow at sides and at tip.
Nestling period. Young may hatch over several days. Tended by both parents. Usu-
ally brooded by the female and fed by male for first 3-4 days. Later young follow
adults, and are brooded on nest or platforms. Adults tend to divide brood and feed
certain young only. Young feed themselves by 1 month; independent at 8 weeks.
CRESTED COOT Fulica cristata	PI. 36
Breeds in similar habitats to Common Coot in warmer regions.
Nest. Like that of Common Coot. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Subelliptical, smooth and a little glossy. Like those of Common
Coot but paler; pale greyish-stone, speckled and finely spotted with dark brown. 54
x 37 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-22 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down greyish-black to grey, paler grey below, paler
than on Common Coot, with hairy down on neck and collar golden-yellow, and fine
back filaments tipped white. Bare skin on crown pink, blue-grey over eyes. At hatch-
ing. deep red on lower forehead and at base of bill, remainder of bill orange-pink,
with narrow white subterminal band and black tip. White area of bill is considerably
smaller than in Common Coot. Legs and feet grey with pinkish tinge. Claws grey.
Later, bill is mainly dull grey and legs and feet are dark grey.
Nestling period. Apparently similar to that of Common Coot.
CRANES Gruidae
Large, long-legged birds of marsh and grassland, preferring extensive areas of
marshland for breeding. Nests are built by both members of the pair by sideways-
throwing and sideways-building to produce large, low heaps of loose plant material.
As is usual with this type of building the amount of material may vary considerably
and on dry sites may be almost absent. Downy young appear very feeble at first and
are carefully tended and fed directly by both adults, but soon become able to follow
the adults from the nest. They grow very quickly but remain in down until well
grown. They tend to remain with the parents after fledging until next spring.
COMMON CRANE Grus grus	Pls 9,34
Breeds in large shallow marshes, reedy lagoons, waterlogged bays and smaller
swamps, often with scattered trees, and into swampy woodland edge, or wooded
areas near by. Nest in scattered pairs. Nest usually on a dry ridge or eminence, occa-
sionally built up in shallow water; the same site may be used in successive years.
Common Crane, c. 1.2-1.5 m across.
CRANES
125
Nest. Varies from an area of flattened vegetation with scant additional material to a
large heap of nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. In the south begins in mid-April, in mid-range April to May, and
in the north May to June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. sometimes 1-3. Subelliptical to elliptical. Slightly glossy or gloss-
less. Varying from blue-grey through buff and olive to reddish-brown, with spots or
elongated blotches of red-brown, dark brown or purple. 96.4 x 62.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2 days or more. Incubation by both sexes,
usually mostly by female with male on guard near by. 28 -30 days, from first egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Two down coats. First down warm rufous-buff, dark-
est on the back. Underparts paler and chin and underside whitish. Down bases dark
brown. Second down short and brownish-grey. At hatching, bill is pale orange or pale
pink, whitish at mandible tips; legs and feet greyish-pink; claws grey. Bill gradually
changes to pale olive-grey, darker on tip. Legs and feet darken to blue-grey then dull
olive-black. Mouth pink. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young hatch at 2-day intervals. Tended by both adults. Leave nest
after a few days and wander with parents. Usually only one chick survives. Fed by
parents on tiny items al first. Downy for first 4 weeks, feathered by 6 weeks.
Independent at c. 10 weeks.
SIBERIAN CRANE Grus leucogeranus	Pl. 34
Breeds in extensive, inaccessible areas of shallow marshland and lakes with marshy
shores. Nest in solitary pairs, or on smaller dry ridges in marshland.
Nest. A loose heap of grasses, reeds and sedges, hollowed at the centre.
Breeding season. May to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. Subelliptical. Smooth but only slightly glossy. Greenish or whitish,
variably spotted or blotched with dark brown or grey. 97.7 x 61.2 min.
Incubation. 27-29 days. By female, male on guard nearby.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Head and neck dark buff, upperparts pale chestnut,
darkest on back, with creamy stripe on each scapular. Sides and underparts dull
yellowish-buff, belly white. Iris blue. Bill orange at hatching, dark grey at mandible
tips in older young. Legs and feet orange-pink; claws grey.
Nestling period. Chicks hatch at 2-day intervals. They leave nest after a few days
and wander with parents, only one usually surviving. Tended by both parents. Fledge
at 70 -75 days.
DEMOISELLE CRANE Anthropoides virgo	Pls 9,35
Breeds in open country, grassland, marshes, steppes, shingle islands in rivers and
probably cultivated areas. Nesting in scattered solitary pairs. Nest in open grassy or
bare site, usually near water.
Nest. May be only a shallow scrape with little or no lining.
Breeding season. Variable. Begins mid-April to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. occasionally 1-3. Subelliptical, sometimes long. Smooth, slightly
glossy or non-glossy, with many minute pores. Pale buff, olive-grey, olive-buff,
buffish-brown, with variable blotches and streaks, often longitudinal, or spots of
reddish-brown, dark brown or purplish-grey. 85.7 x 55.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by the female, with the male on guard. 28-30
days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Brownish above, lighter below; dark brown stripe
down back and dark shoulder patches. Head and neck rufous-buff. Underparts drab
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
buffish-white. Bill pink, with grey tinge. Legs and feet pink, turning bluish-grey
within a few days. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Tended by both parents. Young fledge at 55-65 days.
BUSTARDS Otididae
Terrestrial birds of open country, occurring in pairs or polygamous groups. Nests are
bare scrapes and there appears to be no nest-building behaviour. Young are downy
and able to run soon after hatching. They are tended by the female. At first the young
take food directly from the adult.
GREAT BUSTARD Otis tarda	Pls 7,35
Breeds in open grasslands and large open cultivated fields. Nest on the ground with
little or no cover other than the growth of surrounding herbage.
Nest. A shallow, unlined hollow.
Breeding season. Begins from late April in south, early June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, exceptionally 4. Clutches larger in the south. Subelliptical to long
subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Pale grey, greyish-olive, greenish,
olive-brown or olive-green; with large blotches, often elongated, in light brown, dark
brown or grey. 79.4 x 56.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 25-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down short, mottled sandy-buff and blackish-
brown. Irregular reticulate pattern over head, with pale streak over eye and with spots
or broken streaks on sides of head and neck. Underparts sandy-buff, whitish on belly.
Back and sides mainly sandy-buff, irregularly mottled with a broken pattern of wavy
blackish lines and blotches. Bill olive-grey, darker grey near tip of upper mandible
at all stages. At hatching, legs flesh-pink, tinged grey, becoming grey, tinged pink or
green. Iris greyish-brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only, leaving the nest soon after hatching.
At first fed directly by female, but soon feed themselves. Young fly at c. 4 weeks,
and are independent at c. 5 weeks.
Dorsal patterns of downy chicks of bustards: Great Bustard, Houbara Bustard and
Little Bustard.
oystercatchers
127
LITTLE BUSTARD Otis tetrax	Pls 7, 35
In open regions with low vegetation, grass or crops. Nest on the ground in the open.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined except for material already present.
Breeding season. Begins from late April and appears to continue through June.
Single-brooded, or possibly double-brooded at times, producing the long breeding
season.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-5. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth
and glossy. Greenish-olive to olive-brown, heavily and evenly marked with brown
longitudinal streaks and long blotches. 52.3 x 38.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, the male remaining near by. 20-21 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down short, with complex mottled pattern, lines and
patches of sandy-buff and brown with blackish edges. Stripes on sides of head; mot-
tling over crown bordered by pale stripe over eye. Neck striped, with pale nape patch.
Three pale stripes on the upper back, the middle one broad. Remainder of back, sides
and wings mottled. Underside pale creamy-buff. Bill olive-grey. Legs and feet olive-
yellow to olive-grey. Iris light brown.
Nestling period. Young are tended by the female, and fed directly by her at first, but
later find their own food. Independent at c. 25-30 days. Full grown at 50-55 days.
HOUBARA BUSTARD Chlamydotis undulata	Pls 7,35
Breeds on arid plains, semi-desert areas, in sandy or stony areas or in sparse scrub
on desert edges.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined.
Breeding season. Begins March to early April in south, to June in north. In very arid
southern areas may not breed in unfavourable seasons, or may breed in a suitable
period between November and June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 4. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and glossy.
Light olive-brown, streaked and spotted with brown, reddish-brown and grey. 62.2
x 45 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down short, thick and woolly with complex carpet-
like pattern of creamy-white, and golden-brown with blackish-brown edges. Head
and neck a mass of complex striping; with brown patch on forehead. White above
and below eye, large golden-brown patch on foreneck, pale hind-neck. Golden stripe
with U-shaped whitish border on upper back, four radiating white patches on mid-
back. Remainder of back, sides and wings mottled. Underside creamy-white. Bill
olive-grey. Legs and feet olive-buff. Iris light brown. In larger young bill is grey with
narrow black band on upper mandible next to white tip.
Nestling period. Young are tended by the female, brooded when small. They are fed
directly for the first few weeks before self-feeding. They fledge at c. 35 days but
remain with the female until the autumn.
OYSTERCATCHERS Haematopidae
OYSTERCATCHER Haematopus ostralegus	Pls 11, 36
Breeds on open sites, on coastal beaches or among rocks, on islands, in dunes, on
shingle beds or grass banks along rivers, or by lakes or lagoons. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined or with pieces of dead plants, small stones, rabbit
droppings or other debris. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south, to June in north. Single-brooded.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Oystercatcher.
Eggs. Usually 3, rarely 2-4. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and glossy. Yellowish
with stone, greyish or buffish tints, more rarely greenish or brownish; variably
marked, but usually boldly spotted, blotched or irregularly streaked with brownish-
black markings which vary considerably in size. 57 x 40 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, usually but not invariably beginning with the last egg.
24-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down dark greyish-black above, finely tipped and
tinted with greyish-white and buff; white on the underside. A blackish band across
the breast at lower edge of dark breast shield, and a dark line on flanks separating
blackish back and white underside. A narrow dark line from eye to nape, along cen-
tre of crown, two narrow longitudinal lines on back, and one across wing. Iris dark
brown. At hatching, bill dark bluish-grey, buff at base of lower mandible; legs and
feet flesh-pink, grey on upperside of toes and on joints; claws buff. By fledging, bill
is predominantly orange, with black tip; legs and feet pale greyish-pink; claws black.
Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They remain at the nest for 1-2
days. Some food is brought to them. Later they follow the parents and pick up their
own food. They can swim at an early age, and crouch motionless if alarmed. Inde-
pendent in 34—37 days.
AVOCETS AND STILTS Recurvirostridae
Wading birds of shallow lagoons and muddy shores, nesting on sparse vegetation or
dry mud near water. Nest-building as in most other waders is by sideways-throwing
and sideways-building. Young downy, with slender bills and legs, pale greyish or
buffish with sparse dark marks.
BLACK-WINGED STILT Himantopus himantopus	Pls 11, 41
Breeds by water in shallow areas of lagoons, or edges of lakes or flood waters; where
water is of little depth or muddy. Usually nests in colonies. Nest is on plant tuft or
tussock in water, or built up in very shallow water, or on mud by the water’s edge.
Conditions may vary through change of water level during nesting.
Nest. A shallow hollow with very variable amount of nest material - a few scraps in
drjr sites or a built-up accumulation of plant debris in wet sites. Material may be
added during incubation if water level rises.
Breeding season. Variable; beginning late March to early June. Single-brooded.
AVOCETS AND STILTS
129
Black-winged Stilt, c. 25 cm across.
Eggs. Usually 4, often 3. sometimes 5. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth but only slightly
glossy. Pale brownish-buff, variable but usually marked with small black spots and
blotches and sometimes greyish markings. Very similar to those of Avocet. 44 x
31 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 25-26 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white below and finely freckled with pale
grey and pale buff above, greyer on neck. Thin broken blackish line along mid-
crown. Thin line through the eye and fine mottling on the head. Broader, very
broken double blackish line down middle of upper back terminating in a dark spot
on lower back; and broken blackish line along each flank. Thin black line on fore-
edge of wings. Iris dark brown. Bill black. Toes partly webbed at base. At hatching,
legs and feet grey; webs and inner and underside of toes orange-buff; claws black.
Legs, feet and webs become flesh-pink before fledging.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, running and feeding soon after
hatching. Independent at c. 4 weeks.
AVOCET Recurvirostra avosetta	Pls 11,41
Breeds in open areas on the edges of salt or brackish lagoons, or on low islands, sands
or mud-flats, or meadows by salt or brackish waters. Usually nests colonially. Nest in
the open on bare dry mud or sand near the water’s edge, or in short sparse vegetation.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lining often absent or very sparse, usually a little dead plant
material. Built by both sexes. Material may be added during incubation if water level
rises.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south, to early May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5, rarely less. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth, but non-
glossy or with slight gloss. Pale brownish-buff, very variably marked bur usually
with scattered small spots and blotches of black, and rarely some grey spots. Very
similar to those of Black-winged Stilt. 50.6 x 35.1 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Dorsal pattern of downy chicks of: left, Black-winged Stilt; right. Avocet.
Incubation. By both sexes. 22-24 days. Begins before completion of the clutch.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down soft and silky; white on underside and pale
buffish-grey on back. Pattern variable and very broken. Thin dark mark from bill
through eye. Thin broken line or mottling along mid-crown. Sparse black blotches
indicate relict paired lines in mid-back; single mid-line on lower back, and line along
each flank. Iris dark brown. Bill relatively long, slightly upcurved, even in newly
hatched young; dark bluish-grey, darker grey at tip. Legs and feet pale bluish-grey,
occasionally pale greenish-grey. Toes webbed. Webs wholly orange, or pale bluish-
grey, orange at edges. Underside of toes orange. Claws buff.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, running and feeding themselves
soon after hatching. Fly at 32-35 days.
CRAB PLOVERS Dromadidae
CRAB PLOVER Dromas ardeola	Pl. 11
Breeds in colonies in burrows on open sandy areas not far from the sea on offshore
islands.
Nest. A tunnel excavated in sandy ground; c. 130-150 cm long, slanting downwards
then rising a little to a slightly enlarged chamber at the end in which the egg is laid on
sand.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Single-brooded.
Egg. Large single egg. Subelliptical. Smooth or finely pitted. White. 63 x 45 mm.
Incubation. Estimated at c. 4 weeks.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down soft and dense, pale grey above, and
white on the underside. Dark grey round base of bill and eyes. Longer head filaments
tipped with brown, and faint brownish band on hind-crown above white nape. Bill
short and gull-like, black. Legs pale bluish-grey, feet darker.
Nestling period. Young remain for some time in the burrow, and food is brought to
them by adults. Young are fed directly at first by regurgitation. Feeding continues
after young leave the burrow, when they beg from adults like young gulls. Appear
dependent on adults into autumn and possibly winter.
STONE CURLEWS
131
PAINTED SNIPE Rostratulidae
PAINTED SNIPE Rostratula benghalensis	PI. 11
Breeds in marshy areas with thick vegetation. The female is brightly coloured and
takes the major role in displaying and fighting while the male tends nest and young.
Females are polyandrous. 2-4 males nest in a female territory.
Nest. A shallow hollow in marsh herbage, scantily lined, or more heavily lined with
plant stems and leaves, often in a damp site and usually well concealed.
Breeding season. Begins April to May.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 2-3. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Light yellowish-buff; heavily and boldly marked with blotches, coarse scrawlings,
small spots, or rarely fine scribbling, of black or blackish-brown. Markings well
distributed and variable, with blotches predominating, mixed with finer, smaller
markings. 35.5 x 25 mm.
Incubation. By male alone. 15-21 days. Beginning on completion of the clutch.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down boldly patterned. Pale buff with black line
from top of bill over mid-crown, dividing on crown to enclose a short, light-brown
streak, closing to single line on nape, and dividing on back to form a broad warm-
brown median stripe bordered by black lines. A narrow black stripe from the side of
the bill extends back through eye, down the neck and along the sides just above the
wings. A short black horizontal line extends, lower down, along flank. Bill pinkish-
buff, black at mandible tips. Legs and feet pinkish-buff, grey on upper edges of outer
toes.
Nestling period. Male incubates clutch and rears the young, brooding them at first.
Young leave nest within half a day, and follow male as group. Male remains with
young for с. 19-20 days after fledging.
STONE CURLEWS Burhinidae
STONE CURLEW Burhinus oedicnemus	Pls 11,42
Breeds on bare open spaces, open heaths, short grass, bare sand or shingle, or arable
land; at times among scrub, scattered trees or open woodland, or in open rides of
young plantations or previously open land. Nest normally on the ground; very rarely
on raised site such as straw stack. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow scrape on bare ground, unlined or sparsely lined by sideways-
throwing with nearby debris, plant fragments, small stones or rabbit dung.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May, from February in the Canary
Islands. Usually single-brooded; occasionally double-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2, rarely 3. Occasionally 1 only in replacement clutches. Sub-
elliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale creamy-buff or creamy-yellow, speckled,
spotted, blotched, streaked and scrawled with medium to dark brown and some pale
purplish-grey. Markings usually evenly distributed and frequently profuse. Very
variable, from large irregular blotches to overall fine speckling or scrawling.
Markings often elongated along egg. 53.8 x 38.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid on alternate days. Incubation by both sexes, usually
beginning with second egg. 25-27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down rather short and woolly. Pale drab buff with
whiter underside and throat. Two parallel blackish-brown streaks down length of
back, with scattered dark specks between. Small narrow dark stripe along flank
to rump. Small black stripe along wing. Thin dark line across forehead and through
132
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Dorsal pattern of downy chick of Stone Curlew.
eye to nape; parallel dark streak from bill base across cheek. Dark flecking on crown,
with faint broken dark streak along centre of crown Iris pale greyish-yellow. Upper
mandible bluish-grey, black at tip, edges and on ridge of culmen; lower mandible
black Legs and feet bluish-grey, soon turning greyish green. Claws buffish-grey,
becoming black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents They leave nest soon after hatch-
ing. and are fed for first few days on food brought by adults in bill. Independent in
c. 6 weeks.
SENEGAL THICK-KNEE Burhinus senegalensis	Pl. 42
Breeds in bare open spaces near water or cultivation; usually on dry sandbanks of
rivers, but will nest on flat roof Usually solitary but sometimes in small colonies.
Nest. A shallow unlined hollow, often edged with small flat stones, pieces of broken
shells, pieces of grit, or dry plant stems.
Breeding season. Begins March. Possibly double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 2. Similar in shape, colour and pattern to those of Stone Curlew.
Exceptionally pale pink, with dark reddish-brown markings. 49.5 x 22.1 mm
Incubation. Role of sexes and period unknown Other adult of the pair remains close
by incubating bird.
Nestling. Precocial and downy Down white below, greyish-buff speckled with black
above, with black lines on forehead, crown, back and rump, but not on wings Iris
pale greyish-yellow. Upper mandible greenish-grey, black at tip, edges and on ridge
of culmen; lower mandible black. Legs and feet greyish-green. Claws black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents and may be brooded at first by either.
They leave the nest after a few days, but are fed directly by adults for first 5-6 days.
PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS Glareolidae
EGYPTIAN PLOVER Pluvianus aegyptius	Pls П, 42
Breeds on sand-banks of larger rivers. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow depression, unlined. Formed by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins January. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2. Subelliptical. Smooth, usually glossy, but gloss
PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS
133
varies. Cream to warm buff with fine specks, spots or small irregular scrawls in
reddish-brown and pale purplish-grey, often profuse, sometimes with a heavy zone
around the larger end. 31.2 x 24.1 mm.
Incubation. By both adults. 28-31 days. Eggs may be covered with sand but partly
uncovered and brooded at night; for 1-2 hours after dawn covered with sand, and
covered or briefly brooded during the hottest period of the day. Adults wet belly-
feathers with water to moisten both eggs and sand of nest-site.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of back and head sandy with fine dark brown
mottling. From behind eye a white band extends round nape, where it becomes
broad, bordered above and below with a bold black band. Underparts white, and
wings with a sandy stripe along fore-edge. Iris dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet
bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, and partly fed by them during the
first week, being shown food items. Alarmed young crouch with lowered head, and
adults may sometimes cover them as they do with eggs. Young fly at 30-35 days.
CREAM-COLOURED COURSER Cursorius cursor	Pls 11,42
Breeds in arid open areas in both stony and sandy desert where some vegetation
is present, appearing to prefer more sandy nest-sites in semi-desert with sparse
vegetation, dry steppe, or bare areas near cultivation. Nest on the ground. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow in dry ground, usually unlined.
Breeding season. May begin February in Canary Islands, elsewhere begins April;
extended. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 3. Subclliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and non7glossy.
Creamy, or very pale yellowish or buffish; usually densely covered with fine spot-
ting or tiny short fine lines or scribbles in buffish-brown and grey. Often with faint
indication of larger underlying grey markings. Sometimes markings are slightly
sparser, with larger irregular blotches or mottlings, usually appearing to be coales-
cence of finer markings. Rarely a heavier zone of markings in distinct band around
larger end. 34.7 x 27.1 mm. A resemblance to camel droppings in size, shape and
general coloration.
Incubation. By both birds. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down short and woolly; on back and head finely
mottled sandy-rufous and white, nape buffish-white, brown streak from forehead
along centre of crown to rear. Black spot below and to rear of eye. Throat white.
Breast and underparts buffish-white, occasionally warmer buff. Iris dark brown. At
hatching, bill mainly bluish-grey, darker at base; legs and feet grey, tinged blue;
claws grey. In larger young, bill is darker grey; legs and feet pale creamy-buff.
Nestling period. Young leave the nest on first day and follow adults. Tended by both
adults, which bring food to young. They fledge at 26-28 days.
COLLARED PRATINCOLE Glareola pratincola	Pls 11, 42
Breeds in open areas by estuaries, lagoons or lakes, on extensive marshes or open
plains. Nest on the ground on open areas of drying mud near water, on small islands
in shallow water, or on open sandy or stony areas. Nests in colonies.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sometimes a natural one such as hoof-print in mud, or on
dry open ground, in small patches of sparse vegetation, or on dry cow-dung. Proba-
bly built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May in south-west, usually June in
north-east. Single-brooded.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2, rarely 4. Short subelliptical, rarely oval. Cream, often
faintly tinted green or buffish. Boldly marked with blotches, spots, specks, scrawls
and thin fine streaks of black and occasionally dark brown markings, and various
shades of grey. Markings usually profuse, with finer ones distributed rather evenly,
but heavier blotching may be irregular. 32.3 x 24.1 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 17-18 days. Beginning with final egg.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down of upperparts sandy to greyish-buff,
finely speckled with dark brown. A thin blackish-brown line over the middle of the
crown from bill to hind-crown and another through the lores to eye. Two blackish-
brown parallel lines along back, joining at the rump. Faint dark line along side of
back. Throat buffish-white, remainder of underparts pale buff. Iris black. Bill black
and short, with slit-like nostrils parallel to the ridge of the culmen. Large area of
pinkish-brown short down extends on each side of the base of the upper mandible
(but not on ridge of culmen) from lores almost to the nostrils. Lower mandible dark
grey, black at tip. Pinkish or red tinge to comer of bill, extending to nostrils. Legs
and feet bluish-grey. Claws black, buffish-pink at tip. Mouth reddish-pink.
Nestling period. Young fed by parents at first, picking up for themselves at 8-10
days. Fly at 22 days but not fully grown until c. 4 weeks.
BLACK-WINGED PRATINCOLE Glareola nordmanni	Pl. 42
Breeds on open steppe areas with dry mud, saline or sandy areas with sparse vege-
tation, usually near water, or near cultivation. Nest in colonies, frequently large; at
times with other species; and sometimes sites may change annually.
Nest. A shallow scrape or small natural depression in bare ground.
Breeding season. Begins mid- to late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2 or 4. Short subelliptical to oval. Smooth, non-glossy.
Similar to Collared Pratincole eggs, but tend to be slightly greener or more olive, and
with generally smaller, more irregular markings. 32.4 x 24.8 mm.
Incubation. Probably by both parents for 17-19 days like Collared Pratincole.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy, very similar to that of Collared Pratincole (see
above), but appearing a little darker in colour probably with less red at corner of the
bill. Differences between the species are not definitely known. Bill dark grey; colour
of legs and feet unknown.
Nestling period. Like Collared Pratincole, young are tended by both parents. They
are independent in 5-6 weeks.
PLOVERS Charadriidae
Short-billed waders, inhabiting drier terrain, and nesting on open ground with veg-
etation very short or absent. The nest is a shallow scrape, but often placed where
it commands a view of surrounding country. Eggs tend to be more rounded and less
pyriform than those of typical waders. Usually 3 or 4 eggs in a clutch. Young can
run as soon as down is dry and may leave the nest quickly. Appear not to feed for
first 24 hours. They crouch motionless when alarmed and may do so even when
well grown.
DOTTEREL Eudromias morinellus	Pls 11,37
Breeds on tundra and bare hills of arctic and sub-arctic regions, and on similar habi-
tats of mountain-tops further south. Has bred exceptionally on newly drained Dutch
polders. Nest on the ground. Solitary or in loose groups.
PLOVERS
135
Nest. Shallow hollow on the ground, unlined or sparsely lined with nearby vegetation.
Started by female; finished by both, but mainly by male.
Breeding season. Beginning mid-May in south, to June in north. Polyandrous, a
female frequently laying a series of clutches to be incubated and reared by 2-3
different males.
Eggs. Usually 3. sometimes 2, rarely 4. Oval. Smooth, non-glossy or slightly glossy.
Colour variable, pale buff, at times yellowish, greenish or reddish-buff; marked with
large spots or heavy blotching of blackish-brown, sometimes reddish-brown, and
sparse pale grey marks. 44.1 x 28.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 1-2 days. Incubation usually by male alone,
beginning with the second egg. 21-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down greyish-white on underside becoming creamy
on breast. On back and crown yellowish-buff to sandy-buff, irregularly and heavily
mottled in black and white. Sometimes two white streaks on lower back. Forehead
white or pale buff with black line down middle. Conspicuous white crescent around
hind-crown, with black line below it extending forward to lores below eyes. Narrow
dark line from bill through eye to nape. Streak over eye, ear-coverts and cheeks white;
and white nape collar with faint dusky mottling. Iris dark brown. Bill dark grey at
hatching, soon turning to black. At hatching, legs and feet olive- or bluish-grey, yel-
lowish at rear of joints and on underside of toes; claws grey, black at base. Legs and
feet become yellow by 9 days, and dull olive or yellow-green by fledging.
Nestling period. Young may remain in the nest for first day. Subsequently cared
for mainly or entirely by male, the female rarely helping. First flight at 19-24 days.
Independent in c. 4 weeks.
GREATER SAND PLOVER Charadrius leschenaultii	Pl. 37
Nest in open, arid, semi-desert regions, on the ground. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow scrape in softer soil or sand with a variable, sparse lining of nearby
vegetation and debris.
Breeding season. Begins March or early April. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2. Oval, smooth but non-glossy. Pale buffish-yellow,
tinted green in fresh eggs; evenly spotted blackish-brown to brown, with sparser pale
grey spots. Markings sometimes larger, uneven and concentrated towards the larger
end. 38.6 x 27.7 mm.
Incubation. By both adults.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern similar to that of Ringed Plover, white
on underside, with white collar; greyish-buff on back and crown, mottled with
blackish-brown. Conspicuous black crown border round nape from eye to eye. Short
black stripe along mid-crown, and another down mid-back. Dark band along flank
bordering back, and another diagonally across upper wing. Iris dark brown. Bill
black. Legs and feet olive-green, grey on uppersides of toes. Claws black.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents and leave the nest soon after
down is dry, moving to bare areas. Parents may divide the brood and separate with
1 or 2 young each.
CASPIAN PLOVER Charadrius asiaticus
Breeds on level desert steppe or desert, on saltpans or salty or fresh bare ground with
sparse shrubby vegetation. Nest on the ground in the open, or partly hidden among
vegetation. Usually within 10 km of water, moving to less arid places when young
hatch. Sometimes solitary, but usually in scattered groups of pairs.
136
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest A shallow scrape, with a sparse lining of fragments of vegetation and debris.
Breeding season. Early April onwards. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3. Oval, smooth and non-glossy. Yellowish-buff with olive-green tint.
Heavily marked with black and paler grey spots and blotches. 38 x 27 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pale creamy above, white below. Dense dull
black speckling on head and back, forming three lines on crown, with unmarked
forehead, eyestripe and area from cheek to nape. Markings form two lines on back
and one over forewing. Bill dark. Legs and feet olive?
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents but feeding themselves. Stay as
family, moving after a few days.
RINGED PLOVER Charadrius hiaticula	Pls 11,36
Usually breeds on open areas of shingle, sand or mud, most often on the seashore;
less frequently on the shores of inland rivers or lakes, or bare cultivated areas, sandy
heaths, or, in Scandinavia, barer ground at higher altitudes. Nest is on the ground.
Solitary.
Nest. A shallow scrape on the ground; usually exposed, but often near or sometimes
sheltered by plant tuft. Lining varies with the availability of nearby material, and
varies from tiny pebbles and debris to plant material. Scrape formed by male.
Breeding season. Extended breeding season. Begins about May, but sometimes
from early March onwards. Double-brooded, possibly treble-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3 or 5. Shorter pyriform or oval. Smooth and gtossless or
slightly glossy. Colour and markings very variable. Pale bluish-grey, greyish buff,
stone-buff, yellowish or intermediate; usually marked with profuse blackish-brown
and pale grey spots, sometimes with larger, sparser black blotching or almost
immaculate. 35.8 x 25.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with last or second last egg. 23-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white on underside to throat, and a white col-
lar circling neck. Upperparts of body and crown greyish-buff, buffer on the mantle
Ringed Plover, c. 10 cm across.
PLOVERS
137
and wings, finely mottled overall with spots and short streaks of blackish-brown.
Forehead white, a dark band bordering upper edge of collar round nape from eye
to eye, and dark line from eye to bill. Sometimes a black broken line along mid-
crown. Dark line to hind-edge of collar, and partial paired dark lines on mantle, dark
band along flank bordering back. Short dark band across upper fore-edge of wing
and dark band along hind-edge. Iris dark brown. At hatching, bill black, dark grey,
tinged red at base; legs and feet purplish-grey, with olive-yellow rear edges and
soles; claws black. Within a few days, bill is black at tip, reddish-brown at base;
legs and feet become flesh-pink or orange-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Young active, leaving nest soon
after hatching, and finding their own food. Guarded and brooded by adults. Inde-
pendent in c. 25 days.
LITTLE RINGED PLOVER Charadrius dubius	Page 138, Pl. 36
Breeds by fresh water, most frequently on sand or shingle, sometimes on dried mud.
On banks in low rivers and streams, or suitable ground bordering lakes or ponds, or
their islands. Occasionally on large areas of bare ground disturbed by gravel-digging
or reservoir-building. Nest is on the ground, on bare ground or among grass. Solitary.
Nest. A hollow scrape; lining varies from plant material to small stones and debris,
or is absent. Male makes several scrapes, and one is selected by female.
Breeding season. Begins from mid-March in south to June in north. Double-
brooded in south, single-brooded in north of range.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3, very rarely 5. Shorter pyriform to oval. Smooth but non-
glossy. Stone, sandy or brownish-buff, with a blue-green tint when freshly laid; typ-
ically profusely marked with fine spots and streaks of brown, occasionally with
larger brown, purplish or black spots and scrawls. 29.8 x 22.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid on alternate days. Incubation by both sexes, begin-
ning with the last or next-to-last egg. 24-26 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down like Ringed Plover’s in pattern but wanner
buff on back and crown. Dark edge to nape continues around whole crown patch,
and across, behind pale forehead. Dark stripe from bill to eye. Blackish patch on
either side of breast. Dark line along flanks, another along wing. Bare yellow eye-
rim may be conspicuous from an early stage. Iris dark brown. Bill black, rarely with
pinkish at base of lower mandible. Legs and feet flesh coloured, tinged bluish-grey,
with darker bluish-grey (or rarely greenish-grey) on joints and thighs; rear edges
and soles olive. Claws black.
Nestling period. As for Ringed Plover. Independent in c. 21-24 days.
KENTISH PLOVER Charadrius alexandrinus	Page 138, PI. 37
Breeds on open areas of shingle, sand or mud, most frequently on or near the sea
but also on edges of saline lagoons or mud-flats inland, and on areas of dry mud
with scanty vegetation near brackish water. Nest is on the ground. Solitary or in
loose groups.
Nest. A hollow scrape; unlined or sparsely lined with fragments of plants and
debris. Eggs are often partly buried. Female selects one of a number of scrapes
made by male.
Breeding season. Begins from mid-March in south to June in north. Probably
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2 or 4. Shorter oval to pyriform. Smooth but non-
glossy. Variably coloured. Stone, buff or sandy, but sometimes tinted olive, brown
138
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Dorsal view, and side view of head of shorebird chicks: a. Little Ringed Plover;
b. Kentish Plover; c. Lapwing; d. Redshank; e. Common Sandpiper.
PLOVERS
139
or reddish; with irregular lines and fine spots in black and pale grey. Markings at
times restricted to a narrow zone. 33.1 x 23.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. Eggs are often partially buried in sand, mainly in south
of range and at hottest period of day. Incubation 24 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like Ringed Plover’s but back and
crown light buff with blackish mottling. Dark nape edge to crown absent; and dark
streak from bill to eye faint or absent. Iris dark brown. Bill black. Legs and feet
bluish- or greenish-grey, olive at rear and soles. Claws black.
Nestling period. As for Ringed Plover. Female may desert fledgling brood at 7-20
days, mate with another male and renest.
KITTLITZ’S PLOVER Charadrius pecuarius	PI. 37
Breeds on sandbanks of rivers and lakes, or on open mud or short turf near water, or
sandy or muddy stretches of coast. Nest on the ground. Solitary or in loose colonies.
Nest. A shallow hollow in soft or sandy soil; bare or lined with a variable amount of
nearby debris, pebbles or shells. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins April. 1-2 broods.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1. Oval to pyriform. Smooth but non-glossy. Pale cream to
creamy-buff; very heavily marked with fine spots and streaks, dark brown to black,
which obscure the ground colour. 32.4 x 22.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-3 days. Incubation by both sexes. 23-28
days, beginning with last egg. When disturbed from the eggs, adults rapidly kick
sand over to cover and hide them, uncovering them when they return.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern rather like that of Ringed Plover. Pale
buff on back and head, mottled with black, and with dark broken double stripe down
the back joining to form a V near tail. The underside, neck and forehead are white
but the flanks have a pale buff tint. Bill pale bluish-grey, becoming darker, black at
tip. Legs and feet pale bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young leave the nest soon after hatching and are tended by both
adults, which brood and guard them, the young feeding themselves. Independent in
c. 30 days.
GREY PLOVER Pluvialis squatarola	PI. 37
Breeds in arctic tundra regions, usually on slightly raised site, or higher ridge if
present, giving a wide view. Nest is on the ground. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow sparsely lined with moss or lichen fragments. Started by
male, finished by both.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth but non-glossy or slightly
glossy. Pale buff or greyish-stone, or sometimes tinged brown, red or green; vari-
ably spotted or blotched, with black, and less frequently brown and pale grey.
Markings tend to be concentrated towards the larger end, or in a zone around it.
51.7 x 36 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by male. 27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Golden Plover, but upper
parts more buff and less golden, and there is a bold white collar around the nape. Iris
dark brown. Bill dark grey. Legs and feet dark olive-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Female may leave after с. 12 days.
Fledge at c. 35-45 days, when also independent.
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BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
GOLDEN PLOVER Pluvialis apricaria	Pls 11,37
Breeds on open moorland and grasslands of hill regions in the south of the range, and
on areas of similar short vegetation at lower altitudes in the north, and on arctic tun-
dra. Nest is on the ground on short heather or bare areas, rarely among scattered trees.
Solitary.
Nest. A shallow scrape, with a variable lining of nearby plant material, often scanty,
occasionally considerable. Male makes a number of initial scrapes; selected scrape
then enlarged and lined by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in the south, to June in the north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, 3 at times. Pyriform or oval. Smooth and slightly glossy. Buff
or sandy, to yellowish-stone or pale yellow, occasionally tinted reddish-brown or
olive. Heavily blotched with blackish-brown and sometimes scarcer reddish-brown
markings; often most heavily marked at larger end or confined to a zone around it.
52.1 x 35.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-3 days. Incubation by both sexes but some-
times mainly by the male, beginning with the third egg. 27-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down greyish-white on underside. On back, head,
thighs and wings golden-yellow' or greenish-yellow, finely mottled with black. On
head mottled yellow patches with darkish lines on crowm, over eye, and from base
of bill back to nape under eye; broken by yellowish-white forehead with pale irreg-
ular streak extending back above eye. and pale streak below eye. Pale yellowish nape
with irregular dark lower border. Often two pale parallel stripes on lower back.
Wing-tips w hite, and dark stripe near fore- and hind-edges of upper wing. Iris dark
brown. Bill black. Legs and feet pinkish-grey, pink on rear of thigh; or much paler
overall, pink, tinged grey. Claws black. In larger young, legs and feet are olive-grey.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both sexes. Independent in about 1 month.
LAPWING Vanellus vanellus	Page 138, Pls 11, 38
Breeds in open areas at varying altitudes - meadows and rough pastures, marshland
with short vegetation, arable and open cultivation, and moister moorland. Nest on
the ground. Solitary or loosely colonial.
Nest. A shallow' hollow, sometimes on a slight eminence, especially in wetter sites.
Material varies from none to a substantial accumulation, at times forming a large
pad. Male makes several scrapes; female selects one, w'hich is enlarged and lined by
both.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Single-brooded, but lost clutches
replaced later.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 2, 3 or 5. Pyriform to oval. Smooth but non-glossy.
Creamy-buff or stone; or tinted olive or brown; or rarely bluish or reddish; marked
with small black spots and blotches, more rarely with irregular small streaks
or scrawling, or with large blotches. A number of rare variants known. 47.1 x
33.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive or alternate days. Incubation by both sexes but
mainly by female; beginning at the completion of the clutch, or before last egg.
24-29 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white on underside with blackish band across
upper breast. Back and crown buffish-brown mottled with black, nape white bor-
dered above by black band on hind-crown. Pale patch below eye and irregular dark
line from bill along lower edge of ear-coverts. Black band along flanks edging mot-
PLOVERS
141
tied back, and dark patch on thigh. Few irregular dark blotches down mid-back on
some individuals. Upper wing black-edged. Iris dark brown. Bill dark violet-grey.
Legs and feet reddish-grey Claws black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, male generally guarding while
female does most leading and brooding. Independent in c. 33 days.
SPUR-WINGED PLOVER Vanellus spinosus	Pi. 38
Breeds near water on sand, mud-flats, marshes with sparse vegetation or in young
crops; or on small rocky or sandy islands in rivers. Solitary, or in loose association
with other pairs.
Nest. A shallow hollow in open ground, lined with nearby plant material. Female
selects one of a number of scrapes made by male.
Breeding season. Begins April, prolonged, and birds may be double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3, rarely 5. Oval, rarely pyriform. Non glossy Light
yellowish-buff, creamy-stone, olive-buff or pale olive, heavily marked with smallish
irregular blotches, spots, or more rarely streaked or scrawled with black, blackish-
brown or dark brown, and some medium grey markings. 40.3 x 28.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Both sexes may incubate but usually mainly
done by female 22-24 days, beginning with completion of clutch
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white on underside; buff mottled with black
on crown and back. A white collar around nape, with a black band around its upper
edge Black band along side of back to rump Black mottling may form an irregular
band along centre of the crown (and possibly a narrow line across forehead) and two
irregular bands along centre of back, converging towards the rump. Iris dark brown.
Bill black, dark bluish-grey at base. Legs and feet pale greenish-grey. Claws buff.
Nestling period. Young guarded and brooded by both parents. They feed from the
first, fledge in 7-8 weeks, independent soon afterwards
RED-WATTLED LAPWING Vanellus indicus	Pl. 38
Breeds on stony or bare areas, fallow cultivation, ploughed fields and areas of shin-
gle, sand or mud by inland waters or rivers. Nest is on the ground. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow scrape or natural hollow, unlined, or lined with nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins April. Single-brooded9
Eggs. Normally 4. Oval to pyriform Smooth, non-glossy or faintly glossy Yellowish-
buff, sometimes tinted greenish or warm buff; heavily marked with irregular spots,
small blotches and short streaks or scrawls of blackish-brown or olive-brown, and
sparse pale grey. 41.7 x 29 9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes In hot weather and dry situations birds moisten belly
feathers before incubation, c. 26 days. Probably beginning from last egg because
hatching synchronous.
Nestling. Precocial and downy Down on head and upperparts greyish-brown with
black mottling. Chin and underparts white, and bioad white collar extending round
the neck bordered above by a broad black band extending from behind the eyes.
Black mottling on crown forms an irregular narrow line along centre of crown.
Flanks and belly tinged with buff, and black streak along flanks. Black band present
across breast. Ins dark brown. At hatching, bill blackish, tinged red at base; legs and
feet pale bluish-grey, tinged pink; claws pinkish-buff. Within a few days, bill
becomes bluish-grey at tip, pink at base; legs and feet greenish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents, which guard and brood them
Fledge at c 38 days.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
WHITE-TAILED LAPWING Vanellus leucurus	Pl. 37
Breeds in open marshy places by fresh or salt water. Nest on the ground in the open.
Colonial or solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with fragments of vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 4. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and non-glossy. Pale buff, or yellowish-buff,
sometimes tinted olive; marked with spots and irregular small blotches, often elongated,
in blackish-brown, dark or olive-brown, and sparse pale grey. 39.8 x 28.3 mm.
Incubation. 22-24 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. White below with buffish breast, greyish-buff above.
Crown black-spotted with rusty-red on border and around eye. Broken black streak down
back, black streak at sides and across rump, with blackish spots on thighs and wings. Bill
black. Legs and feet green.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at c. 30 days.
SOCIABLE PLOVER Vanellus gregarius	PI. 38
Breeds on open steppe, usually near a source of water; on undulating ground having
sparse herbage with bare areas. Nest on the ground. Loose colonies of 2-30 pairs,
with nests generally 20-50 m apart, often in association with other waders, such as
Collared Pratincole.
Nest. A shallow hollow with a sparse lining of nearby grass.
Breeding season. Begins late April or early May. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3 or 5. Oval to pyriform. Smooth but non-glossy. Colour vari-
able, pale yellowish-buff or tinted warm buff or olive; marked with irregular spots
and small blotches, and sometimes with slight streaking or scrawls in blackish-
brown and dark brown, with scarcer grey markings. 46 x 34 mm.
Incubation. Probably by both adults, c. 25 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white below, sides of upper breast blackish
with some paler mottling. Back and head light buff mottled with black and dark
brown; and collar and nape white. Forehead pale buff, dark median streak on crown,
ear-coverts and cheeks whitish mottled with black. Wing-tips white. Dark bar along
upper wing. Bill relatively large; dark grey. Legs and feet probably deep reddish-
grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They fledge at c. 35-40 days.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES Scolopacidae
Small to medium, long-legged wading birds, occurring in a variety of habitats, but
usually by water. Nest usually a hollow in the ground. Nest-lining added by
sideways-throwing and sideways-building, and there may be considerable variation
according to the nature of the site and the material available near by. Nests may be
in bare, open sites or hidden in herbage. In the latter sites growing plants are usually
pulled together over the nest, concealing it. The Green Sandpiper is an exception in
habitually using an existing platform, usually the old nest of another bird, in a tree;
and the Wood Sandpiper may sometimes do so. Usually 4 eggs, pyriform or oval,
cryptically coloured and patterned. Incubation usually begins with the last egg.
Young are downy, and also cryptically coloured and patterned. The patterns are
rather like those of gamebird chicks. The dorsal pattern is basically a dark central
stripe which may be split by a paler median band; and at either side one or two more
dark stripes. The pattern becomes irregular, the central stripe varying in width along
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
143
its length. In the Calidris sandpipers and in the Snipe the dark bands are partly con-
cealed by pale buff or white dots formed by specialised brush-tips to some down fil-
aments, and the pattern is often not obvious.
The part played by the adults varies between species. In some cases both sexes
incubate and care for young; but in the Ruff the female does it all, while in the
phalaropes sex roles are reversed and the male alone cares for eggs and young. In a
number of instances the male plays a major role either in incubation or care of
the young. The young are precocial and usually leave the nest as soon as the down
is dry after hatching, being led away to better feeding by the adults. In most instances
the young feed themselves, but are brooded and guarded by the parents. In such cir-
cumstances it is difficult to be sure of the point where independence is achieved.
DUNLIN Calidris alpina	Pls 10, 39
Breeds on moorland with pools and bogs, lowland grassy areas with similar water,
or grassy coastal salt marshes. Nest on the ground, often on a slight eminence. Often
a number of pairs nest in close proximity.
Nest. A cup-like hollow in a grass-tussock, lined with grass or leaves.
Breeding season. Begins early or mid-May in south, to June m north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 4, occasionally 2-6. Oval to short pyriform. Smooth and slightly
glossy. Pale to very pale olive or greenish, or blue-green; blotched, spotted or speck-
led with dark brown, olive-brown and occasional pale purplish-grey. Markings very
variable. Small specklings tend to be profuse, larger blotching more sparing. Mark-
ings often concentrated towards the larger end where they may form a cap. Larger
markings often slanting and elongated. 34.8 x 24.8 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 21-22 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of underparts white, breast tinted yellowish-
buff. Head yellowish-buff, paler on cheeks, and back yellowish-tawny; both pat-
terned with blackish-brown, the dark parts of the back being finely dotted with pale
buff. Head has dark line from top of bill to crown, and crown mottled dark blackish
and yellowish-tawny. Dark streak from side of bill to eye, and small moustache
streak. Nape dark; back mottled dark and light. Iris dark brown. Bill black, or black
with pink at base, soon turning black. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Female does most brooding for first few days. Both parents pre-
sent at first, later only male may be apparent. Fly at c. 28 days. Independent in c.
25 days.
KNOT Calidris canutus	Pl. 10
Breeds on barren ground at high or low altitudes, nesting on areas of bare stones and
rock, scree or bare earth with some scanty vegetation. Nest sometimes made against
a clump of vegetation. Solitary.
Nest. A hollow lined thickly with lichens.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth, slightly glossy. Very pale, green
to greenish-olive; with small blotches, spots, specks and short streaks or scrawls, in
medium to dark brown and sparse purplish-grey. Markings usually small and fairly
evenly distributed. 42.9 x 29.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by the male. 21-22 days, beginning with the
last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of underside white, throat sometimes buffish.
Head cream-coloured, whiter or buffer. Broken blackish and buff patch on crown,
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
dark line from bill to crown, side of bill to eye, parallel low streak and dark irregu-
lar markings on ear-coverts. Nape whitish. Back mottled warm or greyish-buff and
blackish-brown, finely dotted with creamy-white. Iris dark brown. Bill yellow with
blackish tip. Legs and feet greyish-yellow with some dark grey markings.
Nestling period. Young tended mainly by male, leaving nest soon after hatching and
gradually moving to more heavily vegetated area. Can fly at c. 18 days, independent
in c. 3 weeks.
SANDERLING Calidris alba	Pls 10,39
Breeds on the tundra, usually near the coast, on drier sites with areas of stones or
gravel scattered among clumps of low plants and herbage. Nest on the ground,
usually against a clump of vegetation. Solitary.
Nest. A neat, deep cup lined with dead willow leaves or other plant material.
Breeding season. Begins late June to July. Single-brooded, but two clutches may be
laid serially.
Eggs. Normally 4, exceptionally 3. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Light olive or greenish; blotched, speckled, spotted or scrawled with dull olive-
brown and purplish-grey. Markings tend to be concentrated towards the larger end,
sparser towards the narrow end. 35.3 x 24.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. Some females may lay two clutches, one sex incubating
each. Begins with last egg laid, delayed at times by second clutch. 24—27 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on underside white, tinted light buff on
throat. On upperparts buff, mottled with black and finely dotted with white. Black
line from bill to crown, two from base of bill to eye; a few black marks on cheeks.
Iris dark brown. Bill grey with black tip. Legs and feet black to bluish-black or
greenish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by incubating parent, fledge at c. 17 days. Indepen-
dent in 23-24 days.
TEMMINCK’S STINT Calidris temminckii	Pls 10,38
Breeds on open grassy areas, sometimes with scattered trees or shrubs; on the edges
of water by lakes, rivers and pools; or on small islands. Usually at lower altitudes.
Nest on the ground among low herbage. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, variably lined with plant material, grasses and leaves.
Breeding season. Begins mid- to late June. Usually single-brooded, sometimes
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and fairly glossy. Very sim-
ilar to those of Little Stint, but ground colour more frequently a paler, greenish-olive,
and heavy blotching rare. 28.0 x 20.4 mm.
Incubation. One clutch incubated by male, female often lays and incubates a
second clutch, and may lay a third clutch for a second male. 21-22 days. Beginning
with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of underparts white, upper breast tinted
yellowish-buff. Crown of head and upperparts yellowish-buff, mottled with black;
the black dotted with white or pale buff. Forehead and nape pale yellow. Dark line
across forehead from bill to crown, and from sides of bill through eye. Iris dark
brown. Bill flesh, soon becoming blackish-grey. Legs and feet buffish-grey. Claws
dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by the adult that incubated them. Fledge at 16-18
days, independent soon afterwards.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
145
LITTLE STINT Calidris rninuta	Pl. 38
Breeds usually in moist situations, but less closely tied to these than Temminck’s
Stint. Typically in grassy marshes or shrubby growth at marsh edges on sites near
coast, but will also breed in drier coastal sites, or in higher sites further inland. Nest
on the ground, sometimes in the shelter of a small shrub. Solitary.
Nest. A cup-like hollow, usually well lined with dead leaves and sometimes some grass.
Breeding season. Begins late June to early July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and fairly glossy. Very pale to
pale olive, sometimes with a deeper buffish tint; spotted, speckled or irregularly
blotched with purplish-brown or dark brown, and pale purplish-grey. Markings
frequently small, numerous and fairly evenly distributed. Where large blotches are
present they are frequently concentrated at the larger end. 28.8 x 20.7 mm.
Incubation. 20-21 days, mainly by male, but female may also lay and incubate
another clutch. Beginning with last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Temminck’s Stint, but
nape greyish-white with darker streaking, while crown of head and upperparts are a
warmer rufous-buff. Iris dark brown. Bill blackish-grey. Legs and feet bluish-grey.
Claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young probably tended by both parents, but mostly by the male.
PURPLE SANDPIPER Calidris maritima	Pl. 39
Breeds on the tundra, from sea-level to c. 450 m, on barer, more open peaty ground
with some low shrubby cover and herbage, from ridge-tops and summits to hillsides
and tops of dry shingle ridges. Nest on the ground in the open. Solitary.
Nest. Nest a fairly deep hollow, formed by male, lined with dead leaves.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May onwards. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Subelliptical to oval and pyriform. Smooth and
slightly glossy. Similar in appearance to Dunlin eggs but a little larger. Light to very
pale olive, green or bluish-green; variably blotched, spotted, speckled or scrawled in
drab, dark brown or olive-brown, and some pale purplish-grey. Most typically
blotched and with scattered smaller markings, tending to be sparser towards
narrow' end and largely concentrated towards larger end. Larger markings often show
elongation and slant. 37.3 x 26.2 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, but mainly by male. 21-22 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on underparts greyish-white with dark bases.
Crown, ear-coverts and upperparts mottled yellowish-buff and blackish-brown with fine
white dots. Forehead, fore-crown, nape and sides of head otherwise light buff. Dark line
from bill to crown, from side of bill above eye to nape, and short moustache streak. Iris
dark brown. Bill blackish with olive base, becoming greyish-pink at base. Legs and feet
olive-grey, becoming greyish-pink, darker at joints. Claws dark grey. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by male. Independent at c. 3-4 weeks.’
BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER Limicolafalcinellus	Pls 10, 39
Breeds on acid moorland in bogs and morasses with scattered plant tussocks. Nest
in a tussock, or on low ground usually in wetter part of habitat. Loosely colonial
Nest. A hollow in a tussock of cotton-grass or similar vegetation, or on a level mossy
site. Nest lined with leaves.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth, non-glossy or slightly glossy. Very
pale creamy-buff or stone, usually very thickly and finely speckled or mottled with
146
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
reddish-brown or dark brown, tending to obscure the ground colour. Small blotches or
short streaks and occasional larger blotches may be present. Often markings denser and
darker at larger end; rarely they are sparse towards pointed end. 32.1 x 22.8 mm.
Incubation. 21 days. By both birds.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white on underside with tawny tint on breast;
Upperparts tawny-brown mottled with black and finely dotted with white. Dark line
from bill to crown. Blackish line from top of base of upper mandible to eye, con-
verging at front of eye with blackish line from corner of bill, extending below the
eye to form dark spot behind eye. Forehead and eye stripe white, with short brown
arched markings above eye. Iris dark brown. Bill blackish-grey, dull pink at base of
both mandibles. Legs and feet bluish-grey. Claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents at first, later by male only.
RUFF Philomachus pugnax	Pls 10,39
Breeds in low marshy areas, or grass meadows by water, or moist grassy areas, or
tundra with low vegetation. Nest on the ground, concealed in herbage. Promiscuous.
Males have communal displays on open ground. Females nest alone near by. Soli-
tary, but several females may nest near lek.
Nest. A shallow scrape lined with leaves and stems. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south, to June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth, and slightly glossy. Light to
very pale olive or green, with smallish irregular blotches, spots, specks and rarely
short scrawls of medium to dark olive-brown or blackish-brown, and pale violet-
grey. Heavier markings often concentrated around larger end. 43.9 x 30.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 20-21 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down yellowish to pinkish-buff with black patterning
on head and back, the black areas speckled with fine buff spots. Crown with three bold
black streaks broken by fine buffish mottling. Unmarked around eye but short dark streak
on lores. Pattern of back and wings not obvious in irregular mottling of yellowish or pink-
ish-buff, and blackish-brown finely speckled with buff. Iris dark brown. Bill bluish-grey,
blackish-grey at tip. Legs and feet pinkish-grey, soon becoming grey. Claws grey.
Nestling period. Young soon leave nest. Tended by female only. Fed by her on insects
for several days, then feed themselves, but are guarded and brooded by female. First
flight at 24—27 days.
COMMON SNIPE Gallinago gallinago	Pls 10,41
Breeds in moist sites in a wide range of habitats at varying altitudes; in marshland,
bogs and swamps, moorland, grassland, waterside vegetation and sometimes in salt-
marsh. Nest on the ground usually concealed in a clump of herbage partly pulled over
to hide the nest. Exceptionally in bare sites. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with grass. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early April, exceptionally March. Sometimes double- brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth, and slightly glossy. Very
pale to pale green or olive, or deeper olive-buff to buff; exceptionally whitish-green.
Marked with blotches, spots, specks, and more rarely coarse scrawling, in dark
brown, dark olive-brown, blackish-brown, reddish-brown and shades of grey or
violet-grey. Markings often mainly small blotches, frequently rather sparing, and
often tending to be densest at the larger end. Sometimes with some blackish scrawl-
ing superimposed around the larger end. Blotches often irregular, or may show slant-
ing elongation. 39.3 x 28.6 mm.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PIIALAROPES
147
Crown pattern of downy chick of Common Snipe.
Incubation. By female only, beginning with third or fourth egg. 18-20 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down thick and soft. Dark chestnut-red and
blackish-brown with fine white spots. Underparts pale tawny-buff with a pair of
indistinct dark stripes down the front of the neck. Most of sides of head buffish-
white, forming pale patch around eye, with warm buff patch on lower ear-coverts
and streak from bill to over eye. Dark brown moustache streak, narrow dark streak
from bill to eye. Dark patch on forehead separated from dark crown by pale trans-
verse stripe. Rufous and blackish crown and nape patch bordered by pale stripe
which constricts it over eyes. Pale streak below eye. Mottling of body consists of
median double dark streak with pale spots, and two pairs of lateral dark streaks with
pale spots, but pattern is not obvious. Iris dark brown. Bill dark grey, brownish-pink
at base. Legs and feet dark olive-grey, or greyish-pink at front, dark grey at rear and
on joints. Claws black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest as soon as down is dry.
Apparently take food from parents’ bills at first. Can fly at c. 19-20 days.
PINTAILED SNIPE Gallinago stenura	Pl. 41
Breeds in small marshy areas in northern birch scrub Nest on the ground. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with grass or other vegetation and hidden in herbage.
Breeding season. Begins late May to mid-June. Probably single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and slightly glossy. Olive-green, some-
times pale, blotched, spotted and speckled with dark brown, blackish-brown and
paler purplish-grey. Markings tend to be concentrated about the larger end.
39.5 x 28.2 mm.
Incubation, c. 20 days. Hatching synchronous.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Very similar to young of Great Snipe, and paler
than that of Common Snipe. Colour varies between individuals. Above mainly
yellowish-brown to dark brown, variegated with reddish- or blackish-brown, with
whitish or yellowish tips. Dark mark on sides of neck. Blackish-brown forehead
spot separated by white bar from black forccrown spot. Eyestripe and underparts
almost white, with occasionally a dark chin spot. Iris dark brown. Bill, legs and feet
dark grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest 5-6 days after hatching, hiding in marshy
thickets near water. Disperse after 4-6 weeks.
GREAT SNIPE Gallinago media	Pl. 41
Breeds usually by water, in swamps and bogs, marshes and wet meadows where
herbage is lush; but also in rough grass-tussock areas in northern willow and birch
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
scrub. Nest on the ground. Promiscuous. Males have communal displays in damp or
boggy areas, with peak activity at dusk. Females nest alone nearby.
Nest. A hollow lined with grass or moss; usually concealed among herbage but at
times in more open sites. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south, to late June and early July in north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and slightly glossy. Very
pale drab buffish or greyish, exceptionally olive or greenish; blotched, and more
sparingly spotted or speckled with dark olive-brown, blackish-brown and paler grey.
Markings tend to be sparing at narrow end and mainly concentrated towards larger
end. Blotches sometimes show slanting elongation. 45.4 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 22-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern similar to that of Common Snipe but
light parts more warm buff, less deep rufous, dark parts blacker. Dark moustache streak
slight, black line from bill to eye often incomplete. Pale line above and below eye. Top
of head streaked, with a black median line from bill over mid-forehead and crown, with
additional dark stripes on crown and dark lines above eye curving back to hind-crown.
Iris dark brown. Bill grey. Legs and feet greyish-brown.
Nestling period. Little information. 3-4 weeks.
JACK SNIPE Lymnocryptes minimus	PI. 41
Breeds in open swamps and bogs, also small bogs in willow and birch scrub. Nest
on the ground in short grass or moss, usually on a more raised site or ridge in swampy
area, or among low scrub. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow or deeper cup sparsely lined with dry grass or green leaves.
Breeding season. Begins early June. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3. Oval to pyriform. Pale olive or green; speckled,
spotted or blotched with dark brown, blackish-brown and paler grey. Larger mark-
ings may be sparing and often concentrated towards larger end, but many eggs show
some evidence of minute fine speckling, and on some this fine speckling and minute
indistinct streaking may give whole shell a darker, brownish appearance. Blotches
often show some slanting elongation. 38.6 x 27.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, c. 24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern and colour similar to that of Common
Snipe, with fore-neck buffish. From bill to fore-crown dark rufous without transverse
pale line. Side of head rufous with whitish line from bill over eye. Thin white line
from bill below eye to nape. White horizontal band on each lower cheek converging
below the chin; this band is absent in Common Snipe and is best distinguishing fea-
ture. Iris blackish-brown. Bill grey, yellow-brown at base. Legs and feet deep olive-
grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest early. Parents divide brood between them, the
male taking older chicks. Dependent on adults for food at first. They fledge at
с. 19-20 days, becoming independent soon afterwards.
WOODCOCK Scolopax rusticola	Pls 10,41
Breeds typically in more open, damper woodland, usually deciduous, with low
cover; or rough ground with scrub or young plantations. Exceptionally in tall heather
in open. Solitary.
Nest. A hollow lined with dead leaves or other nearby dry plant material. Built by
fernale.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
149
Dorsal pattern of downy chick of Woodcock.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March, prolonged. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3-5; second brood often 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth
and slightly glossy. Pale buff to creamy, rarely pale warm buff to pinkish. Blotched,
spotted and speckled with shades of light to dark brown or reddish-brown, and paler
purplish-grey. Pattern usually a mixture of large and small markings. Blotches usu-
ally relatively small, and markings tend to be sparing, and concentrated towards the
larger end. 44.2 x 33.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by female only, beginning
with last egg. 20-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down warm yellowish-buff patterned with large
brown and chestnut brown patches and lines on upperparts. Yellowish-buff below
with brown line across throat. Thick blackish band from bill to eye, with short black-
ish streak behind eye. Chestnut-brown line from bill through centre of forehead to
crown cap, with transverse line down to each eye. Brown line on cheek. Brown band
from ear down neck to side of throat. Three prominent brown longitudinal bands on
back, and shorter bands on wings and across thigh. Iris dark brown. Bill dark grey,
pink at base of both mandibles. Legs and feet pinkish-grey. Claws dark grey. Mouth
pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only. Leave nest as soon as down is dry.
Claims that adults carry young not substantiated, and may be faulty observation of dis-
traction displays. Young can already fly a little at 10 days. Independent in c. 5-6 weeks.
BLACK-TAILED GODWIT Limosa limosa	Pl. 40
Breeds in open areas near water, on grassy meadows, rough pastures, marshes and
bogs. Exceptionally on heathland, dunes or in willow scrub. Nest on the ground,
usually in lush herbage, or by a shrub. Semi-colonial, often with several pairs in
loose association, but nests well-dispersed.
Nest. A shallow hollow, variably lined with grass and other nearby plant material,
sufficient at times to form a substantial pad.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to late May or early June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3-5. Subelliptical to oval or pyriform. Smooth and
slightly glossy. Light green or olive, to deeper green, olive or buff; marked with small
blotches, spots and specks, and rarely some short scrawls, of olive-brown, or dark
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
brown, and paler grey or purplish-grey. Markings usually sparing and often
indistinct, sometimes concentrated towards larger end. 54.7 x 37.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by both birds, beginning with
third or fourth egg. 22-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on underparts and sides of head white, tinted
pinkish-buff, warmer on breast. Upperparts light buffish-brown with dark brown
markings. Faint median line from bill to crown, dark brown patch on crown and dark
bold isolated spot behind eye, bordering nape. Narrow dark brown streak from bill
to front of eye. Narrow dark band down nape. Irregular broad dark band down back
to rump, broadening to diamond-shape patch enclosing pale spot on lower back.
Irregular dark marks along wings. Dark patch on flanks, with band along lower edge
to rump. Iris black. Bill black for approximately half of length towards tip, bluish-
grey for half nearer base, with small area of reddish-pink at base of lower mandible.
Legs and feet bluish-grey; claws grey. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young leave nest when down is dry. Tended by both adults. Fly at
c. 4 weeks.
BAR-TAILED GODWIT Limosa lapponica	Pls 11,40
Breeds in swampy tundra, or on marshes or heathland with pools bordering forest.
Nest on the ground, on a dry site on raised ridge or mound. Usually solitary, but
sometimes loose associations in favourable sites.
Nest. A hollow lined with fragments of nearby plant material.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3 or 2. Subclliptical, oval or pyriform. Smooth and
slightly glossy. Light to medium olive or green; marked with smallish blotches, spots
and specks of dark brown or olive-brown and paler grey. On shells with darker
ground colour markings are often indistinct and resemble those on Black-tailed
Godwit eggs, but on others markings are bold and may be evenly and fairly thickly
distributed, or sparser and concentrated towards the larger end. 53.1 x 37.3 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, mainly by male. 20-21 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Black-Tailed Godwit, but
more obscure pattern on back. Darker crown cap. Pale parts of back and head more
buff, and underside drab, washed with buff. Narrow dark brown line from bill
extends through the eye to irregular brown spot behind eye, which is much less bold
than in Black-Tailed Godwit. Iris black (also said to be blue). Bill mainly black, dull
pink for about one third of both mandibles near base. Legs and feet bluish-grey.
Claws grey. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, but reports of single adults suggest
broods may be divided. They fledge at c. 30 days.
CURLEW Numenius arquata	Pls 11,40
Breeds in open areas or larger forest clearings at varying altitudes, in rough grass-
land, moorland, heathland, marshland and dunes. Nest on the ground among herbage
or heather. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with nearby plant material. Male may make a number
of scrapes: female selects one and lines it.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Occasionally earlier. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3 or 5. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and fairly glossy.
Light green, olive-green or dull olive; marked with spots, specks and blotches,
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
151
usually relatively small, in dark olive, olive-brown, or dark purplish or reddish-
brown, and fainter purplish-grey. Markings usually plentiful and evenly distributed
with some tendency for a heavier concentration at larger ends. 67.6 x 47.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at 2-day intervals, but this may vary. Incubation by
both birds, but mainly by female, beginning at completion of clutch. 26-30 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Larger and warmer in colour than Whimbrel and
lacking the distinct buff mid-line on the crown. Down of upperparts creamy-buff to
pinkish-buff, marked with blackish-brown; underparts creamy-buff with darker
warm buff on upper breast. Dark line from bill to crown; crown blackish-brown with
indistinct pale central patch. Dark line from eye to nape. Narrow dark line from nape
dividing to double parallel streaks between wings. Irregular large dark patch around
pale spot on lower back, dark patches on flanks, and dark hind-edge to flank extend-
ing back to rump. Two dark patches on wings. Iris dark brown. Bill short and straight
at first becoming slightly longer and downcurved by fledging; blackish-grey, pink at
base of lower mandible; whole bill soon becoming black. Legs and feet bluish-grey.
Claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest as soon as down is dry. Tended by both parents
at first, later by male alone. Fly at 5-6 weeks.
WHIMBREL Numenius phaeopus	PI. 41
Breeds on rough pasture, moorland, heathland, clear-felled forestry areas and open
areas in birch scrub, and on offshore islands. Often on drier sites than Curlew. Nest
on the ground in the open, often on a ridge or slight eminence. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sparsely lined with nearby plant material.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May to late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3, rarely 5. Oval to pyriform, or subelliptical. Smooth
and slightly glossy. Similar to Curlew eggs but smaller, often darker and with mark-
ings usually relatively larger. Pale green or olive to deeper olive-buff or buff;
blotched, and more sparingly speckled and spotted, exceptionally coarsely scrawled,
with olive-brown, shades of medium to dark brown, and sometimes blackish-brown.
Most frequently with irregular smallish blotches, usually well-distributed, occasion-
ally more concentrated towards the larger end. 58.4 x 41.6 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 27-28 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Smaller and paler than Curlew. Down on upperparts
pale buff*, on underparts whitish-buff with warmer buff breast. Dark line from bill to
crown and two dark brown bands over crown divided by a median buff streak (indis-
tinct on Curlew). Narrow dark streak on lores, usually small and sometimes indistinct,
and broad dark line from eye to nape. Indistinct dark band down nape and four paral-
lel dark stripes between wings. Large irregular dark patch around pale spot on lower
back. Dark patch on flanks and dark hind-edge of Banks extending back to rump. Two
small dark patches on wings. Iris dark brown. Bill short and straight at first, becoming
slightly longer and downcurved by fledging; blackish-grey, pink at base of lower
mandible; whole bill soon becoming black. Legs and feet bluish-grey. Claws dark grey
Nestling period. Young leave nest as soon as down is dry. Tended by both parents.
Fly at 5-6 weeks.
SPOTTED REDSHANK Tringa erythropus	Page 152, Pl. 39
Breeds in open areas.in conifer and birch woods, usually in swampy areas but also
adjacent to marsh, on dry heath or in open forest. Nest on the ground in open site or
among grass, sometimes near a stone, branch or similar mark. Solitary.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Crown patterns of downy chicks of Redshank, Spotted Redshank and Wood Sandpiper.
Nest. A hollow sparsely lined with grass, pine-needles, dead leaves and some feathers.
Breeding season. Late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale green
or olive, or slightly deeper olive-buff; boldly blotched, and more sparingly spotted
or speckled, or rarely scrawled, with dark blackish-brown, and a few paler purplish-
grey markings. Frequently the larger markings are concentrated at or around the
larger end. Blotches may show a tendency to elongation. 47 x 32.3 mm.
Incubation. Only or mainly by male. Period unknown. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Redshank but paler areas
of upperparts greyish-white tinged with buff, and darker areas browner, less black.
Underparts greyish-white tinged buff. Iris dark brown. Bill dark grey with reddish
base to lower mandible. Legs and feet reddish-grey.
Nestling period. Young soon leave nest, tended by both adults at first, later by male
only.
REDSHANK Tringa totanus	Page 138, Pls 10,39
Breeds on grassy areas near water, such as marshes, waterside meadows, lake edges and
saltmarshes; and on rough pasture and moorland. Nest on the ground, usually com-
pletely hidden in grass-tuft or similar herbage; rarely exposed. Semi-colonial or solitary.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby plant material. Grass and tall herbage usually
pulled together overhead to hide nest. Made by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south to late May or early June in north. Single
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3, rarely 5. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Pale buff to creamy-buff, occasionally with faint olive tint on paler eggs; exception-
ally deeper buff. Marked with blotches, usually small, spots, specks and rarely short
fine lines, in blackish-brown, dark reddish-brown and occasionally lighter shades of
brown or reddish-brown, and some faint purplish-grey markings. Pattern variable,
markings often small and numerous; larger blotching sparser and tending to be con-
centrated at larger end. Sometimes larger markings show mixture of light and dark
brown. Larger markings may be elongated and slanting. 45.3 x 31.6 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, beginning with completion of clutch. 23-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and soft. On underparts white, buffish on
upper breast. Upperparts warm buff to reddish-buff, paler on sides of head; patterned
with blackish-brown or black. Lighter down may have fine blackish tips. Dark median
line from bill, poorly defined on fore-crown, encircles buffish crown-patch. Dark line
from bill through eye to nape. Dusky nape. Three dark lines down back. Short irreg-
ular dark patches along lower hind flank and patch at top of leg. Dark line along
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
153
Dorsal pattern of downy chicks of Redshank.
wings. Iris dark brown. At hatching, bill black at tip, bluish-grey at base; legs and feet
flesh-pink at front, dark grey in parts, particularly on joints; claws grey. In larger
young, bill is black, pink at base; legs and feet flesh-pink overall; claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest soon after hatching; tended by both adults at first,
sometimes only one present towards end of period, c. 30 days.
MARSH SANDPIPER Tringa stagnatilis	PL 39
Breeds on grassy areas near water, in marshes, damp meadows and lakesides, or by
pools on grass steppe. Nest on the ground, m grass. Pairs nesting singly or m
colonies.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with dry grass.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, exceptionally 5. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy. Cream
to pale creamy buff, sometimes deeper buff, exceptionally very pale olive. Variably
patterned, but usually fairly plentiful markings; spots, blotches and specks of dark
reddish-brown, blackish-brown and paler purplish-grey. Larger markings often
concentrated at larger end. Where these are tew or absent, smaller markings may be
profuse. 38.5 x 26 9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. Period unknown. Beginning with last egg
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Redshank, but face white.
Iris blackish-brown. Bill blackish-grey. Legs and feet olive-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents; soon leave nest, remaining in grassy
cover at first, later moving to more open sites.
GREENSHANK Tringa nebularia	PI. 39
Breeds on open areas of moorland where small moist places are present, and in open
areas in forest. Nest on the ground, usually beside a stone, rock, dead branch, log or
tussock. Nests occasionally reused in subsequent year. Solitary.
Nest. A hollow lined with nearby plant material and small debris Female selects one
of several scrapes made by male.
Breeding season. Begins early May, exceptionally late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3, rarely 5. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and slightly
glossy. Very pale creamy-buff or creamy-olive, or cream; variably marked with
blotches, spots, specks, short scrawls or tiny short streaks of blackish-brown, dark
reddish brown and paler purphsh-grey. Larger blotching may show slanting
elongation. 51.4 x 34.8 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at 2-day intervals, but this may vary. Incubation by
both sexes but mainly by female, beginning on completion of clutch. 24-25 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern like that of Redshank but as on
Spotted Redshank paler parts greyish-white tinged buff, darker parts more brown.
Sides of face and neck greyish-white and underparts white. Dark eye-streak may be
broken in front of eye. Iris bluish-grey. Bill bluish-grey with blackish-grey tip. Legs
and feet bluish-grey or pale greyish-green, yellowish between toes. Claws black.
Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young brooded for most of first day, later leave nest. Tended by
both parents, c. 4 weeks.
WOOD SANDPIPER Tringa glareola	Page 152, Pl. 40
Breeds in marshy places near water, or in swamps or small wet areas in woodland
regions, on wet heath or moorland, or in similar sites north of tree-line. Nest
usually on the ground in a slightly raised site, in herbage or low shrubby growth.
Occasionally above ground in shrub or tree in old nest of thrush or shrike. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow sparsely lined with grass and leaves. No additional material
in tree nest-site.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Pyriform to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale to very
pale greenish or olive, or rarely pale olive-buff; blotched, speckled or spotted, or
coarsely scrawled, in blackish-brown or dark purplish-brown and paler purplish-
grey. Frequently with fairly plentiful small speckling, and more sparingly small
blotches or scrawls concentrated at or around the larger end. Blotches often show
slight slanting elongation. 38.3 x 26.4 mm.
Incubation. By both birds but mainly by female. 22-23 days. Beginning with last
egg-
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and soft. Sides of head and underparts
white, with warm buff tips on sides. Upperparts warm pinkish-buff marked with
blackish-brown. Dark narrow mid-line from bill through forehead to large blackish-
brown crown patch, sometimes with a small central buff spot or spots, and a narrow
dark line down nape. Narrow black line from bill to eye, continuing as a broader
irregular line behind eye to side of nape. Three parallel blackish-brown lines running
along length of back, the central one broad and the outer two narrow. Broad irregu-
lar patch along lower flank to rump, and dark patch at top of leg. Dark line along
wing. Iris dark brown. Bill bluish-grey, blackish-grey at tip. Legs and feet olive-grey,
darker on foot joints. Claws grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest when down is dry. Tended by both parents at first,
mainly or entirely by male later. They fledge at c. 28-30 days.
GREEN SANDPIPER Tringa ochropus	Pls 10,40
Breeds in woodlands in marshy areas or by open water. Nest normally in a tree, using
the cup nests of various larger birds (in particular those of thrushes), on platforms of
woodpigeons, on squirrel dreys, or on accumulations of twigs and debris caught up
on tree branches. Exceptionally on tree stumps, or on ground on mound or among
tree roots. Solitary.
Nest. No material added except that within reach of bird on nest, and available for
sideways-building; but material of nest may be rearranged.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in .south to late June in north. Single-brooded,
but lost broods may be replaced.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
155
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 2-3. Pyriform to oval. Smooth, and slightly glossy.
Very pale, creamy, tinted faint olive or green, or rarely olive-buff. Speckled, spot-
ted or with sparse small blotches, or short small scrawls or streaks, in dark purple-
brown or reddish-brown, and pale purplish-grey. The markings most frequently
small and relatively plentiful, but often tending to show some concentration in a
zone around the larger end. The small blotches may show some elongation. 39.1 x
28 mm.
Incubation. By both birds but mainly by female. 20-23 days. Beginning with last
egg-
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern similar to that of Wood Sandpiper.
Crown is different, with fore-crown greyish-buff and three dark convergent streaks
on hind-crown joining towards nape. Light parts of upperparts a deeper colour and
underparts whiter. Iris dark brown. Bill bluish-black. Legs and feet bluish-grey with
darker joints; webs and soles yellow.
Nestling period. Young leave the nest soon after hatching, and move to edge of
marsh or water. Tended at first by both parents, later by male alone. Can fly at c. 4
weeks.
TEREK SANDPIPER Tringa cine reus	Pls 10, 40
Breeds in marshy grassland mixed with shrubs, or in scrub growth, bordering rivers
and lakes within the northern forest and scrub regions. Nest on the ground near
water; in the open, against a tuft of herbage, or in grass. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with dead plant material.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, occasionally 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and slightly glossy. Light
creamy-buff, pale buff or occasionally very pale creamy-olive; blotched, spotted,
speckled, or occasionally with short coarse scrawls, of blackish-brown, dark brown
and paler grey or purplish-grey. Larger markings rather sparing but fine speckling
may be profuse. Larger markings tend to be concentrated towards larger end. 38.6 x
26.6 mm.
Incubation. Possibly by both sexes, but roles uncertain. 23-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on upperparts light grey-brown or grey-buff
with fine blackish tips, lighter and more buff on sides of face, throat and neck. Nar-
row blackish-brown stripe over mid-crown, from bill to hind crown; another from
bill through eye to nape. Blackish stripe down mid-back from mantle to rump.
Incomplete narrow lateral stripes at wing-base and along upper flanks, short patch
on either side of rump. Underside white. Bill very slightly upeurved, dark grey. Legs
and feet pinkish-grey, orange at rear edges and soles. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, leaving nest soon after hatching.
COMMON SANDPIPER Tringa hypoleucos	Page 138, Pls 10,40
Breeds by the edges of streams, rivers, lakes and pools, usually of clear water and
in hilly regions; but also less frequently in similar sites at low altitudes. In both
wooded and open areas. Nest on the ground on open gravel or sand bars in water,
or against a plant tuft or hidden in herbage in open by water, or among waterside
trees. Solitary.
Nest. A shallow hollow, often by or slightly under some herbage, scantily lined with
pieces of nearby vegetation or flood debris. Both sexes make scrapes; female builds
nest in chosen one.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-Junc in north. Single-brooded.
156
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3, rarely 5. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and fairly glossy.
Pale cream, creamy-buff or very pale buff; finely speckled and spotted, and with
short irregular lines, and more sparingly blotched, with dark reddish-brown, medium
or blackish-brown and paler purplish-grey. Usually with an even sprinkling of finer
markings, and some irregularly distributed larger markings usually towards the
larger end. 36.4 x 26.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with last egg. 20-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down long and soft. Upperparts greyish-brown, with
fine black tips. Narrow dark mid-line on crown, and more prominent dark mid-line
down entire back. Narrow dark streak from bill through eye to nape. Incomplete dark
band along sides of wings, back and across rump. Cheeks, neck and sides of crop
light buffish-grey; underparts white. Iris dark brown. Bill dark bluish-grey, black at
tip, sometimes slightly tinged reddish at base. Legs and feet pale bluish-grey (some-
times greenish-grey), with some black spots along rear edge. Claws dark grey. In
larger young, bill, legs and feet are much darker.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They leave nest when down is dry;
can begin flying at c. 13 days, fly well at c. 21 days. Independent at c. 4 weeks.
TURNSTONE Arenaria interpres	Pls 10,38
Breeds on open ground, near seashore or further inland on higher ground. Appears
to prefer sloping or terraced ground or ridges near shore, with bare stony areas and
sparse vegetation, but also in places into dwarf willow, and may be sheltered by
plants. Uses small islets in some areas. Nest on the ground, at times hidden, some-
times in a rock fissure, or on level ground or slight ridge in open. Site usually dry but
near water. Solitary; or in small scattered colonies, particularly in favourable coastal
areas.
Nest. A shallow hollow; lining sometimes absent, or a variable lining of nearby
vegetation, substantial at times. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to July in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3, rarely 5. Oval to short pyriform. Smooth, slightly
glossy. Very pale green, bluish-green or light olive; usually irregularly blotched,
spotted and speckled with drab brown, olive-brown or blackish-brown, and paler
grey markings. Most frequently marked with numerous small blotches, tending to be
densest at the larger end. Sometimes more heavily freckled with smaller markings.
Markings often variably elongated into streaks slanting across shell. 39.7 x 28.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, at first mainly by female with increasing help from male,
beginning with last egg. 22-23 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down white on underside, dark greyish-buff at sides
of upper breast. Forehead and area round eyes buffish-white. Three dark parallel
lines on crown, the central one distinct, from upper forehead to rear of crown; the
outer lines, sometimes indistinct, from lores to rear crown. Crown and sides of head
around eye-patch mottled pale buff and blackish-grey; and black streak from bill to
eye. Nape whitish, slightly mottled. Back yellowish-buff with blackish-grey mot-
tling, at times in an indistinct triple-stripe pattern. Wing blackish with pale edge. Iris
dark brown. Bill wedge-shaped; bluish-grey, black at tip. Legs and feet dull orange
to buffish-brown. Claws black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, the male taking major share. Eggs
hatch over 2 days. Young leave 1 day after hatching, following adults but feeding
themselves. They fly at 24-26 days, when female usually leaves, but male stays with
brood a further 2 weeks.
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES AND PHALAROPES
157
GREY PHALAROPE Phalaropus fulicarius	PL 41
Breeds on level areas with shallow pools and lagoons; or near coasts, or on offshore
islands where freshwater pools are present. Nest on the ground, usually on slightly
raised site, a grass-tussock, ridge or shingle-bank, or small island in water. Usually
a number of pairs nest in a small colony. Sex roles reversed: larger, brighter female
displays, male incubates and tends young. Female polyandrous.
Nest. A shallow hollow, material varying from sparse plant fragments in an open site
to a substantial structure of grass and leaves in a grassy site. In the latter site grasses
usually pulled over to hide the nest. Made by male.
Breeding season. Begins late June to early July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and slightly glossy. Similar in
colour and pattern to those of Red-necked Phalarope. Light olive or green, or deeper
olive-buff, with irregular blotches, spots and specks of black and blackish-brown,
and scarce paler purplish markings. Irregularly scattered large blotches combined
with profuse finer markings very typical. Larger markings often concentrated
towards the larger end. 30.2 x 21.8 mm.
Incubation. By male only. 19 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down on underside greyish-white. Yellowish-white or
yellowish-buff on neck and throat; and warm buff marked with black on upperparts,
forming a triple-streak pattern on back. Forehead warm buff. Black crown with slight
buff mottling, bordered by yellowish eye-stripe. Dark streak across lores to eye, and dark
spot on cheek behind eye. Indistinct dark band down nape. Back has dark central stripe,
bordered by two buff ones, these bordered in turn by irregular dark band along flanks
and upper wings, and black patch on thigh. Dark spots on fore-edge and tip of wing. Iris
dark brown. Bill greyish-yellow and flattened along sides. Legs and feet light buff-
ish-grey. The toes are partly webbed at the base.
Nestling period. Young usually tended by male alone, although female may be
present. 16-20 days.
RED-NECKED PHALAROPE Phalaropus lobatus	Pls 10,41
Breeds on grassy or marshy ground by water or with some open pools, on marshy
edges of lakes, low islands in rivers, or sometimes on small offshore islands. Nest in
a grass-tussock near open water. As with Grey Phalarope sex roles reversed. Female
polyandrous. Occasionally solitary, but more usually in small groups, with scattered
nests but often close to communal feeding pools.
Nest. A hollow, built into a grass-tussock with grass lining and grass pulled together
over the nest. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June in south, to late June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Oval to pyriform. Smooth and slightly glossy. Similar
in colour and pattern to those of Grey Phalarope. 29.9 x 21 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by male alone. 18-20 days.
Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like that of Grey Phalarope, but slightly buffer,
much less white around eye, rear of crown darker, and bill finer and darker. Usu-
ally the streaking on the back is lighter and yellower. Iris dark brown. Bill black-
ish-grey, pinkish-grey at base, soon becoming blackish-grey overall. Legs and feet
pinkish-grey. The toes are partly webbed at the base; webs buffish-yellow. Claws
dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by male alone; female sometimes present. 18-22 days.
158
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS Laridae
SKUAS Stercorarinae
Large to medium predators and scavengers. Nest on open ground, usually near the
sea. Site often exposed. Nest a scrape with little or no lining, although sideways-
building may accumulate some material. Both sexes scrape. Usually 2 eggs, brown-
ish with dark spots. Incubation begins with the first eggs, the young hatching at
intervals and showing some difference in size. Young are downy, but not patterned.
They may leave the nest after a few days, but remain in the parental territory.
GREAT SKUA Stercorarius skua	Pls 13,42
Breeds normally by the sea, on grassy islands, high moorland and rough grassland
or pasture at varying altitudes, or on low grassy or sandy flats or estuarine areas.
Nests in loose colonies or scattered pairs. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow depression, unlined or scantily lined, in grass, heather or mosses.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late May and early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1. Subelliptical, sometimes more oval. Smooth, finely gran-
ular and very slightly glossy. Ground colour olive-grey, olive-buff, buff to reddish-
brown; very variably marked, often sparsely, with spots and blotches of light and
dark brown and purplish-grey. Exceptionally unmarked, and may be pale greyish or
blue. 70.6 x 49.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down soft and thick with fine silky tips.
Yellowish-brown to pinkish-brown on upperparts, paler on underside, with mid-
underside greyish. Bill proportionately large and heavy, bluish-grey at all stages,
with black mandible tips. At hatching, legs and feet bluish-grey; webs greyish-pink;
claws dark grey. Legs become darker, and webs are dark grey before fledging. Mouth
pink. Iris blackish-brown.
Nestling period. Young hatch on consecutive days. Tended by both adults. At first
female broods and male brings food. Fledges at 6-7 weeks; independent within next
3 weeks.
ARCTIC SKUA Stercorarius parasiticus	Pls 13,42
Breeds on moorland and open, heathy areas near sea-level, or on barer hills or cliffs,
on low shingly areas, or tundra, or on offshore islands. Nest on the ground, often in
a swampy area or near water. Usually nests in scattered pairs, sometimes in loose
colonies.
Nest. A shallow depression, unlincd or sparsely lined, in grass, heather or moss.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late May or early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1. Subelhptical. Smooth, and only slightly glossy. The
ground colour is olive, greenish, dull buff or brown; spots or blotches of dark brown,
light brown or grey. Markings are very variable, often sparse. Ground colour rarely
pale blue. 57.2 x 40.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg. 24-28 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down thick and soft with fine silky tips. Down
colour variable, generally warm dark brown, or blackish-brown; lighter and grey
tinted around eyes, on chin, central underside, and wing-tips. Light and dark morphs
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
159
may occur. Down remains on tips of flight feathers. Lighter than Pomarine Skua,
darker than Long-Tailed Skua. Bill more slender than in other Skuas. At all stages,
bill is bluish-grey with black mandible tips. At hatching, legs and upper sides of toes
bluish-grey; webs and inner sides of toes pinkish-buff. In later stages, close to fledg-
ing, toes and webs become mainly black, pink near base. Claws dark grey. Mouth
pink. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both adults. They may leave the nest-site after
a few days but remain in territory. They fly at c. 27-33 days, and are independent at
c. 7-8 weeks.
POMARINE SKUA Stercorarius potnarinus	Pl. 42
Breeds on swampy areas of level tundra. Less sociable in nesting than other skuas.
Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow in moss, unlincd or scantily lined. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late June to early July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1 or 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and very slightly glossy. Ground
colour buff, olive or warm brown; spots and flecks of dark blackish-brown. 64.7 x
44.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg. 25-27 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down thick and soft, with fine silky tips. Pale
brown on upperparts, paler greyish-brown on the underside. Light and dark morphs
occur. Face may be very dark greyish-brown. Darkest of all the skua chicks. Bill
fairly heavy and blunt, at all stages, grey with black mandible tips. Legs and feet
greyish-blue. In larger young, legs and feet pale blue; webs and toes are mainly
black, except at base.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Fledge at 5-6 weeks; dependent on
parents for at least 2 further weeks.
LONG-TAILED SKUA Stercorarius longicaudatus	Pl. 42
Breeds on high, open moorland, or barren hills, in south of range; and on lower hills,
swamps and bogs bordering forests, bare stony flats and tundra in the north. Often
at some distance from the sea. Loose associations of scattered nests. Nest on the
ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined or with a few fragments, in peat or moss. Built
mostly by female?
Breeding season. June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1-3. Subelliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy.
Olive-green to olive-brown, dull buff or pale green; spots, blotches or scrawls
of dark brown or pale grey, mostly towards or around the larger end. 55.1 x
37.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at lZ’-2-day intervals. Incubation by both sexes, beginning
with first egg. 23-25 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down thick and soft with fine silky tips. Dark
brown but paler and greyer than that of Pomarine Skua or Arctic Skua. Sides of head
and entire underside pale greyish-brown. At all stages, bill is greyish-blue, tinged
pink near base, with black mandible tips. At hatching, legs, feet and toes greyish-
blue, webs pink. In larger young, webs and toes are mainly black, pink at base. Iris
blackish-brown.
Nestling period. Young hatch over a period. Tended by both adults. They may leave
the nest after 2 days. They fly at c. 3-4 weeks, independent at c. 5-6 weeks.
160
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
GULLS Larus, Rissa and Pagophila species
Medium to large scavenging birds of coasts, marshes and inland waters. Nest on the
ground near water, or on a ledge of cliff or rock outcrop. Usually nests in colonies.
Nest material is carried to site, but sideways-building occurs at site. Usually both
sexes build. Amount of material is very variable and depends to some extent on the
amount of excitement or discomfort at the site. Single-brooded, but lost clutches arc
usually replaced. Usually 2-3 eggs. Eggs cryptically coloured, usually darker olive
or buff in northern species, and much paler and more boldly marked in more
southerly species. Young downy. Cryptically coloured in variable, poorly defined
patterns. Well brooded for first few days but capable of leaving nest after first day.
Parents swallow food and regurgitate it on the ground where small pieces may be
given to the small young, but larger young pick up for themselves. Young peck at tip
of parents’ bills to encourage regurgitation. Young leave nest within a few days of
hatching, and when parents are not present may hide in nearby herbage. Right up to
the point where they fly well they tend to crouch and remain motionless when
alarmed. In colonies adults may kill and sometimes eat young of other pairs.
AUDOUIN’S GULL Larus audouinii	Page 161, Pl. 44
Breeds on coastal islands. Nests in colonies, usually very small, but a few large
where feeding conditions are favourable, at times nesting with other gulls. Nest on
the ground among herbage and rocks.
Nest. A shallow scrape lined with seaweed and other plant matter.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale olive-buff to
olive; rather sparingly marked with small blotches and spots of black, brownish-
olive, olive and shades of grey. Often a heavier zone of markings around larger end.
62.2 x 43.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation by both sexes, beginning with
second or third egg. 27-29 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down of upperparts buffish-grey, irregularly
marked with blackish-brown mottling. Undcrparts greyish to buffish-white. Iris dark
brown. Bill dark grey with buffish-pink tip on both mandibles. Legs and feet grey,
webs darker.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Remain on nest for first day then
move to nearby cover.
SLENDER-BILLED GULL Larus genei	Page 161, Pl. 43
Breeds by fresh and brackish lagoons, temporary waters in drier steppe and semi-
desert regions, on small coastal islands, on coastal grasslands and large deltas of
mainly inland seas, and on swampy grasslands with open water. Nest colonially.
often close together, sometimes with Caspian or Gull-billed Terns, or other gulls.
Nest. A well-defined hollow in soft soil or sand, sparsely lined with plant debris and
usually with a well-defined raised rim of excreta around it. In moister sites and areas
with more debris around, a larger cup with raised walls may be formed and lined with
grass, feathers or seaweed, but excretion from the cup area adds outward streaks to
the nest-structure during use.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, sometimes only 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Usually
creamy-white, bluish-white or ivory-white, or tinted pale yellow, buff or faint pink.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
161
Dorsal view, and side view of head of gull chicks: a. Audouin's Gull; b. Herring Gull;
c. Slender-billed Gull; d. Black-headed Gull; e. Mediterranean Gull.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Boldly and very variably marked with spots and blotches of black, blackish-brown
and dark olive-brown, and many fainter greyish markings. Occasionally profuse fine
spotting or some scrawling or scribbling; or heavier blotching often sparser but more
heavily concentrated around the larger end. 55.7 x 38.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with last egg. 22 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Head and upperparts pale grey or pale buff,
heavily mottled with well-defined black patches and streaks on crown, head, nape
and back and sides. Underparts paler, with blackish streaks on chin, throat, and
underwings. Iris blackish-brown. At hatching, bill whitish-grey, pink at base of both
mandibles, but soon changing to dark greyish-brown with white tip; the white tip is
absent in large young. At hatching, legs dark grey and feet greyish-pink, paler on
webs; legs and feet become dark grey, darker on webs.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. After a few days young move to
creche away from colony and usually near water, young entering water if threatened.
Young leave creche to feed.
SOOTY GULL Larus hemprichii
Breeds from N. E. African coasts to Red Sea and Suez. On coasts with stunted
bushes or low sparse mangrove scrub, broken rocky shores and sparsely vegetated or
mainly bare islands. Nests singly or in small dispersed groups. Nest a scrape on the
ground in the open, or in some areas made under low bushes or stunted mangroves.
Nest. A scrape, often fairly deep. In open sites it may be bare or with a few fragments
of coral, shells or stems. Under bushes it may be lined with leaves and grass.
Breeding season. From late June to early September in Red Sea, mid-July to
November in E. Africa.
Eggs. 2-3. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and non-glossy. Very like those of the
White-eyed Gull but usually paler in average ground colour, creamy-yellowish
sparsely spotted with brown and paler lavender markings. 57.8 x 41.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, at least 25 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down whitish on head and underpans, and
brownish-white on upperparts and wings, with dark greyish-brown spotting on head
and body. Markings may be absent, with upperparts and wings uniform pale buff. At
hatching, both mandibles are grey with large brownish-yellow tip; legs, feet and
webs are grey; claws darker grey. Mouth and tongue pink; tongue with white rear
spurs. In larger young, bill is greyish-pink (darker on upper mandible) with yellow-
ish tip and dusky band around both mandibles next to tip; legs and feet dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fed on regurgitated food.
WHITE-EYED GULL Larus leucopthalmus	Pl. 44
Breeds on coasts and coastal islands. Nest on the ground, usually in a bare open space
or on flat sands. Nests colonially, but nests may be scattered 2-12 m apart.
Nest. A shallow hollow, bare or with a few fragments of coral, shells and stems, or
surrounded or lined with seaweed, twigs and plant debris.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded, but later replacements.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and non-glossy or only slightly
glossy. Pale, at times slightly creamy-olive, to pale olive-buff or pale buff; evenly
but not profusely marked with small spots or small short irregular scrawls or streaks
of olive, olive-brown, dark brown and varying shades of light and dark grey or
purplish-grey. 56 x 41 mm.
Incubation. No information.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
163
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Head down pinkish-buff with pale grey around
the eye and a thin dark line under the eye. Down silvery-white on crown and nape,
becoming greyer on body. Scattered small blackish marks on the head, and heavier spots
and streaks of dark greyish-brown on the body. Wings and underparts pinkish-buff. Indi-
viduals can be much paler; yellowish-buff above, white below, with very sparse brown
and pale brown markings. Mouth red. At hatching, bill purple-grey with buffish or pink-
ish tip on both mandibles; legs and feet purple-grey; webs paler. Later, bill becomes
darker, uniform blackish grey; legs and feet variable, blackish-grey or brownish-yellow.
Nestling period. No information.
GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL Larus ichthyaetus	Pl. 43
Breeds on low-lying coasts, estuaries and deltas, and steppe lakes. Nest-site on edges
or sand-banks of shallow inland waters, lakes and seas, often saline; or on reedy
islands of larger rivers. Nest on the ground; in colonies, often large.
Nest. A shallow hollow in sand- or shell-banks, usually unlined or with sparse dead reeds.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2-3, sometimes 4. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy or very
slightly glossy. Very pale, creamy or tinted yellowish, buffish or greenish, or light
olive or buff; boldly marked with spots and blotches, usually small, or short scrawls
or scribbles, in blackish-brown, brown or olive-brown, and many grey or blue-grey
markings in varying shades. Blotching occasionally large, and tending to be
concentrated at or around larger end. 77.9 x 53.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female, beginning with first egg, c. 26 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down thick and fairly short, with hairlike tips.
On upperparts greyish-white tinted buff, and with fine subdued speckling of light
brown on nape, back and wings. Throat tinted buff, and remainder of underparts white.
Another form whitish above and below, with indistinct greyish markings. Bill black
with pale buff tip on both mandibles. Legs and feet blackish-grey, becoming paler.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, remaining near nest unless disturbed.
Food regurgitated and picked up by young.
BLACK-HEADED GULL Larus ridibundus	Page 161, Pls 12,43
Breeds on a variety of open sites on or by water on coastal and inland areas. On low
coastal islands, sandhills, marshes and saltings on coasts; or marshes and bogs, and
rushy and boggy edges of lakes and pools inland; and on small islands and tussocks
in lakes and pools. Rarely on buildings, bushes or trees. Nests in colonies.
Nest. A shallow scrape, at times on a raised site, with a variable accumulation of live
and dead plant matter. Built by both sexes, but mainly by male, material being added
over a long period.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2, occasionally up to 6. Subelliptical. Smooth, and
slightly to moderately glossy. Very variable, usually light olive, greenish or buffish,
but may vary from pale whitish-blue to deep brownish-buff or brown. Marked with
spots, blotches, scrawls or, rarely, fine scribbling in black, blackish-brown, olive-
brown or olive, and with fainter markings in shades of grey. Markings usually well
distributed overall, and often profuse, but sometimes sparse, and rarely absent. Often
a zone of markings wreathing or capping larger end. Some shells graduate from a
pale bluish-white or buff at the narrow end to a deep buff at the larger end, made
darker still by a heavy capping of blackish-brown markings. 51.9 x 37.2 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes, beginning with
second or last egg. 21-27 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips. Upper-
parts dark buff, variably patterned with broken lines of blackish-brown. Underparts
pale buff with dark brown bases producing some mottling. Throat rufous-buff. Bill
pink with dark tip. Legs, feet and webs greyish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Capable of leaving nest after a short
period but remain near by. Fly at c. 5-6 weeks.
LITTLE GULL Larus minuius	Pls 12, 42
Breeds on marshes, lakes with marshy edges and shallow inland waters. Nests usu-
ally in colony, sometimes with other small gulls or tern species. Nests on tussocks
of grass or rushes in water or marsh, or in shallow water among reeds and similar
plants, or in open sites on low sand-banks or islands.
Nest. An accumulation of dead waterside plants, reeds, rushes and sedges. Built by
both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid- to late May in south to early June in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2, rarely 4-5. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly
glossy. Light olive-green, olive or buff, sometimes very pale greenish or creamy.
Buff eggs usually darkest. Finely and variably marked with specks, spots and usu-
ally small blotches of black, blackish-brown or olive, and with paler shades of
grey. Markings sometimes overall, but often sparse with a thicker zone around
larger end. Blotching sometimes large and concentrated towards larger end. 41.5
x 30.1 mm.
Incubation. First 2 eggs laid at intervals of 1-2 days, later at less than 1-day
intervals. Incubation by both sexes. 23-25 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Greyer, smaller, and less boldly marked than
Black-Headed Gull. Down thick, soft and fairly long, with fine silky tips. Down has
blackish-brown bases but appears buffish-grey on the underside; and on the upper-
parts is dark greyish-buff with irregular inconspicuous patches of blackish-brown
with buff tips. Bill dull pink with blackish tips on both mandibles. Legs, feet and
webs greyish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Young fly at c. 21-24 days.
MEDITERRANEAN GULL Larus melanocephalus Page 161, Pls 12, 43
Breeds on low islands in shallow lakes and salt lagoons, or on marshy areas with
herbage, near shores. In close colonies, sometimes with other small gulls.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with plant stems, grass and some feathers, or can be
an accumulated mass of plant material.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth, non-glossy. Very pale,
creamy-ivory or lightly tinted yellowish or buffish. Marked with specks, spots, small
irregular lines or scrawls in black, dark olive-brown and fainter grey or purplish-
grey. Markings usually well distributed and fairly profuse. 53.7 x 38.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 23-25 days, beginning with the last egg or two.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long with fine tips which are joined
together in clusters, giving down plumage a spiky appearance. Dull buffish-grey on
upperparts, and white below. Head with dark lores, a dark streak over and below eye,
a dark moustache streak, and a broken dark band over crown; indistinct streaks of
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
165
blackish-brown, brown and buff on back. Iris black. At hatching, bill dark grey-
brown, flesh-pink at tip of both mandibles and along cutting edges; legs and feet dark
grey, greyish-pink on webs. Later, bill uniform brown-black; legs, feet and webs dark
grey. Mouth reddish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They often leave the nest for
surrounding vegetation after a few days. Fly at 5-6 weeks.
SABINE’S GULL Larus sabini	PI. 42
Breeds on swampy tundra on small islands and raised areas, or on tussocks; or on
coastal islands. Breeds sociably, sometimes in company of Arctic Terns. Nest on the
ground, in grass, or on drier sites on bare ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, lined with plant stems and nearby plant debris. Coastal nests
may have seaweed and feathers.
Breeding season. Begins early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Subelliptical. Smooth, slightly glossy. Shades of
deep olive to buffish-olive, darker than most gulls’ eggs. Indistinctly and variably
marked with shades of olive-brown, sometimes widely distributed, sometimes
mostly confined to a zone around the larger end. Some eggs paler greenish-olive with
blackish-brown markings. 44.4 x 32.2 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, probably beginning with first egg. 23-26 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with silky tips. Under-
side buff, often white on mid-breast and belly. Upperparts deep brownish-buff
mottled with black. Markings vary. Usually three lines of broken blotches over
crown and broken line of spots under eye, and blotch on side of throat. Broken lines
of black spots and blotches over back. Bill pink with greyish tip. Legs greyish-
pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest a few days after hatch-
ing and are led to the edge of nearest water, where they are called and fed by parents.
Fly at 20-25 days.
YELLOW-LEGGED GULL Larus cachinnans
Very similar to more northern Herring Gull and originally merged with that
species. Breeds by salt, brackish or fresh water on open or rocky shores, cliffs, or
islands offshore or in fresh waters. Breeds from Atlantic Islands through the
Mediterranean region to southern Asia. Usually nests in colonies very variable in
size.
Nest. Usually a large accumulation of plant material, seaweed and debris; with
finer lining. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Single-brooded.
Eggs .Usually 3, rarely 2-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy, or slightly
glossy; with finely granular surface. Colour very variable. Similar in range to
Herring Gull. 69 x 49 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3 day intervals. Incubation by both birds but mostly by
female, beginning with first egg. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips.
Down warm buff, more whitish-buff below, with pattern similar to Herring Gull
but more subdued. Bill blackish-brown, with long pinkish-buff tips on both
mandibles. Legs and feet fleshy-pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded for first few days, later
may wander from nest but remain in territory. Fledge at 35-40 days.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
ARMENIAN GULL Larus armenicus
Previously regarded as a subspecies of Herring Gull, and now as a separate
species. Breeds on inland lakes from north-west Iran to South Georgia, Armenia
and central Turkey. Usually in colonies. Nests on ledges, cliffs and islands, often in
area of rocks and shrubs. Nests may be sited on the ground in the open or partly
hidden among vegetation, rocks or shrubs. Usually c. l.5-5m apart, in colonies.
Nest. Very variable, just a scrape or loose shallow cup of dry plant material,
sometimes partly lined with grass, wool, or paper shreds. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Mid-April to late August. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 2-3, rarely 4. Short to long oval. Smooth and non-glossy. Buffish, grey or
olive-green, variably marked with brown, grey and violet. 69 x 48mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down warm buff with markings like those of
Herring Gull, but more subdued, especially on the body. Bill blackish, with long
pinkish-buff tips on both mandibles. Legs greyish-pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
HERRING GULL Larus argentatus	Page 161, Pls 12,43
Breeds on ledges of sea-cliffs, sides and edges of islands; or low in sand-dunes or on
shingle. Usually on or by coast, occasionally on freshwater lakes inland. May nest
on roofs of buildings. Usually in colonies.
Nest. Usually a large accumulation of grass, seaweed and other plant material; in a
hollow. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April, sometimes late March in south. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy, or slightly glossy; and
with finely granular surface. Very variable. Usually light olive, buffish or greenish,
but may vary from pale whitish-blue to deep brownish-buff. Speckled, spotted and
blotched, or rarely irregularly scrawled in black, blackish-brown or dark olive.
Markings vary from profuse overall markings to sparse speckling or blotches; rarely
unmarked. Infrequently a zone of dark markings around larger end. Exceptionally
creamy or pinkish with pink or reddish-brown markings. 69.8 x 48.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by both birds but mostly by
female, beginning with first egg. 25-33 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips. Upper-
parts and throat buffish-grey, lower throat buff, underside buffish-white. Head and
throat marked with small numerous blackish-brown spots and small streaks forming
a line of marks around eye, a series of blotches along mid-crown and nape, and
streaks at sides of throat. Upperparts of body mottled with irregular patches of black-
ish-brown blotches. At hatching, bill black with long pinkish-buff tips on both
mandibles; later, bill becomes black with tiny pink spot at tip. Legs and feet greyish-
pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded for first few days. Begin
to fly at c. 6 weeks.
LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL Larus fuscus	Pl. 43
Breeds usually in colonies on more level tops of cliffs and islands, on shingle
beaches, or on inland moors or lake islands. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow usually well lined with a variable accumulation of nearby
plant material or seaweed. Built by both birds.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
167
Breeding season. Begins late April or early May in south to mid-June in north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes J or 2. Subelliptical. Smooth, non glossy, and very
slightly granular in surface texture. Light olive-buff, olive, green or buff, rarely very
pale greenish-blue; sometimes deep buff or olive. Spotted, speckled, blotched, or
rarely with short irregular lines and scrawls, in blackish-brown, black, olive-brown
and olive, with fainter grey or blue-grey markings. Markings usually well distributed
over shell, rarely with a heavy zone around the larger end. 67.6 x 47 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid on alternate days. Incubation by both sexes. 24-27
days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Small young closely resemble Herring Gull,
but spot on forehead is usually large, and head markings are heavy and well-defined,
more diffuse on the back. On larger young, dark parts of feathers are darker than
those of Herring Gull, and bill and legs appear to be finer.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 35-40 days.
GREATER BLACK-BACKED GULL Larus marinus	PI. 44
Breeds in colonies or as single pairs. Nest on top of rock stack or island, or on ground
on islands in lakes or estuaries, or on moorland.
Nest. A large accumulation of sticks, heather, seaweed, grass and some feathers.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 4? Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy or slightly glossy
with a fine granular surface. Pale olive, olive-buff or greenish, exceptionally pale
whitish-blue or buff; marked with specks, spots, small blotches or short scrawls of
blackish-brown, olive or olive-brown, and fainter grey or blue-grey markings. Mark-
ings usually more consistently smaller and evenly distributed in comparison with
other large northern gulls. Pinkish variety known. 76.6 x 53.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation by both sexes, beginning before
completion of clutch. 26-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips. Upper-
parts and throat grey, slightly buffish; lower throat buffish; underside whitish. Many
small but well-spaced blackish-brown spots and blotches on head, chin and throat,
sparse around eye; similar markings coalescing to form an irregular mottled pattern
on back and rump. Darker than Glaucous Gull. Lighter on head than Herring Gull
with heavier bill, flatter, less angular crown, and much sturdier legs. At hatching, bill
blackish-grey, with large area of buffish-yellow or buffish-white at tip of both
mandibles; these tips are tiny by fledging, when a small pink area at base of lower
mandible may be present. Legs, feet and webs dull greyish-pink or darker, pinkish-
grey; webs slightly darker on larger young.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fed for c. 7 weeks at the end of
which they begin to fly, and fly well within a week.
GLAUCOUS GULL Larus hyperboreus	Pl. 44
Breeds usually in colonies, sometimes as single pairs. Nest on ledge of cliff, or on
ground on small islands or at foot of cliff or rock outcrop.
Nest. An accumulation, frequently large, of moss, nearby plants and seaweed.
Sometimes seaweed only. Usually built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid- to late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, sometimes 1-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy, with a
168
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS 0Г BRITAIN AND EUROPE
fine granular texture. Light olive or creamy-olive to buff; exceptionally bluish-
white. Very variably marked with spots, blotches, specks and occasionally thin
scrawls of black, blackish-brown and olive-brown, and paler shades of grey. Mark-
ings are most frequently smallish and profuse, but sometimes a few large sparse
blotches. Exceptionally pinkish varieties with reddish markings are known. 76.8 x
53.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation by both birds, beginning with
first egg. 27-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Similar in appearance to Greater Black-
Backed Gull, but slightly greyer and paler, and with paler, less well-defined mark-
ings on back and head; usually a well-developed circle of spots within orbital area.
In small young, bill greyish-pink with yellow tip on both mandibles and blackish-
grey band next to tip; bill much darker in large young; mainly blackish-grey, dull
pink along edges and at base. Legs, feet and webs pale greyish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They fledge at 7-8 weeks, inde-
pendent soon afterwards.
COMMON GULL Larus conus	Pl, 44
Breeds usually in colonics, sometimes in single pairs, on islands in lakes, on moist
moorland and bogs, or on hillsides near the sea, or offshore islands. Exceptionally
on large areas of coastal shingle or on trees. Nest usually on the ground, but may
occasionally be on a raised site such as a tree stump or fish-drying rack.
Nest. A shallow hollow with a variable accumulation of nearby plant material,
varying according to site. Built by both sexes, but mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 1-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Usually
light olive, greenish or buffish, but may vary from whitish-blue to deep brownish-
buff. Very variably marked with spots, blotches, specks or short scrawls in brown,
blackish-brown, black and olive, with fainter grey markings. Markings may vary in
distribution and intensity from unmarked shells to those with heavy overall pattern,
but in general show an even distribution with a tendency, particularly on sparingly
marked shells, for a heavier zone at the larger end. 57.6 x 41.4 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, usually beginning with last or earlier egg. 22-27 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft, with silky tips. Upper-
parts pale buff to buffish-grey, paler than that of Black-headed Gull. Underparts buff-
ish, yellowish or whitish, darker at the sides. Pattern on head, neck and back of spots
or blotches of blackish-brown; spotted on head and forming broken irregular
mottling elsewhere. Bill variable at hatching; dark bluish-grey with pink along cut-
ting edges and at tip or, more rarely, pink with vertical twisted band around both
mandibles midway along bill. Legs, feet and webs greyish-pink or mainly grey. At
fledging, bill is blackish-grey with small pink patch at tip, and pink at base of lower
mandible.
Nestling period. Young leave nest in first day or two but remain near by. Tended by
both parents. Begin flying at c. 4 weeks, fly well at 5 weeks.
KITTIWAKE Rissa tridactyla	Pls 13, 44
Breeds on ledges of cliffs at varying heights, and in sea-caves. Will also use ledges
of seaport buildings. Normally in colonies, at times close together.
Nest. A solid drum of grass, mud, moss and seaweed, built up on some small pro-
jection or irregularity of rock face by continuous addition and firm trampling of
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
169
Kittiwake, c. 30 cm across.
materia] by both birds, the whole adhering to form a nest with a well-defined hol-
low.
Breeding season. Begins late May in south to late June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1-3. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Pale, creamy or very
pale greenish, yellowish, stone, buffish or olive; sometimes a warmer yellow or
pinkish-buff. Very variably marked with specks, spots and blotches of light brown,
olive-brown, blackish-brown and paler grey or blue-grey. Frequently some fine
speckling, occasionally some irregular scrawling. Markings often sparing, and
where heavy blotching occurs it tends to be concentrated in a zone around the larger
end. 55.9 x 41 1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation by both birds. 25-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long with fine, silky tips. Head and
neck, tips of wings and edges creamy-white, glossy. Back dark greyish-brown mixed
with some creamy-white. Underparts white. Down clings to tips of first feathers. At
hatching, upper mandible black at base, pink towards tip; lower mandible pink; pink
areas become grey and then black within 2 days. Legs and feet dark grey. Webs flesh,
shortly becoming blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Usually leave at c. 43 days, but period
may vary from c. 35 to 55 days.
170
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
IVORY GULL Pagophila eburnea
Breeds in colonies, on shores with shingle and boulders, or on ledges of cliffs;
sometimes on similar sites inland.
Nest. A shallow hollow lined with moss and grass, and often some feathers, seaweed
and driftwood splinters. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late June or early July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, often 1, rarely 3. Subelhptical. Smooth, slightly glossy. Light olive
to olive-buff or buff; spotted and blotched with blackish-brown, olive-brown and
olive, and paler markings in varying shades of grey. 60.7 x 43 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 24-25 days, probably beginning with the second egg.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long with fine, hair-like tips. Down grey
with white tips. Unpattemed. Bill black, with pink or yellow tip on both mandibles.
Legs and feet black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Period unknown. Young active after
a few days. First flight at 28-35 days.
SEA TERNS Gelochelidon and Sterna species
Small to medium-sized seabirds, catching fish by plunge-diving. Gelochelidon is
behaviourally more similar in feeding to a marsh tern (p. 178). Nests usually in
colonies, with nests often only a bill-stab apart. More than one species may be pre-
sent, and other birds may nest on the edges of such colonies to enjoy the protection
afforded by the fact that terns may attack predators. The nest is a shallow scrape,
often unlined. It is usually formed by both sexes, the lining dependent on nearby
available material. One to three eggs, cryptically patterned but very varied. Incuba-
tion by both birds, usually beginning early in laying of clutch, and young may hatch
at intervals of a day or two. Young are downy and may vary considerably in colour
and pattern of down. Upperparts usually patterned in blackish-brown on buff or grey.
Pattern often broken but may show paired dark dorsal streaks. In some species fine
tips of down arc joined in bunches to give down plumage a spiky appearance. Young
fed by both parents on small fish brought in the bill. Young are vulnerable to bad
weather conditions. They may leave nest after a few days. In some species they hide
near nest while parents are away, but in others larger young gather in groups with a
few adults present, usually near water’s edge, where adults find and feed their own
young. Observation is difficult after young fly, but they may be wholly or partly
dependent on adults for a month or two after leaving nest.
CASPIAN TERN Sterna caspia	Pls 12, 45
Breeds near coasts on sandy or stony beaches, on shores of large inland lakes, and
on offshore islands. Nest on ground on bare sand, shell beach or shingle. Usually in
colonies, occasionally as single pairs. Nests usually well-spaced.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined or with a sparse collection of nearby plant debris.
Breeding season. Begins late February in Red Sea, October in Arabian Gulf, early
April in southern Europe to June in north. Single-brooded, but will replace lost
clutch.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy or very slightly glossy;
sometimes with a finely granular or textured surface. Pale creamy to creamy-buff;
marked with specks, spots and rather small blotches of black, olive, brown and pale
grey. The markings are relatively small, usually finely and evenly distributed. Rarely
odd large irregular blotches, sometimes at or around larger end. 64 x 44.5 mm.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
171
Incubation. By both birds, beginning with first egg 20-22 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Like that of Gull-billed Tern. Down soft and
long with fine hair-like tips. Underparts white, sometimes buffish, and throat dusky.
Upperparts dull buff or buffish-grey, with small blackish-brown markings, fewer
than on Gull-billed Tern, on back and wings, but not on crown and nape Markings
sometimes absent or virtually absent Bill usually orange, or somet mes yellow, with
black patch near tip Legs and feet blackish grey, or dark grey, becoming brownish-
orange. Mouth pinkish-orange.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents After a few days young leave nest
and hide in nearby cover. Fly at 30-35 days.
SWIFT TERN Sterna bergii	PI. 45
Breeds on sea coasts, nesting on stretches of sand, shingle or level rocky areas, often
on offshore islands and sand-banks In colonies, sometimes large, but often in
smaller numbers with other terns or gulls, forming discrete close sub-groups.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually unhncd, or with a few sticks and shell fragments. In
colonies the sand between nest-scrapes is often consolidated with droppings.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 1. sometimes 2. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Very pale creamy
or ivory-white or tinted, sometimes strongly, pink, pinkish-buff, faint yellowish or
olive-yellow. Boldly and very variably marked in blotches, spots, short scrawls or
complex scribbling and speckling, the last often in conjunction with scrawls or spots
and dense at times, in black, blackish brown, chestnut, dark brown and paler pur-
plish or violet-grey. Markings usually fairly evenly distributed, exceptionally pro-
fuse or very sparse. Markings may be mainly in a zone around or capping larger end;
often in conjunction with heavier blotching. Large blotches and at times other
markings may show blurred or brownish edges, and in some instances the larger
markings show slanting elongation. 63.8 x 44.2 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 25-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy Down may appear slightly spiky. Colour and
markings variable. Down often silvery white and almost unmarked, or from silvery-
grey to olive-grecn with variable dark markings. Bill pale yellow, legs black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at c. 3 days and hide in
nearby cover Older young may swim if alarmed, but soon become waterlogged.
Young may form creche guarded by a few adults, but fed only by parents. Fly at
38 40 days, practising fishing but begging, and after с. 1 week follow parents to fish-
ing grounds. Both leave colony 13-19 days after fledging but young remain
dependent on adults for food for up to 4 months.
LESSER CRESTED TERN Sterna bengalensis	PI. 45
Breeds on sea coasts, nesting on stretches of sand or among dunes, on shingle or level
rock on shores; or on offshore islands or sand-banks. Nests usually in large, dense
colonies, site often shared with other tern species or gulls.
Nest. A shallow hollow usually unhned.
Breeding season. Begins May-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually I. occasionally 2. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. White or
creamy-white, or lightly tinted pinkish or buffish; variably marked with specks, spots
or blotches, usually small, or rarely irregular scrawls, of black, blackish-brown or
blackish-purple, with fainter grey markings. Many larger markings show blurred or
brownish edges Markings are usually evenly distributed, and consist of a mixture of
172
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
spots, specks and small blotches. Less commonly with sparser, larger blotches; rarely
unmarked. 52.4 x 36.2 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 21-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Colour and pattern variable. Down may be off-
white, whitish-grey, pale grey or pale buff; unmarked or with a few dark marks on
head, or black spots on head and wings, and black markings tending to form streaks
on back. Bill light yellow. Legs and feet pinkish-orange at hatching, changing to
black by fledging.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave nest after a few days, guarded
by one parent while the other fishes, or more often join into a large creche with a few
adults, usually by water’s edge. Young are fed by own parent. Fledge at 32-35 days.
Follow parents to fishing ground after fledging.
ROSEATE TERN Sterna dougalli	PI. 45
Breeds on coastal sites; on sand- or shingle-banks, or low rocky shores or islands.
Nests in colonies, often among other terns.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually unlined, on rock or among shingle or shore plants,
or may enter well under vegetation in tunnel-like site.
Breeding season. Begins early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 1-2, rarely 3. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Light cream, or tinted
yellowish, buffish or olive, or occasionally deeper olive or buff. Speckled, spotted or
blotched, or occasionally with short lines or scrawls, of blackish-brown, black, dark
brown or olive, and paler shades of grey. Markings very variable, often fine and rather
profuse, sometimes more sparse. Occasionally a concentrated zone around the larger
end. 44.1 x 30.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Incubation by both birds, mainly by
female, beginning early in laying of clutch. 21-26 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down resembles that of Sandwich Tern in that,
except on breast and belly, the filament tips are joined in groups, giving the down
plumage a spiky appearance. Breast and belly white. Upperparts grey tinted with
pale to warm buff, and speckled with blackish down bases and dark markings. At
hatching, bill pink with black patch at tip, gradually changing to black before fledg-
ing. Legs and feet greyish-pink, gradually changing to blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. May remain at nest-site for 2-3
weeks, moving out earlier if cover is poor. Fledge at 27-30 days, sometimes a little
earlier. Dependent for 8 weeks or more.
ARCTIC TERN Sterna paradisaea	PI. 45
Breeds on small rocky islands, near or off shore, on sand- or shingle-banks, sand-
dunes or grassy slopes. Usually on coast, sometimes inland. Usually in colony, some-
times with other terns or other seabirds and sea-ducks.
Nest. A shallow hollow, often unlincd or sparsely lined with nearby plant material
and debris. Made by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 3 or 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Often shades
of buff or pale greenish or olive, but may vary from bluish-white or creamy through
to deep brown; exceptionally pink. Marking variable. Blotching, sometimes exten-
sive, spots, specks and sometimes short scrawls in blackish-brown, black or dark
olive. Sometimes a zone of heavy markings around larger end, or larger markings
elongated and slanting in one direction. 40.2 x 29.4 mm.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
173
Incubation. By both birds. 20-22 days, beginning with first or second egg.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Similar to that of Common Tern, but upper-
parts buff, greenish or grey,usually more heavily marked on the back, and the dusky
blackish-brown of the throat usually extends to chin and forehead. Bill pink or
orange-pink, black patch at tip; legs and feet pink or orange-pink. No colour change
from hatching to fledging.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. May leave nest soon after hatching
but remain near by. Can swim at 2 days. Fly at 20-22 days, but are fed by adults for
a longer period.
COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo	Page 175, Pls 12,45
Breeds on shingle- and sand-banks, usually coastal, sometimes in rivers; sand-dunes;
sandy or rocky coastal islands; salt marshes; sometimes on freshwater lakes, where occa-
sionally nests may be on floating logs or waterweed. Nest on the ground. Nests colo-
nially.
Nest. A hollow, unlined, or variably lined with nearby plant material and odd feathers.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May or early June in south, may be late June to early
July in north. Single-brooded, possibly an occasional second brood.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 4. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Creamy, or tinted
very pale yellowish, greenish or olive; or light to deep buff or olive; very variably
marked with blotches, spots, specks and fine irregular lines of black, blackish-
brown, dark to olive brown, and paler shades of grey. Frequently irregular heavy
blotching mixed with fine spots and specks, but markings may vary from sparse to
Common Tern:
no nest material.
Common Tern:
with material nearby,
c. 20 cm across.
174
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
profuse. Occasionally markings concentrated around larger end. Rarely pale bluish-
white and very sparsely marked. 41.3 x 30.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by both birds, but mainly by
female, beginning with first egg but only fully from last egg. 20-23 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine, hair-like tips.
Upperparts buff; patterned with blackish-brown, usually as spots on head, but fore-
head usually uniform. Larger dark blotching on back and wings broken along flanks
but tending to form paired dark streaks down mantle and back. Area round eyes buff
with buff streak to bill, but chin white, upper lores and throat dusky blackish-brown,
and rest of underside whitish. Legs and feet pink to orange-pink, from hatching to
fledging. Bill pink to orange-pink, with black patch at tip; upper mandible changing
to greyish-black by fledging.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. May leave nest after 3 days but
return for brooding. They can swim at an early age. Begin flying at c. 28 days.
WHITE-CHEEKED TERN Sterna repressa	Pl. 45
Breeds on level sandy or stony areas, on or near coastal beaches, or on islands. Nests
in colonies with nests close together, sometimes with other tern species.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined, or with sparse lining of plant fragments, or lined
with small pebbles.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June to early July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 3, rarely 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Light buff
or yellowish, rarely creamy; spotted, speckled or with small blotches and occasional
broken hair-lines of brown, dark brown, blackish-brown, and paler shades of grey
and purple. Marking variable, but usually the paler blotches are more in evidence, or
as evident, as the darker ones. 40.3 x 28.9 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 25-30 days, possibly longer. Adults have been observed
skimming the surface of the sea, saturating their breast feathers before returning to
the nest to cool eggs and small young.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Very variable, some unmarked. Down buff, gin-
ger, pale grey or white on upperparts, variably patterned with blackish blotches, spots,
smudges or speckles. On underparts white, with buff lower belly, and black on throat
and extending above bill in front of the eyes. Bill pinkish-red at base, with large dark
patch at tip, extending over most of upper mandible. Legs and feet pink, changing to
black by fledging. Iris dark brown. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest within a few days of
hatching and seek shelter in or under nearby vegetation or rocks. Capable of swim-
ming when only a few days old which is possibly a method of cooling. They fledge
at c. 30 days but are fed for several further weeks by the adults.
LITTLE TERN Sterna albifrons	Page 175, Pls 12,45
Breeds, usually in small colonies, on sand and shingle beaches on coast, or banks in
estuaries, rivers and freshwater lakes. Nests usually well spaced.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually unlined, or sparingly lined with nearby plant
material or small pebbles or shell fragments. Made by female or both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south, mid-May to early June in north.
Single-brooded, but replaces lost clutches.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Very pale, tinted olive or buff,
or cream-coloured, sometimes slightly warmer buff. Spotted, blotched and speckled
in brown, blackish-brown and shades of grey. Often finer dark markings are combined
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
175
Dorsal view, and side view of head of tern chicks: a. Gull-hilled Tern; b. Sandwich
Tern; c. Common Tern; d. Little Tern; e. Whiskered Tern; f. Black Tern.
176
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
with larger pale grey ones. Markings variable but usually well distributed, often pro-
fuse; occasionally some concentration towards larger end. Exceptionally slanting
elongated blotches or streaks towards larger end. 32.1 x 23.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation by both birds, usually
beginning with second egg but fully after last egg. 19-22 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down shorter than that of other terns, with fine
hair-like tips. Sandy-buff on head and upperparts, with mottling of darker brown,
sometimes showing three parallel streaks on crown, and paired dark streaks on back,
or so irregular that pattern is not obvious. Underparts white, or tinted light sandy-
buff. At hatching, bill flesh-pink, with black patch at tip; blackish-grey at base of
upper mandible. At fledging, upper mandible is predominantly greyish-black;
remainder and most of lower mandible yellowish-brown. Legs and feet orange or
pink at all stages. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Can leave nest after 1 day but remain
near by. Fly at 15-20 days.
BRIDLED TERN Sterna anaethetus	Pls 12,45
Breeds on low rocky or coral islands, and sandy islets with some scrubby vegetation.
Loosely colonial, nests scattered in suitable sites. Usually in shelter of bush or rock,
often under thick bush, or in rock crevice, hollow or cave; sometimes in open.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined or with a few leaves or stones, which may be acci-
dental. Sometimes the egg is laid onto bare rock. Scrapes, in softer ground, are made
by both sexes.
Breeding season. Season very varied but main egg-laying mid-June and July in Red
Sea. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, slightly or moderately glossy. Creamy-white or
tinted pale buffish or pinkish; marked with fine speckling, spots and blotches, usu-
ally small, of reddish-brown, blackish-brown and pale purple or purplish-grey. Most
frequently show well-distributed fine speckling or small spots, sometimes with a few
larger markings. 44.2 x 31.2 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, 28-30 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and fine. Lower breast and belly
drab white or buff, the rest a speckled mixture of dark brown, grey and buff. Bill,
legs and feet black, feet tinged pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest and hide near by at c. 3
days. They fledge at 53-63 days, and may become independent c. 35 days later.
SANDWICH TERN Sterna sandvicensis	Page 175, Pls 12,45
Breeds on or near the coast, on sandy or shingle banks, sand-dunes, offshore sand-
banks and islands, and low rocky islands; or by lagoons near the sea. In colonies with
nests near each other.
Nest. A shallow hollow, sometimes unlined, or sparsely lined with nearby material.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1, rarely 3. Subelliptical. Smooth, slightly glossy. Pale
yellow, yellowish-buff or creamy-white. Very variably marked with spots, blotches,
specks and scrawls of brown, blackish-brown, dark olive-brown and paler grey.
Great variation in size and distribution of markings. Large blotching frequently
occurs, often concentrated towards larger end; occasional eggs show elongated,
slanting markings; or blotches may show brownish blurring along one side. Smaller
markings vary from profuse to very sparse. 51.5 x 36 mm.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
177
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by both birds, beginning before
second egg. 21-29, usually c. 25, days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down on head, neck, throat, back and wings
long and soft with fine tips, but groups of tips joined in one sheath, giving down a
spiky appearance. On flanks and underside down is normal Spiky down of upper-
parts and back varies from grey-brown to light buffish or creamy, with dark bases to
down giving a mottled or speckled appearance Dark blackish spotting and mottling
on head and back, with sometimes broken pattern of streaking on head and dark
bands on back. Individually veiy variable. Underside whitish. Downy sides buffish-
white. Bill colour very variable in all stages; in early stages pink or greyish-blue or
tinged pink or yellow, sometimes with dark patch near tip; in later stages, plain yel-
low, greenish-yellow or orange, sometimes blackish at base of upper mandible. In
early stages, legs and feet pink, tinged blue, later blackish-grey, tinged pink.
Nestling period. Young may hatch at intervals of up to 2-3 days Tended by both
parents. Young may hide or creche according to numbers and habitat, but often tend
to assemble by second week, usually by the water’s edge, the young fed by adults
which recognise their own. They fly at 28-32 days, but adults are recorded still feed-
ing young on migration in August.
GULL-BILLED TERN Gelochelidon nilotica	Page 175, Pi. 44
Breeds on shores of saline lagoons, shallow lakes, rivers, inland marshes, estuaries
and sheltered coasts, prefers small islets or sand-banks, but not always by water. Nest
on bare sand, soil or dry mud; in colonies with nests close together
Nest. A shallow hollow in soft sand or soil, usually sparsely lined with grasses,
seaweed or nearby vegetation.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid May in south, to late May or early June in
north. Single-brooded
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-5; larger number possible from two females. Sub-
elliptical. Smooth and non-glossy, or very slightly glossy. Very pale creamy-buff to
pale yellowish-buff; marked with spots, specks and blotches, usually small, of
shades of dark brown, dark olive-brown or blackish-brown, and paler shades of grey
Markings usually evenly distributed, often profuse, rarely with a concentration
around larger end 49 3 x 35.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both birds, beginning with
the first or second egg 22-23 days.
Nestling. Semi precocial and downy Down soft and long with fine, hair-like tips.
Young are very variably marked. Head and upperparts vary from greyish-buff to deep
ochre, and underside is off-white. Head has off-white patches at gape and conspicu-
ous patch around and behind eye. Head and upperparts may be uniformly coloured,
or with a few dark specks on back, or with blackish-brown marks forming three nar-
row irregular crown stnpes, with additional dark marks on nape and behind eye, bold
pair of dark streaks on back, and short stripes or spots elsewhere; or buffish-brown
with black spotting and brownish-black throat, or intermediates Down clings to tips
of first feathers. Bill very variable. In recently hatched young, bill is orange-pink or
orange, or grey on upper mandible, sometimes with a faint dark patch near tip. In
later stages, lower mandible orange, upper mandible mainly orange, but dull grey
above. Legs and feet flesh-pink or orange or grey, tinged pink in early stages; dark
grey in later stages. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fly a little at c. 4 weeks, well at
c 5 weeks Young continue to be fed for at least 2-3 months
178	BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
MARSH TERNS Chlidonias species
Medium-sized terns feeding and nesting on still fresh and brackish waters with grow-
ing vegetation. Nests usually floating, with material more plentiful than with other
terns. Built by both birds. Material may occasionally be carried as well as being
accumulated by sideways-building. Eggs heavily patterned, oval, and rarely
pyriform. Young downy, warm buff mottled with black. Semi-precocial, but the
aquatic nest-site limits wandering at first. Adults bring food in bill.
BLACK TERN Chlidonias niger	Page 175, Pls 12,44
Breeds on shallow, still waters, fresh or brackish, often with reedy vegetation; or
in swampy marshes and fens. Nest either as heaps of floating vegetation in water,
anchored by growing plants, or on mats of floating aquatic vegetation or heaps of
fallen herbage; or on firm ground among marshy herbage. Lsually nests in
colonies.
Nest. In water a heap of water plants and reeds, formed by material pulled together,
or rarely carried to the site, and lined with finer material. On firmer ground the nest
is a scrape with a sparse lining of pieces of reeds and other plant matter. Both build.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in the south to late May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Oval to subpynform. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Light buffish to brown, or pale yellowish or creamy; irregular spotting or blotching,
often large, in black and brown, frequently concentrated in a broad zone around the
larger end. 34.8 x 25.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with the last egg. 20-22 days.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips. Upper-
parts warm buff mottled with black and extending to throat and chin. Mid-breast
greyish-white, flanks and belly buffish-grey. Forehead, around base of bill, and patch
around eyes white. Double row of small irregular blackish blotches over crown, dark
Black Tern, c. 20 25 cm across.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
179
streak down neck, double streak down mantle, broken line of blackish mottling along
sides of back and dark median streak ending in a blotch; and dark mottling on the
upper wings. At hatching, bill mainly black, with pink on sides near base; at fledg-
ing, black, with scarcely any trace of pink. Legs and feet pink, tinged grey at all
stages.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Young can move about but remain
on nest for c. 2 weeks. Start to fly at c. 3 weeks, are fully fledged at c. 4 weeks.
WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN Chlidonias leucoptera	PI. 44
Breeds in colonies on shallow still waters, or in marshes, in similar sites to Black
Terns and at times in company with them. Nests usually floating and well-dispersed.
Nest. An accumulation of waterweed and other plant material floating in shallow
water, or on a raft of floating aquatic vegetation, or on plant tuft or tussock in shal-
low water.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2, rarely 4. Oval. Smooth, slightly glossy. Similar in
appearance to those of Black Tern, but on average a little smaller. 33.7 x 24.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-22 days.
Nestling. Like that of Black Tern (above) but with usually a very dark throat
contrasting with large white area around eye, white above nostrils, then more rufous
forehead. More dull brown on underside. At hatching, bill black, with pink on sides
near base; at fledging, pink at gape only. Legs and feet grey, tinged pink at all stages.
Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Like Black terns, but young may hide in nearby plants at a few days
old. Fly at 24—25 days..
WHISKERED TERN Chlidonias hybrida	Page 175, Pl. 44
Breeds on shallow waters of lagoons, and pools in swampy areas. Nests in colonies.
Nest floats on the water, anchored by growing plants such as reeds.
Nest. An accumulation of aquatic weed and other vegetation, less solid than that of
Black Tern, and central hollow without definite lining. Material carried to site.
Breeding season. Variable, beginning late April to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Oval. Smooth, slightly glossy. Pale bluish-green,
pale blue, pale olive-buff, sometimes greyish or brownish; spotted and blotched with
blackish-brown and pale grey, the markings often sparse and frequently w'ith a zone
of heavier blotching around the larger end or capping it. 39.2 x 28.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by the female. 18-20 days, beginning with
last egg.
Nestling. Semi-precocial and downy. Down long and soft with fine silky tips. Upper-
parts bright warm buff becoming orange-buff on upper mantle, sides of head and
neck. Throat dark brown; chin, breast and belly white; flanks and vent orange-buff.
Lower forehead black, lores and fore-edge of eyes white. Black pattern like that of
Black Tern but more broken and blotched. Distinguished from Black Tern by black
lower forehead and dark throat. Bill black, with pink on sides near base; at fledging,
black only. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. If disturbed can leave nest, swim
and hide after a few hours, and return to be fed. Fed mainly by male at first. Adults
often hover to feed or drop food from flight. Young leave nest at c. 4-10 days and
move around colony. They may be fed at an alternative site. They fly at 23 days and
follow parents, and may feed themselves after с. 1 week.
180
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
AUKS Alcidae
Medium-sized to small seabirds, living by diving for prey. Nest on shore at or near
the sea, on rock ledges or in crevices or holes. Sideways-building is used, but owing
to sites nest material may be absent or very variable. Eggs are large for the size of
the birds, in clutches of one or two. Young downy, and virtually altricial, remaining
at the nest-site. They leave the nest and go straight to sea.
RAZORBILL Alcaiorda	Pls 13,46
Breeds on sea coasts, on cliffs or on low rocky or boulder-strewn shores. Nest usually
in a crevice or niche, more concealed than the exposed ledges used by guillemots, or
holes between or under boulders, or occasionally in puffin burrows. Breeds colonially.
Nest. Normally no nest material, occasionally a few loose fragments accumulated.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south, to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Subelliptical to oval. Surface finely granular and roughened, non-
glossy. Very variable in colour. Ground colour varies from white through yellowish,
buff and shades of brown, or sometimes reddish or greenish; variably speckled, spot-
ted, scribbled, blotched or banded with dark brown and/or black. The inner shell
membrane is greenish. 73.1 x 46.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes (shifts of 12-24 hours). 36 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down short and thick, with fine silky tips. Lores,
forehead and crown white; remainder of head, throat, back of neck blackish-brown
with white tips. Upperparts and wings blackish-brown, tipped with pale buff above
and on wings, white on mid-underside. Distinctive large and compressed bill black
at all stages. Mouth pale yellow. Legs, feet, webs and claws blackish-grey at all
stages. Iris blackish-brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at c. 18-19 days for sea,
accompanied by an adult.
GUILLEMOT Una aalge	Pls 13,47
Breeds on sea coasts, on ledges of cliffs and on the level top of isolated rock stacks.
Breeds colonially, with birds crowded very close together.
Nest. No nest, egg laid on bare rock or on a few small rock fragments gathered
together. Individually variable egg patterns may assist adults to identify eggs.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Large and pyriform. Surface finely granular and roughened, non-
glossy. Colour and markings extremely variable. Ground colour from white through
shades of buff, brown, reddish, cream, blue or green; immaculate or marked in
shades of brown or black with variable combinations of dots, spots, blotches or intri-
cate scribbling; at times uniformly dark in colour or with pale or dark central zones.
81.5 x 49.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes (shifts of 12-24 hours). Egg rests on the webs of the feet,
covered by the belly feathers. 28-35 days, but up to 45 days recorded.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down thick, with fine tips; short on underside, longer
and coarser on head and neck. Black on head and neck streaked with white sheaths
enclosing several filaments. Body sooty-brown above with some greyish mottling,
and buffish-white underneath. Belly usually pure white. Feathers begin to show
within a few days. Conical bill; at hatching, bluish-grey with blackish tip, whole bill
gradually becoming blackish-grey. Legs, feet, webs and claws blackish-grey. Mouth
pale pinkish-flesh. Iris blackish-brown.
AUKS
181
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave for sea at 18-25 days, only
part-grown; accompanied and cared for communally by adults until able to fly at
c. 39-46 days after hatching.
BRUNNICH’S GUILLEMOT Uria lomvia	Pl. 47
Breeds on sea-cliffs and rock stacks, in similar sites to the Common Guillemot, but
further north; although sometimes in mixed colonies. Breeds in colonies, often large,
with birds crowding very close together.
Nest. As for Common Guillemot.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Large and pyriform. Surface granular and roughened, non-glossy.
Very variable. Ground colour shades of white, cream, buff, reddish, greenish or blue;
marked with buff, brown, purplish or black specks, spots, blotches, streaks or
scribbling. 80.2 x 50 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes (with shifts of 12-24 hours). Egg rests on the webs of the
feet, covered by the belly feathers. 28-35 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Resembles that of Common Guillemot but shows
more streaking, with white sheaths of head and neck more prominent and paler
brown tips to down of back. Head sometimes with a tinge of buff. Belly mottled
(normally white in Guillemot). Feathers begin to show after a few days. Bill grey
(slightly darker than that of Guillemot), with blackish tip. Legs, feet and webs black-
ish-grey. Iris blackish-brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest for sea at a quarter of
adult weight, at 16-30 days, after which they continue to be tended by parents, par-
ticularly male, for several weeks.
NORTHERN PUFFIN Fratercula arctica	Pls 13,46
Breeds colonially on sea coasts, on turf slopes on tops of cliffs, coastal hillsides, or
the tops of islands down to sea-level. Nest a burrow, taken over from a shearwater
or rabbit, or excavated by both birds; or a hole among boulders or a natural crevice.
Nest. A shallow hollow, a metre or two inside tunnel. Plant material and feathers are
carried in, but not arranged systematically as a lining.
Breeding season. Usually begins early to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Shortish subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Usually white, but often
with markings within the shell showing as faint brown or purplish blotches. Excep-
tionally shell buff or light brown with brown or purple blotches and spotting. 60.8 x
42.3 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female alone, the male occasionally helping. 37-43 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down short around the eyes at hatching; pale grey,
becoming longer; blackish-brown. Down on rest of head and body long and soft
with fine tips.. Down buffish-brown to blackish-brown on upperparts. Down bases
grey. Mid-underparts while. Bill noticeably narrow and angled. At hatching, bill
dark reddish-grey, upper mandible becoming gradually blackish-grey then, shortly
before fledging, both mandibles become reddish-brown, darker at base. Gape
flanges yellow. Mouth pale flesh pink. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Webs flesh pink
at hatching, soon becoming darker; grey. Claws blackish-grey. Iris blackish-
brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded for up to 9 days. Fledging
records vary with locality: 34-60 days, but typically 46-51 days. Independent just
prior to fledging.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
BLACK GUILLEMOT Cepphus grylle	Pls 13,46
Breeds on sea coasts. Nest in a hole, under or among boulders, on low island, boul-
der beach, or base of a cliff; or in hole or crevice in cliffs. More rarely in hole in earth
bank, or turf, or hole in building; or steep hillside near sea. Nests are in a loose colony
of scattered pairs due to dispersed nest-sites.
Nest. A hollow, unlined, or sometimes with an accumulation of nearby debris to form
a large pile, or a large number of small stones or rock fragments.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, often 1, sometimes 3. Shortish subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy.
White, sometimes lightly tinted with buff or bluish-green, marked with a mixture of
various-sized spots and blotches of black and pale grey, or reddish-brown at times.
The inner shell membrane is green. 58.1 x 39.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg, the male incubating by night,
the female by day. Usually c. 29 days, 21-39 reported.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down soft, thick and with silky tips. Blackish-
brown, slightly paler below. Down remains on the tips of the first feathers. Bill slen-
der and conical. At hatching, bill blackish, sometimes tinged dark red, with red gape
flanges; legs and feet reddish-grey; webs flesh-pink; claws dark grey. Bill becomes
black only. Legs, feet and webs darken to grey, tinged purple, but are reddish-brown
by fledging. Mouth pink. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, brooded for the first few days. They
fledge at 34-40 days. Leave nest at 1-2-day intervals, rarely up to 8 days. Appear
independent of parents.
LITTLE AUK Alle alle	Pls 13, 46
Breeds on or near sea coasts, on cliffs, or steep hillsides further inland, usually in
very large colonies. Nest in holes or crevices in rocks or among piled boulders at the
foot of slopes, up to 1 m from entrance.
Nest. A hollow, unlined or with shallow layer of pebbles and odd plant fragments.
Breeding season. Begins May to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1. Subelliptical. Smooth, non-glossy. Pale blue, normally immaculate,
rarely marked with spots or scribbles of buffish-brown at the larger end. 48.1 x 33.7
mm.
Incubation. By both sexes (12 hour shifts). 29 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down thick, soft and silky-tipped. Blackish-brown,
with paler brown on the underside (almost black when first hatched), and grey on
mid-underside. Bill is short, thick and blackish. Legs and feet dark grey. Iris black-
ish-brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded for up to a week. Later in
period may come to entrance of hole and exercise wings while parents are present.
Leaves nest at c. 3-4 weeks, usually going to sea accompanied by adults.
SANDGROUSE Pteroclididae
Breed in open desert or semi-desert areas. Nest is a hollow on the ground, usually bare
of any material. Sideways-building occurs at the nest and absence of material is prob-
ably due to a shortage in the vicinity. The 2-3 eggs are typically elliptical with blunt
rounded ends; camouflaged, usually buffish or yellowish, heavily spotted with brown.
Male usually incubates by night and female by day. The downy young have complex
reticulate down patterns, buffish down being divided into discrete dark-edged areas
SANDGROUSE
183
by narrow creamy lines, but down is rapidly replaced by first plumage. In some desert
species pattern is mainly replaced by uniform colour. Adults fly some distance to
water and the males soak the belly feathers; the young take water from the feathers
on the return to nest. Adults tend to divide the young between them, young birds fol-
lowing the respective parent. The young feed themselves from the start.
SPOTTED SANDGROUSE Pterocles sene gall us	Pi. 48
Breeds in both rocky and sandy types of desert areas. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, often a natural one, usually unlined.
Breeding season. Begins April; prolonged.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Elliptical and rather blunt-cnded. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Pale to very pale buff, rather sparingly speckled, spotted, blotched or finely scrawled
with light brown or reddish-brown and pale purplish-grey, the larger markings often
poorly defined. 41.7 x 28 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 24-48 hours. Incubation by both adults. 29-31
days, beginning with the first egg.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Like other species but with paler upperparts; pale
sandy-buff and brown, with blackish tips, and pattern of pale lines. Underside pale
buff. Bill bluish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but feed themselves. They feather
early and can fly when only part-grown.
CROWNED SANDGROUSE Pterocles coronatus	PI. 48
Breeds in stony deserts and rocky regions. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined.
Breeding season. Begins April. Prolonged.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Long elliptical with blunt rounded ends. Smooth and moderately
glossy. Creamy-stone to pale creamy-buff, evenly marked with spots and small
blotches of light brown or buffish-brown and pale purplish-grey. 39.4 x 27.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes period unknown.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down almost pale uniform brown, possibly with
faint pattern of pale lines; sides of head darker; whitish below.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
LICHTENSTEIN’S SANDGROUSE Pterocles lichtensteini	PI. 48
Breeds in semi-desert areas with rocks and scattered trees and shrubs. Nest on the
ground, sometimes in the shelter of a young shrub.
Nest. A shallow depression in stony ground.
Breeding season. April to September in Israel.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Elliptical with blunt, rounded ends. Smooth and fairly glossy.
Pale to very pale buff with faint pinkish tint; sparsely marked with fine specks and
irregular spots of reddish-brown, and fainter Notchings in shades of pale purple or
purplish-grey. Very lightly and faintly marked in comparison with other species. 42
x 26.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down of upperparts warm light brown, underparts
paler, without pattern of pale lines. Sides of head darker. Dark spot behind eye, stripes
on sides of crown. Creamy moustache stripe. At hatching, bill and eye-ring grey; legs
and feet greyish-pink; claws pink. In larger young, bill is blackish.
Nestling period. Young leave nest soon after hatching. Shaded by parents when small.
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BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
PIN-TAILED SANDGROUSE Pterocles alchata	PL 48
Breeds in rocky or sandy desert, or desert edges with vegetation. Often in a loose
colony. Nest on the ground in the open.
Nest. A shallow hollow, often a natural one, by a tuft of vegetation or a rock.
Usually unlined.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Long elliptical. Smooth and glossy. Buff or warm buff,
rarely creamy-buff; spotted, blotched and speckled in medium brown to dark or chest-
nut-brown, with sparser pale grey or purplish-grey markings. Very variable in the size
and distribution of markings, which are usually profuse, sometimes sparing on eggs with
heavier markings. Occasionally a heavily marked zone towards one end. 45.7 x 29.8 mm.
Incubation. Laid at 24-48-hour intervals. 19-25 days, from last egg, by both birds.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down pattern less clear-cut, and down appears more
thick and tufted than on some other species. Underside and pale lines creamy-white.
Top of head buffish with blackish edges to forehead and crown, dark-edged pale line
along mid-crown, becoming broad and irregular on hind-crown. White on lores
extending back above and below eye, and brown patch around eye. Small dark mous-
tache streak. Pale streak down mid-back and three pale transverse streaks dividing
back into four pairs of buffish-brown, black-edged patches, the posterior ones sepa-
rated from an irregular patch along the flanks by paired pale lateral streaks. At hatch-
ing, bill pale grey; feet buffish-pink; claws pale grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Can run at 2 hours and peck at
ground. Leave the nest within first day and follow parents. Independent in c. 10 days.
Fly poorly at c. 4 weeks and well at c. 6 weeks. They remain with adults.
BLACK-BELLIED SANDGROUSE Pterocles orientalis	PI. 48
Breeds in semi-desert and stony wastes, including dry hillsides, mountain steppes,
gravel areas, bare soil mixed with low shrubs and grass, and the dry edges of culti-
vation.
Nest. A shallow hollow, usually unlined.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early May. Prolonged. Single- or double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Elliptical, with blunt, rounded ends. Smooth and glossy. Very
variable. Creamy-buff to pale buff or warm buff; heavily marked with blotches,
speckling, spots and short irregular scrawls of light to medium brown or buffish-
brown and pale purplish-grey, occasionally deep buff with warm brown markings.
Markings sometimes small and profuse, or large and more sparing. Often light and
poorly defined. 46.8 x 32.4 mm.
Incubation. Both adults incubate, beginning with first egg. 23-28 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Upperparts tawny-buff heavily spotted with black,
divided into blocks by poorly defined patterns of whitish lines. Underparts light buff
with faint grey barring on flanks. Throat and front of neck off-white or pinkish. Bill
grey. Feet buffish-pink. Iris brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving nest as soon as down is dry
and feeding themselves.
CHESTNUT-BELLIED SANDGROUSE Pterocles exustus	Pl. 48
Breeds in semi-desert areas with scattered bushes. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow; unlined, or with a few plant stems and fragments.
Breeding season. Begins April. Single-brooded?
SANDGROUSE
185
Dorsal pattern of downy chicks of
sandgrouse:
left, Pallas’s Sandgrouse:
right, Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Long elliptical to elliptical. Creamy to pale creamy-buff;
heavily marked with specks, spots, small blotches and fine short scrawls of brown,
buffish-brown or pale purplish-grey; the last usually sufficient to give a drab appear-
ance to the shell compared with those of other species. 36.1 x 25.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 23 days, male sitting at night.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down patterned in warm buff to golden buff, black-
ish edged, divided by creamy-white lines. Dorsally a dark streak above bill, sepa-
rated from lores by pale line, pair of elongated patches on fore-crown, heavier
patches on crown, hind-crown to nape with pale central line separating two patches.
Pale line down mid-back and three transverse lines producing four pairs of dark-
edged patches; two pairs on shoulders and mantle rather fluffy, two pairs on mid- to
lower back well defined, separated by outer white line from irregular band around
flank and rear end which is broken by four, rearward slanting, broken white lines.
Upper wings mottled with patches and lines, distal parts plain buffish-cream. Under-
side creamy-buff to whitish-cream, with darker brownish patch on upper breast. Legs
downy on front, bare on hind-tarsus and foot. Bill and bare eye-ring lead blue. Feet
greyish-pink. Claws white. Iris hazel.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
PALLAS’S SANDGROUSE Syrrhaptes paradoxus	Pis 14,48
Normally breeds in semi-desert, or on sandy or saline steppes with sparse vegeta-
tion. Has irrupted at times westwards across Europe, when it may breed on patches
of similar terrain such as sand-dunes, drier marshes and open heathland. Nest on the
ground.
Nest. A shallow scrape, unlined, or sparsely lined with a little plant material.
Breeding season. In natural range begins mid-April in south to mid-May in north.
Season prolonged. Probably double-brooded, possibly treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Long elliptical with blunt, rounded ends. Smooth
and glossy. Pale buff to creamy-stone or pale greyish; speckled, spotted and blotched
with shades of brown and pale greyish-brown. 36.1 x 25.2 mm.
Incubation. By both adults, beginning with first egg. 23-24 days.
Nestling. Precocial and downy. Down patterned in patches of warm buffish-
brown, dark-edged on crown, back and wings, separated by thin creamy lines.
Transverse buff band across lores, with pale band across forehead. Buff sides of
head, with pale borders and pale streak across ear-coverts to back of eye. Small
patch bordering chin. Crown pattern broken and irregular. Pale mid-streak down
186
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
back, with two transverse lines, leaving two pairs of patches on lower back sepa-
rated from broken flank pattern by pale lines. At either side of mantle and on wings
buff mottled dark brownish and cream. Underside creamy to drab-whitish.
Creamy-white down on legs and upper side of toes (other sandgrouse have bare
toes). Bill grey. Iris dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but feed themselves from the start.
PIGEONS Columbidae
Medium-sized birds nesting in trees or shrubs, or on rocks. Nest thin, sketchy and
platform-like. Material carried to the nest in the bill and added with small lateral
quiverings of the bill as material is inserted. Usually male brings material and female
builds. Male bringing material may land on back of female, and pass it to her over
her shoulder. Nest may be reused for successive clutches and in successive years.
Clutch of 2, or sometimes 1 white egg. Eggs covered continually after first is laid.
Male usually incubates by day, female by night, changing over in late afternoon.
Young have sparse hairy down with bare skin showing through. The base of the bill
is swollen and sensitive. They are fed by adults on a crop secretion for several days,
then the amount of seed and plant material is increased. They take the food from
inside the adult’s bill. Young follow parents, or are visited and fed by them, after
leaving the nest, but there is little information on this period and its duration.
ROCK DOVE Columba livia	Pl. 48
Usually nest colonially. The wild form breeds in caves and crevices of sea-cliffs,
gorges or rock outcrops. Domesticated form breeds on ledges on or in man-made
structures, sometimes at or below ground level, but the two mix. Nest on a ledge or
in a hole, often well inside the various major sites, in almost dark situations.
Nest. A scanty layer, at times almost absent, at others more solid; of fine stems, roots,
twigs, etc., or in towns sometimes pieces of wire of similar appearance. Both sexes
build, but male usually brings material for female to incorporate.
Breeding season. March or April to August or September. In urban situations may
be longer. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2, rarely 1. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 39.3 x
29.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg. 17-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and coarse; yellow. Skin reddish-pink
on body, dark grey on wings and head. At hatching, bill pinkish-grey, flesh-pink at
area near base, with narrow black band around both mandibles next to white bill tip;
legs and feet pink. Bill, legs and feet gradually darken. At fledging, bill is dark grey,
greyish-pink at base, with no trace of black band or white tip; legs are dark grey at
front, greyish-pink at sides and at rear; toes are dark grey above, greyish-pink at sides
and below.
Nestling period. Young are brooded continually at first, and fed by both parents.
Later left alone more. After flying they are still fed by parents for a time. Indepen-
dent in 30-35 days.
STOCK DOVE Columba oenas	Pl. 48
Breeds in forest, forest edge, or more open country. A number of pairs may breed
together. Nest in a hole in a tree, building, cliff or quarry ; more rarely in a rabbit hole
in ground in very open areas. Will also nest in concealed sites on cliffs, or in thick
PIGEONS
187
twigs and debris in trees, and exceptionally under bushes. May also use old nests of
other species. Readily uses nest-boxes.
Nest. A variable amount of twigs, roots and dead leaves lining the bottom of the
cavity used. Sometimes no lining. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins early March to end of March. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White with
a slight creamy tint. 37.9 x 29 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg. 16-18 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse, in coarse hairy tufts, absent around eyes
and on chin. Warm yellowish-buff. Skin on body pink, dark grey on crown. At hatch-
ing, bill pink with white tip on both mandibles, with a black band across upper
mandible near tip, and a small dark patch near tip of lower mandible; legs and feet
pink. Later, bill is greyish-brown, with small black band near tip and white tip; legs
and feet pinkish-grey.
Nestling period. As for Rock Dove. Fledges in 27-28 days, but at times as short as
20 days.
WOOD PIGEON Columba palumbus	PI. 48
Breeds in woodland and cultivated areas, rarely into treeless regions. Nest is in tree
or shrub at varying levels, more rarely on a ledge of a building, or on rocks, and
occasionally on the ground in treeless country. May be built on old nests of other
birds.
Nest. A thin but firm platform of twigs, very variable in size, the eggs sometimes
visible from below. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Usually begins April and may be very extensive, but successful
nesting may be confined to a more limited part of the period. Treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, rarely 1. Subeiliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 44.1 x
29.8 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with the first egg. 17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse, coarse down is pale yellowish, absent about
eyes and throat; the skin underneath bluish-grey. In early stages, bill mainly bluish-
grey, yellowish-white near tip of upper mandible, crossed by a narrow black band;
legs and feet blue-grey, tinged purple. At fledging, yellowish-white at bill tip only,
with black band less distinctive; legs are dark grey at front, pinkish-grey at sides
and rear; feet are dark grey above, greyish-pink on sides and below. Iris bluish-
grey.
Nestling period. As for Rock Dove, flying at 29-35 days.
Wood Pigeon, c. 25 cm across.
188
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
LONG-TOED PIGEON Columba trocaz	PI. 48
Breeds on Madeira, in mountain evergreen laurel and tree heath forest. Nest is usu-
ally in a sheltered site, on a cliff ledge or in a rock crevice, sometimes on a low shrub
a few metres above the ground, rarely on a higher horizontal branch or on the ground.
Nest. An untidy heap of fine twigs, usually of heath.
Breeding season. Breeds in all months, but mainly February to June.
Eggs. Only 1 in clutch. Subclliptical, white. 47 x 32 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 19-20 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse covering of coarse yellowish down, bill
pinkish-grey, whitish at tip, black band across nail. Legs greyish-pink.
Nestling period. Fledges in c. 28 days.
BOLLE’S PIGEON Columba bollii
Breeds in Canary Islands, on Tenerife, Gomera and La Palma, in dense laurel
forests, preferably with taller trees. Nests in various trees, but mainly Tree Heath
and Laurel, on lateral branch or in fork. 1.75-18m up.
Nest. A compact shallow structure of twigs and fine stems, built by both birds.
Breeding season. Mainly January to May, to September on Gomera. but also breeds
in autumn and winter months. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Only 1 in clutch. Subelliptical, smooth and only slightly glossy, or non-glossy.
White. 42 x 29 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and hair-like, pale golden-yellow on
upperparts, creamy-yellow below. Down sparser on head and nape. Skin pink on
body, bluish-grey on head. At hatching, bill dark brownish-grey with black band
across upper mandible next to white tip; legs and feet greyish-pink. Later, bill is
black, with white tip; legs and feet dark pinkish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. May move to nearby branches just
before fledging. Leaves nest at c. 30-35 days.
LAUREL PIGEON Columba junoniae	Pl. 48
Breeds in Canary Islands on Tenerife, La Palma and Gomera in laurel forests with
rocky barrancos and steep cliffs. Nest on a rocky ledge with abundant vegetation,
or on the ground on steep slopes in cover of rocks, ferns or fallen trees.
Nest. A shallow platform of dry twigs, mainly of heather, and sometimes fern;
smaller than that of Bolle’s Pigeon, but firmer and more compact.
Breeding season. March to the end of August.
Eggs'. 1 egg. Subelliptical, smooth and slightly glossy. Creamy-white. 39.9 x 29.7 mm.
Incubation. 718-21 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down predominantly white, but golden-yellow on
forehead and sides of throat. Bill dark brown.
Nestling period. Leaves nest at c. 22-24 days but remains in close proximity.
NAMAQUA DOVE Oena capensis	PI. 48
Breeds in open dry country. Nest in a tree or shrub, often within a few feet of ground;
or in low grasses or herbage, or on a low mound, ant-hill or tree-trunk. Often in very
exposed site.
Nest. A very thin platform of plant stems, tendrils and roots, lined with grass and
rootlets. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins Mid-May.
PIGEONS
189
Eggs. 2 in clutch. Subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. Deep cream-coloured, not
white. 22 x 16 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 14 days. Beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and yellowish-white. Skin purple,
darker on head and neck. At hatching, bill flesh-pink; legs and feet dark grey. Within
2 days, bill is brownish-grey, paler at tip; by 7 days, both mandibles are mainly black,
greyish-pink at base, white at tip; legs and feet greyish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledge at 11-16 days. Remain with
adults for 1 month or more, fly strongly c. 2 weeks later.
COLLARED DOVE Streptopelia decaocto	Pl. 48
Breeds mainly in cultivated or partly urbanised areas. Nest in a tree, often in an
evergreen; sometimes on a ledge on or in a building.
Nest. A thin platform of fine twigs and plant stems.
Breeding season. Begins March, prolonged, may continue to September. Double-
brooded, but more (up to 5) at times.
Eggs. 2. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. White. 30.1 x 23.2 mm.
Incubation. By both parents. 14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse; whitish-yellow. Skin purple on body,
blue-grey on head and neck. At hatching, bill slate-grey or pinkish-grey, with black
band across upper mandible next to whitish-grey tip; legs and feet dark grey. Later,
bill is mainly pinkish-grey, pale grey at tip, with small black band near tip of upper
mandible; legs and feet brownish-red.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fly at c. 18 days and leave nest area
altogether at c. 3 weeks.
TURTLE DOVE Streptopelia turtur	Pls 14,48
Breeds in woodland edge, parkland and cultivated or open country with trees or
scrub. Nests in shrubs, smaller trees, hedgerows and plantations. Usually in lower
sites than other pigeons. May use nests of other birds or squirrel drey as a base.
Nest. A thin platform of fine twigs, and with a scanty lining of roots, plant stalks and
grasses.
Breeding season. Begins April in North Africa to mid-May further north. Usually
double-, sometimes treble-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2, rarely 1. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and slightly glossy. White.
30.7 x 23 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-14 days. Beginning with second egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down coarse and hair-like; pale straw-buff, lighter
than that of Wood Pigeon. At hatching, skin on head and neck blue-grey, on body
pink, becoming blue-grey within 3 days; bill dark grey at base, paler towards tip,
with black band across upper mandible near tip. Later, bill is blackish-grey, tinged
pink at base of lower mandible. Legs and feet pinkish-grey at all stages.
Nestling period. As for Rock Dove. Fledged in 19-21 days.
RUFOUS TURTLE DOVE Streptopelia oriental is	Pl. 48
Breeds in forest and forest edge, usually in a fairly low site in thickets rather than trees.
Nest. A thin platform of twigs and roots, with finer lining layer.
Breeding season. Begins April in south, May in north. Double- or possibly treble-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and glossy. White. 33.6 x 24.7 mm.
190
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. By both sexes, c. 14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down yellowish-white, hair-like and plentiful, but
absent around eyes, on throat and along mid-line of underside.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
PALM DOVE Streptopelia senegalensis	Pl. 48
Usually breeds around cultivation or habitation. Nest usually placed fairly low in
bush, or on ledge on or in building.
Nest. A flimsy platform, of thin twigs and plant stems, lined with grass and finer
stems. Built by female, with material brought by male.
Breeding season. Begins in February. Double-brooded, possibly treble-brooded.
Eggs. 2. Long elliptical to long subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. White.
25.3 x 19.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse, hair-like, and yellowish-buff. Skin red-
dish-pink, darkening to purplish-grey. Legs and feet greyish-pink. At all stages, bill may
be flesh-pink, white at tip, with black band across upper mandible next to tip; or with
same band and tip, it may be grey, darker at base, becoming black before fledging.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Begin to move from nest at 10 days,
fly at 14—17 days.
PARROTS Psittacidae
RING-NECKED PARAKEET Psittacula krameri	Pls 14,48
Breeds in areas of open scrub and cultivation. Nest in a hole in a tree, usually at some
height from the ground, either natural or that of another bird such as a woodpecker.
More rarely in hole in rock outcrop or building.
Nest. Nest is floor of cavity, but female may form hollow with breast, and with wood
debris formed while enlarging hole inside with bill, plant fragments, and odd
feathers may form a rough nest.
Breeding season. In Britain breeds in first half of year. Probably single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-6. Short elliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. White.
30.5 x 23.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation by female only, fed by male,
beginning with second or third egg. 25-28 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked, but a few short white hairs are present at hatching.
Skin pink. Bill yellowish, changing to black, and then to mainly red; black at sides,
with yellow tip. by fledging. At hatching, legs and feet pale pink, becoming grey with
black claws. Bare skin around nostrils is pink in larger, feathered young.
Nestling period. For first c. 10 days the female broods young and male brings food,
loiter young fed by both parents on regurgitated food. Eyes open at 10 days. Young
appear at nest entrance at seventh to eighth week, fly at 8 weeks. Fed by adults for
3-4 weeks after leaving nest.
CUCKOOS Cuculidae
Medium-sized insect-eating birds. They are brood parasites, depositing eggs in the
nest of other birds which hatch them and rear the young cuckoos. Young cuckoos
have a shorter incubation period as eggs and grow faster as young than do those of
the host, starving them out or ejecting them.
CUCKOOS
191
GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO Clamator glandarius	Pl. 49
Breeds in open woodland, woodland edge, scrub with scattered trees and cultivated
areas with trees. Parasitic on species of crows and magpies, particularly the Common
Magpie, whose eggs are most closely mimicked by those of the cuckoo.
Breeding season. Begins late April.
Eggs. 15-16 can be laid in a season. Elliptical to subelliptical, rounded but tending
to taper bluntly towards both ends. Smooth and moderately glossy. Pale greenish-
blue, thickly marked with small spots of light brown and grey. 32.1 x 24 mm.
Incubation. An egg of host is removed when one is laid by the cuckoo. Other host eggs
may be dented. Frequently eggs of several cuckoos appear in one nest. Incubation
12-14 days, several days shorter than that of most hosts.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pinkish-flesh. Mouth red, palate and tongue with
spiny edges; gape flanges white. Legs and feet pink.
Nestling period. Both young of cuckoo and host may hatch and there may be sev-
eral of each in nest, but the young cuckoos appear to starve or smother the young
corvids, which tend to disappear in a few days. Young cuckoo’s eyes open in 5-8
days. They can climb out of nest at c. 15 days and leave it at 16-21 days.
EURASIAN CUCKOO Cuculus canorus	Pls 14,49
Breeds in a variety of habitats as a brood parasite of a number of small passerine
species. Females normally specialise on one host species, possibly the one by which
they were reared. Females watch the nest of the host and lay their eggs when the
host’s clutch is laid. Some evidence exists that unparasitised nests and eggs may be
destroyed, possibly causing hosts to re-nest. In addition to regular hosts many other
species may be casually parasitised, often without success. Typical hosts include
wagtails, pipits, dunnocks, warblers, chats, redstarts and robins. Nest parasitised may
be open cup, at times flimsy, but also domed nests or nests in holes.
Breeding season. Begins late May, rarely early May.
Eggs. 8-12, but up to 25 known from one bird in an artificially modified situation.
Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Very variable, ground colour varies
from white to tints of grey, green, blue, brown or red; speckled, spotted or blotched
with markings of reddish-brown, brown, black, lilac and grey. Unmarked blue eggs
infrequently recorded. Eggs may show a close mimicry in colour and markings to
those of the host species such as Meadow Pipit, Reed Warbler, Great Reed Warbler,
Garden Warbler, Redstart; but eggs of these types recognisable in nests of other
hosts. 22.7 x 16.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid on alternate days. Egg laid directly into host’s nest,
including domed nests to which the cuckoo may cling while laying if nest is
too small to enter. Unsuccessfully placed eggs may be found at entrance or below such
nests. A single cuckoo egg is laid and one of the host is removed. More than one cuckoo
egg normally indicates more than one female in an area. Incubation 11-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin flesh-coloured on underside, dusky on back and
wings, blackish on head. Mouth deep orange, gape flanges yellow. Red colouring of
mouth and flanges comes at 6 days, with feather development.
Nestling period. Young cuckoo hatches when host has eggs or newly hatched young.
Young cuckoo squirms beneath these, one at a time, rearing up backwards against
the sides of the nest-cup and throwing them out. Two cuckoos in one nest will com-
pete. Desire to eject companions disappears after 3-4 days. Leaves nest at 20-23
days. In nest, and more particularly after leaving nest, young cuckoo may be fed by
birds other than host which are carrying food to young.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
ORIENTAL CUCKOO Cuculus saturatus	Pl. 49
Breeds in a variety of hillside wooded habitats, often near water. Within the present
region parasitises pipits and the small leaf warblers of the genus Phylloscopus.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May.
Eggs. Long subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Variable in colour. Informa-
tion inadequate. Appears to mimic eggs of host; white with fine reddish or olive
speckling, or greyish with brown and purplish spots at larger end. 20.3 x 14 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth red or orange. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Eggs or small young of host ejected by young cuckoo in first few
days after hatching.
SENEGAL COUCAL Centropus senegalensis	Pls 14,49
Breeds in thick cover and tall herbage near water. Nest usually in a thick shrub a few
feet from ground.
Nest. A large spherical structure with a side entrance, roughly built of grass, leaves
and roots; lined with leaves.
Breeding season. Begins April.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Short subelliptical to short elliptical. Surface slightly roughened
and granular. White, becoming nest-stained. 33 x 25.7 mm.
Incubation. Begins with first egg. Probably by both adults. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial, with sparse but long, stiff, hair-like white or whitish-yellow down
on head, rear of neck, back, sides and upper thighs; the down projects forward on top
of head and overhangs bill. Skin black above and on sides, legs and feet; dark pink
below. Bill pink. Irides grey. Claws grey. Mouth pink. Tongue red and rectangular,
with black line across blunt tip, extending slightly along sides, and fine, backward-
pointing whitish spines. Gape flanges pale pink.
Nestling period. Young hatch on different days; differ in size. Tended by both par-
ents; for first few days one broods while other brings food, later both bring food.
Young defend themselves by excreting foul liquid. Young leave nest at 17-20 days,
older ones leaving first but remaining near until all leave. Fly weakly at first and tend
to hide in thick cover.
OWLS Tytonidae and Strigidae
Small to medium-sized raptors; usually nocturnal. No nest made, but female may
make scrape by revolving on her breast on nest-site. A few species may collect
material, but information is very unsatisfactory. Eggs white, and except in case of
Barn Owl are usually rounded. Clutch may be large, and in some species regulated
by food supply, being larger when food is plentiful. Incubation begins early in lay-
ing and young hatch at intervals, differing in size. The nestlings hatch with their
eyes closed. The young are covered in down known as ‘neoptile’, which is gener-
ally white. Young Barn Owls have two distinct successive down coats. In other
species, the first down is succeeded by a fluffy, almost downy plumage, known as
‘mesoptile’, which covers the body and head, whilst flight and tail feathers resem-
ble those of adults. If food becomes short smaller young die. Young of larger owls
appear slow in achieving complete independence, possibly slower than our present
information suggests.
OWLS
193
LITTLE OWL Athene noctua	PI. 50
Breeds in areas of cultivation, parkland and open country. Nest in hole in tree or
building, in hole or crevice in cliff or quarry, among piles of rocks or rubble, or in
burrow in ground in open area. Will use nest-boxes.
Nest. An unlined cavity, or cavity in old nest of other bird.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April, rarely mid-March. Usually single-brooded,
possibly double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, occasionally 2-8. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth
but non-glossy. White. 35.6 x 29.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female only, usually begin-
ning with first or second egg, or after laying. 28-29 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick, short; extending down legs to base of
toes, absent on back of leg joint. Down white. From c. 7 days, mesoptile plumage
begins to grow; like adult plumage, but paler and less contrasting, dark grey-brown;
appearance mottled grey in early stages of growth, subsequently with suffused mark-
ings. Eyes open at 10 days, pale yellow or greyish-yellow at first, becoming yellow.
At hatching, cere pink; bill and claws whitish or greyish-pink; within a week, cere
becomes dark grey; bill becomes bluish-grey with yellow tip and subsequently olive-
yellow with yellow tip. Claws become black, bluish-grey at base. Rim of eyelid
black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. May leave nest at c. 4 weeks, but
do not fly well until c. 5 weeks.
PYGMY OWL Glaucidium passerinum	PI. 50
Breeds in forest, mainly in conifer forest. Nest in a natural hole or old woodpecker
hole in a tree.
Nest. An unlined cavity.
Breeding season. Begins April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-7. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and
slightly glossy. White. 28.8 x 22.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation rr ay not begin until clutch is
almost complete. 28 days. By female.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down short and dense, while; tinged grey from c. 7
days. Larger young are less fluffy than most other owds; similar to adult plumage,
with plain, unspotted crown, prominent eyebrows and white chin spot. Eyes open at
9-10 days; iris pale grey, soon becoming yellow. At hatching, bare skin, cere and
legs pink, becoming grey in first week. By fledging, iris yellow; eyelids black; bill
olive-yellow; cere and feet pale yellowish-pink or bluish-grey; claws black.
Nestling period. Female broods young and feeds them on food brought entirely by
male when the young are small; later both sexes hunt and feed young. Young leave
nest at 29-32 days, becoming independent c. 4-6 weeks later.
TENGMALM’S OWL Aegolius fune.reus	PI. 50
Breeds in woodland, usually in conifers. Nests in hole in trees, natural cavities and
old holes of Black Woodpeckers; sometimes in artificial nest-boxes.
Nest. An unlined cavity.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south, earlier at times; in June in north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-6, sometimes 10 when food is plentiful. Short elliptical. Smooth,
moderately glossy and finely pitted. White. 32.6 x 26.4 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, beginning with
first egg. 26-32 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse, short and soft; buffish-white on
upperparts, white on underparts, extending down to claws. Down begins to be
replaced after 1 week by uniform dark brown mesoptile plumage, with darker facial
disc; eyebrows whitish and a while streak on both sides of the chin. Eyes open at
8-11 days. Iris greyish- yellow at first, becoming bright yellow. Eyelids blackish. At
hatching, feet pale red, becoming violet-red by fledging. Claws blackish-brown.
Cere and bill grey with yellow tip.
Nestling period. Young hatch at c. 1-day intervals and vary in size. The female
broods the young for the first 3 weeks, while the male brings food. Young leave nest
at c. 30-36 days, occasionally longer.
SCOPS OWL Otus scops	Pl. 50
Breeds in parkland, open woodland, and cultivation with trees and buildings. Nest
in a cavity in a tree, or wall or building, or old nest of other bird.
Nest. An unlined cavity.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, sometimes 3-6. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and
slightly glossy. White. 31.3 x 27 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-3-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with second egg or later. 24—25 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick, fairly short and soft; extending down the
legs to the bases of the toes. Down white. Large young resemble adults but with more
‘woolly’ plumage and with more prominent markings on crown, upper back and
breast. Eyes open at 5-7 days; blackish at first, becoming pale yellow. At hatching,
cere flesh-pink; bill pale pinkish-grey. Bare skin around eye, on rear of leg and on
toes flesh-pink; claws whitish-grey. Within 5 days, cere and toes arc grey; bill
becomes bluish-grey with black tip; claws become dark grey.
Nestling period. The female feeds the young on food brought by the male. Young
leave the nest at c. 3 weeks, not able to fly well, and remain near by for a while,
becoming independent in c. 7 weeks.
STRIATED SCOPS OWL Otus brucei	Pl. 50
Breeds in woodland along rivers and cultivated areas, in drier regions. Nest a hole in a
tree, or woodpecker hole; or in more exposed hollow of tree; or old nest of a larger bird.
Nest. An unlined hollow or cavity.
Breeding season. Begins early April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Eggs laid at 1-2 day intervals. Usually 4-6, short elliptical to short subellip-
tical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 31.3 x 27.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only, fed by male. 26-28 days, beginning with first or
second egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick and white, first feathering soft and less
feather-like than that of Scops Owl, unlike adult barred creamy and grey or grey-
brown. Iris bluish, becoming yellow. At hatching, bill, feel and claws greyish-pink.
In larger young, bill is pale bluish-grey with yellow tip, becoming grey with black
tip; cere grey; toes grey; claws dark grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They leave nest at c. 26 days and
can fly at 28-30 days, remaining together for a time and becoming independent at
c. 7 weeks.
OWLS
195
EAGLE OWL Bubo bubo	Pl. 50
Breeds in a wide range of habitats but tends to be absent from areas of cultivation
and marshes, although it has occurred in large reedbeds. Nest on the ground among
low trees on level plains or steep hillsides; on ledges of crags, gorges or cliffs, usu-
ally sheltered by vegetation; in rock or earth crevices or caves; in large hollow trees;
or in large old nests of other species of birds.
Nest. A shallow unlined scrape.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March in south, early May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 1-6. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Fairly smooth
but finely pitted and slightly glossy. White. 59.8 x 49.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-4-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, beginning
with first or second egg. 34-36 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down short, thick and soft. Buffish-white, more buff
on forehead and under eyes, and on wings and rump. Extends down to claws.
Larger young are pale buffish-brown, with many indistinct darkish bars on underparts,
head, mantle and back. Eyes open from day 6; at first, pale yellowish-grey, becoming
orange. At hatching, cere, bill and claws greyish-pink. From c. 2 weeks, cere grey; bill
bluish-grey with black tip; claws dark grey; eyelids pink with black rims. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young hatch at intervals of several days. Female broods young for
c. 30 days while male brings food. Later both parents hunt. Young may leave nest at
c. 6-10 weeks, before they can Пу. Fly well at c. 14 weeks.
BROWN FISH OWL Ketupa zeylonensis	PI. 50
Breeds in wooded or rocky habitats, near water. Nest on a platform or hollow formed
by the joining of large tree branches, or ledge or hole in a rocky outcrop, or ledge of
building. Rarely on an old eagle’s nest.
Nest. Usually no nest, but a lining of a few twigs may be present, said to be brought
by the owls.
Breeding season. No information.
Eggs. 1-2. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth. White. 58.4 x 48.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, c. 35 days.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. No information.
LONG-EARED OWL Asia otus	PI. 50
Breeds mainly in woodland, including small copses and plantations, exceptionally
in open areas of heath and marsh. Nest frequently in a large old nest of another
species, particularly magpie or crow, or a squirrel drey; more rarely on the ground
sheltered by the base of a tree, or among heather or bushes.
Nest. The nest of another bird, or an unlined hollow on the ground.
Breeding season. Begins late February, or later. Usually single-brooded, occasional
second broods in periods of good food supply.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3-8. Short elliptical. Smooth, moderately glossy and finely
pitted. White. 41 x 32.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on alternate days. Incubation normally by the female only,
beginning with first egg. 25-30 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly thick, short and soft; white. Extending
to the claws, with a bare patch on back of leg joint. Like young of Tawny Owl, but
different skull shape gives longer face. Mesoptile plumage beings to grow from c. 7
days; creamy-white or buff, closely and narrowly barred with dark grey or grey-
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
brown. Eyes open from day 5, at first blue, becoming orange-yellow from 2-3
weeks. At hatching, cere pinkish-yellow; bill pale bluish-grey; toes pink; claws grey-
ish-pink. Within 5 days, cere and claws turn grey; bill pale bluish-grey with buffish
tip. By fledging, cere is olive-grey; claws black. Rim of eyelid black.
Nestling period. Female feeds young with food brought by male. Often not all
young are reared. Young leave nest at 23-24 days, fly at 30-40 days. Independent at
c. 60 days.
SHORT-EARED OWL Asio flammeus	Pls 14, 50
Breeds in open country, on moorland, marshland, bogs or dunes, and in the earlier
growth stages of forestry plantations. Nest on the ground sheltered by heather, tall
grass, reeds or bushes.
Nest. A shallow hollow, unlined.
Breeding season. Usually begins late April, sometimes 2-3 weeks earlier. Usually
single-brooded, but double-brooded when food is plentiful.
Eggs. Usually 4-8. rarely 3; up to 14 when food is plentiful. Short elliptical. Smooth,
non-glossy or slightly glossy. White. 40.2 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals, occasionally longer. Incubation by female
alone, beginning with first egg. 24-28 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick, short and soft, extending to the claws,
with a bare patch on the back of the leg joint. Creamy-buff to light warm buff
on uppeiparts, with darker zone bordering the mantle; white with a buff tinge on
underside. Mesoptile plumage begins to grow from c. 5 days; pale yellowish-buff
with dark barring above and below; facial disc largely blackish with white eyebrows.
Eyes open from 5-7 days, blue at first, becoming yellow. At hatching, cere pink; bill
bluish-grey, black at tip; toes pink; claws grey. Cere becomes dark grey within 5
days; claws become black. Mouth pink. Rim of eyelid black.
Nestling period. Female broods and feeds young, the male bringing food. Young
leave nest at 12-17 days, but do not fly until c. 10 days later.
AFRICAN MARSH OWL Asio capensis	Pl. 50
Breeds in large areas of open marshland. Nest is normally on the ground; one
reported in an old nest in a tree.
Nest. Normally a shallow, unlined hollow; sheltered by or concealed under low
vegetation or bushes.
Breeding season. Begins in early April. Single-brooded. Possibly a second brood
when food is abundant.
Eggs. 2-4, rarely 5. Short elliptical. Smooth. White. 41.7 x 33.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation begins with first egg. c. 28
days. By female only.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down short and soft, buff. At hatching, feet pink.
Eyes begin to open at 7 days. Large young are buff, barred brown above; facial disc
darker than in adult, with blackish rim; bill bluish-grey, black at tip; cere dark grey.
Nestling period. Young vary considerably in size. They are tended by both parents.
They leave the nest after 2-3 weeks, and are fed near by for 2-3 weeks more.
HAWK OWL Surnia ulula	PI. 50
Breeds in conifers and birch forests. Nest in holes in trees, including old woodpecker
holes; hollows at ends of broken tree-trunks; and old nests of large birds.
Nest. An unlined hollow or cavity.
OWLS
197
Breeding season. Usually begins in April. Single-brooded, possibly double-brooded
in good food years.
Eggs. Usually 3-10, rarely 13, depending on food supply. Short elliptical to short
subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 40 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by female, beginning with first
egg. 25-30 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white with a yellowish-buff tint. Larger young
resemble adults, but upperparts grey-brown, less extensively marked white; crown
and upperparts pale grey, mottled darker; facial disc with whitish lower part. No
information on bare parts at hatching; in larger young, bill pale grey, buffish-white
at tip; feet pinkish-red; claws dark grey; iris yellow; rim of eyelids black.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave at c. 23-27 days. Probably
not independent until 90 days.
SNOWY OWL Nyctea scandiaca	Pls 14, 50
Breeds in level, open country, on arctic tundra or bare stretches of higher fells and
mountains, or on islands. Nest on the ground; usually sited on a slightly raised site
with an extensive view around, often on a hummock, but at times on a large boulder
or ledge of a crag.
Nest. A hollow scrape formed by the female, at times with some moss fragments and
feathers.
Breeding season. Begins sometimes in mid-April but more often mid-May in south
of range, to June in north. Single-brooded; like other arctic breeders may not nest in
some years.
Eggs. Clutch varies with food supply, usually 4—10, sometimes up to 15. Short
elliptical or subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 57.4 x 45.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals. Incubation by female only, beginning with
fust egg, the male bringing food. 32-37 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white, soft, short and thick, extending down to
the claws, but with a bare patch on the back of the leg joint. From 6-10 days, dark
greyish-brown mesoptile plumage grows, which gradually becomes white with dark
barring. Eyes open from c. 6 days, pale grey or greenish-yellow at first, becoming
yellow. Eyelids bluish-black. At hatching, cere pink; bill bluish-grey, pink at tip and
at cutting edges; claws grey. In larger young, cere is grey; bill dark bluish-black, grey
on culmen; claws black. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Eggs hatch at 1-2-day intervals; a large clutch may hatch over
2 weeks. Female spends much time brooding, the male bringing food. When young
are larger both adults hunt. Young leave the nest-site 3-4 weeks before they can fly.
They fly well at c. 8-9 weeks but are still fed by adults.
GREAT GREY OWL Strix nebulosa	Pl. 51
Breeds in conifer forests. Nests on old nests of other large birds or on the top of
broken-off tree-trunks.
Nest. An old nest of another species or unlined hollow.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Single-brooded. Nesting may not occur in
unfavourable years.
Eggs. 3-5, sometimes fewer, but up to 9 in good years. Subelliptical, less rounded
than those of most owls. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 54.1 x 42.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at variable intervals of 2-12 days. Incubation by female only,
beginning with first egg. 28-30 days, exceptionally longer.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down pale grey on upperparts, white on underparts.
From c.7 days, down begins to be replaced by mesoptile plumage, on upperparts
dark brown with white tips, on underparts evenly barred white and brown. Iris yel-
lowish-grey, becoming yellow. In early stages cere pale pink, or orange-pink, later
becoming pale yellowish-pink. Bill pale bluish-grey with brownish-yellow tip.
Mouth pink. In large young, bill is pale olive with brown tip and base; toes yellow;
claws grey.
Nestling period. Young hatch at different times and vary in size. The female guards
the young and feeds them on food brought by the male. The young have eyes closed
for first 7 days; feather during 10-35 days; begin to leave the nest at 3-4 weeks, flut-
tering and climbing, but do not fly well until c. 5 weeks. They are still fed by adults
and may remain together until about 4-5 months old..
URAL OWL Strix uralensis	Pl. 51
Breeds in forests. Nest in a hollow tree, or the old nest of a laige bird, a crevice or
ledge of rocky slopes of forests, or sometimes on the ground between tree roots.
Nest. An unlined hollow, or nest of another species. Nest-boxes used.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Single-brooded. May not breed
in unfavourable years.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-6. Short subelliptical. Smooth. White. 45.5 x 39 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-3-day, occasionally 4-5-day intervals. Incubation by the
female only, beginning with the first or second egg. 27-29 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white with a buffish tint. From c. 7 days begins
to be replaced by mesoptile plumage; whitish, barred with greyish-brown on head,
nape, mantle and underparts. Eyes open from day 7; blue becoming dark brown; rim
of eyelids pinkish. At hatching, skin, cere, feet and claws flesh-pink; bill bluish-grey.
In first week all flesh-pink shades to grey. Claws become black. Bill tip becomes pale
brownish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young hatch at different dates and vary in size. They leave the nest
at c. 4—5 weeks, before they can fly properly. Tended mainly by female.
TAWNY OWL Strix aluco	PI. 50
Breeds in woodland or areas with scattered trees, or where buildings or rocks pro-
vide sites in more open country. Nest in a hole, natural or artificial, in a tree, in a rock
crevice, or rarely a hole in the ground; on old nests of other birds in trees or on rock
ledges; or squirrels’ dreys. Occasionally in nest-boxes, on ledges of buildings or
rocks, or on sheltered sites on ground.
Nest. A shallow unlined hollow.
Breeding season. Usually beginning late March, nearly a month earlier at times.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-4, sometimes 1-7. Short elliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth,
slightly glossy, occasionally with small excrescences. White. 46.7 x 39.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at intervals of 2-4 days. Incubation by female only, begin-
ning with first egg. 28-30 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick, rather short and soft; white, extending
down to claws, but absent on back of leg joint. Larger young are pale brownish- or
greyish-white, densely barred with brown, grey or reddish. At hatching, cere mainly
flesh-pink, soon becoming greyish-pink, pink at base; bill pale bluish-grey, later with
white tip; feet flesh-pink; claws pale grey, later becoming grey-brown. Eyes open at
10-11 days; dark blue. Rim of eyelid pink-red. Mouth pink.
NIGHTJARS
199
Nestling period. Female broods and feeds young while male brings food for first 3
weeks. Later both hunt. Young leave nest at 32-37 days.
HUME’S TAWNY OWL Strix butleri
A desert owl of rocky locations with water. Occasionally in areas with trees, or palm
oases. Nest in a rock crevice or cave.
Nest. An unlined hollow in a cavity.
Breeding season. Begins January to April, fresh young seen in autumn.
Eggs. Up to 5. White.
Incubation. 34-39 days.
Nestling. Down white. In larger young, plumage is paler (han that of Tawny Owl,
with yellowish eyes.
Nestling period. Fledges at 37 days.
BARN OWL Tyto alba	Pls 14,51
Generally distributed, breeding in cavities in trees, buildings of all types, crevices in
rocks, outcrops, cliffs or quarries, and nestboxes.
Nest. No nest material, but there may be a shallow hollow in existing debris, partly
lined with owl pellets.
Breeding season. Usually begins April, but at times as early as February. Season
prolonged. Often double-brooded.
Eggs. Clutch variable, usually 4-7, occasionally 2-12. Long subelliptical to ellipti-
cal. Smooth but non-glossy. White. 39.7 x 31.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-day intervals, longer intervals at times. Female alone
incubates, male bringing food. 27-34 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Unlike other owls has two down coats. First down
white and short, sparse on the belly, covering legs to claws but absent on back of
tarsus, also absent on sides of neck. Replaced in c. 12 days by a longer, thicker
buffish-cream down, first down clinging to its tips. Down more sparse on lower legs
and toes. Eyes open at day 8, blue at first becoming dark brown from 4 weeks. At
hatching, cere pink; bill whitish-pink; feet pinkish-yellow; claws grey. Bill soon
becomes pale grey and darkens slightly shortly before fledging. Feet and claws
become dark grey.” Mouth yellowish-pink.
Nestling period. Young vary in size. Tended and fed by both parents. Feather
between third and seventh week, fly at c. 60 days, independent in c. 10 weeks.
NIGHTJARS Caprimulgidae
Medium-sized, nocturnal insect-eaters; highly modified with large mouths and weak
feet. Ground-nesting, with no modified nest-site. The bird may roil the eggs under it
when it settles. Clutches are of two eggs, with partially cryptic colouring, mainly
concealed by the daytime brooding of the cryptically coloured adults. Young are
downy and protectively coloured. Both eggs and young may be moved within the
vicinity of the nest-site. The nestlings hatch with their eyes open. The young take
food directly from the bills of the parents, seizing these in their own.
NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus europaeus	Pls 15,51
Breeds on areas of natural vegetation which include small areas of open, litter-
covered ground and taller cover in open woodland, woodland edge, young planta-
tions, heathland, moorland, dunes and exceptionally on beaches.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. No nest, or else a slightly scraped hollow, usually near to a piece of dead wood
which may function as a marker.
Breeding season. Begins in mid-May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. Elliptical to long subelliptical, smooth and moderately glossy. White
or creamy, sometimes tinted grey or purplish; variably and irregularly blotched and
spotted with yellowish-brown or sometimes dark brown, and also marked and clouded
with grey. Sometimes marked with streaks or lines, rarely immaculate. 31.9x 22.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 36-hour intervals, at night. Incubation mainly by female,
but male assists while female feeds at dawn and dusk. 18 days. From first egg.
Nestling. Partially precocial and downy. Down rather sparse and long, light buff
basally and reddish-brown at the tips, producing an overall mottled appearance. Bill
flesh-brown. Leg and foot greyish-pink. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young hatch at intervals of c. 1-2 days. Tended by both parents.
With first brood male takes over after c. 2 weeks, when female begins a second
brood. Young can fly at 16-18 days. Independent at 31-34 days.
RED-NECKED NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus ruficollis	Pl. 51
Breeds on bare ground among bushes on forested ridges and hillsides, and further
south in more open desert areas with scanty bush cover. Nest on the ground. Eggs
and young may be moved around the nesting area.
Nest. No nest or slight scrape.
Breeding season. Begins early April in North Africa, early May in Spain. Probably
double-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2. Elliptical to long subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Similar to European Nightjar’s in colour. White, often tinted greyish; mottled and
blotched with yellowish-brown and grey. 31 x 23.5 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, but male assists while female feeds at dawn and
dusk. Incubation from first egg. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Partially precocial and downy. Down sparse and long, pale yellowish-brown.
Bill pinkish-brown or flesh-brown. Legs and feet pinkish-grey or flesh-grey. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They can fly at c. 17-18 days.
NUBIAN NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus nuhicus	Pl. 51
Breeds in thorn scrub and tamarisk thickets bordering water in desert regions. Nest
on the ground.
Nest. An unlined scrape on the ground.
Breeding season. Begins April, eggs to end of May, chicks mid-May to mid-June.
Eggs. Normally 2. Elliptical to long subelliptical. White with faintly mottled and
marbled purplish-grey markings. 27.5 x 17 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. No information.
EGYPTIAN NIGHTJAR Caprimulgus aegyptius	Pl. 51
Breeds in open desert or desert edges. Nest on the ground, in open or under bush.
Nest. A shallow unlined scrape.
Breeding season. Begins late March. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Normally 2. Elliptical to long subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
White or creamy, mottled and blotched with pale olive-brown and grey; paler than
those of European Nightjar. 31.8 x 22.2 mm.
SWIFTS
201
Incubation. By both adults, but mainly by the female, beginning with the first egg.
17-18 days.
Nestling. Partially precocial and downy. Down thick, pale buff. Bill, leg and foot
flesh-pink.
Nestling period. The young are brooded for only 2 3 days. Later the adults rest near
by. Young can fly tn c. 30 days.
SWIFTS Apodidae
Small, insect-eating birds adapted for catching insects in the air. The bill is broad with
a wide gape, and the legs are reduced since swifts rarely settle except at nest-sites.
Nest material is difficult to collect and is scanty. It is glued together and to the site
with a copious saliva secretion which hardens. Eggs are white and elongated. Young
are fed directly with insects brought back by the parents in a pouch below the tongue.
LITTLE SWIFT Apus affinis	PI. 51
Widespread, usually near buildings, cliffs or rock outcrops. Nests attached to angles,
eaves, undersides of ledges, arches and similar sites. Within such sites the nests are
masses of contiguous structures of variable size, or individual nests. Old swallow
nests may be modified at times. Sociable, and highly colonial nester.
Nest. A globular structure of grass and feathers stuck together with saliva, shape
varying according to site. Entrance may be a narrow slit or extended into a short tun-
nel. Built by both birds. The same nest may be repaired and used in successive years.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. or possibly earlier in N. W. Africa. Prolonged
season. Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. 2-3, sometimes 4, possible up to 6. Long subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy.
White. 22.2 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at intervals of 2-3 days, exceptionally interval of up
to 7 days. Incubation by both birds, beginning with the first egg. 18-26 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked at first. Skin pink, slightly darker on head. At с. 12 days
the back is covered with grey down, prior to feathering. Bill blackish, claws white
becoming black. Mouth pale pink, with dusky grey tongue tip.
Nestling period. Young hatch at intervals; vary considerably in size. Tended and fed by
both adults. Feeding similar to that of Common Swift. Young leave nest at 37-43 days.
WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT Apus caffer	PI. 51
Nests in holes or crevices in rocks and buildings or takes over swallows’ nests. May
use same nest repeatedly. In particular it lines the elongated mud nests of Rcd-
rumped Swallows, and since expanding into Spain has apparently been limited
entirely to such sites. Loosely colonial.
Nest. Swallow’s nest lined with a few feathers, plant fragments and vegetable down,
which protrudes from the nest entrance. They are stuck down with a layer of hardened
saliva. Bird may make its own nest, a shallow cup of material cemented together.
Breeding season. Begins end of May. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2, sometimes 1-3. Long subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White.
22.9 x 15 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 36-48-hour intervals. Incubation by both adults, beginning
with the first egg. 19-23 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Pink, with almost white head, wings and legs darken-
ing after 8 days. From 14th day covered with thick grey down growing from quill
202
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS 01 BRITAIN AND EUROPE
sheaths, later pushed out by feathers. Mouth pink with while edges. No gape flanges.
Claws well developed.
Nestling period. Both adults tend young, bringing food in the throat; and they roost
in the nest. Young are brooded for the first 8-12 days. Eyes not fully open until 15th
day. Usually leave in c. 42 days, occasionally 37-45. There may be interval of 1-2
days between young leaving nest.
ALPINE SWIFT Apus nielba	Pls 15, 51
Breeds in areas of mountains, crags or sea-cliffs. Nest in a hole or crevice in rock
faces ofcrags, cliffs or ravines, or in holes or on ledges of tall buildings. Nest on a
ledge or adhering to the side of a crevice. Breeds in colonies.
Nest. A mixture of plant debris and feathers collected while blowing in the air, stuck
with saliva to form a shallow cup or bracket; small at first, larger in successive years.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins end of May (late April in N. Africa). Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2. rarely 1-4. Long subelliptical. Smooth but non-
glossy. White. 31.1 x 19.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 17-23 days.
Nestling. Altricial, naked at first, with pale pink skin and dark bill. At c. 12 days
body becomes covered in grey down, with quills showing on head and wings. At 26
days body is downy but head, wings and tail feathered. Body feathered at weeks.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults. Fly in 6-8 weeks.
PLAIN SWIFT Apus unicolor	Pl. 51
Breeds in colonies in mountain regions in Madeira and the Canary Islands. Nests
inside holes and crevices of high cliffs, or high buildings, normally abandoned or
not yet competed.
Nest. A shallow saucer, irregularly shaped, c. 10 cm across. 1-2 cm thick. Of downy
seeds of Compositae and sometimes dry grass or plant fragments, and shreds of man-
made material, probably caught in the air, and stuck to rock and shaped with saliva.
Lined with a few feathers.
Breeding season. March to August, often double-brooded.
Eggs. 2. Long subelliptical, blunt-ended. Smooth but non-glossy. White. 22.5 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. Probably by both adults. Period unknown.
Nestling. Altricial, naked at hatching. Later thick grey down on body, mostly on back
and sides, and shorter down on head. Mouth dull pink, with a black tip on the tongue.
Nestling period. No information.
SWIFT Apus apus	Pls 15, 51
Widespread, breeding in holes and crevices in cliffs and outcrops, or in buildings;
less frequently in woodpecker holes in trees. House Martin nests on buildings or
cliffs, or nest-boxes. Sociable and loosely colonial.
Nest. A collection of stems, leaves, other plant debris and feathers, collected while
blown about in the air. These arc stuck together with saliva to form a shallow cup,
usually on a ledge. Old nests of other birds already present in cavities may be utilised.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 3, sometimes 2, rarely 4. Long elliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. White.
25 x 16.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 2-3-day intervals. Usually 19 -20 days, by both sexes.
KINGFISHERS
203
Nestling. Altricial and naked at first. After c. 10 days quills begin to grow and break,
producing down on back and flanks, greyish-white at first, then thicker and browner.
Other quills grow on body and wings, and later all produce feathers, pushing out
down. Bill flanges dull white at base. Mouth flesh-coloured with brown spot on tip
of tongue.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. Brooded by both at first but this
decreases in second week, and is slight after that. Parents carry insects in ball in
throat and feed direct to young. Young can withstand periods of hunger, living on fat.
but this prolongs nestling period. Some young may die in larger broods in periods of
bad weather. Fly in 5-8 weeks. Appear fully independent of the adults once they fly.
PALLID SWIFT Apus paltidus	PI. 51
Sociable, colonial nester. Nest in a hole or crevice, breeding in similar sites to Com-
mon Swift, including the eaves and holes in walls of buildings, sometimes sharing
the same colony, but occurring more frequently in natural sites such as cliffs and
steep rock walls of coasts and rocky islands. Also mountains and rocky hills of desert
regions. Nest may be in more open site against a rock surface.
Nest. A shallow cup of straw, grass and feathers, stuck together with saliva.
Breeding season. Begins late March in N. Africa, late April in Spain. Double-
brooded, second broods in July.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Long subelliptical, blunt-ended. Smooth, but non-glossy. White.
25.6 x 16.8 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 20-22 days.
Nestling. Altricial, naked at first. As with Common Swifts, develops dense grey
down on upperpails and flanks from с. 1 week.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both parents, brooded at first. Fledge at
c. 47 days.
KINGFISHERS Alcedinidae
Small to medium, fast-flying predatory birds, diving for food or snatching it up. Bill
well developed, feet small and weak. Nest made by tunnelling with the bill; loose
earth kicked out backwards with feet. Both sexes dig. No nest but debris from food
castings may line cavity. Eggs white, nearly spherical. Young naked, huddled
together at first. No nest sanitation, and although faeces are ejected for some distance
by young the nest becomes foul before the young leave. All food brought to young
is turned so that the creature is presented head first for ease in swallowing. After
leaving the nest young remain together near by and are fed by parents for some time
afterwards.
KINGFISHER Alcedo atthis	Pls 15,52
Breeds usually by water in a hole in a bank above slow-flowing water, but may use
a suitable bank at some distance from water; rarely in hole in wall.
Nest. A tunnel, about 30-90 cm long, rising slightly to a rounded nest chamber
12-15 cm across. Bored by both adults. No nest material, but becomes lined with
cast-up fish bones.
Breeding season. Usually begins late April, sometimes about a month earlier.
Double- or treble-brooded, at times using the same nest again.
Eggs. Usually 6-7, sometimes 4-8, rarely 10. Short elliptical to almost spherical.
Smooth and highly glossy. White. 22.6 x 18.8 mm.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. By both birds. 19-21 days. Usually beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Bill grey with dull bluish-pink flanges and whitish tip.
Mouth flesh-coloured. Spiny feather sheaths appear, covering bird by end of second
week, breaking open after third week.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes. 23-27 days.
SMYRNA, or WHITE-BREASTED, KINGFISHER	Pl. 52
Halcyon smymensis
Breeds in a wide range of habitats, not necessarily near water. Nest a tunnel bored
into an earth bank, or wall of ditch or pit.
Nest. A tunnel about 50-90 cm long and about 7.5 cm across, rising slightly to a
wider chamber, unlined. Dug by both birds, which begin by chipping away the first
pieces in flight.
Breeding season. Begins April. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4-7. Short elliptical to almost spherical. Smooth and
glossy. White. 30.2 x 26.4 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. 18-20 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Feather sheaths grow and cover bird before breaking.
Bill dull yellow and black. Gape flanges pale yellowish-ochre.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eggs hatch over 3 days. Young
c. 20 days in nest. Fledge at 26-27 days.
PIED KINGFISHER Ceryle rudis	PI. 52
Breeds by still, fresh waters and rivers in open country. Nest a tunnel in a bank.
Nest. A tunnel c. 120-180 cm long and c. 7.5 cm in diameter, rising very slightly to a
wider nest chamber, unlined. Dug by both birds. Becomes lined with cast-up fish bones.
Breeding season. Begins March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-6. Short elliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
White. 29.9 x 21.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 15-19 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Feather quill sheaths grow at c. 7 days, but not for 3
weeks on belly. Sheaths break at 11-15 days. Bill and legs pink at first, blackening
after с. 1 week.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both adults. Can stand at 5 days. Leave
nest at 24-26 days.
HOOPOES Upupidae
HOOPOE Upupa epops	Pls 15,52
Breeds in a variety of habitats of drier regions; particularly in open areas with scattered
trees or buildings. Nest in a hole in a tree, old wall, building, stone heap or nest-box.
Nest. A cavity, usually unlined, but at times with sparse lining of plants, feathers, wool,
rags, etc. Droppings also accumulate during nesting and nests may be foul-smelling.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to mid-May in north; January on Canary
Islands. Single-brooded; double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 5-8, up to 12 at times. Elliptical. Smooth but non-glossy and conspic-
uously marked with pores. Greyish, yellowish or olive, or more greenish or brown-
ish. Pores may show as fine white pits. Eggs become nest-stained. 25.9 x 17.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid on consecutive days. Incubation by female alone, beginning
before completion of clutch; fed by male. 15-16 days.
BEE-EATERS
205
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and scanty. White. Mouth bright pink.
Roughened pad on the back of leg joint on which nestling rests. Bill short, straight
and thick, blue-grey, with large white flanges at gape.
Nestling period. Young hatch at intervals and differ in size. Brooded by female
when small, the male bringing food. Later both adults bring food. Young leave nest
at 26-29 days and are still fed for a time by adults.
BEE-EATERS Meropidae
Medium to small birds catching insects on the wing, and having slender bills and
small weak feet. Usually sociable, nesting in colonies of burrows. Nests dug by both
birds, loosening earth with the bill and kicking it backwards with the feet while rest-
ing on the wrists of the wings. No nest made but the cavity becomes lined with cast-
ings of insect remains. Eggs rounded, glossy and white. Young arc naked. In some
species additional birds are known to assist at nests.
BEE-EATER Merops apiaster	Pls 15, 52
Breeds in a variety of habitats: open country, scrub, cultivation, groves and wood-
land, but particularly in open country and near large rivers. Usually in colonies. Nest
is a burrow, usually in a bank on river, roadside cutting or steep slope, less frequently
on level ground.
Nest. A tunnel excavated by both birds, horizontally into a bank, slanting down in
level ground, 1-3 m long, with a rounded nesting chamber, unlined. Castings of
insect remains may be present in quantity.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-7, sometimes up to 10. Short elliptical, almost rounded. Smooth and
glossy. White. 25.6 x 21.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, beginning with first egg. 20 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink, mouth flesh-coloured. Bill grey with very
small yellowish flanges. In 10-18 days spiny feather sheaths cover the bird, break-
ing in the next 10 days.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fly at c. 25-30 days.
BLUE-CHEEKED BEE-EATER Merops superciliosus	Pt. 52
Breeds in open arid areas near water, or on the seashore. Nests in colonies. Nest a
tunnel in sloping sandy ground or the upper part of sandy beaches.
Nest. A tunnel 1-2 m long, ending in an unlined nest chamber. Dug by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Short elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 26.2 x 20.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked, skin pink. Later covered with spiny feather sheaths.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open at 5 days, fully during
second week. Fly at 27-29 days. Young are fed for up to 3 weeks after fledging.
LITTLE GREEN BEE-EATER Merops orientalis	PI. 52
Breeds in open country with scattered trees and cultivation. Nests single or in a loose
colony. Nest a tunnel in the ground, dug by both birds.
Nest. A tunnel, horizontal in a natural or artificial bank, or slanting downwards in
level sandy ground, 30 cm to 2 m long and ending in an unlined nest chamber.
Castings of insect remains accumulate.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. February to April. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6, sometimes 4-7. Short elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 19.3 x
17.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, commencing with the first egg. 17-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They hatch over a period and differ
in size. Eyes open at 5 days, fully during second week. Fly at 20-25 days. Young arc
fed for several weeks after fledging.
ROLLERS Coraciidae
ROLLER Coracias garndus	Pls 15,51
Breeds in woodland, open woodland or areas with scattered trees, and in open coun-
try with groves of trees or occasional buildings. Nest in a hole, usually in a tree, occa-
sionally in a crevice in rocks or old building or wall, or hole in a bank, or old nest of
large bird.
Nest. A cavity, usually unlined, or with some sparse debris of plants, feathers, etc.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes up to 7. Short elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White.
35.4 x 28.4 mm.
Incubation. By both adults, beginning before completion of clutch. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth dull fleshy-orange, gape flanges pale yellowish-
white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave nest at 26-28 days. Fed by
adults for a time after leaving nest.
INDIAN ROLLER Coracias benghalensis	PI. 51
Breeds in open forest, clearings or cultivation with scattered trees. Nest a hole in a
tree, more rarely in a building or wall.
Nest. A cavity lined with debris: plants, rags and rubbish. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes up to 5. Short elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White.
34.3 x 28.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, mainly by female. 17-19 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Fledge at 30-35 days.
WOODPECKERS Picidae
Small to medium birds, most gaining their food by climbing tree-trunks and
branches. Nest bored in a hole in a tree, usually by both birds, and often in fairly
firm wood. Similar holes may be made outside the breeding season for roosting.
Eggs are very smooth, white and rounded, but they may become stained in damp
nest cavities. Cavities are unlined; nestlings have a hard rough pad on the back of
the leg joint, and both rest and move on the whole tarsus when in the nest. On small
young there is a sensitive swollen lump at the base of the lower mandible, on either
side, and the adults touch this to induce the young to beg for food. The young are
mainly fed on regurgitated food. They often keep up a harsh noise which may betray
the nests.
WOODPECKERS
207
BLACK WOODPECKER Dryocopus martins	Pl. 52
Breeds in forest, coniferous or deciduous, with large mature trees. Nest a hole in a
tree, usually 6-9 m up, but much higher at times. Excavated by both birds. Birds may
be evicted by Jackdaws.
Nest. A cavity bored into a tree trunk, often in sound wood. Entrance, an upright oval
10-11 cm. and internal cavity 20-23 cm wide and up to 60 cm deep. Cavity unlined
or with a few wood-chips.
Breeding season. April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. sometimes 9. Short elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 33.9 x
24.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both birds. 12-14 days. From
last egg, possibly earlier.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Bill with swollen flanges at base of lower
mandible, upper mandible tipped with white. Mouth pink.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults on regurgitated food. The male sleeps in
the nest. Eyes open at c. 12 days. Young appear at entrance after 17-20 days; leave
at 24-28 days.
GREY-HEADED WOODPECKER Picus canus	PI. 52
Breeds in open woodland, areas with scattered trees and more open montane wood-
land. Nest in a hole in a tree, usually 1.5-15 m up, but very low on occasions.
Excavated by both sexes.
Nest. A cavity bored into a tree-trunk. Unlined except for wood-chips. Entrance hole
c. 7 cm across, cavity <?. 28 cm deep and 12-15 cm across.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 29.5 x
22.8 mm.
Incubation. By both adults. 14 17 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink, reddish-orange on head. Mouth pink. Gape
flanges white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fed on regurgitated food. Leave nest
at 24-25 days.
GREEN WOODPECKER Pic us viridis	Pl. 52
Breeds in open woodland, woodland edge, areas of scattered trees, or cultivation
with few trees. Nest a hole in a tree, from 1 m above the ground upwards. Bored by
both sexes.
Nest. A cavity in fairly sound or partly rotten wood. Entrance c. 7 cm across, 5-
7.5 cm long; at the top of an elongated cavity c. 38 cm deep, 15 cm across. Cavity
unlined.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to mid-May in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes 4-9, rarely up to 11. Elliptical. Smooth and glossy.
White. 31.8 x 23 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-19 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Mouth pink. Gape flanges pinkish-white.
Closed feather-sheaths from c. 9 days.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Food a regurgitated semi-liquid mass.
Young leave nest at 23-27 days.
208
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
LEVAILLANT’S WOODPECKER Picas vaillanti
Breeds in Atlas region of Morocco and Algeria, in dry warm open woodland on hill
slopes and mountains to tree limit. Nest in hole in tree, excavated by both birds.
Nest. An unlined cavity excavated in a tree. 40-50 cm deep.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early May.
Eggs. 6-7. Elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 30 x 22 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 18-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. No other information.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded during the first 3-6 days.
Female roosts with young until c. 17 days. Young leave nest at c. 21 days, probably
dependent on parents for 3-4 more weeks.
SYRIAN WOODPECKER Dendrocopos syriacus	Pl. 52
Breeds in parkland, scattered patches of trees, open orchards, and cultivation or scrub
with scattered trees. Nest a hole in a tree.
Nest. Cavity excavated into a tree-trunk and unlined. Made by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7. Elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 26.1 x 18.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes. 9-14 days, from
last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. As Great Spotted Woodpecker.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents and leave the nest at 24 days.
GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER Dendrocopos major	Pls 15, 52
Breeds in closed or open woodland, or parkland. Nest a hole in a tree, usually from
2.5 m upwards. Bored by both birds.
Nest. An elongated cavity; entrance c. 5.6 cm across, with small tunnel leading down
into a rounded cavity c. 30 cm deep and 12.5 cm across. Cavity unlined.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-7, sometimes 3-8. Elliptical. Smooth, glossy. White. 26.4 x 19.5
mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 10-16 days, from last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Gape flanges whitish. Bluish feather
sheaths from 6 days.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Food consists of insects, carried in
bill. Young leave nest at 18-21 days.
MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER Dendrocopos medius	Pl. 52
Breeds in deciduous woodland. Nest in a tree, usually c. 4 m up.
Nest. A cavity usually bored into a tree-trunk by both birds, but exceptionally a nat-
ural cavity is used. Cavity unlined.
Breeding season. Begins April, exceptionally in March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-8. Elliptical to short subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White. 23.9
x 18.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink, with bluish feather sheaths from 5-6 days.
Eyes open at 7-10 days.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents, although with little brooding.
Adults enter hole to feed for first 2 weeks. Young fledge at 22-23 days, independent
c. 10-14 weeks later.
WOODPECKERS
209
WHITE-BACKED WOODPECKER Dendrocopos leucotis	Pi. 52
Breeds in woodland, usually deciduous, at times in conifers. Nest a hole in a tree, at
times only 2-4 m up; but higher in larger trees, depending on availability of rotten wood.
Nest. A cavity bored in rotten wood of a tree-trunk or large branch, by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins in late April or early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, sometimes 3-6. Elliptical to short sub-elliptical. Smooth and
glossy. White. 28.3 x 20.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at daily intervals, incubated by both sexes. 10-11 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 27-28 days.
LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER Dendrocopos minor	Pl. 52
Breeds in open woodland, parkland, orchards and areas with scattered trees. Nest a hole
in a tree, usually in softer, decayed wood. Often in a side branch. At heights from within
1-2 m of ground to near tops of large trees, on thinner branches. Bored by both adults.
Nest. A hole in a tree, entrance c. 4 cm diameter, with tunnel curving down to an
elongated chamber c. 22.5 cm high and 6.5 cm wide. Cavity unlined.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-8. Elliptical. Smooth and glossy. Thin-shelled.
White. 18.8 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, the male sitting at night. 11-12 days, from last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth and gape flanges flesh-coloured. Skin pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Food consists of insects, brought in
bill. Young leave the nest at 18-20 days.
THREE-TOED WOODPECKER Picoides tridactylus	Pl. 52
Breeds in conifer forest in northern regions, or in mixed, mainly conifer, forest, and
in conifers of mountain slopes. Nest a tree-hole, 1.5-12 m up.
Nest. Hole bored by birds in a tree-trunk, usually dead or decaying conifer, occa-
sionally birch or aspen. Entrance hole upright, c. 4 x 2.5 cm; cavity c. 20-30 cm deep,
10-12.5 cm wide.
Breeding season. Begins late May or early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
White. 23.3 x 18 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Grey-blue feather-tracts by 6th day, and
closed feather sheaths at 8-9 days.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, which bring food in the bill. They
fledge at 22-25 days but are dependent on parents for 1-2 months.
WRYNECK Jynx torquilla	Pl. 52
Breeds in open woodland, parkland, gardens or open country with scattered trees, in
conifer woodland in north. Nest a hole or cavity, natural or artificial, in tree, build-
ing, wall or bank; often in a low site. Nest-boxes also used. Often dispossesses other
small birds.
Nest. A cavity, unlined. Site selected by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins early April in south, late May in north. Usually single-
brooded; double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 7-10, sometimes 5-14, laid at daily intervals. They are indeterminate
layers, producing large numbers of eggs under abnormal conditions. Eggs subelliptical
210
BIRD NESIS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPF
to oval. Smooth but non-glossy. Thicker-shelled than those of small woodpeckers.
White. 20.8 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 12-14 days, from last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Typical rough pad on back of leg joint. Mouth flesh-
coloured. Gape flanges pale flesh-colour.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults. Food consists of ants and ant-pupae,
brought in bill and usually visible. Young leave nest at 19-21 days.
LARKS Alaudidae
Small birds, nesting on the ground, usually in open sites. The nest is usually alongside,
and partially screened or slightly sheltered by a tuft of grass, weed, small bush or rock;
the outer side of the nest is usually open and exposed. The nest may be tucked into a nat-
ural hollow, but more usually, a deep round scrape is made. Most species, especially those
inhabiting dry or desert areas, place small stones or pieces of dried earth around the
exposed part of the nest, and this forms a paved rampart up which the birds approach the
nest. The hollow is lined with various grasses and other material to form a neat cup. The
eggs are usually heavily speckled in buffish or olive-brown tints. Young have long, thick
down on the head and upperparts, the colour usually blending as perfect camouflage with
the nest surroundings. They have three dark spots on the tongue, and a dark spot on the
inside tip of each mandible, which may appear split in two. The young leave the nest a
few days before they can fly properly, and crouch motionless to escape predators.
WOODLARK Lullula arborea	Page 211, PI. 53
Breeds in areas of open cultivation, heathland or scrub, with scattered trees; or at wood-
land edge, often on hill or mountain slopes. Usually in areas with short turf or bare
ground, combined with some herbage cover and taller song-posts. Nest on the ground,
usually sheltered and well concealed by a tuft of vegetation, but at times exposed.
Woodlark, c. 10 12.5 cm across.
LARKS
211
Calandra Lark
Temminck’s Horned
Lark
Skylark
Shore (Horned) Lark
t
Dupont’s Lark
Woodlark
Short-toed Lark
Lesser Short-toed Lark Bar-tailed Desert Lark
Black-crowned
Finch-lark
Mouth patterns of recently hatched larks. The illustrations show
15 different species of young larks and variations for two
species. The young of Small Skylark also have the same general
pattern of five spots. Young White-winged Ixirks have three
tongue spots, hut it is not known whether or not they have the
markings on the inside tip of each mandible. There appears to
be no information on the mouth markings of Black Lark, Thick-
billed Lark and Dunn's Lark. The spots at the inside tip of each
mandible are possibly always bifurcated, in accordance with
the structure of the skull, but this is not always visually
apparent. Whilst there are distinct differences in the size and
shape of markings between species, there can also be
considerable variation within individual species, and the
markings above cannot, therefore, be regarded as conclusive.
212
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A substantial cup of grasses and moss, with a lining of fine grass and at
times some hair. Built by both sexes; male usually mainly responsible for the outer
structure, the female adding the lining.
Breeding season. Begins late March, rarely earlier. Double-, sometimes treble-,
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, occasionally 1-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Vari-
able in colour, greyish or buffish-white, with spots of reddish-brown, brown, olive or pur-
plish-grey, and some fainter markings . Markings vary from profuse fine speckling to
larger sparser spots, and may wreathe the larger end. Rarely absent. 21.6 x 16.4 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-16 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down rather sparse on underside; long and plentiful
on upperside and head. Greyish on the head, lighter and yellowish elsewhere. Mouth
yellow with three black spots, one at tongue tip and two smaller ones on either
side of base of tongue, and black mark on inner tip of each mandible. Gape flanges
yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both parents. Leave nest at 11-12 days,
cannot fly well for some days after. May remain together in a hollow near nest after
leaving. When alarmed crouch rather than fly.
SKYLARK Alauda arvensis	Page 211, Pls 16,53
Breeds on open, treeless areas, meadows, grasslands, stony or sandy tracts, dunes,
marshes or moorland at varying altitudes. Nest in a slight depression in the ground;
sometimes sheltered by a tuft of grass. Often exposed, although grasses or crops may
grow during the nesting period.
Nest. A shallow cup of grasses, with a lining of finer grasses and at times hair. Built
by hen only? Occasionally small pebbles are placed around nests in more open sites.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 5, rarely 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Dull greyish-white or tinted buff or greenish, heavily spotted overall with medium
brown or olive, tending to obscure ground colour. 23.8 x 17.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down more scanty underneath, but long and thick
over upperside. Buffish-yellow. Mouth dull yellow. Two black spots at rear of
tongue, one at tip, one inside tip of each mandible. Bill flanges white.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents, leaving the nest at 9-10 days, but unable
to fly. Hide by crouching motionless. Fly well at c. 20 days.
SMALL (OR ORIENTAL) SKYLARK Alauda gulgula	Pl. 53
Habitat similar to that of Skylark: open moist meadows and grassland, grassy
uplands, cultivated areas, and open wasteland with scattered bushes. Apparently
more tolerant of tall herbage and perches more frequently. Nest on the ground in
grass; often near a track or on a bank.
Nest. A flimsy cup built into a small hollow; of grass, roots and plant stems, lined
with finer grasses. Both birds build.
Breeding season. Begins April. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 2. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Like those of Sky-
lark but on average paler. White or faintly tinted greenish or buffish, finely speckled
or spotted with buff, olive-brown, mid- to dark brown, greyish-brown, grey or
purplish-grey. Often a zone of darker markings around the larger end. 20.9 x 16.2 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female but male may sometimes assist.
LARKS
213
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long. Mouth orange with two dark spots near
base of tongue, one at tip, one in each mandible tip. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young arc tended by both adults and remain in nest for c. 10 days.
CRESTED LARK Gaierida cristata	Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in open areas but more tolerant of trees than the Skylark and perches freely.
More frequent on areas of arable cultivation, or bare rocky or sandy areas, usually in
drier places than the Skylark. Nest on the ground, on waste bordering tracks or in crops.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow; hollow dug by birds if none available. Tends to be
built up above ground level at the edges. A loose construction of dry grasses and
other plants, with a finer lining of grass and hair. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double-brooded, possibly treble-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greyish-white or
buffish-white, finely spotted or speckled or indistinctly blotched with yellowish or
buffish-brown and pale grey. Markings may form a limited zone or cap at the large
end. 22.7 x 16.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-13 days. Beginning with last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and dense on upperparts, wings and
Banks, sparse on underside; whitish-straw. Mouth drab orange-yellow. Gape flanges
pale yellow to yellowish-white. Two black spots al rear of tongue, variable spot on
longue tip, large or tiny, and one inside tip of each mandible.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. The female broods during first week
when not collecting food. Young leave the nest and hide near by at 8-11 days, some-
times returning to nest. Fledge at 15-18 days but may not fly well for first few days.
Still fed by adults after fledging.
THEKLA LARK Gaierida theklae	Page 211, PI. 53
Breeds as a rule, but not invariably, on more broken and overgrown ground than the
Crested Lark. Very difficult to separate from the latter. Nest on the ground.
Nest. A shallow hollow, similar to but smaller than Crested Lark’s and less built up
at the edges incorporating grasses and plant stems, and lined with finer material.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins February. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Impossible to distinguish from those of Crested Lark.
Incubation. No information. Probably similar to Crested Lark.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and dense on upperparts, wings and
flanks; yellowish-white to buffish-grey. Mouth dull orange-yellow. Gape flanges
pale yellow to yellowish-white. Small black spots on inside of each mandible tip, one
cither side at rear of tongue, and variable spot at tip of tongue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at c. 9 days and hide near
by. Fledge at c. 15 days, remaining with adults for some time afterwards.
SHORT-TOED LARK Calandrella cinerea	Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in open, dry areas; dry pastures, sandy cultivation or open country, sparse
scrub and dry salt-marsh. Nest on the ground in the open but usually sheltered by a
plant or grass tufts. Sometimes in a loose colony.
Nest. A deep cup built into a hollow, of dry grasses, stems and roots, lined with down,
hair, wool and feathers. Sometimes small pebbles or pieces of earth are
gathered around the exposed edge. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to May. Double-brooded.
214
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 3-5, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variably coloured,
usually white, yellowish, olive or buff; marked with light brown and grey, or
reddish-brown, in fine speckling or heavy spotting with markings often concentrated
at or around the larger end. 19.6 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by the female. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and pale buff; over upperparts only.
Mouth deep yellow with orange palate. Two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip,
and one inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open at 4 days, leave nest at
9-10 days, and begin to fly at 11-12 days.
LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK Calandrella rufescens Page 211, PI. 53
Breeds in dry stony areas, on damp steppe or in desert borders. Nest on the ground,
usually protected by a tuft of vegetation.
Nest. Like that of Short-toed Lark, but may just be lined with fine plant material.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins in March in Canary Islands, in April further north. Some-
times double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 5. Resemble those of Short-toed Lark. 20 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. Wholly or mainly by female. 12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and upperparts fairly long and thick;
pale buff. Mouth orange-yellow, with two black spots at rear of tongue, a thin black
line at tip, and a black spot at inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges pale yellow
or whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving nest at c. 9 days.
BAR-TAILED DESERT LARK Ammomanes cincturus Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in open stony or sandy desert. Nest on the ground sheltered by a plant tuft or
stone, or under a rock.
Nest. A cup of dry plant material, built up on its open side with small pebbles.
Breeding season. April to May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, sometimes 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, sparsely
spotted with black, pale purple and grey. 21 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Long, thick down on head and upperparts; buff.
Mouth orange-yellow, with two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip, and one at
inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents and leave nest at c. 11 days,
fledging at 13-15 days.
DUNN’S LARK Eremalauda dunni
Breeds in desert areas from Mauritania to Yemen. Prefers areas with sparse
temporary vegetation, nesting when and where conditions are suitable after
rains.
Nest. A loosely woven cup of plant material in a hollow on the ground, usually
sheltered by a plant tuft.
Breeding season. Recorded January (Mauritania), April to June (Israel), May
(Sinai).
Eggs. 2-5. White with blackish and lavender spots and blotches.
Incubation. Estimated at 13-16 days, beginning with first egg.
LARKS
215
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Mouth yellowish-orange. A black spot at the inside
tip of each mandible. Almost certain to have three black spots on the tongue. Gape
flanges pale yellow or yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents but mainly by female. Leave nest
c. 10 days after hatching, and fledge at 13-16 days.
DESERT LARK Ammomanes deserti	Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in rocky, hilly or level areas of desert or semi-desert regions, on open or partly
wooded hillsides. Nest on the ground, partly sheltered by a rock or large tuft of
vegetation.
Nest. A cup lined with plant material, with an edging of small pebbles around the
exposed side. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late January in south to May in north. Sometimes double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Clutches tend to be smaller in more desert parts. Sub-
elliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pinkish to greenish-white, spotted with reddish-
brown, dark brown or purplish-grey, often as fine speckling mainly concentrated at
the larger end. 23.3 x 16.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, white or tinted buff or greyish.
Mouth orange-yellow, with two dark spots at rear of tongue, a tiny spot at tip, and
one at inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges pale yellow or whitish yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave nest at 10-11 days.
DUPONT’S LARK Chersophilus duponti	Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in semi-desert scrub or dry steppe. Nest on the ground against a tuft of
vegetation.
Nest. A deep cup of dry vegetation, rootlets, fibres and hair in a hollow.
Breeding season. Begins in March. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or pinkish, heavily
spotted with reddish or purplish-brown and purplish-grey, or with buffish-brown.
23 x 18.4 mm.
Incubation. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, on head and upperparts; sandy
brown. Mouth orange-yellow, tongue with two small dark marks at rear, one at tip,
and dark spot on inside of mandible tips. Gape flanges pale or whitish yellow.
Nestling period. Young fledge at 10-11 days.
CALANDRA LARK Melanocorypha calandra	Page 211, Pl. 53
Open, dry pastures and cultivation, and steppe grassland. Nest on the ground in a
hollow, in areas with herbage, often sheltered by a taller plant.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow; of dry grasses and stems, with a finer downy lining.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins early April in south, to late April further north. Double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes up to 7. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and fairly
glossy. Usually heavily marked with fine specks, spots or small blotches of dark
brown, buffish-brown or grey-brown, and pale purplish-grey. At times with
concentrated blotching around or at larger end. 24.2 x 17.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, or possibly helped by male. 16 days.
216
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, thick buffish-white down on head and back.
Skin dark grey on upperparts, flesh-pink on underside. Mouth fleshy-yellow, with
two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip, and one at inside tip of each mandible.
Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Fed at nest for first 10 days, then
disperse.
BIMACULATED LARK Melanocorypha bimaculata Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds on mountain slopes, nesting on the ground. Nest sheltered by a small bush or
tuft of vegetation.
Nest. A cup in a shallow hollow, lined with plant material. Built by female.
Breeding season. April to July. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and glossy. White,
greyish, buffish or olive; sparsely or heavily spotted or speckled with buffish or
reddish-brown and some pale purplish-grey. 23.2 x 17.2 mm.
Incubation. By female only, beginning with next-to-last egg. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and straw-yellow. Bare skin yellowish-
pink. Mouth yellow, with two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip, and black spot
inside mandible tips. Gape flanges pale or whitish yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving nest at c. 9 days before able
to fly.
BLACK LARK Melanocorypha yeltoniensis	Pi. 53
Breeds on grassy steppes near water, either saline or fresh; or on more bushy steppe.
Nest on the ground.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow. A loose structure of dead grass or plant stems, lined
with finer grass. Edges built up with pieces of earth. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March or early May in different regions. Probably dou-
ble-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5, up to 8 at times. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greyish-white;
blotched and mottled with buffish-brown and grey; marking often concentrated at the
larger end or in a zone around it. 25.1 x 18.1 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 15-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and yellowish-buff. Mouth orange-yellow,
with a black spot at inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Young differ in size. Leave the nest
before they can fly.
WHITE-WINGED LARK Melanocorypha leucopiera	Pl. 53
Breeds on dry grass steppe. Nest on the ground, usually sheltered by a taller plant or
grass tuft, and well concealed.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow. Made of dried grass with a finer lining. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins end of April. Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or tinted
pale buff or greenish; variably speckled, spotted or blotched in buffish-brown,
greyish-brown, grey, olive or dark brown. May be densely speckled, or heavily spot-
ted overall, or with sparser and larger blotches. On more sparsely marked eggs mark-
ings may be concentrated at or about the larger end. 22.6 x 16.4 mm.
Incubation. By female only, or helped by male. 12-13 days.
LARKS
217
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Covered with long yellowish down. Tongue with two
black spots at rear, one at tip.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving nest before able to fly.
THICK-BILLED LARK Rhamphocorys clotbey	Pl. 53
Breeds in stony desert regions. Nest on the ground, against a stone or tuft of vegetation.
Nest. A cup of plant material supported on one side by a stone or plant tuft and built
up on the other with a collection of small pebbles or earth fragments.
Breeding season. Usually begins mid-March, rarely from January onwards. Possibly
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 2-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or
cream-coloured and usually with a delicate pink tint; the whole egg covered with fine
speckling of chestnut-red or red-brown, and some fainter greyish speckling, the
markings often denser at the larger end. The eggs often have a definite pinkish-red
appearance unique in this family. Occasionally markings may be larger and more
well defined. 25.7 x 18.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. At least 12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long grey down on upperparts. Mouth orange-yel-
low, with a black spot at inside tip of each mandible. Almost certain to have two black
spots at rear of tongue, and one at tip. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
SHORE LARK Eremophila alpestris	Page 211, PI. 53
Breeds in large open areas of tundra or barren higher ground; usually bare, sandy and
stony, but also in sparse grasses. Nest on the ground in a hollow, usually in the
shelter of a plant tuft or stone.
Nest. A cup of dry grass and plant stems, loosely put together, with a finer inner lin-
ing of plant down and hair. Small pieces of peat and pebbles may be accumulated
round the nest. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale greenish-
white, heavily speckled with fine buffish-brown; often with a blackish hair-line, at
times with sparse bolder spots or dark zones. 22.7 x 16.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 10-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down is long and pale yellowish-buff, covering much
of the upper surface of the body and head. Skin brown. Mouth bright orange-yellow,
and gape flanges yellow. Two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip, one on inner
tip of each mandible.
Nestling period. Young are tended and fed by both parents. They leave the nest at
9-12 days. Can fly 3-5 days later.
TEMMINCK’S HORNED LARK Eremophila bilopha Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in arid, sandy or stony desert, at lower altitudes than the Shore Lark. The nest
is on the ground, partly sheltered by a tuft of vegetation.
Nest. A cup of dried vegetation in a scrape. Small pieces of earth paving exposed
side. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins February. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. 2-4. Subelliptical. In surface character and colour indistinguishable from
those of the Shore Lark. 23.2 x 16.5 mm.
Incubation. 13-14 days. By female, occasionally helped by male.
218
BIRD NFSTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick on head and upperparts; white
or very pale grey. Mouth orange-yellow, with two black spots at rear of tongue, one
at tip, and black inner tips to mandibles. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents; single adults feeding young may be
evidence of re-nesting. Young leave nest at c. 10-11 days, before they are able to fly,
and fly at 15-16 days.
BLACK-CROWNED FINCH-LARK Eremopteryx nigriceps Page 211
Breeds on dry, level semi-desert areas, with or without sparse vegetation. Nest on the
ground, sheltered by a plant tuft.
Nest. A small cup of dry stems in a deep hollow, lined with grass, hair and feathers,
often with small pebbles or pieces of dry earth around the exposed side. Built by
female, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins February (Iran), late April (Rio del Oro). Probably double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2 occasionally 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Greyish or
white, with speckled or spotted marking in olive-brown and grey, often heavy and
overall, at times sparser with much ground colour showing. 18.5 x 13.2 mm.
Incubation. 11-12 days, by both sexes but mainly by female beginning with the last
POO
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, thick, pale sandy down on head and upperparts.
Mouth orange-yellow, with two black spots at rear of tongue, one at tip, and one at
inside tip of each mandible. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. They usually leave the nest at c. 8
days. Parents may divide care of brood. Young fledge at c. 12-14 days, relying on
parents for some time afterwards.
Black-crowned Finch-lark, with rampart of small stones c. 10- 12.5 cm.
SWALLOWS AND MARTINS
219
HOOPOE LARK Alaemon alaudipes	Page 211, Pl. 53
Breeds in open sandy or stony desert. Nest on the ground, or built into the top of a
thick tuft of vegetation or dwarf bush which raises it above the ground.
Nest. Л cup of twigs, sometimes with earth fragments incorporated; when on a tus-
sock partly built into the structure. Lined with grass and an inner cup of wool, plant
down and other soft material. Ground nests usually bordered by a paving of small
flat stones or dried mud.
Breeding season. Begins early April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-4. clutches smaller in dry seasons. Subelliptical. Smooth and
glossy. White, heavily speckled, or more sparingly marked with blotches, of olive-
brown or pale reddish-brown and pale violet-grey. 22.3 x 17.3 mm.
Incubation. Beginning with last or next-to-last egg by female or both sexes. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Well covered with long whitish or buffish-white
down. Mouth yellowish-orange, tongue with two black spots at rear and one at tip,
and inner tips of mandibles blackish. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at c. 12-13 days, but
remain with adults for c. 4 weeks.
SWALLOWS AND MARTINS Hirundmidae
Small birds, taking their food on the wing. The nest is usually a mud structure, vary-
ing in shape with the species, fixed to rocks or walls and sheltered by an overhang;
or in a tunnel. The eggs are often elongated, white or finely spotted. Young are downy
on head, back and sometimes thighs; have yellow, unspotted mouths.
SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia	PI. 53
Breeds in open country, usually near water. A colonial ncstcr. Nest in a burrow in a
vertical bank, natural or artificial, quarry or cliff; often high up but in extreme north
of range where sites are scarce may nest almost at ground level. Existing artificial
holes may be used.
Nest. A tunnel bored by both adults, die terminal chamber lined with plant stems,
feathers and similar material.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to late June in north. Usually double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly to moderately
glossy. White. 18 x 12.6 mm.
Incubation. By both adults. 12-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, short; pale grey. Mouth pale
yellow; gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Fed in nest cavity at first but later
come to mouth of burrow. Can fly at 17-18 days. Ixave nest at c. 19 days.
PLAIN SAND MARTIN Riparia paludicola	Pl. 53
Breeds in colonies of burrows in the banks of rivers and ravines, roadside banks, and
the sides of pits and gullies.
Nest. A burrow in a steep bank, up to 120 cm long, rising slightly to a nest chamber
lined with a cup of grass and feathers. Excavated and built by both birds.
Breeding season. November to April in Africa. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White. 17x12 mm.
Incubation. By both birds. Both roost together in the hole. c. 12 days.
220
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long sparse white down on head and back only. Gape
flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Female broods for several days at first while the male brings food;
later both bring food. c. 20 days in nest.
ROCK MARTIN Ptyonoprogne fuligula	PI. 53
Breeds in arid areas in ravines and gorges. The nest is attached to a vertical rock sur-
face sheltered by an overhang, at times placed fairly low upon it, or on buildings and
bridges.
Nest. A deep half-cup attached to a vertical surface. Of mud without obvious use of
vegetable matter for binding. Lined with plant material and feathers. Built by both
sexes.
Breeding season. February to April. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Long subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White, with
specks and spots of purplish-grey and black, tending to be concentrated around the
larger end. 19.4 x 12.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse grey down on head and back. Mouth yellow.
Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded when small. They fledge
at 25-30 days, and are fed by parents for some days afterwards.
CRAG MARTIN Hirundo rupestris	Pl. 53
Breeds in mountain regions, nesting on the sides of rocky valleys and ravines, rock
outcrops or cliffs. Usually near a source of water. Nest fixed to a vertical rock sur-
face in a hollow, cornice or rock face with an overhang. Loosely colonial or solitary
in nesting. Nest occasionally on walls of buildings and bridges at higher sites.
Nest. A half-cup, like that of a Swallow, stuck to the surface. Of mud, lacking obvi-
ous binding plant material; and variably lined with plant material, down and feath-
ers. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4 5, fewer at times. Long subelliptical. Fairly smooth but only slightly
glossy. White, with fine sparse red and grey spots, more concentrated at the larger
end. 21.2 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13-17 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and upperparts short, dense and dark
brownish-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow. Legs and feet pink.
Nestling period. Young leave the nest at c. 25-26 days.
HOUSE MARTIN Delichon urbica	Pls 16, 53
Breeds at suitable sites in more open country, the nest being stuck to a rock surface
of outcrop or cliff, under an overhang; or more frequently on outer walls of a build-
ing under the eaves. Usually nest in a loose group, sometimes colonial and nests
contiguously built. Will use artificial nests.
Nest. A rounded half-cup built on to a vertical surface, so close to the overhanging
projection above that only a narrow entrance is present at the top. Nest made of mud
pellets strengthened with plant fibres. Lined with feathers, dry grass stems and plant
fragments. Built by both adults.
Breeding season. Begins April in south to late May in north. Prolonged until
autumn. Double- or treble-brooded.
SWALLOWS AND MARTINS
221
a
a. House Martin: b. Swallow; c. Red-rumped Swallow; d. Crag Martin.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 2-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White,
rarely showing fine, light red spots. 19.4 x 13.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-19 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, back and thighs, sparse, long,
greyish-white. Mouth yellow; gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Clutch takes c. 2!4 days to hatch. Young tended by both adults, food
being brought in the mouth. Brooded, mainly by female, for about the first week.
Leave nest, flying, at c. 19-25 days. Tended by adults for a while out of nest. Young
of earlier broods may remain around the site and may help feed young of later broods.
RED-RUMPED SWALLOW Hirundo daurica	Pl. 53
Breeds in open country, where suitable nest-site is provided by rock outcrop, cliff,
cave, building or bridge, but always in the vicinity of water. The nest is attached to
the underside of a horizontal surface such as a cave or house ceiling, or the under-
side of a bridge or culvert.
Nest. A closed structure built of raised pellets of mud mixed with grass and plant
fibre. It is a rounded bowl, built against an overhanging surface, the entrance
extended as a spout along the surface. Scantily lined with soft material, feathers or
wool. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, rarely 6. Long subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White,
sometimes with very fine reddish-brown speckling. 20 x 14.3 mm.
Incubation. Laying and incubation may begin before the entrance spout of the nest
is completed. Incubation by both birds, and both roost in nest. 14-15 days.
222
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Swallow, c. 10-12.5 cm across.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long soft down in tufts on forehead, neck and back.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. They leave the nest at 23-25 days,
returning to roost there for several days. They are fed for some days after leaving.
SWALLOW Hirundo rustica	Page 221, Pl. 53
Breeds in a variety of habitats, but more particularly near water and in open country.
The nest is usually stuck against a vertical surface, but requires some support
although often slight. The natural site is probably a cave roof, but more often occurs
on upper ledges such as rafters or girders in buildings of all kinds and under bridges
or culverts. Exceptionally in sheltered sites on outside of building or on a tree.
Nest. An open shallow cup of mud or cattle-dung pellets mixed with vegetable fibres
and plant fragments; lined with feathers. Built by both adults.
Breeding season. Begins March around Mediterranean, to April in southern Europe,
early May in north. Season prolonged. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, at times 3-8. Long subelliptical to long oval. Smooth and glossy.
White, sparingly marked with variable spotting of reddish-brown, lilac or pale grey.
20 x 13.7 mm.
Incubation. Only, or mainly, by female. 14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back, long and sparse; grey. Mouth
lemon-yellow. Gape flanges whitish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Food brought by parents in the throat.
Nest left after 17-24 days. Young return to roost on nest at first. May be fed by adults
in mid-air.
PIPITS AND WAGTAILS
223
PIPITS AND WAGTAILS Motacillidae
Small insectivorous birds, mainly of open country. Ground nesting, usually in a well-
concealed cup nest. The eggs are usually cryptically coloured, finely spotted in
brown or grey; although the polychromic eggs of the Tree Pipit pose a problem in
their variability. Young are downy, with yellow, orange or red mouths without spots.
They are fed on insects carried by the adults in the bill.
TREE PIPIT Anthus trivialis	Pi. 54
Breeds on areas with scattered trees, such as heathland, hillsides, orchards, cleared or
burnt-over woodland, or more frequently woodland edge, sometimes extending into open
woodland. Preferred ground cover of small clumps and patches of herbage combined
with bare open patches. Nest on the ground, in cover usually bordering more open space.
Nest. A large cup of drier grasses, with some moss, particularly at the base. A lining
of finer material, grass, plant fibres and hair. Built by female only.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May, sometimes slightly earlier in south, to early June
in north. Single- or double-brooded.
Fggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 8. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable in
colour. Ground colour tinted grey, blue, green, buff, brown or pink; variably speck-
led, spotted, blotched or streaked with overall markings, or markings zoned around
the larger end, of dark brown, olive, black or reddish-brown. Occasional thin, hair-
like black streaks may occur. 20.7 x 15.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, dark grey. Mouth orange, with
tongue edges and rear spurs and palate barbs yellow. Gape flanges light yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 12-13 days.
MEADOW PIPIT Anthus pratensis	Pl. 54
Breeds in open country, from coastal marshes, dunes and damp meadows to heaths
and high moorland. Nest on the ground, usually well concealed from view, at times
some distance under cover, occasionally just in edge of plant tuft.
Nest. A cup of dry grasses and plant material; lined with finer material, plant fibre
and hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-April in south, to early June in north. Usually
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. sometimes to 7; clutches larger in north. Subelliptical. Smooth and
glossy. Variable in colour, less so than Tree Pipit, but with several distinct types -
brownish, greyish or reddish. Ground colour pale grey, buff or pink; spotted or mot-
tled with brown and pale grey, or so finely marked as to appear almost uniform dark
grey or buff. Occasional blackish hair streaks. 19.8 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, brownish-grey. Mouth red with
whitish rear spurs on tongue. Gape flanges light yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave nest at 14-16 days, before they
can fly well. Independent in c. 14 days more.
RED-THROATED PIPIT Anthus cervinus	Pl. 54
Breeding in more open habitats, usually in damper sites, on higher ground in south to
low levels in north. In moist grassy areas, usually with bushes and dwarf shrubs. Nest
on the ground, usually tucked into the sides of grassy mounds or sheltered by plants.
224
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A cup of drier grasses, lined with finer grasses and fibres, and hair. Built by
female, males attends, carries materials.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable in colour,
greyish, buffish, olive or pinkish; finely speckled, spotted or indistinctly blotched
with grey, buff, brown or reddish-brown. Lighter eggs may show fine black hair
streaks. 19.2 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone; may be fed by male.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, dark greyish-brown. Mouth red.
Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave in 11-13 days.
OLIVE-BACKED PIPIT Anthus hodgsoni	PI. 54
Breeds in taiga conifer forest. Nest on the ground among trees or in clearings
with shrubs or grass. Nest usually well concealed by shrubs, grasses and fallen
twigs.
Nest. A bulky and rather compact cup of dried grass, with lining of hair and moss.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable in colour and pattern,
resembling those of Tree Pipit but seldom with blotched patterns. 21.6 x 16 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse grey down on upperparts only. Mouth orange.
Gape flanges whitish. Bill grey with darker tip.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents but mainly by female. They leave
nest at 11-12 days but are fed for a further few days, flying at c. 2 weeks.
PECHORA PIPIT Anthus gustavi	Pl. 54
Breeds on low-lying swampy ground with dwarf willow scrub. Nest on the ground
in a hollow or tuft of herbage, or sheltered under willow scrub.
Nest. A cup of grass and plants, of broader material than that used by other pipits,
lined with smaller leaves, and apparently no hair used.
Breeding season. Begins late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5. Subelliptical, tending to oval. Smooth and glossy. Ground colour pale
grey or pink-tinted, with fine overall grey speckling. Occasionally blackish hair
streaks or darker zones at the larger end. 21.4 x 15 mm.
Incubation. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down rather long, grey. Mouth yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fly at 12-14 days.
WATER PIPIT Anthus spinoletta	Pl. 54
Breeds on moist, high-level grassland with water or snow, areas with sparse stunted
trees or shrubs, swamps and rocky areas of mountains. Nest in the side of a steep
bank or hollow, under overhanging vegetation or in small tunnel.
Nest. In a hollow, a cup of stems, leaves and moss, with finer lining of leaves and
some hair. Built by female although male may bring some material.
Breeding season. Begins from end of April to early July. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 4-6. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy. Ground colour greyish-white, heavily
spotted with brown and pale grey, sometimes forming distinct cap at larger end.
Occasionally a thin black hair streak. 21.4 x 15.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14—15 days, beginning with next-to-last or last egg.
PIPITS AND WAGTAILS
225
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on upperparts only, long and dense, pale grey
becoming darker and browner. Mouth orange-red to red. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female at earlier stages.
Fledge at 14-15 days, flying poorly. Remain hidden near nest for 1-2 weeks,
independent at 28-30 days after leaving nest.
ROCK PIPIT Anthiis petrosus	Pl. 54
Breeds on rocky coastlines and cliffs, level marshy coasts with occasional boul-
ders or earth cliffs, and swamps and tundra of some arctic regions. Nests in a rock
crevice, recess or shallow hole in bank or cliff, or hole under vegetation or in
ground.
Nest. In a small hollow in concealed site, a cup of stems, grass and moss, or of finer
seaweeds, lined with fine grass, fibre or hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins from mid-May in south to June in north. Double-brooded
in south of range.
Eggs. 4-6. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy. Ground colour greyish-white. Finely
but heavily spotted with olive-brown and grey, sometimes with a dark cap at larger
end. 22.2 x 16.1 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female only. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on upperparts only, long and dense. Pale grey
becoming darker and browner. Mouth red. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. As for Water Pipit (above).
BERTHELOT’S PIPIT Anthus bertheloti	Pl. 54
Breeds on Madeira and the Canary Islands. Breeds in various, but usually fairly open,
habitats. Nest on the ground in the shelter of a low bush, concealed in low herbage,
or under a stone; occasionally in the low branches of euphorbia on the ground.
Nest. A deep cup of plant stalks and fibres; lined with wool, hair, feathers and other
soft material.
Breeding season. Apparently variable and prolonged. January to August. Probably
more than one brood.
Eggs. Usually 2-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale grey, finely speckled with
pinkish or buffish-brown, more rarely with dark grey. Occasional dark hair streaks
at large end. 19.5 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly thick. Dark grey. Mouth yellow. Gape
flanges light yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
TAWNY PIPIT Anthus campestris	PI. 54
Breeds in arid, bare country, sandy heaths and wastes, dunes, sparse scrub, cultivation
and rocky areas. Nest on the ground, in a hollow under a plant tuft.
Nest. A cup of grass, of dry plants and roots; lined with plant fibres and hair. Built
by female, male may assist.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south of range in Africa to early June in north.
Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Ground colour
whitish; heavily spotted and blotched in brown and purplish-grey. Markings
concentrated at large end at times. 21.9 x 15.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, or by both sexes. 13-14 days.
226	BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and thick, pale buff. Mouth deep yellow.
Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 12-14 days, when
unable to fly properly.
LONG-BILLED PIPIT Anthus similis	Pl. 54
Breeds in warmer, semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa; on grassy areas of rocky
hillsides, and mixed trees and grassland where bare areas occur. Nest on the ground
in a hollow under a rock or tuft of vegetation, usually well concealed.
Nest. A deep cup of dried grasses, lined with hair, grasses and plant fibres. May be
built up at rim with dead leaves and small twigs. Built mainly by female.
Breeding season. March to mid-July. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2 or 5. Subclliptical, smooth and glossy. Whitish or grey;
heavily freckled and spotted with warm brown. 23 x 16.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, thick grey down on head and upperparts. Mouth
orange-red. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both adults. They leave the next at 14-15 days,
can fly properly about a week later and become virtually independent at c. 5 weeks
old.
WHITE/PIED WAGTAIL Motacilla alba	Pl. 54
Breeds in a variety of habitats, usually with open stretches of level grass, often near
water, frequently associated with human activity. Nest a cavity or hole in a great vari-
ety of sites - walls, buildings, pipes and drains, banks, cliffs, thatched roofs, trees,
marram clumps, Sand Martin or House Martin nests, or old cup nests of other birds,
from ground level upwards.
Nest. A cup of stems, twigs, leaves, roots and moss; lined with hair, feathers and
wool. Built by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to June in north. Double-brooded in
south of range, single-brooded in north.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, occasionally 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Ground colour
grey or bluish-white; evenly and finely freckled with grey-brown and grey spots, occa-
sionally with brown blotches, but predominantly of grey type. 20.6 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12-14 days. From last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dark grey; very scanty on underside. Mouth
orange-yellow. Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 13-16 days. Fed for a
further 14-18 days.
GREY WAGTAIL Motacilla cinema	Pl. 54
Breeds usually on shallow, fast-flowing hill streams or edges of hill lakes. The
nest is in a hollow or crevice of a bank or cliff by running water, or among roots of
waterside tree. Will nest on slow rivers and streams of lowlands, but usually by
a waterfall, weir or millrace, or under a bridge. Will sometimes use the old nest of
Dipper.
Nest. A cup of twigs, roots, grasses and moss; lined with hair, and sometimes feathers.
Both sexes gather material.
Breeding season. February on Canary Islands, elsewhere usually begins late April,
rarely late March. Single-brooded, occasionally double-brooded.
WAXWING AND HYPOCOLIUS
227
Eggs. Usually 4- 6, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Ground colour
creamy or greyish-buff, faintly mottled greyish-buff; or pale and greyer and more like
those of Pied Wagtail. Often show a dark hair streak. 18.9 x 14.3 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, but male may assist. 11-14 days. From last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long. Golden-buff. Mouth orange. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 11-13 days. Can fly
at с. 17 days.
YELLOW WAGTAIL Motacillaflava	Pl. 54
Breeds on lowland pastures, water-meadows, marshes or on cultivated land, often
near water; or on open moorland with short herbage. Nest on the ground in a hollow,
or in thick herbage, or under leaf of low-growing plant.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow, of grasses, plant stems and roots; thickly lined with
hair, and occasionally fur or wool. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Ground colour pale
buff or greyish, heavily and finely speckled with yellowish-buff and appearing uni-
form, or mottled with buffish-brown. Often a dark hair streak present. 19 x 14.1 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by the female, beginning with last egg. 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and thick; on head and back. Sandy-
buff or buffish-white. Mouth reddish-orange. Some populations may show two
brown spots at base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 10-13 days; fly at
с. 17 days.
CITRINE WAGTAIL Motacilla citreola	Pl. 54
Breeds in the north of range in willow thickets and tussocks of marshes or lake edges,
elsewhere in similar sites of mountain forest areas. Nest on the ground in a hollow
or bankside, sheltered by overhanging tree or shrub, or stone.
Nest. A cup of variable thickness according to site. Of plant stems and moss; lined
with leaves and hair, with more wool, hair and feathers in colder regions. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Ground
colour pale grey or buffish; finely speckled with greyish-brown and dull grey, or mot-
tled with light brown. 19.6 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long, thick and grey. Mouth orange-red. Gape
flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young leave nest at 13-15 days, fed by both parents for some time
afterwards.
WAXWING AND HYPOCOLIUS Bombycillidae
HYPOCOLIUS Hypocolius ampelinus	PI. 54
Nest in a thorn bush, tamarisk or palm, 1.5—4.5 m up. Well hidden in vegetation.
Nest. A rough, thick cup of twigs and pieces of plant down; with a deep nest cavity
lined with plant down. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Double-brooded.
228
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth but non-glossy. White or very pale bluish-
white; slightly marked with light grey, or faint purplish or brownish-grey spots and
blotches, usually concentrated towards the larger end. 26.3 x 19.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 14-15 days, beginning with first
egg-
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white or pale grey, on upperparts only. Mouth
reddish-pink. Gape flanges pale yellow or white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but mainly by female. Brooded by
both during first five days. Adults shade young by perching on nest-rim in middle of
day. Young leave nest at 13-14 days old.
WAXWING Bombycilla garrulus	Pl. 54
Breeds in coniferous and birch forests. Nest in a tree, usually a conifer, 1.5-6 m up.
Nest tree often on forest edge, or by lake or stream, or in a swamp.
Nest. A cup of conifer twigs, reindeer moss and grass; lined with hair and down. By
both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins variably in late May to late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-6. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue
or greyish-blue, rarely slightly buffish; sparsely marked with spots of black and grey,
spots occasionally showing blurred brownish edges. 24.6 x 17.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth bright red with violet-blue bands on either side,
tongue purplish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fed on regurgitated insects and
berries. Leave nest at 15-17 days.
BULBULS Pycnonotidae
Small to medium-sized birds, feeding mainly on fruit, insects and seeds. They are
usually noisy and confiding, often breeding close to habitation, in gardens and cul-
tivation, as well as in remote areas. The nest is a thin-walled neat cup, built by the
female, in a tree or bush. The eggs have a white or pinkish background, heavily spot-
ted with reddish brown and purple. Young are naked, with red or orange mouths and
whitish gape flanges; the tongue is elongated, with two dark markings, and promi-
nent pale rear spurs and tip. Where known, both adults tend the young. The species
in the region are closely similar in most aspects of their breeding.
WHITE-CHEEKED BULBUL Pycnonotus leucotis	PI. 55
Breeds in cultivated areas, gardens and plantations. Nest in a tree or bush 1.5 to 8 m
up, usually c. 2m.
Nest. A shallow, thin-walled, loose cup of plant stems, thin
twigs, grass and roots; lining of finer rootlets. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins early April. Double- and probably
treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2—4. Subelliptical. Smooth and
glossy. White or cream, or tinted pink; spotted evenly in red-
dish or purplish-brown and pale purplish-grey. 22.1 x 16.8
mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation usually
Mouth pattern of a
recently hatched
White-cheeked Bulbul.
DUNNOCKS
229
beginning at completion of clutch. 10-12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin black on upperparts, flesh-pink on underparts.
Mouth and tongue reddish-pink. Tongue elongated, with prominent whitish-pink
rear spurs and tip. Two dark, but rather faint, markings on sides of tongue near base
converging into one near centre of the base, with a faint narrow line from each along
outer edge of the tongue, converging near the tip. Gape flanges white.
Nestling period. 9-11 days.
YELLOW-VENTED BULBUL Pycnonotus xanthopygos
Breeds in trees and shrubs by rivers, and in plantations, palm groves, orchards and
thickets of moister areas in dry regions. Nest in a bush or low palm.
Nest. A small cup of fine twigs, grass stems, leaves and moss, and sometimes fibre,
wool or string. More finely lined with hair, rootlets and bark shreds. Built by female,
accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins March to July. Double- or treble-
brooded.
Eggs. 2-4. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy; pale violet to
pinkish-white, heavily speckled and spotted with reddish-
brown, violet and grey. 24.3 x 17 mm.
Incubation. Recorded as by both parents, and by female
only. c. 14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink, possibly darken-
ing later. Mouth red. Tongue red and elongated, with
prominent white rear spurs and pale pink tip, and two long
thin dark markings tapering to near the tip. Gape flanges
whitish.
Mouth pattern o f a
recently hatched
Yellow- vented Bulbul.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at
13-15 days. Male feeds young when female begins new nest.
COMMON BULBUL Pycnonotus barbatus	Pl. 55
Breeds in scrub or woodland in arid or semi-desert areas, or in cover in gardens or
cultivated areas. Nest in various sites in tree or bush.
Nest. A thin, neat cup of grass stems and leaves, with a lining of hair. It may be
suspended between twigs in a fork. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins April. Double brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, sometimes 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or pink-
ish; heavily marked with spots and specks of reddish-brown and pale purple. 24.6 x
17.2 mm.
Incubation. By female or both sexes. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin brownish to dark purplish on upperparts, paler
below. Mouth and tongue orange. Tongue elongated, with prominent whitish rear
spurs and tip, with two dark, but very indistinct markings near the base. Gape flanges
yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledge in 12-14 days.
DUNNOCKS Prunellidae
Small, furtive birds, nesting usually in low, well-concealed sites. The social behav-
iour may be complex. The Common Dunnock shows individual variations of all
kinds of pairings, apparently linked to the suitability of territories for breeding.
230
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Similar variations in pairings and territoriality appear to occur also in the Alpine
Accentor, and in view of their relatively recent discovery might also be found in other
species. Nest a stout cup, built by female. Eggs uniform bright blue. Young downy
on head and back, with two dark spots on the tongue and often dark tip. Although
adults may eat seeds young are fed on insects brought in bill.
ALPINE ACCENTOR Prunella collaris	Pl. 55
Breeds on rocky, broken ground on the upper slopes of mountains, above tree limits.
Nest in a hollow or crevice in rocks. Sometimes sheltered by a shrub or small tree.
In some areas, possibly all, groups of c. 10 individuals will share a territory within
which females create small nesting territories, mating with several males which will
then help them to feed the young.
Nest. A neat cup of plant stems and roots; lined with moss, lichen and sometimes
feathers or hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 5-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform pale blue.
23.2 x 16.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and scanty on head, back and thighs; dark
grey. Mouth red. Two oval black spots at base of tongue. Gape flanges white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes, involving additional males. They
leave nest before able to fly after c. 16 days.
RADDE’S ACCENTOR Prunella ocularis
Breeds in shrubs and thickets on mountain slopes. Nest in a thick bush, commonly
juniper, about 30 cm from the ground.
Nest. A cup of twigs and fine roots, with a thick lining of plant down and an inner
lining of animal hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform blue like those of
Common Dunnock. 19.9 x 14.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female only, beginning with
the last egg. <?. 12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Almost naked at first, with some greyish down on
upperparts only. Mouth red. Two black spots at base of tongue and a black tongue
tip.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both adults. Fledge at с. 12 days.
SIBERIAN ACCENTOR Prunella montanella	Pi. 55
Breeds in low cover in open forest with shrubby growth, among scattered, stunted
trees at higher altitudes, or in thickets along streams and rivers. Nest in a fork of shrub
or low conifer, a metre or two from the ground.
Nest. A stout cup of fine twigs, plant stems, and close-packed moss; lined with finer
plant fibre, mosses and hair.
Breeding season. Begins in early June. Double-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 5. Subelliptical. Smooth, glossy. Bright blue. 19.9 x 13.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 10 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down blackish-brown, on upperparts only. Mouth
red, with two black spots at base of tongue and a dark tip. Gape flanges whitish-pink.
Nestling period. No information.
DUNNOCKS
231
BLACK-THROATED ACCENTOR Prunella atrogularis	Pl. 55
Breeds on higher mountain slopes, in open, scattered and shrubby clumps of
conifers. Nest in a tree or bush usually lower than 2m.
Nest. A cup of plant stems and grasses, both coarse and fine, lined with hair. Built
by female.
Breeding season. Begins June. Two broods, sometimes three.
Eggs. Usually 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform bright blue. 19.1 x
14.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-14 days, beginning with the last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down smoke-grey or blackish, on upperparts only.
Mouth orange, with two rounded spots at base of tongue and a dark tip. Gape flanges
orange-pink with whitish edges. Bill, legs and feet orange-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They leave nest at 11-14 days, fed
for at least a week afterwards.
HEDGE SPARROW or DUNNOCK Prunella modularis	Pl. 55
Breeds on woodland edges, scrub, hedgerows, gardens, and in low cover, brambles
and bracken, on open hillsides and rocky cliffs and islands. The nest is usually from
60 cm to 3 m up, well hidden in a shady site in a tree, shrub, bush or vegetated bank.
Sometimes old nests of other birds are used. Socially complex, in some areas at least,
with dominant pairs holding territories in which other females also nest, mated to the
dominant male but aided in nesting by paired subordinate males. In addition to nor-
mal pairs some females have additional males, or males may have two or three
females, or more rarely a group can comprise several of each sex. Such behaviour
appears to be governed by the males’ tendency to feed young of females with which
they have copulated.
Nest. A stout cup of twigs, stems, leaves, moss, roots and other plant debris, lined
with hair, wool, fine mosses, or more rarely feathers. Built by female only.
Breeding season. Begins early April, occasionally March. Double-brooded,
sometimes treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform
bright blue; very rarely with some reddish spots. 19.9 x 14.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long, black; on head and back. Mouth
bright orange with two black spots on tongue. Although two spots appear more usual,
several broods of very young nestlings have been observed with an additional spot
on the tongue tip, and one brood with young with no spots, two spots and three spots.
Gape flanges whitish-pink.
Nestling period. Young are brooded and fed by females, and by additional males as
well. They leave the nest at 11-12 days, and are fed for up to 17 days after leaving.
Variations in the mouth markings of
recently hatched Dunnocks.
232
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
THRUSHES Turdidae
REDSTARTS, ROBINS AND BUSH-CHAT Phoenicurus, Tarsiger,
Erithacus, Luscinia, Irania and Cercotrichas species
Breed in a variety of habitats from open rocky areas to thick woodland under-
growth. Nest in a hollow or sheltered site, or hole, on the ground, or in a wall or
tree, or in low bush. Nest usually a bulky, loosely constructed cup of grass, dead
leaves, etc., lined with fine grass, hair and, in some species, feathers. Eggs white
or blue, unmarked in hidden nests, speckled and mottled reddish-brown in more
open sites; often olive or brownish in Nightingales. Incubation by female.
Nestlings usually with long greyish down on head and back (but Bush-chat naked),
mouth yellow to orange, gape flanges pale yellow to white. Young fed by both
sexes on insects brought in the bill.
SPROSSER or THRUSH NIGHTINGALE Luscinia luscinia	Pl. 59
Breeds in deciduous forests with low shrubby growth, or parkland, orchards and
thick growth along streams with low cover. Nest on the ground among herbage or
frequently in the open under shrubs, among roots, fallen branches or in leaf litter.
Nest built into litter.
Nest. Built into a hollow, often with rim at level of ground debris. A cup of old dead
leaves, dead grass and fine twigs, of loose construction; lined with fine grass, rootlets
and some hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth, and slightly glossy. Very
variable. From greyish-blue through greenish to olive-buff or dull reddish-buff. The
colour produced by reddish markings on greenish-blue, usually so fine as to tint the
shell uniformly. Exceptionally tinting the larger end only, and occasionally showing
as reddish mottling on a bluish or olive-green shell. Often with irregular chalky-
white splash mark or smear. 21.7 x 16.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dark. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges
yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 9-12 days. Young leave unable to
fly.
NIGHTINGALE Luscinia megarhynchos	Pl. 59
Breeds in similar sites to Sprosser, in deciduous woodland and copses with shrubby
undergrowth, thickets and thick hedgerows. Nest on the ground or a slightly raised
site, in leaf litter and twigs under shrubs, or in lush herbage under a bordering
shrubby growth.
Nest. A loose, bulky cup of dead leaves and dead grass; lined with fine grass and hair.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. As with
Sprosser fine reddish markings usually appear as an almost uniform tint. Ground
colour dull bluish-green to grey-green, variably washed with a rusty tint sometimes
covering ground colour to produce sandy or reddish-buff. Reddish colour occasion-
ally confined to larger end; or visible as fine mottling on a greenish ground. Chalky-
white splash or smear mark often present. 20.8 x 15.6 mm.
Incubation. By female, beginning with the last egg. 13-14 days.
THRUSHES
233
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, fairly long and plentiful;
dark grey. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges white, tinged yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11-12 days in nest.
WHITE-THROATED ROBIN I rani a gutteralis	Pl. 59
Breeds on stony slopes and broken ground with sparse, scattered, shrubby vegeta-
tion. Nest in a low shrub or tree less than 1-2 m above ground.
Nest. A cup of dead grass, bark fibres and small twigs; lined with hair and plant
down. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Pale greenish-blue
spotted with light reddish-brown. 21.2 x 15.5 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fine and sparse, dark grey. Mouth deep yellow
to orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at с. 12 days, but cannot
fly until 16-18 days. Fed for another 15 days after leaving nest.
RUFOUS BUSHCHAT Cercotrichas galactotes	PI. 58
Breeds in dry scrub, cane-brakes or in cultivated areas with tall cover; gardens,
orchards, vineyards and olive groves; and small fields with tall hedges. Nest fairly
low, 1-2 m up; in a shrub, small tree or hedge, among prickly-pcar or on a stump in
cover, or on the ground among roots. Unusual nest sites include inside tin cans on
the ground and recesses in breeze blocks.
Nest. Considerable variation in size. A coarse, untidy cup of plant stems, grass and
fibres; the central cavity a cup of fine fibres, roots, hair, wool and small feathers.
Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to late May or early June in north.
Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 2-3. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. White,
or occasionally very faintly bluish or greenish; thickly marked with fine speckling,
spots, or small streaks or blotches, of shades of brown, buffish-brown, purplish-
brown or purplish-grey. Rarely with some larger, dark brown blotches. Markings
often profuse and sometimes more concentrated at or about the larger end. 22.2 x
16.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin at first flesh-pink and darker on back, changing
to dark brown. Mouth and tongue orange-yellow with pale yellow rear tongue spurs
and tip. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 12-13 days and scat-
ter, hiding singly. Brood may be divided between parents, young fed for up to
3 weeks.
RED-FLANKED BLUETAIL Tarsiger cyanurus	Pl. 59
Breeds in dense moist conifer forest with undershrubs, but also occurs in montane
birchwood with low cover. Nest in a hollow or small cave in bank, or river-cliff, or
in standing or fallen hollow log; sometimes 1-2 m up; or on the ground between tree
roots, among stones or in small depression.
Nest. A cup of dead grass, roots and moss, lined with soft grass or pine needles, hair
and wool.
234
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White, unmarked or
speckled, spotted or finely mottled with pale and often faint reddish-brown or
purplish markings, usually towards the larger end where they may form a distinct
wreath. 17.8 x 13.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, c. 14 days.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 15 days in nest.
ROBIN Erithacus rubecula	Pls 16, 59
Breeds in thick, woodland with undergrowth, occasionally in plantations or orchards,
but in British Isles breeds in cavities and shrubby cover around human habitation.
Nest in a hole in a tree stump, or low in trunk, or in hollow on bank, or in roots or
thick low shrub or on ground. In Britain in walls, or on or in buildings.
Nest. Variable in size. A bulky cup of dead leaves, grass and moss, lined with fine
roots, hair and rarely feathers. Often built into cavity where it appears roofed over.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April in west, to early June in north.
Double-, occasionally treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White or
very slightly tinged blue; speckled, spotted, freckled, faintly mottled or finely
blotched with shades of pinkish-buff to light brown, and sometimes light purple or
purplish-buff. Markings very sparse to profuse; at times fine and obscuring ground
colour. Often cap or wreath of more concentrated marks at larger end. Rarely
confined to this; or unmarked. 19.9 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 12-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down, on head and back, long and fairly plentiful;
blackish-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. At first female broods and male
brings food for all. 12-15 days. Male may take over care of young if broods
overlap.
SIBERIAN RUBYTHROAT Luscinia calliope	Pl. 59
Breeds in forest with undergrowth, and in scrub at forest edges, in clearings and
along watercourses, and in broken forest with thick ground cover. Nest on the ground
built into grass tussock, or herbage at base of bush; occasionally in thick shrub a
little above ground.
Nest. A loosely built cup of thin stems, grass and fibres; lined with fibres, hair and
plant down.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue, finely
speckled and mottled with reddish-brown, often giving the egg a greenish tint and at
times forming a wreath around larger end. 20.6 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down is sparse, long and smoky-grey. Mouth
yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow to whitish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 12 days. After leav-
ing nest young hide for a period in low ground cover. They disperse in c. 2 weeks.
THRUSHES
235
BLUETHROAT Luscinia svecica	Pl. 59
Breeds in irregular swampy ground with low shrubby growth and scrub, but in Spain
occurs on drier mountain slopes, and in north on tundra with little cover. Nest on
the ground, usually hidden in a hollow on a slight bank, in a dense bush or dead
vegetation, or at base of a shrub.
Nest. A cup of plant stems, dead grass, roots and moss; lined with fine grass, hair
and rarely feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-June in north. Single-brooded
in north, southern races sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes 9. Subelliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy. Pale
green, bluish-green or blue, very finely speckled, mottled or tinted with light reddish-
brown, the markings often poorly defined and giving a general rusty tint to some or
all of shell. Occasionally more obviously marked. Markings sometimes concentrated
at the larger end. 18.8 x 14.1 mm.
Incubation. By female. 14-15 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, fairly long and plentiful;
dark grey. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 14 days. Usually unable to fly when
they leave.
BLACKSTART Cercomela melanura	Pl. 58
Breeds in dry, rocky desert or semi-desert areas. Nest in a cavity under a rock or in
a crevice. Nest may be up to 45 cm inside a crevice or tunnel, and these are paved
with small pebbles.
Nest. A cup of grass; lined with finer plant material and hair. Built up on the outer-
side with, or surrounded by. a parapet of small pebbles. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early March to July. Often double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Pale to very pale
blue; with fine specks, spots or small blotches of light red. or darker reddish-brown,
often sparingly distributed over most of the shell and usually with a concentration of
markings at the larger end. 18x13 mm.
Incubation. 13-14 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin reddish-pink. Long down on head and back; dark
grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 13-15 days, and are fed
by both parents for several weeks.
BLACK REDSTART Phoenicurus ochrurus	Pl. 59
Breeds widely in areas that provide holes in rocks or their equivalent, including:
cliffs; old walls round gardens, fields, orchards and vineyards; ruins; the insides
of outbuildings; hollow trees; and more typical sites in rock outcrops or broken
ground. Nest in a hole or crevice, under a rock, or on a ledge in a cave or build-
ing.
Nest. A cup, often loosely assembled, of dry grass, plant stems, moss and plant fibre;
lined with hair, wool and some feathers. Built by the female.
Breeding season. Begins early to late April according to latitude and altitude. Dou-
ble-brooded, sometimes triple-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White in the European race;
light blue from eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus eastwards. 19.6 x 14.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-16 days, beginning with last egg.
236
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back, long and thick; dark grey.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Period in nest variable, 12-19 days,
young often leaving before able to fly.
MOUSSIER’S REDSTART Phoenicurus moussieri	PL 59
Breeds from higher rocky ground to low open desert, near settlement, and into for-
est edges and clearings. Nest on the ground or in a bank in the shelter of a plant tuft
or small bush; also in a hole or crevice in a tree or similar site, in a dense bush or in
tree fork up to 2m from ground. Unusual sites include inside tin cans in bushes and
on the ground.
Nest. Variable in size according to site. A loose cup of plant stems and bark fibre;
lined with hair and feathers.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March to early April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or very pale
blue. 19.4 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. Almost certainly by female only.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back dark grey. Mouth yellow.
Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, in nest and after fledging.
REDSTART Phoenicurus phoenicurus	Pl. 59
Breeds in a variety of habitats, nesting in a hole, but usually in less rocky areas
of greater vegetation than those used by Black Redstart. Occurs in woodland,
parkland and old orchards; heathland and gardens with suitable nest-sites; or hill
areas with scattered trees, stone walls, ruins or quarries. Nest in a hole in tree stump,
rocks or wall, or on a ledge in a building. Old swallow nests have been used. Some-
times on the ground in hollows on banks, or among tree roots; when in trees may
be high up.
Nest. A loosely constructed cup of dead grass, moss, roots, bark fibres, wool and
hair, with a deep cup lined with hair and feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-June in north. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-7, rarely 4-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue. 18.6x
13.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, long and plentiful; dark
grey, skin yellow. Mouth pale orange. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, 14-17 days in nest.
GUILDENSTADT’S REDSTART Phoenicurus erythrogaster	Pl. 59
Breeds on upper mountain slopes in areas of broken rock and ravines; with sparse
vegetation. Nest on the ground in a hole or crevice in rocks.
Nest. A bulky cup of grasses, plant stems and wool; lined with hair and feathers.
Built mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Eggs from Central Asia are blue,
unmarked or with fine reddish markings mostly at the larger end; but from the
Himalayas they are white, speckled and spotted with light reddish-brown, sometimes
concentrated around the larger end. 22.1 x 16.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-16 days.
THRUSHES
237
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dark brown, on upperparts only.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They fledge at c. 14 days and are
fed for at least a week afterwards.
CHATS Saxicola, Oenanthe and Monticola species
Small, insectivorous birds, living on or near the ground in open, sparsely vegetated
and often rocky habitats. Nest a cup of grass and other plant material; lined with grass,
hair and feathers. Usually in a hole or hollow, under a stone, among rocks, in thick
herbage or under low cover. Many wheatear species accumulate small pebbles or rock
fragments as a small, low rampart across the nest-hole entrance, which may substan-
tially reduce the size of the hole. Eggs blue, sometimes with reddish spots or specks;
and more heavily marked in Saxicola. Incubation usually by female. Nestlings with
long brownish or greyish down, yellow to orange mouth, and pale yellow to whitish
gape flanges. Young tended by both parents, fed on insects brought in the bill.
CANARY ISLAND CHAT Saxicola dacotiae	PI. 58
Breeds on Fuertevcntura on open and usually rocky ground with sparse vegetation.
More often on slopes and sides of gullies with stony ground or shrubby growth. Nest
in a hole or recess low in rocks or walls, under a rock, or under or in the base of a
low bush; sometimes exposed.
Nest. A large cup, firmly built into small hollow or recess, of grass, hair, wool and
fibre; lined with wool, hair and sometimes feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late January to February. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 2-5. Short subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Like those
of Stonechat. Pale greenish-blue; finely speckled or mottled with reddish-brown,
sparse but becoming denser towards the larger end. 17.9 x 14.4 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-15 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back only, long and sparse, grey.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale straw-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 16-18 days, remaining
hidden in vegetation near by, fed by adults for a period.
STONECHAT Saxicola torquata	Pl. 58
Breeds in open areas with scattered shrubby cover. In west usually on heathland or
wasteland, sand-dunes or moors. In east also in moister grassland, and on edges and
clearings of forests. Nest usually on the ground in herbage at the foot of a bush,
occasionally a little above the ground in a dense bush.
Nest. A cup, of grass, moss, occasionally also plant stems and wool. Lined with hair,
wool and some feathers, the last usually built into the structure. Built by female.
Breeding season. Early March in south to early June in north. Double- or sometimes
treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth, and moderately glossy. Very pale
blue or greenish-blue, finely speckled, spotted or very finely mottled with reddish-
brown, at times indistinct and usually more thickly marked towards the larger end,
which is frequently wreathed or capped with a rusty-brown zone. 18.9 x 14.4 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female alone, rarely male may assist. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, long but fairly scanty;
brownish-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-13 days in nest.
238
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
PIED STONECHAT Saxicola caprata	PI. 58
Breeds in open grassland with sparse shrubby cover, or on hillsides with scrub
growth. Nest is on the ground, often in a small hollow, hidden among herbage or
under a low shrub. Sometimes under a rock in a more open site.
Nest. A cup of grass, roots, moss and debris; lined with finer grass, hair and feathers.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Similar
to those of Stonechat but more heavily and boldly marked. Very pale blue or
greenish-blue; speckled, spotted or with small blotches, of light reddish-brown to
dark reddish-brown and purple. Markings may be even overall, or sparse with a
darker ring at the larger end. 17.9 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14 days.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 16 days in nest.
WHINCHAT Saxicola rubetra	PI. 58
Breeds in open grassland with sparse, shrubby cover; probably tolerant of less cover
than Stonechat. On moorland, heathland, wasteland, rough grassland or meadows,
grassy marshes and forest clearings. Nest on the ground, hidden in herbage, usually
at the foot of a small bush or taller grass tuft or plant.
Nest. A cup of dead grass and moss; lined with finer grass and hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May to early June. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. 5-7, sometimes 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue; very finely
and often indistinctly speckled with reddish-brown, usually sparse and often
concentrated at the larger end where it gives the egg a rusty or greenish-brown tint.
19.2 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13-14 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and shoulders, fairly long and plenti-
ful; dark grey. Mouth pale orange to deep yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow to
creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 13-14 days in nest, exceptionally
up to 17 days.
WHEATEAR Oenanthe oenanthe	Pl. 58
Breeds in open spaces, usually drier hillside pastures, moors, wasteland, dunes and
cliffs, but also low coastal marshes and moist meadows with suitable nest-sites. Nest
in a hole in rock, walls, quarries, ground burrows of rodents, and holes provided by
hollow objects such as boxes, pipes, heaps of stones and other debris.
Nest. Large, loosely constructed heap of grass, moss, plant stems, roots and leaves;
with a shallow cup lined with grass, hair, wool and feathers. Built mainly by female
but male may assist.
Breeding season. Begins late March in south to June in north. Single- or double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. Very pale
blue. Unmarked; or rarely with a few fine dark specks at larger end. 20.8 x 15.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only, male rarely helps. 14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, shoulders and upper back, long and
fairly plentiful; dark grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 15 days in nest.
Colour Plates
Plate 1
DIVERS. The chicks have two down coats: the second, to the tips of which the
first down remains attached, is paler in colour.
1.	Red-throated Diver, Gavia stellata. In this species the down may be variably
tinted with blackish or grey. The Black-throated Diver is dark brownish-grey
above with pale grey from throat and neck to upper breast. The Great Northern
Diver is blackish-brown, paler on throat, neck and upper breast, and the White-
billed Northern Diver is similar but paler.	page 45
GREBES. The young are downy, with distinct bold striped patterns (see fig., p. 50).
2.	Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis. Stripes arc absent on the back of Red-
necked and Black-necked Grebes. For other differences see fig., p. 50.	51
SHEARWATERS. These have two down coats, the second darker in colour and
longer and the first clinging to the tips of the second. The young may appear larger
than the adults before they finally lose their down.
3.	Manx Shearwater, Puffinus puffinus. Yelkouan Shearwater is similar. The
Balearic Shearwater has dark sooty-grey down, Cory’s Shearwater is similar but
browner and darker, and the Little Shearwater is a greyish sooty-brown with white
tips to the second down coat. Madeira and Cape Verde Shearwaters arc grey and
the Fulmar pale blue-grey.	53
PETRELS. These are similar to shearwaters, with two successive down coats.
There is usually a bare spot on the hind-crown.
4.	European Storm Petrel, Hydrobatespelagicus. Leach's Storm Petrel has bluish-
grey down; the Madeiran Storm Petrel is pale grey in first down, dark grey in sec-
ond; the Frigate Petrel is slate-grey; and the Bulwer’s Petrel is dark sooty-brown.
55
GANNETS.
5.	Gannet, Sula bassana. There is sparser, longer down on a blackish skin at first;
the later down is woollier.	56
PELICANS, CORMORANTS AND DARTERS. These are naked when first
hatched but later grow a rather woolly down coat.
6.	White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus. This is pink-skinned at first, becoming
dark grey with chocolate-brown down, later the skin becoming black and thick
brown down continuing to grow. The Dalmatian Pelican has white down. 57
7.	Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo. Both this species and the Pygmy Cormorant
have dark brown down growing after about a week. The Shag has paler brown
down with whitish bases.	59
8.	Darter, Anhinga anhinga.	60
240

Plate 2
HERONS. The slender head, narrow bill and upstanding down on the top of the
head are typical of the young of these species.
1.	Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea. The down of Purple Heron young is also mainly
brownish, with blackish-brown down above, dark brown with white tips on the
crown, and white underparts	page 66
2.	Little Egret, Egretta garzetta. The down is white in most young egrets, but young
Squacco Herons are buffish on the mantle, and brownish-buff on the crown, while
the Striated Heron is grey with whitish tips on the crown.	65
3.	Little Bittern, Ixobrychus minutus.	62
4.	Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax.	63
5.	Bittern, Botaurus stellaris.	61
STORKS. These have two successive coats of down, the first sparse, the second
thicker and more complete.
6.	White Stork, Ciconia ciconia. The nestling Black Stork also has white down, but
the bill is yellowish.	69
SPOONBILLS AND IBISES.
7.	Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia. There are two successive down coats, the first
sparse, the second short and thick.	67
8.	Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus. The young Bald Ibis has grey down, while that
of the Sacred Ibis is white with black on the top of the head.	67
242

Plate 3
FLAMINGO. The downy chick is rather goose-like in the early stages.
1.	Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruher.	page 71
SWANS. Downy chicks are rather uniformly coloured and pale.
2.	Mute Swan, Cygnus olor.	72
3.	Whooper Swan, Cygnus cygnus. The chick of the Bewick Swan is similar but
the down is less extensive on the loral region at the rear of the bill.	72
GEESE. The downy young lack the more clear-cut patterns of ducklings, and
show the narrower and thicker goose bill.
4.	Lesser White-fronted Goose, Anser erythropus. The chick of the White-fronted
Goose is similar but paler brown on the back and with a pale forehead. The Pink-
foot is also similar but pale brown above, with some brown on the crown and
around the eye, and pale yellowish on underside, head and throat. The Bean
Goose chick is like a White-front but olive-brown above and yellowish below and
on the face.	76
5.	Barnacle Goose, Branta leucopsis. The Brent Goose is drab grey above with dark
grey on crown and nape, whitish on throat, face and underside, and with a dark
streak through the eye. The Canada Goose is greenish-brown on back, crown and
nape, with a smudged dark mark through the eye, and yellow on face, neck and
underside.	77
6.	Grey-lag Goose, Anser anser. The Bar-headed Goose is greyish-brown on the
back, grey on crown and checks, and yellow on underside, neck and head, with
pale yellow patches on wings and flanks.	74
SHELDUCKS. The downy patterns of the chicks are bold and distinctive, the
principal species variation being in the pattern on the head.
7.	Shelduck, Tadorna tadorna. The Ruddy Shelduck is similar, but paler brown
and above and lacks the small pale patch on the central mantle and dark cheek
spot.	77
8.	Egyptian Goose, Alopochen aegyptiacus.	78
244
8
Plate 4
DUCKS (see also pl. 5). The young of dabbling ducks in down are mostly brown
above and yellow below, with a yellow face and dark eyestripe. Pochards are similar
but without face markings, while other diving ducks of the genus Aythya are dark.
1. Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos. The Gadwall chick is similar but with browner
upperparts and paler and creamier lighter parts. The eyestripe is narrow, the light
dorsal patches larger, and the sides of the bill are flesh-coloured. The Marbled
Teal chick is also similar in pattern but pale brownish-grey above and pale
buffish below, with a greenish-grey bill.	page 79
2.	Shoveler, Anas clypeaia.	82
3.	Mandarin Duck, Aix galericulata.	79
4.	Pintail, Anas acuta.	82
5.	Wigeon, Anas penelope.	80
6.	Teal, Anas crecca. The Garganey	chick is similar but darker above and drabber
below, with a double dark stripe across the face from bill to nape.	80
7.	Pochard, Aythya ferina. The Red-crested Pochard chick is similar but with paler
creamy-yellow below and more brown on crown and forehead.	84
8.	Tufted Duck, Aythya fuligula. The Scaup chick is more yellowish on underside.
It has a pale throat, dark streak through the eye and another on the lower cheek
bordering the throat. The Ferruginous Duck is dark on body, nape and crown like
the Tufted Duck, but the lower breast is yellow and the foreneck and face are
buffish-yellow.	83
246

Plate 5
DUCKS (see also pl. 4). The down of young of the species shown here is more
consistently boldly contrasted in colour or more uniformly dark than that of the
typical dabbling ducks.
1.	Velvet Scoter, Melanitta fusca.	page 86
2.	Common Scoter, Melanitta nigra.	86
3.	Eider, Somateria mollissima. The chick of the King Eider is similar but has more
extensive and paler buff on the face, with a dark eyestripe, and is pale on the
underside. Steller’s Eider has a more typical rounded head without the sloping
forehead, has a light buff ring round the eye with a streak back to the nape, and
has a pale chin.	85
4.	Harlequin Duck, Histrionicus histrionicus.	85
5.	Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hyemalis.	87
6.	Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula. The chick of Barrow’s Goldeneye is similar.
86
7.	White-headed Duck, Oxyura leucocephala. The cheek of this species is usually
light buff, while that of the Ruddy Duck is whitish so that the dark streak below
the pale under-eye streak is conspicuous.	88
8.	Red-breasted Merganser, Mergus serrator. On the Goosander chick the sides of
the head are paler and more rufous, a white streak runs from the bill to below the
eye and there is a small, pale loral spot just above it. The Smew chick is like a young
Goldeneye, but with a tiny white mark just below the eye and thin bill. 88
248

Plate 6
EAGLES, HAWKS AND VULTURES. These young are downy, usually white
or tinged with buff or grey. The hooked bill and claws may help to identify them, but
young falcons and owls also share these characters. There are two successive down
coats, the first shorter and thinner, the second longer and coarser, and usually darker
in colour. The young of these species are not easy to tell apart in the early stages, and
in some cases they are not easily distinguished from young falcons, especially since
some of the latter may use old nests of other raptors.
1.	White-tailed Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla. Pallas’s Sea Eagle has brownish-
grey down.	page 90
2.	Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos. The down is white in the Imperial Eagle, grey-
ish in the spotted eagles, grey or white in Tawny and Booted Eagles, and whitish-
grey with a dark eye-patch in Bonelli’s Eagle.	100
3.	Osprey, Pandion haliaetus.	89
4.	Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus. The Shikra and Levant Sparrowhawk are
similar. The Goshawk is whitish-grey in the first down and grey in the second.
96
5.	Black Kite, Milvus migrans. The Red Kite is similar but browner; the Black-
shouldered Kite is pinkish-buff in the first down, and ash-grey with browner head
in the second.	91
6.	Griffon Vulture, Gyps fulvus. The first down is mainly whitish grey, white on head;
second down mainly whitish-buff. The Egyptian Vulture has buff first down, light
brown on head; the second down is slightly paler. In the Lammergeier, first down
is white or pale grey, second down pale grey, shading later to grey-brown. Down is
grey in the Lappet-Faced Vulture. First down is buffish-grey and then second coat
dark grey in the Black Vulture.	94
FALCONS. These also have two down coats, the first shorter and thinner, the
second longer and coarser. See comments under Eagles, Hawks and Vultures above.
7-8. Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus. Shown in both first and second down coats. 107
250

Plate 7
BUSTARDS. The chicks, even at an early stage, are round-bodied, long-necked
and have longish stout legs. The down patterns are complex.
1.	Great Bustard, Otis tarda.	page 128
2.	Houbara Bustard, Chlamydotis undulata.	129
3.	Little Bustard, Otis tetrax.	129
GROUSE. The chicks may be confused at first sight with those of typical game-
birds but can be distinguished from them by the presence of down on the legs,
although on the Hazel Hen this only extends a little way down the leg.
4.	Capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus.	Ill
5.	Red Grouse, Lagopus lagopus scoticus. The chick of the Willow Grouse form does
not differ except that the buff colour tends to be less warm and rufous in tint. 109
6.	Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus.	108
7.	Black Grouse, Tetrao tetrix. The chick of the Caucasian Black Grouse is similar
but more yellow on the paler parts of the down plumage.	110
8.	Hazel Hen, Tetrastes bonasia.	110
252

Plate 8
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS. The downy chicks of these species resemble those of
the domestic hen in appearance, but are usually conspicuously patterned, the pattern
differing between genera. The eight introduced species described in the text have not
been included in the plate.
1.	Himalayan Snowcock, Tetraogallus himalayanus. Included to show the down
pattern of young of the genus. Of the two species on pp. 115-6 the Caucasian
Snowcock is more pinkish-buff on the back and head, with heavier mottling; the
Caspian Snowcock has still more pinkish-buff and some darker tints.
2.	Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus.	page 112
3.	Helmeted Guineafowl, Nutnida meleagris.	121
4.	Common or Grey Partridge, Perdix perdix.	116
5.	Red-legged Partridge, Alectoris rufa. Chicks of the Barbary Partridge are simi-
lar but paler, light reddish-buff on the head, creamy-buff below and less rufous
above. The Rock Partridge is also paler, with light sandy-buff on the head, and
less rufous, more sandy-brown on mottled areas of the back. The Chukar is
creamy-white below, the sides of the head are cream-coloured with a dark streak
behind the eye, and crown and nape are light brown with dark speckling. 117
6.	Quail, Coturnix coturnix.	120
7.	See-see Partridge, Ammoperdix griseogularis. The Sand Partridge chick has
upperparts that are pale buff with a smoky wash, with a blackish-grey crown and
streak through the eye.	120
8.	Black Francolin, Francolinus francolinus. The Double-spurred Francolin chick
is similar.	119
254

Plate 9
CRANES. Crane chicks lack any distinctive pattern on the down. There is usually
some rufous-buff tint about the head, and the back is usually darker. They retain a
downy plumage until they have grown very large and appear rather incongruous.
1.	Common Crane, Grus grus.	page 126
2.	Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides virgo.	128
RAILS. Rail chicks are active young with black or dark brown down, and
unwebbed feet with long toes (but Coot toes have flange-like lobes along them). The
chicks can move and swim actively at an early age, but may remain in the nest for a
period.
3.	Coot, Fulica atra. The yellow and white down sheaths and waxy red tips are
lost later; larger young are grey with white on throat, front of neck and underside.
125
4.	Purple Gallinule, Porphyrio porphyrio. The white sheaths on the down are lost
on older young.	125
5.	Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus.	124
6.	Corncrake, Crex crex. The only chick of grassland with uniform brown down. 122
7.	Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus. The other small rails, of the genus Porzana, have
shorter bills but are also typically black with a slight greenish gloss, the gloss
being more prominent on Little and Baillon’s Crakes.	124
BUTTONQUAIL. The Buttonquail chick grows very quickly, and wing-feathers
begin to appear within the first few days.
8.	Small Buttonquail or Andalusian Hemipode, Tumix sylvaiica. This species
might be confused with small young of some of the typical gamebirds (see pl. 8).
122
256

Plate 10
WADER CHICKS (see also pl. 11). These young are typically long-legged and
slender-billed, but the bills, although beginning to show the characters of the species,
are usually shorter than those of adults. The basic down pattern of longitudinal
stripes is similar on many species, but on some the darker stripes are masked by small
white or pale buff spots formed by brush tips to some down filaments, and on others
the pattern is so broken as to appear as dark mottling. The down pattern of the crown
of the head may vary between species.
1.	Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus. Chick of Wood Sandpiper is similar but
lighter above, and instead of pale forehead and three streaks on the crown join-
ing on the nape, it has a dark line from bill over the head, broadening on the nape,
joined by dark streaks from bill to nape through the eye.	page 154
2.	Redshank, Tringa totanus. A huffish crown patch encircled by a dark band helps
to distinguish this species, but the Marsh Sandpiper is similar, and Spotted Red-
shank and Greenshank are also similar but patterned in greyish-white, tinted
buff, and with dark parts that are brown, not blackish-brown.	152
3.	Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleucos. One of the most sparingly marked
young waders.	155
4.	Terek Sandpiper, Tringa cinereus.	155
5.	Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola.	149
6.	Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago. The Great Snipe is similar but the dark
parts are blacker and light parts paler, and the dark streak from bill to eye is often
incomplete. The Jack Snipe is also similar, with buffish fore-neck, and bill to
fore-crown dark rufous without transverse pale line.	147
7.	Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus. The chick of the Grey Phalarope
is similar but Red-necked Phalarope is slightly buffer, with much less white
around the eye, rear of crown darker, and bill finer and darker, and the streaking
on the back is lighter and yellower.	156
8.	Turnstone, Arenaria interpres.	155
9.	Knot, Calidris canutus.	144
10.	Sanderling, Calidris alba.	145
11.	Dunlin, Calidris alpina. Chicks of the Purple Sandpiper are similar to those of
other calidrine sandpipers. Crown, ear-coverts and upperparts are mottled
yellowish-buff and blackish-brown with white spots; forehead, nape and sides
of head are light buff, a dark line runs from bill to crown, and from side of bill
above eye to nape, and there is a dark moustache streak.	144
12.	Temminck’s Stint, Calidris temminckii. The chick of the Little Stint is similar
but the nape is greyish-white with darker streaking, and the crown and upper-
parts are a warmer rufous-buff.	145
13.	Ruff, Philomachus pugnax.	146
14.	Broad-billed Sandpiper, Litnicola falcinellus.	146
258

Plate 11
WADERS, COURSERS AND PLOVERS (see also pl. 10). These young are typ-
ically long-legged and slender-billed, but the bills, although beginning to show the
characters of the adult, are usually shorter. The down patterns of most show dark lon-
gitudinal streaking on the back, but the coursers and plovers have a more mottled
dorsal plumage and usually show a pale nape.
1.	Oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus. The down pattern is only likely to be
confused with that of Avocet or Stilt, but the heavier build should be diagnostic.
page 130
2.	Crab Plover, Dromas ardeola. The gull-like chick remains in a burrow, fed by
the adults, until well grown, and after it leaves may be seen begging for food like
a gull chick.	132
3.	Stone Curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus. The young are well camouflaged against
a background of soil or fine stones. They are likely to be found on bare, semi-
arid or cultivated areas.	133
4.	Painted Snipe, Rostratula benghalensis.	133
5.	Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta. Even at a very early age a slight upward tilt of
the bill tip is apparent.	132
6.	Black-winged Stilt, Himantopus himantopus.	131
7.	Egyptian Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius. This is not a true plover and the chicks
differ from those of plover species in the way in which the dark-bordered white
nape band tapers to behind the eye instead of forming a broad collar round to the
throat.	134
8.	Cream-coloured Courser, Cursorius cursor. This might be confused with a
chick of the Collared Pratincole, but the paler nape should help to distinguish
it.	135
9.	Collared Pratincole, Glareola pratincola.	135
10.	Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus. The chick of the Red-wattled Lapwing also has a
dark band across the breast and the white collar is very broad; that of the
Sociable Plover has dark patches at the sides of the upper breast; and that of the
Spur-winged Plover lacks the black breast markings.	140
11.	Ringed Plover, Charadrius hiaticula. The chick of the Greater Sand Plover is sim-
ilar but with a darker forehead and single dark line along back; on the Little Ringed
Plover the dark line round the nape to the eyes continues over the fore-crown behind
the pale forehead; Kittlitz’s Plover lacks the dark nape and has paired converging
dark lines on the back; and the Kentish Plover lacks both the dark nape band and
the line from bill to eye. The Little Ringed Plover also has a yellow eye-rim. 137
12.	Dotterel, Eudmmias morinellus.	136
13.	Golden Plover, Pluvial is apricaria. The chick of the Grey Plover is similar but
is less yellow and more buff on the upperparts and has a bold white collar round
the nape.	140
14.	Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa lapponica. The chick of the Black-tailed Godwit is
similar, but pale parts of back and head are paler buffish-brown, and the narrow
dark brown streak from bill to eye is much bolder.	150
15.	Curlew, Numenius arquata. The Whimbrel is similar but the dark crown patch
divides to form two dark bands with a central buff streak, and the upperparts are
a paler buff.	151
260

Plate 12
TERNS. In their earliest stages tern chicks may not be easy to tell apart from gull
chicks, but they usually lack the very bold spotting or mottling on the head that most,
but not all, gulls possess (note also that Marsh Tern chicks are heavily marked). They
also tend to have shorter legs and more slender bills, and the adults are usually well
in evidence.
1.	Common Tern, Sterna hirundo. The Arctic Tern is similar but usually more heav-
ily marked and dark throat colour usually extends to chin and forehead, page 170
2.	Sandwich Tern, Sterna sandvicensis. The spiky down tufts, produced by clusters
of down with a single sheath, are also present on the young Roseate Tern. 172
3.	Bridled Tern, Sterna anaethetus.	172
4.	Black Tern, Chlidonias nigra. The chick of the White-winged Black Tern is
similar; that of the Whiskered Tern has warm to orange buff with a more broken
pattern.	175
5.	Caspian Tern, Sterna caspia. The Gull-billed Tern is similar but more heavily
patterned; the Swift Tern has pale grey to greenish down, finely speckled; and
the Lesser Crested Tern has whitish-grey down with black spots and mottling.
Down colouration can vary in all these species, and the markings can be sparse
or absent.	168
6.	Little Tern, Sterna albifrons.	172
GULLS (see also pl. 13). In their earliest stages gull chicks are not easily told apart
from young terns (see above), but as they grow the shorter, stouter bill becomes
apparent. They often have a bold, spotted or mottled down pattern.
7.	Little Gull, Larus minutus.	162
8.	Mediterranean Gull, Larus melanocephalus. This resembles the Sandwich and
Roseate Terns in having spiky down tufts.	163
9.	Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus. Chicks of Sabine’s Gull are deep
brownish-buff mottled with black, and buff below with some white; and the
Common Gull is pale or greyish-buff, lighter than the Black-headed Gull, with
a blue-grey bill.	162
10.	Herring Gull, Larus argentatus. The chicks of the closely related Yellow-
Legged and Armenian Gulls are similar in all respects, but with slightly more
subdued pattern. Lesser Black-Backed Gull is also closely similar but a spot on
the forehead is usually large and the head markings are heavier and well-defined.
Great Black-Backed Gull is lighter on the head than Herring Gull, with heavier
bill, and flatter, less angular crown, and much sturdier legs.	164
262

Plate 13
GULLS (continued, see also pl. 12).
1.	Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla. Some species are exceptional in lacking markings. The
Ivory Gull also has down that is unpattemed, grey with white tips. page 166
SKUAS. The chicks are uniform dull brown but otherwise resemble gull chicks,
being web-footed and tending to have short, stoutish bills. They leave the nest hol-
low and remain near by, and adults may attack intruders.
2.	Arctic Skua, Stercorarius parasiticus. The chick of the Long-tailed Skua is also
dark brown but a little paler and greyer, while that of the Pomarine Skua is pale
brown on the upperparts and paler greyish-brown beneath.	157
3.	Great Skua, Stercorarius skua. The down colour may vary from yellowish-
brown to pinkish-brown above, paler below.	157
AUKS. The chicks are downy, usually dark in colour, but the Razorbill has a pale
head and guillemot head down has pale sheaths. Feathers begin to appear within a
few days. The young do not leave the area of the nest (on a ledge or in a hole) until
fledging, but may be only partly grown when they leave for sea.
4.	Black Guillemot, Cepphus grylle.	178
5.	Northern Puffin, Fratercula arctica.	178
6.	Little Auk, Alle alle.	179
7.	Guillemot, Uria aalge. The chicks of Briinnich’s Guillemot are similar, but with
more white streaking due to down sheaths on head and neck, the plumage
sometimes tinted brown, and mottled on the underside.	177
8.	Razorbill, Alca torda.	177
264

Plate 14
PARROTS. Parrot nestlings are downy in some species, but in others, including
the present species, there is a vestige of down which is lost almost immediately.
1.	Ring-necked Parakeet, Psittacula krameri.	page 186
CUCKOOS. Most cuckoo nestlings are naked, but the non-parasitic coucal has
coarse down.
2.	Senegal Coucal, Centropus senegalensis.	188
3.	Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus. The mouth is orange and the gape flanges
yellow. The larger Great Spotted Cuckoo, usually occurring in crow and magpie
nests, is flesh-pink with a red mouth and white gape flanges.	187
SANDGROUSE. The smaller chicks have a complex reticulate pattern on back
and head which soon becomes less distinct and more broken as the chick rapidly
grows and feathers soon appear. Lichtenstein’s and Crowned Sandgrouse chicks
appear to have more uniform colouring.
4.	Pallas’s Sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus.	182
PIGEONS.
5.	Turtle Dove, Streptopelia turtur. Down is predominately white in the Laurel
Pigeon, and yellowish-white in Namaqua and Rufous Turtle Doves. Other species
have yellow or yellowish-buff down, ranging from whitish-yellow in Collared
Dove to warm yellowish-buff in Stock Dove.	185
OWLS. The down is thick and extends down the legs to the claws in most species.
6.	Snowy Owl, Nyctea scandiaca. The down is also white on the chick of Little
Pygmy, Scops, Striated Scops, Long-eared, Tawny and Hume’s Tawny Owl. The
down of Tengmalm’s Hawk, and Ural Owl is buffish-white. Eagle Owl is buffish-
white, more buff on forehead and under eyes, and on wings and rump. Great Grey
Owl is pale grey on the upperparts, white on the underparts.	192
7.	Short-eared Owl, As io flammeus. The down is also buffish on the chicks of the
African Marsh Owl; buffish-white with more buff on face, wings and rump on the
Eagle Owl; buffish-white on Tengmalm’s Owl; white with a buffish tint on the
Ural Owl; white with a yellowish-buff tint on the Hawk Owl; and pale grey on
the Great Grey Owl.	191
8.	Bam Owl, Tyto alba. Unlike the other species, this has two down coats, the first
short, white and sparse, the second a thicker, buffish-cream.	193
266
1
Plate 15
NIGHTJARS. The young remain at the rather exposed nest site and the mottled
down helps to conceal them, the mottling being caused by differences between the
colour of the tip and the base of down filaments.
1.	Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus. The down of the Red-necked Nightjar is pale
yellowish-brown, while that of the Egyptian Nightjar is pale buff. page 194
SWIFTS. Swift nestlings are hatched naked, but after about 10 days down grows
from the tips of sheaths that later produce the feathers.
2.	Swift, Apus apus. For the first 9 days it is naked as shown.	196
3.	Alpine Swift, Apus melba. The nestling is hatched naked, but as shown it later
develops a downy coat.	196
ROLLERS, KINGFISHERS AND BEE-EATERS. In these species the young
are naked and occupy a rather bare cavity. When the feathers grow a complete
plumage grows in sheath, as shown by the kingfisher in fig. 6, before these break in
a short time to release the feather vanes. The nest cavity may contain fish-bones in
kingfishers, and the chitinous remains of insects in the case of rollers and bee-eaters.
4.	Roller, Coracias garrulus.	200
5	and 6. Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis. These two show the naked stage and the plumage
in sheath. The White-breasted Kingfisher has a yellow and black bill. 197
7.	Bee-eater, Merops apiaster.	199
HOOPOES.
8.	Hoopoe, Upupa epops. Although related to the last group, the young are downy.
198
WOODPECKERS. The large, swollen, sensitive gape flanges, which when seen
from above project on either side of the head, and the apparently undershot jaw are
typical of young woodpeckers. The young of different species are not easily told apart.
9.	Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos major.	202
268
9
Plate 16
SONGBIRDS. A selection of typical passerine nestlings is shown. The coloured
patterns by each bird shows a simplified diagram of the colours of the open mouth
and gape flanges. It should be noted that bills which are very different in the adult
birds are less obvious in the nestlings.
1.	Treecreeper, Certhia familiaris. The down is confined to the head. On nuthatches
it extends over the back.	page 410
2.	Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus. The down is confined to the head and shoulders on this
species, but on most other Parus tits it may also extend along the back. 406
3.	Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus. The complicated mouth pattern is
formed by tiny white projections on the roof of the mouth, and pale edges to the
tongue.	400
4.	Robin, Erithacus rubecula. The dark down in this species helps to conceal the
young bird in the poorly lit nest site.	227
5	and 6. House Martin, Delichon urbica. The first down plumage appears to be
sparse in this species and to be followed by a thicker secondary growth. Two
stages are shown here.	214
7.	Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes.	435
8.	Skylark, Alauda arvensis. The long down on the back and head helps to conceal
the huddled young in the nest, but may be sparse or absent on the underside in the
various species of larks.	206
9.	Rook, Corvus frugilegus. The mouth is orange at first, becoming pinkish-red.
Down is very scanty on this species, but the Crow has more plentiful paler grey
down and dull pink gape flanges, the Raven has shorter but plentiful greyish-
brown down and a yellowish gape flange, and the Jackdaw has scanty grey down
and pale yellow gape flanges.	418
270
1
Plate 17
Approx. 5/6ths life-size
DIVERS. The eggs are large, rather elongated and blunt-ended. They have a
slightly granular or rough texture. They are usually olive-brown but may vary to
more buff or greener tints, and markings, although usually small, may be large and
few or rarely absent. The usual clutch is 2 eggs, laid in a hollow scrape by the water’s
edge, often with little or no nest material.
1.	Red-throated Diver, Gavia stellata. Eggs smaller and often more buff than
others.	page 45
2.	Black-throated Diver, Gavia arctica.	46
3.	Great Northern Diver, Gavia immer. The markings arc often sparser, and eggs
at times unmarked.	47
(White-billed Northern Diver, Gavia adamsii. Not shown here. Eggs similar to those
of Great Northern Diver, but often lighter in colour and more buff than brown, p.47)
GREBES. The eggs tend to be biconical - widest towards the middle and show-
ing a distinct taper at the larger as well as the narrower end. They are smooth but not
glossy and are white when first laid. Usually a clutch of 3-6 eggs on a nest of water-
weed, often floating in the water. The birds cover the eggs with weed when they leave
the nest, and the eggs soon become stained in shades of buff or brown, sometimes
deep brown.
4.	Great Crested Grebe, Podi ceps cristatus.	48
5.	Red-necked Grebe, Podiceps grisegena.	49
6.	Black-necked Grebe, Podiceps nigricollis.	51
7.	Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis.	51
8.	Slavonian Grebe, Podiceps auritus.	49
272
3
Plate 18
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS. The eggs are usually blunt-ended, and may
be almost elliptical in smaller species but show a more distinct taper in the larger
ones. The eggs are usually white, but in some species may show tiny reddish or vio-
let spots at the larger end. They are smooth and non-glossy, and only a single one is
laid, usually in a burrow or crevice by the sea, except in the case of the Fulmar which
nests on an open cliff ledge. Nest material is often sparse or absent, but burrow-
nesters may gradually accumulate nearby material over a period.
1.	Bulwer’s Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii.	page 53
2.	European Storm Petrel, Hydrobates pelagicus. The eggs may nave a zone of
fine reddish spots at the larger end.	55
3.	Madeiran Storm Petrel, Oceanodroma castro. The eggs may have a zone of
fine reddish spots at the larger end.	56
4.	Leach’s Storm Petrel, Oceanodroma leucorrhoa. The eggs usually have fine
reddish spots at the larger end.	55
5.	Frigate or White-faced Storm Petrel, Pelagodroma marina. The eggs usually
have fine reddish spots at the larger end.	56
6.	Fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis. The eggs usually	have	a	slightly	rough	surface
texture.	52
7.	Cory’s Shearwater, Calonectris diomedia.	53
8.	Little Shearwater, Puffinus assimilis.	55
9.	Manx Shearwater, Puffinus puffinus. Eggs	of	the	Yelkouan	Shearwater	and
Balearic Shearwater (not shown here) are similar, those of the latter being
slightly larger.	53
10.	Madeira or Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira. The eggs of the Cape Verde
Petrel (not shown here) are similar but very slightly larger.	52
274

6
4
5
7
9
10
Plate 19
Approx. 5/6ths life-size
CORMORANTS. The eggs are rather elongated and blunt-ended. The colour of
the true shell, which is of a pale blue or greenish-blue tint, is almost entirely con-
cealed by a rough surface layer of irregular thickness and of a chalk-like consistency,
although it is not composed of lime. This may become scratched when the egg is
moved by the birds so that the shell beneath is revealed. A clutch of about 3-6 eggs
is laid in a nest cup of twigs in a tree or pile of seaweed and debris on a cliff or rock
ledge. In the latter type of nest the eggs may become stained.
1.	Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo.
2.	Shag, Phalacrocorax aristotelis.
3.	Pygmy Cormorant, Phalacrocorax pygmaeus.
page 59
58
60
GANNETS. Like those of cormorants, the gannet’s egg has an uneven white sur-
face layer, thin enough in places to show the bluish shell beneath, and liable to
scratch or flake away during incubation. The nest is a pile of seaweed on a cliff or
island, and the outer layer of the egg may be stained buff or brown by the rotting nest
material. Nests are usually in close-packed colonies, a bill-stab apart.
4.	Gannet, Sula hassana.	56
DARTER. The darter egg also has an irregular white outer layer over a blue shell
which may show in places. The nest is a twig cup in a tree.
5.	Darter, Anhinga anhinga.	60
PELICANS. The eggs are large and blunt-ended. They have a rough, uneven chalk-
like layer which may become scratched and stained during nesting. The shell beneath
is white. The nest is a hollow on the ground with a variable amount of material.
6.	Dalmatian Pelican, Pelecanus crispus.	58
7.	White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus.	57
276
7
6
Plate 20
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
BITTERNS. The eggs are almost elliptical, with a slight taper towards each end.
They are smooth but non-glossy. Usually a clutch of 4-6 is laid in a shallow nest on
the ground in a reedbed, or in the case of the Little Bittern in branches above ground.
1.	Little Bittern, Ixobrychus minutus.	page 62
2.	Bittern, Botaurus stellaris. The eggs are sometimes speckled with darker brown
at the larger end.	61
HERONS. The eggs are rather blunt-ended, and smooth but non-glossy. Always
pale greenish-blue. Usually a clutch of 3-5, laid in a stick nest in a tree, normally a
shallow structure in smaller species, sometimes massive in larger ones; or larger
species may also make nests of reeds on the ground in reedbeds. The nests are often
in colonies.
3.	Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax.	63
4.	Squacco Heron, Ardeola ralloides.	63
5.	Striated Heron, Butorides striatus.	63
6.	Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis.	64
7.	Little Egret, Egretta garzetta.	65
8.	Great White Egret, Egretta alba.	64
9.	Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea.	66
10.	Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea.	66
IBISES AND SPOONBILL. The eggs are subelliptical or slightly biconical.
Smooth and non-glossy, or in the Glossy Ibis slightly glossy. Usually a clutch of 3-5
eggs laid in a rough nest of sticks or reed stems, in a reedbed or low tree, or in the
case of the Bald Ibis on a rocky ledge. Nests are usually in colonies.
11.	Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita. The egg markings occasionally include faint
reddish-brown blotches.	68
(Sacred Ibis, Threskiomis aethiopicus. Eggs not shown here, but like those of Bald
Ibis, white or very pale grey, unmarked or sparsely marked with sparse brown spots
or blotches, p. 69.)
12.	Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus.	67
13.	Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia. Eggs occasionally heavily marked. 67
278
12
13
11
Plate 21
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
FLAMINGO. The egg has an outer chalk-like layer, rather soft and becoming
scratched and stained during nesting. The shell -beneath is greenish-white. Nest a
mud mound by the edge of brackish water, the single egg in a hollow on top.
1.	Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber.
page 71
STORKS. Eggs smooth and at times glossy. Usually a clutch of 3-5 laid in a nest
formed from a great mass of sticks and earth with a shallow hollow. Usually on a
building and less frequently in a tree in the White Stork; usually in the large fork of
a tree in the Black Stork.
2.	White Stork, Ciconia ciconia.
3.	Black Stork, Ciconia nigra.
69
70
BRANTA GEESE. The eggs are non-glossy to slightly glossy, often with a finely
granular texture. Usually a clutch of 3-6 eggs in a large nest, varying from a shallow
hollow to a low mound of material. Nest lined with down: greyish-brown with white
centres and tips in the Canada Goose, dark grey with whitish centres in the Barnacle
Goose, and brownish-grey with pale centres in the Brent Goose.
4.	Canada Goose, Branta canadensis. Eggs vary from white to creamy-white. 77
5.	Barnacle Goose, Branta leucopsis.	77
6.	Brent Goose, Branta bemicla. Eggs vary from cream-coloured to yellowish. 76
280
5
6
Plate 22
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
GREY GEESE. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy, and may show a fine
granular texture. A clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a nest which may be a shal-
low scrape or low mound of plant material, lined with plant fragments, down and
small feathers. The down tufts are small and grey with pale centres in Grey-lag
Goose, brownish-grey with pale centres in Bean and Lesser White-fronted Goose,
brownish-grey with or without pale centres in Pink-footed Goose and pale grey in
White-fronted Goose.
1.	Grey-lag Goose, Anser anser.	page 74
2.	White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons.	75
3.	Lesser White-fronted Goose, Anser erythropus.	76
4.	Bean Goose, Anser fabilis.	74
(Bar-headed Goose, Anser indicus. Eggs not shown here, but similar in size to those
of Bean Goose, and creamy-white, p. 76.)
5. Pink-footed Goose, Anser brachyrhynchus.	75
282
4
5
Plate 23
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
The eggs are large, smooth and slightly glossy. The surface usually
SWANS.
shows a fine granular texture. The clutch, usually of 5-7 eggs, is laid in a nest formed
of a large heap of plant material just in or by water, with a shallow central hollow
containing a small amount of white down.
Mute Swan, Cygnus olor. The egg colour may vary from almost white to blue-
grey or blue-green.
Whooper Swan, Cygnus cygnus.
Bewick Swan, Cygnus bewickii.
1.
2.
3.
page 72
72
72
284
3
2
Plate 24
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
SHELDUCKS. Eggs blunt-ended, smooth and slightly glossy. Clutch, usually of
8-12 eggs but fewer in Egyptian Goose, laid in a nest hollow lined with down, in a
hole or a hollow tree. The down tufts are grey, tinted brown and of varying shades in
the Shelduck, and tinted warmer brown in the Ruddy Shelduck.
1.	Shelduck, Tadorna tadoma.	page 77
2.	Ruddy Shelduck, Tadoma ferruginea.	78
3.	Egyptian Goose, Alopochen aegyptiacus.	78
DABBLING DUCKS (see also pl. 25). The eggs are smooth, with a waxy rather
than a glossy surface. The clutch, usually of 7-12 eggs, is laid in a nest in a variety
of sites, but usually on the ground near water, in a hollow lined with down. Down
tufts are light brown with a pale centre in the Pintail and Wigeon, small and dark with
pale centres in the Teal, smaller still with white centres and white tips in the
Garganey, dark with pale centres and tips in the Gadwall, and brown with pale cen-
tres and tips in the Mallard.
4.	Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos. The egg colour varies to pale green, bluish-green,
pale blue, buffish-green or creamy with a greenish tint.	79
5.	Gadwall, Anas strepera. The egg colour varies from cream to very pale green. 79
6.	Garganey, Anas querquedula.	80
7.	Wigeon, Anas penelope.	80
8.	Pintail, Anas acuta. The egg colour varies from yellowish-cream to greenish or
bluish tints.	82
9.	Teal, Anas crecca. The egg colour varies from pale cream to pale olive-buff. 80
286
8
7
Plate 25
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
DABBLING DUCKS (see also pl. 24). The eggs are smooth with a waxy rather than
a glossy surface. The clutch, usually of 9-12 eggs, is laid in a hollow on the ground in
vegetation near water and lined with plant material and down. The down tufts are
brown with white centres in the Shoveler, light grey-brown in the Marbled Teal.
2.	Marbled Teal, Anas angustirostris. Egg colour varies from creamy to pale
yellowish-buff.	page 82
3.	Shoveler, Anas clypeata. The egg colour varies from creamy-buff to olive. 82
DIVING DUCKS. The eggs are large for the size of the bird. They are smooth and
non-glossy. The clutch, usually of 6-12 eggs, is laid in a hollow on the ground in
vegetation near water and lined with down. The down tufts are brownish with small
pale centres in the Red-crested Pochard, sooty-brown with indistinct pale centres in
the Tufted Duck and Scaup, large and brown with pale centres in the Pochard, and
brownish-grey with small light centres and pale tips in the Ferruginous Duck.
1. Pochard, Aythya ferina. The egg colour varies from green to greenish-grey, or
green-tinted buff.	84
4.	Red-crested Pochard, Netta rufina. The egg colour varies from light creamy to
pale green, and may vary within the clutch.	83
5.	Tufted Duck, Aythya fuligula. The colour varies from pale green to greenish-
grey.	83
6.	Ferruginous Duck, Aythya nyroca. The egg colour varies from creamy-yellow
to yellowish-buff or yellowish-grey.	84
7.	Scaup, Aythya tnarila. The egg colour varies from green to olive-grey. 84
WOOD DUCKS. Eggs smooth and glossy. The clutch, usually of 9-12 eggs, is
laid in a hollow in a tree lined with white down tufts.
8.	Mandarin Duck, Aix galericulata.	79
SEA DUCKS (see also pl. 26). Eggs blunt-ended, smooth and slightly glossy. The
clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a hollow lined with a thick down layer on the
ground in a sheltered spot by the coast or on a small island. The down tufts are light
grey-brown with poorly defined pale centres and tips.
9.	Eider, Somateria mollissima. The egg colour may vary through green, olive,
greyish, bluish or buffish.	85
288
8
Plate 26
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
TREE-NESTING DUCKS (see also pl. 27). The eggs are smooth and slightly
glossy. The clutch, usually of 6-12 eggs, is laid in a tree-hole, rock crevice, burrow
or nest-box. The nest is lined with down. The down tufts are greyish-white in the
Goldeneye, white in Barrow’s Goldeneye, and very pale with whitish centres in the
Smew.
2.	Barrow’s Goldeneye, Bucephala islandica.	page 87
3.	Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula.	86
4.	Smew, Mergus albellus.	88
SEA DUCKS (see also pl. 25). The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy. The
clutch, usually of 5-9 eggs, is laid in a hollow lined with down, on the ground in veg-
etation by fresh or salt water. The down tufts are dark grey-brown with paler centres
in the Long-tailed Duck, dark brown with indistinct pale centres in the Velvet Scoter
and Common Scoter, light brown with pale centres in the Harlequin Duck, sooty-
brown with indistinct pale centres and with some white tufts in the King Eider, and
very dark brown with some white tufts in Steller’s Eider.
1.	Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hyemalis. The egg colour varies to yellowish, or
tinted with olive or green.	87
5.	Velvet Scoter, Melanitta fusca. The egg colour varies from pale creamy to buff. 86
6.	Common Scoter, Melanitta nigra. The egg colour varies from creamy to creamy-
buff.	86
7.	Harlequin Duck, Histrionicus histrionicus. The	egg colour	varies	from	pale
creamy to pale buff.	85
8.	Steller’s Eider, Polysticta stelleri.	The	egg colour	varies	from	greenish	or
yellowish-olive to olive-buff.	85
9.	King Eider, Somateria spectabilis.	85
290

1
Plate 27
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
TREE-NESTING DUCKS (SAWBILLS) (see also pl. 26). The eggs are smooth
and slightly glossy. Clutches, usually of 7-12 eggs, are laid in tree-holes, or cavities
or hollows in banks, among stones or under bushes. The nest hollow is lined with
down. Down tufts are large and pale grey in the Goosander, and darker, brown-tinged
and with pale centres and tips in the Merganser.
1.	Rcd-breastcd Merganser, Mergus serrator. The colour varies from dull creamy
to greenish-buff.	page 88
2.	Goosander, Mergus merganser. The colour varies from creamy-white to
yellowish.	87
STIFFTAIL DUCKS. Eggs large for the size of the bird, with a coarsely granu-
lar texture. Clutch, usually of 5-12 eggs, in a nest among vegetation by water, lined
with down.
3.	White-headed Duck, Oxyura leucocephala.	88
(Ruddy Duck, Oxyura jamaicensis. Eggs not shown here, but similar to those of the
White-headed Duck although slightly smaller. Dull white, with a coarsely granular
texture, p. 89.)
OSPREYS. The eggs are subelliptical with little taper, and smooth and slightly
glossy. The clutch, usually of 3, is laid in a massive stick nest on a tree or rock
outcrop by fresh or salt water.
4.	Osprey, Pandion haliaetus. The pattern varies considerably but usually shows
some large areas of reddish or dark brown blotching. The yellowish ground colour
is typical.	89
HONEY BUZZARDS. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy. The clutch, usu-
ally of 1-3, is laid in a stick cup high in a tree, sometimes the old nest of another
bird, lined with leafy twigs.
5.	Honey Buzzard, Pernis apivorus. The pattern varies, but heavy markings are
very typical.	99
KITES. The eggs are rather rounded, smooth but non-glossy. The clutch, usually of
2-3 (4 in the Black-winged Kite), is laid in a stick nest in a tree, or on a building or
among rocks in the Black Kite. Nests of the larger species are lined with a variety of
rubbish.
6.	Black-shouldered Kite, Elanus caeruleus. Pattern varies considerably but eggs
are usually very heavily marked.	92
7.	(a-b) Red Kite, Milvus milvus. Eggs usually sparingly marked as in the two
examples shown, but occasionally heavily blotched.	92
8.	Black Kite, Milvus migrans. Eggs are very variably marked, usually with small
blotches or spots.	91
292
7b
Plate 28
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
SEA EAGLES. The eggs are slightly glossy or non-glossy, with a granular or
rough texture. The clutch, usually of 2 eggs, is laid in a massive nest of sticks and
other material with a sparse lining, on a tree or rock outcrop near water.
1.	Pallas’s Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus.	page 91
2.	White-tailed Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla.	90
SPARROWHAWKS. The eggs are non-glossy, the larger Goshawk eggs being
rough-textured. The clutch, usually of 2-5, is laid in a rather untidy, shallow stick
nest lined with leafy twigs, or with a variety of debris in the Dark Chanting Goshawk.
3.	Shikra, Accipiter badius. Sometimes a pattern of faint	spots is present.	97
4.	Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis.	97
5.	Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus. Eggs are variably	marked,	with	extensive
blotching at times.	96
6.	Dark Chanting Goshawk, Melierax metabates.	98
BUZZARDS (see also pl. 29). The eggs are smooth but non-glossy, variably but
usually finely marked with small blotches. The clutch, usually of 2-4 eggs, is laid in
a bulky cup of sticks, lined with leafy twigs, in a tree or on a ledge of a rocky
outcrop.
7.	Rough-legged Buzzard, Buteo lagopus.	99
8.	Long-legged Buzzard, Buteo rufinus.	99
294
6
8
Plate 29
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
BUZZARDS (see also pl. 28). The eggs are smooth but non-glossy. The clutch,
usually of 2-4 eggs, is laid in a bulky cup of sticks lined with leafy twigs; in a tree
or on a ledge of a rocky outcrop.
1.	(a-b) Common Buzzard, Buteo buteo. The patterns are very variable, from red-
dish blotches, usually rather small, to almost White eggs with faint purple or grey
markings as shown in these two examples.	page 98
EAGLES (see also pl. 30). The eggs are smooth but non-glossy. Markings tend to
be sparse, faint or absent. The clutch, usually of 2, is laid in a large cup of sticks,
lined with leafy twigs, on a tree or on a rock ledge of an outcrop.
2.	Booted Eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus. The egg is variably patterned with brown
markings.	100
3.	Spotted Eagle, Aquila clanga. The brown and grey markings are usually sparse,
sometimes absent.	102
4.	Bonelli’s Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus. The eggs are variably patterned with
brown and lilac.	100
5.	Tawny Eagle, Aquila rapax. The eggs are variably patterned with brown or
reddish-brown, or unmarked.	103
6.	Lesser Spotted Eagle, Aquila pomarina.	102
7.	Eastern Imperial Eagle, Aquila heliaca. The ground colour varies from white to
pale buff, sparsely marked with brown, grey and purple.	101
296
6
7
Plate 30
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
EAGLES (see also pl. 29). The eggs are smooth but non-glossy. Usually a clutch
of 2 in a large nest of sticks lined with leafy twigs, on a tree or on a rocky ledge of
an outcrop.
1.	Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos. The markings are usually small and may be
profuse, or may be absent. The amount of marking may vary between eggs in a
clutch.	page 100
VULTURES (see also pl. 31). The eggs are varied, with non-glossy, rough or
finely textured surfaces. They are usually marked with variable small blotches. The
clutch, usually of 1-2 eggs, is laid in a rough stick nest, often massive, lined with
various debris. It may be on a tree, or the ledge of a rock outcrop or cliff. They are
often sociable breeders.
2.	Lammergeier, Gypaetus barbatus. The eggs often have a buffish ground colour.
93
3.	Egyptian Vulture, Neophron percnopterus. The eggs are very variable and may
be completely masked by extensive blotching.	93
4.	Lappet-faced Vulture, Torgos tracheliotos.	94
S.	Black Vulture, Aegypius rnonachus. The markings are variable and may be
profuse at times.	94
298
4
5
Plate 31
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
VULTURES (see also pl. 30). The eggs are varied, with non-glossy rough or finely
textured surfaces. They are usually marked with variable small blotches. The clutch,
usually of 1-2 eggs, is laid in a rough stick nest, often massive, lined with various
debris. It may be on a tree, or the ledge of a rock outcrop or cliff. They are often
sociable breeders.
1.	Griffon Vulture, Gypsfulvus. The egg is often unmarked.	page 94
SHORT-TOED EAGLE. A single smooth egg is laid in a rather shallow nest of
thin twigs, usually at the top of a low tree, but sometimes on a higher tree, or on a
cliff ledge. It is lined with small leafy twigs.
2.	Short-toed Eagle, Circaetus gallicus.	93
HARRIERS. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy, and are typically bluish-white.
Clutches, usually of 4-5 eggs, are laid in either a shallow, sometimes sparse nest in
a fairly open site on the ground, or, in the Marsh Harrier, in a more substantial nest
in a reedbed.
3.	Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus. The eggs are usually unmarked, rarely with light
brown blotches.	95
4.	Pallid Harrier, Circus macrourus. The eggs may be unmarked, or occasionally
with small pale brown spots, or more heavily blotched, as shown here. 96
5.	Montagu’s Harrier, Circus pygargus. The eggs may rarely have small brown
markings.	96
6.	Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosas. The unmarked eggs may show staining
from nest material.	95
FALCONS (see also pl. 32). The eggs are typically rather rounded, non-glossy and
usually heavily freckled overall with a reddish or reddish-brown tint. No nest is
made, but clutches of 2-3 or 3-4 eggs are laid in shallow hollows on rock ledges, or
in cavities in broken trees, or on the ground, or in large nests of other birds.
7.	Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus.	104
8.	Saker Falcon, Falco cherrug.	104
9.	Lanner Falcon, Falco biarmicus.	104
300
8
9
7
Plate 32
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
FALCONS (see also pl. 31). The eggs are typically rather rounded, non-glossy,
and usually freckled overall with a reddish or reddish-brown tint. No nest is made,
but clutches of 2-3 or 3-4 eggs are laid in shallow hollows on rock ledges, cavities
in broken trees, on the ground, or in large nests of other birds.
1.	Peregrine, Falco peregrinus. The eggs are usually heavily marked, often with
some underlying blotches.	page 105
2.	Barbary Falcon, Falco pelegrinoides. The eggs tend to be paler, more pink, with
sparser dark markings.	105
3.	Hobby, Falco subbuteo.	106
4.	Eleonora’s Falcon, Falco eleonorae. The eggs are lighter in colour than those
of most falcons.	106
5.	(a-b) Merlin, Falco columbarius. The two eggs shown are typical examples of
sparsely and heavily marked types.	107
6.	Red-footed Falcon, Falco vespertinus. The pattern is variable.	108
7.	Lesser Kestrel, Falco naumanni. The eggs are variably marked and usually
paler than the Kestrel’s.	107
8.	(a-b) Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus. The two examples show typical heavily and
sparsely marked eggs and indicate the possible range of pattern.	107
GROUSE (see also pl. 33). The eggs are smooth and glossy, more heavily pat-
terned in species nesting in the open, more finely patterned in species nesting in some
cover. The clutch, usually of 5-10 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow on the ground,
with a sparse lining of nearby plant material.
9.	(a) Willow Grouse, Lagopus lagopus, and (b) Red Grouse, L. I. scoticus. There
is no consistent difference between the eggs of the typical and Scottish races, and
the markings shown may occur in either. Egg colour may vary from yellowish
to light rufous and the markings are variable.	109
10.	Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus.	108
11.	Hazel Hen, Tetrastes bonasia. The egg markings are variable.	110
302
11
9а
9b
10
Plate 33
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
GROUSE (see also pl. 32). The eggs are smooth and glossy, heavily patterned in
species nesting in the open, more finely marked in species nesting in some cover. The
clutch, usually of 5-10 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow on the ground with a sparse
lining of nearby plant material.
1.	Black Grouse, Tetrao tetrix.	page 110
2.	Caucasian Black Grouse, Tetrao mlokosiewiczi.	Ill
3.	Capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus.	Ill
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS (see also pl. 34). The eggs are smooth and glossy. In
general they tend to have fine overall markings in species nesting in fairly open sites,
and tend to be unmarked in species nesting in more concealed sites. The clutch,
usually from 5-7 or 8-12 or more eggs, is laid in a hollow on the ground, usually
concealed to some degree by herbage, and sparsely lined with nearby vegetation.
4.	Caucasian Snowcock, Tetraogallus caucasicus. The egg colour varies from
pale yellowish to blue-grey or pale green.	118
5.	Caspian Snowcock, Tetraogallus caspius.	119
6.	Rock Partridge, Alectoris graeca.	117
7.	Chukar, Alectoris chukar.	118
8.	Barbary Partridge, Alectoris barbara.	118
9.	Red-legged Partridge, Alectoris rufa.	117
10.	Sand Partridge, Ammoperdix heyi. The colour is usually sandy-buff, but may
show a greyish or pinkish tint.	120
11.	See-see Partridge, Ammoperdix griseogularis. The colour may vary from
creamy-white to pale yellowish-buff.	120
12.	Black Francolin, Francolinus francolinus.	119
304


Plate 34
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
TYPICAL GAMEBIRDS (see also pl. 33). The eggs are smooth and glossy. In
general they tend to have fine overall markings in species nesting in fairly open sites,
and to be unmarked in species nesting in more concealed sites. A clutch, varying usu-
ally from 5-15 eggs, is laid in a hollow on the ground, usually concealed to some
degree by herbage, and sparsely lined with nearby vegetation.
1.	Common or Grey Partridge, Perdix perdix. The egg colour may vary through
buff, brown and olive.	page 116
2.	(a-c) Quail, Coturnix coturnix. Variably patterned in shades of brown. The three
examples show typical variations in markings.	120
3.	Double-spurred Francolin, Francolinus bicalcaratus. The eggs are finely
pitted.	119
4.	Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus. The egg colour is usually olive-brown, but may
vary to brown, olive or blue-grey.	112
5.	Helmeted Guineafowl, Numida meleagris. The egg surface is finely pitted.
Sometimes marked with fine dark spots.	121
CRANES (see also pl. 35). The eggs are large, smooth and slightly glossy or non-
glossy. A clutch, usually of 2 eggs, is laid in a nest on the ground in an open site, a
large heap of vegetation with a shallow central hollow. In the Demoiselle the nest
may be a hollow with little or no lining.
6.	Common Crane, Grus grus. The egg colour varies from blue-grey through buff
and olive to reddish-brown, and the markings from reddish-brown to dark brown
or purple.	126
7.	Siberian Crane, Grus leucogeranus. The ground colour may be greenish or
white.	127
306
6
7
Plate 35
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
BUSTARDS. The eggs are rather blunt-ended, smooth and glossy, with markings
that are often a little elongated. The clutch, usually 1-2 eggs in larger species and 3-4
in smaller ones, is laid in a slight hollow in the ground with no nest material added.
1.	Great Bustard, Otis tarda. The egg colour varies from pale grey or greyish-olive
to greenish, olive-green or olive-brown.	page 128
2.	Little Bustard, Otis tetrax. The egg colour varies from greenish-olive to olive-
brown.	129
3.	Houbara Bustard, Chlamydotis undulata.	129
CRANES (see also pl. 34). The eggs are large, smooth and slightly glossy or non-
glossy. A clutch, usually of 2 eggs, is laid in a nest on the ground in the open, a large
heap of vegetation with a central hollow; in the case of the Demoiselle the nest may
be a shallow hollow with little or no lining.
4.	Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides virgo. The egg colour varies from olive-grey to
olive-buff, pale buff or buffish-brown.	128
RAILS (see also pl. 36). The eggs are smooth and moderately glossy. A clutch,
usually of 6-12 eggs, is laid in a nest which is usually a substantial mound or cup of
plant material hidden in marsh or waterside vegetation. The Corncrake is exceptional
in that it nests in drier grassland.
5.	Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus. The egg colour varies from creamy-white to very
pale creamy-buff.	124
6.	Spotted Crake, Porzana porzana.	123
7.	Little Crake, Porzana parva.	123
8.	Bai lion’s Crake, Porzana pusilia.	124
9.	Corncrake, Crex crex. The egg colour varies from reddish-buff to greenish-grey.
122
308
5
6
Plate 36
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
RAILS (see also pl. 35). The eggs are smooth and moderately glossy. The clutch,
usually 6-12 eggs, is laid in a nest that is usually a substantial mound or cup of plant
material hidden in marsh or waterside vegetation.
1.	(a-b) Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus. The egg colour may vary from greyish-
white to pale buff or greenish. The two examples show the variation in the type
of markings.	page 124
2.	Purple Gallinule, Porphyrio porphyrio. The ground colour varies from creamy
to buff, or sometimes shows a reddish suffusion; the amount of markings also
varies.	125
3.	Coot, Fulica atra.	125
4.	Crested Coot, Fulica	cristata.	126
BUTTONQUAIL. The eggs are smooth and glossy, and often rather short and
squat. The markings are dense but variable. The clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is laid in
a sparsely lined hollow on the ground, well concealed in vegetation.
5.	Small Buttonquail or Andalusian Hemipode, Turnix sylvatica.	122
OYSTERCATCHERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy, and less pyriform in
shape than those of most waders. Usually a clutch of 3 eggs in a bare hollow in a
variety of open sites, lined with small pieces of nearby debris.
6.	(a-c) Oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus. The egg colour varies from greyish
to yellowish or buffish, more rarely greenish or brownish. Markings are usually bold
and evenly distributed, but are variable, three typical forms being shown. 130
SHORE PLOVERS (see also pl. 37). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy or
slightly glossy, and pyriform. The clutch, usually 4 eggs, is laid in a hollow, usually
on shingle or sand, where the eggs are well camouflaged. The nest hollow may be
lined with small pebbles, debris or plant fragments.
7.	(a-c) Ringed Plover, Charadrius hiaticula. Both colour and markings are very
variable. Colour varies from bluish-grey through buff to a yellowish tint, and
markings from small and profuse speckling to larger and sparser blotching. The
examples shown illustrate these variations.	137
8.	Little Ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius. The egg colour varies from stone to
sandy or brownish-buff, tinted bluish-green when fresh. Markings are usually
profuse, as shown, but may be larger and more sparse.	138
310
8b
8с
8а
Plate 37
Approx. 4/5ths life-size
PLOVERS (see also pls 36 and 38). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy, varying
from oval to pyriform, but usually less markedly pyriform than those of the typical
waders. The clutch, usually of 3-4 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow on open ground,
and sparsely lined or unlined.
1.	Kittlitz’s Plover, Charadrius pecuarius. The clutch is usually of 2 eggs.
page 139
2.	(a-b) Kentish Plover, Charadrius alexandrinus. The egg colour may vary to
stone, buff or sandy, or be tinted olive, brown or red. Two typical variations in
markings are shown.	139
3.	Greater Sand Plover, Charadrius leschenaultii.	137
4.	(a-c) Dotterel, Eudrotnias morinellus. The egg colour varies from pale buff to
yellowish, greenish or reddish-buff. Markings are variable, as shown, and may be
reddish-brown at times.	136
5.	(a-c) Golden Plover, Pluvialis apricaria. The egg colour varies from buff to pale
yellow, or is tinted reddish-brown or olive. Reddish-brown markings may also be
present, as shown on the second example.	140
6.	(a-b) Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola. The egg colour varies from pale buff to
tints of brownish, reddish or greenish; variable markings.	140
7.	White-tailed Lapwing, Vanellus leucurus. The egg colour is sometimes tinted
olive.	143
312
1	2a	2b
6а
6b
Plate 38
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
PLOVERS (see also pls 36 and 37). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy, usually
less consistently pyriform than those of typical waders. The clutch, usually of 3-4
eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow on open ground, sparsely lined or unlined.
1.	Sociable Plover, Vanellus gregarius. The egg colour varies from yellowish-buff
to warm buff or olive, and the markings are variable.	page 143
2.	(а-d) Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus. The eggs may vary from creamy-buff or stone
to tints of brown, olive, blue or reddish. The markings vary and exceptionally
scribbling occurs, as on the second example.	140
3.	Red-wattled Lapwing. Vanellus indicus. The egg colour may be greenish, and
the markings vary.	142
4.	(a-b) Spur-winged Plover, Vanellus spinosus. The egg colour varies from
creamy-buff to pale olive. The markings vary.	142
WADERS (see also pls 39-41). The eggs are smooth, glossy and usually pyriform.
A clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow variably lined with vegeta-
tion, in a variety of sites - exposed, or set against a plant tuft or stone, or concealed
in vegetation, sometimes pulled together over the nest.
5.	(a-b) Turnstone, A renaria interpres. The egg colour varies from bluish-green to
light olive. The markings are variable, and may be elongated and slanting. 155
6.	(a-b) Little Stint, Calidris niinuta. The egg colour varies from very pale olive to
buff. The markings vary, and typical examples are shown.	145
7.	(a-b) Temminck’s Stint, Calidris temmincki. The egg colour tends to be paler,
and heavy blotching is rarer than in the Little Stint.	145
314
6а
6b
7а
7b
Plate 39
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
WADERS (see also pls 38, 40 and 41). The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually
pyriform and cryptically patterned. A clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is laid in a shallow
hollow lined with vegetation, in a variety of sites - exposed, or set against a stone,
log or plant tuft, or concealed in vegetation which may be pulled together over the
nest.
1.	(a-b) Purple Sandpiper, Calidris maritima. The egg colour varies from bluish-
green to olive, and the markings are variable.	page 146
2.	(a-b) Ruff, Philomachus pugnax. Some typical variations in markings are
shown.	146
3.	(a-b) Dunlin, Calidris alpina. The egg colour varies from very pale olive to
blue-green. The markings are very variable.	144
4.	Sanderling, Calidris alba.	145
5.	Broad-billed Sandpiper, Limicola falcinellus.	146
6.	(a-b) Spotted Redshank, Tringa erythropus. There is some variation in the
markings, as shown.	151
7.	(a-b) Redshank, Tringa totanus. The egg colour is pale to creamy-buff; occa-
sionally faint olive to deep buff. There is some variation in the markings, as shown
in the two examples.	152
8.	Marsh Sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis. The egg colour is usually cream to pale
creamy-buff, sometimes deep buff or very pale olive. The markings are variable.
153
9.	(a-c) Greenshank, Tringa nebularia. The egg colour is pale, tinted buff or olive,
and variably marked as shown in the examples.	153
316
2b
ua	ьь
8
9a
9b
9c
Plate 40
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
WADERS (see also pls 38, 39 and 41). The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually
pyriform and cryptically patterned. A clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is laid in a shallow
hollow lined with vegetation, in a variety of sites - exposed, or set against a stone,
log or plant tuft, or concealed in vegetation sometimes pulled together over the nest.
The Green Sandpiper, and occasionally the Wood Sandpiper, may nest on a raised
site such as an old bird’s nest or squirrel’s drey.
1.	(a-b) Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus. The egg colour varies from faint
green to olive-buff.	page 154
2.	(a-b) Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola. The egg colour is similar to that of the
Green Sandpiper, but the markings are usually larger and bolder, as shown. 154
3.	(a-c) Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleuca. The markings vary in size and
distribution as shown.	155
4.	Terek Sandpiper, Tringa cinereus.	155
5.	(a-b) Curlew, Numenius arquata. The egg colour varies from light green to dull
olive, as shown. The markings are variable.	151
6.	(a-b) Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa. The egg colour varies from light
green and olive to deeper green, olive and buff. The markings are usually
indistinct.	150
7.	Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa lapponica. The egg colour varies from light to
medium olive and green. The markings may be indistinct and similar to those
shown for the Black-tailed Godwit, but are often bold and contrasting as shown
here.	150
318
1a	1b	2а	2b
6а
6b
7
Plate 41
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
WADERS (see also pls 38-40). The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually pyriform
and cryptically patterned. A clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow lined
with vegetation, in a variety of sites - exposed, or set against a stone, log or plant
tuft, or concealed in vegetation sometimes pulled together over the nest.
1.	(a-c) Whimbrel, Nutnenius phaeopus. The egg colour varies from pale green
through olive, olive-buff and buff. The markings are variable. The examples
show the range of variation.	page 151
2.	(a-b) Woodcock, Scolopax rusticolus. The egg colour is usually cream to pale
buff, rarely pale creamy-buff to pinkish, with some variation in markings as
shown.	149
3.	(a-b) Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago. The egg colour varies from pale
green through olive to buff. Exceptionally very pale. The markings are variable.
The second example shows the slanting elongation apparent on eggs of some
waders and terns	147
4. (a-b) Great Snipe, Gallinago media. The egg colour is usually drab pale buff
or greyish, exceptionally greenish or olive.	148
5.	Pintailed Snipe, Gallinago stenura.	148
6.	Jack Snipe, Lymnocryptes minimus. The fine markings are sometimes so dense
that the shell has a dark, brownish appearance.	148
7.	Grey Phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius. The eggs of both phalaropes are very
similar.	156
8.	Red-necked Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus.	156
9.	Black-winged Stilt, Himantopus himantopus.	131
10.	Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta.	132
320
1с
9
10
Plate 42
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
STONE CURLEW. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy, blunt-ended and
rather rounded. A clutch, usually of 2 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow in a very open
site, unlined or lined with small fragments of nearby debris.
1.	(a-b) Stone Curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus. The markings are variable and
often elongated.	page 133
2.	Senegal Thick-knee, Burhinus senegalensis. The eggs resemble those of the
Stone Curlew, with similar variable markings. Exceptionally they may be pink
and reddish-brown.	134
COURSERS AND PRATINCOLES. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy
(glossy in the Egyptian Plover), and rather blunt-ended. A clutch, usually of 3 eggs,
is laid in a slight hollow or depression, unlined, in an open site. In the pratincoles
nesting is usually sociable.
3.	Cream-coloured Courser, Cursorius cursor.	135
4.	Egyptian Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius. The egg colour varies from cream to
warm buff.	134
5.	Collared Pratincole, Glareola pratincola. The egg colour varies from cream to
tints of green and buff.	135
6.	Black-winged Pratincole, Glareola nordmanni. The egg colour is usually more
olive or green than that of the Collared Pratincole.	136
GULLS AND SKUAS (see also pls 43-44). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy
or slightly glossy, with a slightly granular surface evident on the larger eggs. A
clutch, usually of 2 or 3 eggs, is laid in a hollow, usually unlined or sparsely lined in
the skuas, more substantial in the gulls, on tundra, islands, sand-banks or marshes.
Nesting is often sociable or colonial.
7.	Little Gull, Larus minutus. The egg colour varies from light olive-green to buff,
rarely pale green or cream. The darker buff type is shown. Markings are variable.
162
8.	Sabine’s Gull, Larus sabini. The eggs are distinctive - deep olive to buffish-
olive and less boldly marked.	163
9.	Arctic Skua, Stercorarius parasiticus. The egg colour varies from olive to deep
buff or brown.	157
10.	Great Skua, Stercorarius skua. The egg colour varies from olive-grey to buff
and reddish-brown, and the markings are very variable.	157
11.	Pomarine Skua, Stercorarius pomarinus. The egg colour varies from buff to
warm brown.	158
12.	Long-tailed Skua, Stercorarius longicaudatus.	158
322
10
11
12
Plate 43
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
GULLS (see also pls 42 and 44). The eggs are smooth, and non-glossy or slightly
glossy, with a slightly granular surface evident on the larger eggs. A clutch, usually
of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a nest formed from an accumulation of plant material or sea-
weed, large at times although sometimes sparse in species of warmer climates. The
nest is on a rock ledge, or the top of a stack or small island, on coastal stretches of
shingle or sand, or on marshland.
1.	Mediterranean Gull, Larus melanocephalus. The egg colour varies from pale
cream to faint yellow or huffish	page 163
2.	Great Black-headed Gull, Larus ichthyaetus. The egg colour may be creamy, or
tinted yellow, buff, green or olive.	160
3.	Slender-billed Gull, Larus genei. The egg colour varies: usually whitish, but at
times tinted yellow, pink or buff. The markings are very variable.	159
4.	Lesser Black-backed Gull, Larus fuse us. The egg colour varies: usually light
olive-buff, greenish or buff, rarely greenish-blue to deep buff. The markings are
very variable.	164
5.	Herring Gull, Larus argentatus. The egg colour is usually light olive, green or
buff, but may vary from whitish-blue to deep brownish-buff. The markings are
very variable in size and distribution. Yellow-legged Gull and Armenian Gull (not
shown here) have similar eggs.	164
6.	(a-c) Black-headed Gull, Larus ridihundus. The egg colour shows similar vari-
ation to that of the Herring Gull. The markings show greater variation and
extreme examples may have a whitish tip and blackish-brown cap. Three typical
varieties are shown.	162
324
6а
6b
6с
Plate 44
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
GULLS (see also pls 42-43). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy or only slightly
glossy, with a slightly granular surface evident on the larger eggs. A clutch, usually
of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a nest formed from an accumulation of plant material or sea-
weed, large at times, but usually sparse in warmer climates. The nest-site is on a rock
ledge, or the top of a stack or small island, on a coastal stretch of shingle or sand, or
on marshland.
1.	White-eyed Gull, Larus leucophthalmus. The egg colour may be creamy-olive,
pale olive-buff or pale buff.	page 160
2.	Glaucous Gull, Larus hyperboreus. The egg colour varies from light or creamy-
olive to buff, exceptionally bluish-white. The markings are very variable. 165
3.	Greater Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus. The egg colour varies from pale
olive to greenish or olive-buff, exceptionally whitish-blue or deeper buff. 165
4.	Common Gull, Larus canus. The egg colour varies from light olive to green or
buff, exceptionally bluish-white to deep brownish-buff. The markings vary in
size and distribution.	166
5.	Audouin’s Gull, Larus audouiniL The egg colour varies slightly from olive-buff
to olive.	159
6.	Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla. The egg colour varies from cream to pale green, yel-
low, stone, buff or olive, exceptionally yellow or pinkish-buff. The markings are
very variable.	166
MARSH TERNS. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy. A clutch, usually of 3
eggs, is laid on a rather sketchy nest on floating aquatic vegetation or heaps of plants
in the water, or on marsh vegetation at the water’s edge.
7.	Black Tern, Chlidonias niger. The egg colour varies from creamy to pale
yellow, light buffish or brown.	175
8.	White-winged Black Tern, Chlidonias leucopterus. The eggs are similar to
those of the Black Tern and show similar variation.	176
9.	Whiskered Tern, Chlidonias hybrida. The egg colour varies through pale
shades of blue-grey, blue, olive-buff or brown.	176
SEA TERNS (see also pl. 45). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy. A clutch, usu-
ally of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow, sparsely lined or unlined, on an open
site. Usually in a colony with nests close together.
10.	Gull-billed Tern, Gelochelidon nilotica. The egg colour varies from very pale
creamy-buff to pale yellowish-buff.	174
326
3
4
5
6
Plate 45
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
SEA TERNS (see also pl. 44). The eggs are smooth and non-glossy, and crypti-
cally patterned. The clutch, usually of 2-3 eggs, or 1 in species of wanner climates,
is laid in a shallow hollow in an open site, usually on sand or shingle by water. The
nests are usually close together in a colony, sometimes of several species.
1.	Caspian Tern, Sterna caspia. Variation is slight.	page 168
2.	Swift Tern, Sterna bergii. The egg colour varies from creamy or white to pink-
ish, buffish or pale yellow, very variably and boldly marked.	168
3.	Lesser Crested Tern, Sterna bengalensis. Similar to the Swift Tern but less
varied in colour; creamy-white, pinkish or buffish. The markings vary. 169
4.	Little Tern, Sterna albifrons. The egg colour varies through pale olive, buff and
cream. The markings are variable.	172
5.	Bridled Tern, Sterna anaethetus. The egg colour varies from creamy-white to
buffish or pinkish.	172
6.	(a-b) Sandwich Tern, Sterna sandvicensis. The markings vary considerably in
size and distribution. The first example shows some of the slanting marks
typical of some tern and wader eggs.	172
7.	(a-b) Common Tern, Sterna hirundo The egg colour varies from creamy to
yellowish, deep buff or olive. The markings are variable.	170
8.	(a-b) Arctic Tern, Sterna paradisaea. The egg colour is often buff to pale
greenish, but may vary from bluish-white to deep brown. The markings arc very
variable.	170
9.	White-cheeked Tern, Sterna repressa. The markings are variable, but the paler
ones are usually more in evidence.	171
10.	(a-b) Roseate Tern, Sterna dougallii. The eggs may vary to yellowish, buffish
or olive, and occasionally of a deeper tint. The markings are very variable, but
often fine and profuse.	169
328
5	6a	6b
9
10а
10b
Plate 46
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
AUKS (see also pl. 47). Of the species shown here the Razorbill nests on sheltered
ledges and niches, the Black Guillemot in more sheltered crevices among and under
boulders, and the Puffin and Little Auk in holes and burrows. The eggs are smooth and
non-glossy, and the larger ones have a slightly roughened, granular texture. The gen-
eral colouring may be correlated to some extent with the degree to which they are con-
cealed from view. The Razorbill has a conspicuously patterned and extremely variable
egg, comparable with that of the Guillemot, possibly for individual recognition by the
parent bird; those of the Black Guillemot are pale with more uniform finer markings;
those of the Northern Puffin are usually whitish, and faintly marked or unmarked;
while those of the Little Auk are pale blue and unmarked. The clutch is usually of 1,
exceptionally 2 eggs, except for the Black Guillemot, for which 2 is normal.
1.	Little Auk, Alle alle. The egg is usually unmarked, but rarely has buffish-brown
markings at the larger end.	page 179
2.	(a-c) Razorbill, Alca torda. The egg colour may vary from white, through yel-
low, buff, brown, reddish or greenish tints; variably marked with dark brown or
black, the markings including scribbling and banding.	177
3.	(a-b) Black Guillemot, Cepphus grylle. The egg colour may be tinted with buff
or bluish-green. The markings are variable to some degree and may be reddish-
brown at times.	178
4.	(a-b) Northern Puffin, Fratercula arctica. The egg may be unmarked, or may
show faint brown or purplish blotches, or exceptionally be more heavily marked
and tinted pale to deep buff.	178
330
За
4b
4а
Plate 47
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
GUILLEMOT. The eggs of these species are distinctive in shape and texture.
They are large, usually long and pyriform, occasionally more oval. The surface is
finely granular and roughened, lacking gloss. Apart from this there is little consis-
tency, since the eggs show a very great individual variation in colour and markings.
The group shown here, five of them examples of the Common Guillemot, exhibit
some typical patterns and variations, but in addition to these the markings may be
very sparse or absent, or with zones of continuous pigment capping or zoning the
eggs. It is thought that the variations enable birds to recognise their own eggs, only
one being laid, with no nest, on a bare rock ledge crowded with birds.
1. (a-e) Guillemot, Uria aalge. Egg colour may vary from white through shades of
buff, brown, reddish, cream, blue or green. Markings may be brown or black, and
some larger markings may show a mixture of both colours.	page 177
2. Briinnich’s Guillemot, Uria lomvia. Egg colour may vary through shades of
whitish, cream, buff, reddish, greenish or blue; and markings may be buff, brown,
purplish or black.	177
332
2
Plate 48 Approx. 3/4ths life-size
SANDGROUSE. The eggs are elongated, bluntly biconical, widest towards the
centre and with rounded ends. They are smooth and moderately glossy. The clutch,
usually of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a shallow hollow without a lining, on bare open ground.
1.	Black-bellied Sandgrouse, Pterocles orientalis. The egg colour varies from
creamy-buff to pale or warm buff; occasionally deep buff with warm brown
markings. Markings are variable.	page 181
2.	Pin-tailed Sandgrouse, Pterocles alchata. The egg colour varies from buff to
warm buff, or rarely creamy-buff. The markings are very variable. 180
3.	Spotted Sandgrouse, Pterocles senegallus. The egg colour varies from pale to
very pale buff.	179
4.	Crowned Sandgrouse, Pterocles coronatus. The egg colour varies from
creamy-stone to pale creamy-buff.	180
5.	Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse, Pterocles exustus. The egg colour varies from
cream to pale creamy-buff.	181
6.	Lichtenstein’s Sandgrouse, Pterocles lichtensteinii. The egg colour varies from
pale to very pale buff.	180
7.	Pallas’s Sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus. The egg colour varies from pale
buff to creamy-stone or pale greyish	182
PIGEONS. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy, and when freshly laid may have
a faint pink tint that soon fades. The clutch is usually of 2 eggs, but the Long-Toed and
Bolle’s and Laurel Pigeons have only 1. The nest is a thin platform of twigs in a tree
or on a ledge.
8.	Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus.	183
9.	Long-toed Pigeon, Columba trocaz.	184
10.	Laurel Pigeon, Columba junoniae.	184
11.	Rock Dove, Columba livia.	182
12.	Stock Dove, Columba oenas.	183
13.	Turtle Dove, Streptopelia turtur.	185
14.	Rufous Turtle Dove, Streptopelia orientalis.	185
15.	Namaqua Dove, Oena capensis.	184
16.	Palm Dove, Streptopelia senegalensis.	185
17.	Collared Dove, Streptopelia decaocto.	185
PARROTS. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy. The clutch, usually of 4 eggs, is
laid in a hollow, unlined or slightly modified.
18.	Ring-necked Parakeet, Psittacula krameri.	186
334

Plate 49
Life-size
CUCKOOS. The first nine pairs of eggs on this plate show examples of eggs of
parasitic cuckoos with those of their hosts. In each instance the cuckoo eggs are on
the left (a) and that of the host on the right (b).
The first five illustrate the degree to which the egg of the Common Cuckoo,
Cuculus canorus, can mimic those of the host in colour and pattern. These are:
1.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Great Reed Warbler,
Acrocephalus arundinaceus.	page 187
2.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Meadow Pipit, Anthus praten-
sis.
3.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Meadow Pipit, Anthus
pratensis, rufous type.
4.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin.
5.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Redstart, Phoenicians
phoenicurus.
In some instances the cuckoo’s egg may be wholly dissimilar to that of the host’s.
The next pair shows a typical example of this:
6.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, with (b) Dunnock, Prunella modu-
laris.
In other instances the cuckoo’s egg may appear to be of a type resembling a mimic
of one host but appearing in the nest of another, as in this last example:
7.	(a) Eurasian Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, of Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis,
rufous type with (b) Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus.
Mimicry occurs in other cuckoo species.
8.	(a) Oriental Cuckoo, Cuculus saturatus, with (b) Crowned Willow Warbler,
Phylloscopus occipitalis.	187
9.	(a) Great Spotted Cuckoo, Clamator glandarius, with (b) Common Magpie,
Pica pica.	186
Coucals are non-parasitic cuckoos making a domed nest and incubating their own eggs.
10.	Senegal Coucal, Centropus senegalensis.	188
336
9b
Plate 50
Approx. 3/4ths life-size
OWLS (see also pl. 51). The eggs are blunt-ended, at times rounded. They are
white and smooth, but occasionally show odd, tiny pimple-like excrescences. They
are also gloss-less or slightly glossy, and may become slightly stained in the nest.
The clutch is usually of c. 3-6 eggs, but in arctic, subarctic or grassland species the
clutch may be large, of 10-15 eggs, in seasons when food is plentiful. Usually no
nest is built, but the clutch is laid in a hollow tree, or in a hollow on the ground in
herbage or in the open, or in the old nest of a large bird.
1.	Snowy Owl, Nyctea scandiaca.	page 192
2.	Brown Fish Owl, Ketupa zeylonensis.	190
3.	Long-eared Owl, Asia otus.	190
4.	Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus.	191
5.	Scops Owl, Otus scops.	189
6.	Eagle Owl, Bubo bubo.	190
7.	Striated Scops Owl, Otus brucei.	189
8.	Tengmalm’s Owl, Aegoliusfunereus.	189
9.	Little Owl, Athene noctua.	188
10.	Pygmy Owl, Glaucidium passerinum.	188
11.	Hawk Owl, Surnia ulula.	191
12.	African Marsh Owl, Asio capensis.	191
13.	Tawny Owl, Strix aluco.	193
338

Plate 51
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
OWLS (see also pl. 50). The eggs are blunt-ended, at times rounded, but those of
the Bam Owl are more elongated. They are white and smooth, but occasionally show
odd, tiny pimple-like excrescences. They are gloss-less or slightly glossy. They may
become slightly stained in the nest. The clutch is usually of 3-6 eggs, but in arctic,
subarctic or grassland species the clutch may be large, of 10-15 eggs, in seasons when
food is plentiful. Usually no nest is built, but the clutch is laid in a hollow tree, or in
a hollow on the ground in herbage or in the open, or in the old nest of a large bird.
1.	Great Grey Owl, Strix nebulosa.	page 192
2.	Ural Owl, Strix uralensis.	192
3.	Barn Owl, Ту to alba.	193
NIGHTJARS. The eggs are elongated, biconical and blunt-ended, and tend to
show little evidence of a taper towards the narrow end. They are smooth, moderately
glossy and cryptically patterned. Usually 2 in a clutch, laid on bare ground in an open
site with no nest.
4. Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus. Eggs may vary in colour from white to
creamy, or be tinted with grey or purple. Markings may vary from blotches to
spots or lines.	194
5.	Nubian Nightjar, Caprimulgus nubicus.	194
6.	Red-necked Nightjar, Caprimulgus ruficollis.	194
7.	Egyptian Nightjar, Caprimulgus aegyptius.	195
SWIFTS. The eggs are exceptionally elongated, smooth and white but non-glossy.
The clutch, usually of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a nest of plant fragments, debris and
feathers glued together with saliva to form a cup; or in the lined nest of a swallow.
8.	Little Swift, Apus affinis.	195
9.	Pallid Swift, Apus pallidus.	197
10.	Swift, Apus apus.	196
11.	Plain Swift, Apus unicolor.	196
12.	Alpine Swift, Apus rnelba.	196
13.	White-rumped Swift, Apus caffer.	195
ROLLERS. The eggs are rounded, smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 3-5,
is laid in a hole or crevice lined with a little debris.
14.	Roller, Coracias garrulus.	200
15.	Indian Roller, Coracias benghalensis.	200
340
12
14
15
Plate 52
Approx. 9/IOths life-size
KINGFISHERS. The eggs are smooth, very glossy and at times almost spherical.
A clutch, usually of 4-7 eggs, is laid in an unlined tunnel, but may gradually become
surrounded by food castings such as fish-bones.
1.	Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis.	page 198
2.	Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis.	197
3.	Smyrna, or White-breasted, Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis.	198
BEE-EATERS. The eggs are smooth, rounded and glossy. A clutch, usually of
4-7 eggs, is laid in an unlined burrow, but may become surrounded by castings of
insect remains.
4.	Little Green Bee-eater, Merops orientalis.	200
5.	Bee-eater, Merops apiaster.	199
6.	Blue-cheeked Bee-eater, Merops superciliosus.	199
HOOPOE. The eggs are smooth and conspicuously marked with whitish pores. A
clutch, usually of 5-8 eggs, is laid in a cavity, unlined or sparsely lined with debris.
7.	Hoopoe, Upupa epops. The colour may vary through greyish, yellowish, olive,
greenish or brownish tints.	198
WOODPECKERS. The eggs are smooth, rounded and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 4—7 eggs, is laid in an unlined cavity bored into a tree. Eggs may become stained
in damp cavities.
8.	Wryneck, Jynx torquilla.	203
9.	Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis. The eggs of Levaillant’s Woodpecker (not
shown here) are very similar.	201
10.	Grey-headed Woodpecker, Picus canus.	201
11.	Black Woodpecker, Dryocopus martius.	201
12.	Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos major.	202
13.	Syrian Woodpecker, Dendrocopos syriac us.	202
14.	Middle Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos medius.	202
15.	Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus.	203
16.	Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos minor.	203
17.	White-backed Woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotis.	203
342
2
4
13
14
15
16
17
Plate 53
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
LARKS. Eggs smooth and glossy; usually heavily marked with brown and grey
spotting for concealment, some desert species being less thickly marked and paler.
A clutch, usually of 3-5 eggs, is laid in a cup nest on the ground in an open area, usu-
ally partly sheltered or hidden by a tuft of vegetation or a stone. The Hoopoe Lark’s
nest may be built into the top of a low, mostly buried shrub.
1.	Desert Lark, Ammomanes deserti.	page 208
2.	Bar-tailed Desert Lark, Ammomanes cincturus.	208
3.	Hoopoe Lark, Alaemon alaudipes.	212
4.	Dupont’s Lark, Chersophilus duponti.	209
5.	Short-toed Lark, Calandrella cinerea.	207
6.	Lesser Short-toed Lark, Calandrella rufescens.	208
7.	Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha calandra.	209
8.	Bimaculated Lark, Melanocorypha bimaculata.	209
9.	White-winged Lark, Melanocorypha leucoptera.	210
10.	Black Lark, Melanocorypha yeltoniensis.	210
11.	Thick-billed Lark, Rhamphocorys clotbey.	210
12.	Shore Lark, Eremophila alpina.	211
13.	Temminck’s Horned Lark, Eremophila bilopha.	211
14.	Crested Lark, Galerida cristata.	207
15.	Thekla Lark, Galerida theklae.	207
16.	Woodlark, Lullula arborea.	204
17.	Skylark, Alauda arvensis.	206
18.	Small Skylark, Alauda gulgula.	206
(Black-crowned Finch-Lark, Eremopteryx nigriceps. Eggs, not shown here, are
greyish or white, speckled or spotted with olive-brown and grey, and a little smaller
than those of the short-toed larks p. 211. Those of Dunn’s Lark, Eremalauda dunni,
are white with black and lavender-grey spots and blotches, p. 208.)
SWALLOWS AND MARTINS. The eggs are rather elongated and usually show
some gloss, although this may be slight. A clutch, usually of 2-5 eggs, is laid in a
mud nest built under an overhang, on a support, or in a tunnel.
19.	Swallow, Hirundo rustica.	215
20.	Red-rumped Swallow, Hirundo daurica.	214
21.	Sand Martin, Riparia riparia.	213
22.	Plain Sand Martin, Riparia paludicola.	213
23.	Crag Martin, Hirundo rupestris.	214
24.	Rock Martin, Ptyonoprogne fuligula.	213
25.	House Martin, Delichon urbica. The eggs may rarely show a few reddish spots.
214
344
11	12	13	14	15
23
24
21
22
25
Plate 54
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
PIPITS. The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually heavily marked. A clutch, usually
of 3-6 eggs, is laid in a cup, usually of grass lined with hair, in a hollow in the ground
often well concealed in herbage.
1.	Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris.	page 219
2.	Berthelot’s Pipit, Anthus bertheloti.	219
3.	Long-billed Pipit, Anthus similis.	219
4.	Olive-backed Pipit, Anthus hodgsoni. Egg colour and pattern vary like those of
Tree Pipit but blotched patterns are rare.	217
5.	Pechora Pipit, Anthus gustavi.	218
6.	(a—e) Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis. Colour and pattern of eggs are very variable,
and some typical examples are shown.	216
7.	(a-b) Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis. Colour and pattern of eggs are very
variable, with several distinct types.	217
8.	(a-b) Red-throated Pipit, Anthus cervinus. Colour and pattern are variable. 217
9.	(a—b) Water Pipit, Anthus spinoletta, and Rock Pipit, Anthus petrosus. The
two species are very closely related and the two examples illustrate typical vari-
ations that could be present in either.	218
WAGTAILS. The eggs are smooth and glossy, and usually paler and more finely
marked than those of pipits. A clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a cup nest of
plant material, usually lined with hair, in a hollow or cavity, raised or on the ground
and usually near water.
10. (a-b) Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava. The races do not show consistent
variation and examples shown could be present in any race.	220
11.	Citrine Wagtail, Motacilla citreola.	221
12.	Grey Wagtail, Motacilla cinerea.	220
13.	(a-b) White/Pied Wagtails, Motacilla alba. The comment on Yellow Wagtail
(above) also applies here.	219
HYPOCOLIUS AND WAXWING. Eggs smooth, glossy in Waxwing, non-
glossy in Hypocolius. A clutch, usually of 3-5 eggs, is laid in a rough cup nest with
finer lining, in a tree.
14.	Waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus.	221
15.	Hypocolius, Hypocolius ampelinus.	221
BUSH SHRIKE (see also pl. 55). Eggs smooth and slightly glossy. A clutch of 2-3
is laid in a shallow cup nest of plant material lined with rootlets, in a low bush or tree.
16.	Black-headed Bush-Shrike, Tchagra senegala. The colour and shape of the
markings are very variable.	412
346
2
3
6а
6b
6с
6d
бе
7а	7b
8а
8b
9а
13b
13а
16
14
15
Plate 55
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
SHRIKES (see also pl. 54). The eggs are smooth and glossy, with markings often
pale in comparison with other songbirds’ eggs. A clutch, usually of 5-6 eggs, is laid
in a substantial cup nest in a tree or shrub.
1.	Masked Shrike, Lanius nubicus. The egg colour may vary from cream to
yellowish or pale buff.	page 415
2.	(a-b) Woodchat Shrike, Lanius senator. The eggs show similar variation to
those of Red-backed Shrike.	414
3.	Lesser Grey Shrike, Lanius minor. The egg colour is usually greenish, excep-
tionally cream or buff.	413
4.	Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor.	413
5.	(a-c) Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio. The egg colour may be greenish,
olivaceous, pinkish, buffish, creamy or almost white, the markings tending to
vary with the ground colour.	413
BULBULS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 2-3 eggs, is laid
in a small cup nest in a tree or shrub.
6.	White-cheeked Bulbul, Pycnonotus leucogenys. (Eggs of the Yellow-vented Bul-
bul - not shown here - resemble that illustrated for the White-cheeked Bulbul.)
222
7.	Common Bulbul, Pycnonotus barbatus.	222
DUNNOCKS. Eggs smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 3-5, is laid in a stout
cup nest, usually low in a thick bush or sheltered site on the ground.
8.	Alpine Dunnock, Prunella collaris.	223
9.	Siberian Dunnock, Prunella montanella.	223
10.	Black-throated Dunnock, Prunella atrogularis.	224
11.	Hedge Sparrow or Dunnock, Prunella modularis.	224
(Radde’s Dunnock, Prunella ocularis. The eggs, not shown here, are uniform light
blue like those of other species, p. 223.)
CETTI’S AND GRASS WARBLERS The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually
finely speckled. A clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a cup nest hidden in ground
herbage.
12.	Cetti’s Warbler, Cettia cetti.	378
13.	Savi’s Warbler, Locustella luscinioides.	371
14.	River Warbler, Locustella fluviatilis.	371
15.	Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella naevia.	370
16.	Lanceolated Warbler, Locustella lanceolata.	371
REED WARBLERS (see also pl. 56). Eggs smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 3-6 eggs, is laid in a deep cup nest bound to stems of reeds or swamp shrubs.
17. Moustached Warbler. Acrocephalus melanopogon.	377
18.	Aquatic Warbler, Acrocephalus paludicola.	2П1
19.	Sedge Warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus.	377
20.	Paddyfield Warbler, Acrocephalus agricola.	375
348

Plate 56
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
REED WARBLERS (see also pl. 55). The eggs are smooth and glossy; either well
marked and greenish, or more uniform and olive-buff. A clutch, usually of 3-6 eggs,
is laid in a deep cup nest, bound to or supported by herbage, reeds or low shrubs.
1.	Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum.	page 375
2.	Marsh Warbler, Acrocephalus palustris.	374
3.	Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus.	374
4.	Clamorous Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus stentoreus.	377
5.	Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus.	376
TREE WARBLERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually with very typical
pinkish colour and fine spotting. A clutch, usually of 4-5 eggs, is laid in a cup nest
in a tree or shrub, or near the ground.
6.	Icterine Warbler, Hippolais icterina.	384
7.	Melodious Warbler, Hippolais polyglotta.	383
8.	Olive-tree Warbler, Hippolais olivetorum.	383
9.	Upcher’s Warbler, Hippolais languida.	383
10.	Olivaceous Warbler, Hippolais pallida.	381
11.	Booted Warbler, Hippolais caligata.	382
TYPICAL WARBLERS (see also pl. 57). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A
clutch, usually of 3-5 eggs, is laid in a loosely built cup nest in a shrub or small tree,
or in ground herbage.
12.	Barred Warbler, Sylvia nisoria.	385
13.	Orphean Warbler, Sylvia hortensis.	388
14.	(a-b) Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin.	384
15.	(a-b) Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla.	386
16.	(a-b) Whitethroat, Sylvia communis.	385
17. Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca.	385
18. Menetries’s Warbler, Sylvia mystacea.	387
19. Riippell’s Warbler, Sylvia ruppelli.	388
20. (a-b) Sardinian Warbler, Sylvia melanocephala.	387
21. Cyprus Warbler, Sylvia melanothorax.	387
350
1
10
14b
18
Plate 57
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
TYPICAL WARBLERS (see also pl. 56). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch
of 3-5 is laid in a loosely built cup nest in a shrub, or small tree or in ground herbage.
L Desert Warbler, Sylvia папа.	page 390
2.	(a-b) Subalpine Warbler, Sylvia cantillans.	390
3.	(a-b) Spectacled Warbler, Sylvia conspicillata.	389
4.	Tristram’s Warbler, Sylvia deserticola.	389
5.	Dartford Warbler, Sylvia undata.	389
6.	Marmora’s Warbler, Sylvia sarda.	389
LEAF WARBLERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy; white with small reddish
markings. A clutch, usually of 4-7 eggs, is laid in a low domed nest on the ground.
7.	(a-b) Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus.	393
8.	Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collyhita. (Eggs of Mountain Chiffchaff - not shown
here - resemble those of Common Chiffchaff.)	393
9.	Western Bonelli’s Warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli.	392
10.	Wood Warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix.	392
11.	Yellow-browed Warbler, Phylloscopus inomatus.	394
12.	Arctic Warbler, Phylloscopus borealis.	391
13.	Greenish Warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides.	391
14.	Green Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus.	391
GOLDCRESTS. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy. A clutch, usually of 7-10
eggs, is laid in a thick deep nest of moss and lichen, usually built on the underside
of a conifer bough.
15.	Goldcrest, Regulus regulus.	395
16.	Firecrest, Regulus ignicapillus.	396
BUSH WARBLERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. The clutch usually consists
of 4-7 eggs.
17.	Graceful Warbler, Prinia gracilis. Has a domed nest in a bush.	380
18.	Scrub Warbler, Scotocerca inquieta. Has a domed nest on or near the ground.
380
19.	(а-d) Fan-tailed Warbler, Cisticola juncidis. Has a purse-shaped nest in grow-
ing herbage. The eggs may be white or light blue, and marked with small or large,
sparse or dense markings.	378
352
15
V<
19b
19c
19d
18
Plate 58 Approx. 9/10ths life-size
FLYCATCHERS. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy or non-glossy. A
clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a cup nest on a niche or ledge of tree or wall,
or in a hole.
1.	Pied Flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca.	page 398
2.	Collared Flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis. (Eggs of Semi-collared Flycatcher -
not shown here - are similar but a slightly deeper blue.)	399
3.	Red-breasted Flycatcher, Ficedula parva.	398
4.	(a-b) Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa striata.	397
CHATS AND WHEATEARS. The eggs are smooth and glossy, usually blue with
or without reddish markings. A clutch, usually of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a cup nest in a
bush or in herbage on or above ground, or in a hollow or hole, the latter sometimes
with a rampart of small stones.
5.	Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra.	231
6.	Canary Island Chat, Saxicola dacotiae.	230
7.	(a-b) Stonechat, Saxicola torquata.	230
8.	Pied Stonechat, Saxicola caprata.	230
9.	Wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe.	231
10.	Hume’s Wheatear, Oenanthe alboniger.	235
11.	Finsch’s Wheatear, Oenanthe finschii.	233
12.	Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe plescharka.	233
13.	Mourning Wheatear, Oenanthe lugens.	232
14.	Desert Wheatear, Oenanthe deserti.	232
15.	White-crowned Wheatear, Oenanthe leucopyga.	235
16.	Black-eared Wheatear, Oenanthe hispanica.	231
17.	Red-tailed Wheatear, Oenanthe xanthoprymna.	234
18.	Isabelline Wheatear, Oenanthe isabellina.	232
19.	Hooded Wheatear, Oenanthe monacha.	234
20.	Black Wheatear, Oenanthe leucura.	235
21.	Red-rumped Wheatear, Oenanthe moesta.	234
(Eastern Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe picata. Eggs, not shown here, are pale light
blue, finely marked with light reddish-brown, p. 235.)
22.	Blackstart, Cercomela melanura.	228
BUSHCHATS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 4-5, is laid
in a cup nest, in a low site in a shrub or small tree.
23.	Rufous Bushchat, Cercotrichas galactotes.	226
354

Plate 59
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
ROCK THRUSHES. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 4-5
eggs, is laid in a cup nest in a hole or rock crevice.
1.	Rock Thrush, Monticola saxatilis.	page 236
2.	Blue Rock Thrush, Monticola solitarius.	236
REDSTARTS, ROBINS AND NIGHTINGALES. The eggs are smooth and
glossy. A clutch, usually of 4-6, is laid in a cup nest in a low bush, or in a cavity in
a tree or among rocks, or in a sheltered site on the ground.
3.	Black Redstart, Phoenicurus ochrurus. The eggs are white in the western race,
light blue in the eastern race.	228
4.	Redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus.	229
5.	Moussier’s Redstart, Phoenicurus moussieri.	229
6.	Guildenstadt’s Redstart, Phoenicurus erythrogaster.	229
7.	(a-c) Robin, Erithacus rubecula. The markings may vary and examples are
shown.	227
8.	Nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos. The eggs	may vary from	greyish-green to
reddish-buff.	225
9.	Sprosser, Luscinia luscinia. The eggs vary like	the Nightingale’s eggs.	225
10.	Siberian Rubythroat, Luscinia calliope.	227
11.	(a-b) Bluethroat, Luscinia svecica. The eggs of the two forms are similar and
the variations shown here might occur in either.	227
12.	Red-flanked Blue-tail, Tarsiger cvanurus. The eggs are sometimes unmarked.
226
13.	White-throated Robin, Jrania gutteralis.	226
THRUSHES (see also pl. 60). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a stout cup, often with mud used in the construction, in a bush
or tree, or in a sheltered site on the ground.
14. Black-throated Thrush, Turdus ruficollis.	369
15. (a-b) Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris.	238
16. Ring Ousel, Turdus torquatus.	237
17. (a-c) Blackbird, Turdus merula. The typical slight variation is shown. 237
356
16
17а
17b
17с
Plate 60
Life-size
THRUSHES (see also pl. 59). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 4-6 eggs, is laid in a stout cup, often with mud used in the construction, in a tree
or bush.
1.	(a-b) Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos.	page 369
2.	(a-b) Mistle Thrush, Turdus viscivorus.	369
3	. (a-b) Redwing, Turdus iliacus.	238
BABBLERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. Deep blue with a clutch of 3-5 in
typical babblers, white with tiny spots and 5-7 eggs in the Bearded Reedling. The
nest is a cup of twigs and grass in a bush or on the ground, or a cup of dry leaves and
reed-flowers in a reedbed in the last species.
4.	Arabian Babbler, Turdoides squamiceps.	399
5.	Fulvous Babbler, Turdoides fulvus. (Eggs of the Common Babbler and Iraq
Babbler are similar.)	399
6.	Bearded Reedling, Panurus biarmicus.	400
LONG-TAILED TITS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of
8-12 eggs, is laid in a domed nest of moss and lichens in a bush or tree.
7.	Long-tailed Tit, Aegithalos caudatus.	401
PENDULINE TITS. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy. A clutch of 6-8 is laid
in a pendent domed nest of white felted down, with an entrance tube, on a tree twig,
usually near water.
8.	Penduline Tit, Remiz pendulinus.	402
TITS. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy. A clutch, usually of 6-10 eggs, is
laid in a cup of soft material in a hole in a tree, wall or bank.
9.	Marsh Tit, Parus palustris.	404
10.	Willow Tit, Parus montanus.	404
11.	Sombre Tit, Parus lugubris.	405
12.	Siberian Tit, Parus cinctus.	403
13.	Crested Tit, Parus cristatus.	403
14.	(a-b)	Coal Tit, Parus ater. Examples of variation in markings.	405
15.	(a-b)	Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus. Examples of variation in markings.	406
16.	Azure Tit, Parus cvanus.	406
17.	(a-b)	Great Tit, Parus major. Examples of variation in markings.	405
358
15а
15b
16
17а
17b
Plate 61
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
NUTHATCHES. The eggs are smooth and slightly glossy. A clutch, usually of
5-8, is laid in a cavity in a tree, with or without a mud-plastered entrance; or in an
enclosed mud structure in a rock cavity, with soft lining.
1.	Nuthatch, Sitta europaea.	page 407
2.	Corsican Nuthatch, Sitta whiteheadi.	407
3.	Kriiper’s Nuthatch, Sitta kruperi.	406
4.	Rock Nuthatch, Sitta neumayeri.	408
5.	Eastern Rock Nuthatch, Sitta tephronota.	408
6.	Wallcreeper, Tichodroma murina.	409
TREECREEPERS. The eggs are smooth and non-glossy. A clutch, usually of 6-7
eggs, is laid in a loose cup nest in a crevice, usually in tree bark.
7.	(a-b) Treecreeper, Certhia famdiaris. The examples show the variation in
markings.	410
8.	Short-toed Treecreeper, Certhia brachydactyla.	411
DIPPERS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 5 eggs, is laid in
a domed nest of moss lined with dead leaves, in a crevice or niche by the water’s edge.
9.	Dipper, Cinclus cinclus.	412
WRENS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 5-8, is laid in a
domed nest, lined with feathers, in a crevice or cavity.
10.	(a-c) Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes. The examples show variations in mark-
ings and size.	411
SUNBIRDS. The eggs are smooth, moderately glossy and a little elongated. A
clutch, usually of 2-3 eggs, is laid in a pendent, fragile, purse-shaped nest in a bush.
11.	Nile Valley Sunbird, Anthreptes metallicus.	396
12.	Palestine Sunbird, Nectarinia osea.	397
SPARROWS (see also pl. 63). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 3-6 eggs, is laid in a domed nest, built in a cavity or crevice in rocks, buildings or
trees, or in the open in a tree. Nests are sometimes in loose colonies.
13.	(a-e) House Sparrow, Passer domesticus. The type, colour and density of
markings vary considerably, and some typical examples are shown here. 425
14.	Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispanolensis. The egg markings are variable, but the
eggs usually appear paler than those of the House Sparrow.	424
15.	(a-b) Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus. The markings are variable, but less so
than in the previous species, and the dark examples shown here are typical. 425
16.	Dead Sea Sparrow, Passer moabiticus. Some variation in markings. 425
17.	Desert Sparrow, Passer simplex.	426
360

Plate 62
Approx. 9/10ths life-size
JAYS, MAGPIES AND CROWS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usu-
ally of 3-4 eggs, is laid in a large stick nest with soft lining, in a tree or bush, on a
ledge or in a hole.
1.	Siberian Jay, Perisoreus infaustus.	page 416
2.	Jay, Garrulus glandarius.	416
3.	Azure-winged Magpie, Cyanopica cyanus.	417
4.	Magpie, Pica pica. The eggs are usually blue, rarely	pale	olive	or	buff,	with
variable markings.	416
5.	Nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes.	415
6.	Chough, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax.	417
7.	Alpine Chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus.	417
8.	Jackdaw, Corvus monedula.	419
9.	Rook, Corvus frugilegus. The egg colour varies	from	pale	blue	to	deep olive-
green, with considerable variation in type and density of markings often even
between eggs in a clutch.	418
10.	Carrion Crow/Hooded Crow, Corvus corone. The eggs vary like those of the
Rook.	418
11.	Brown-ncckcd Raven, Corvus ruficollis.	419
12.	Raven, Corvus corax. The eggs vary like those of the Rook.	419
13.	Fan-tailed Raven, Corvus rhipidurus.	420
362
6	7
11
12
13
Plate 63 Life-size
SPARROWS (see also pl. 61). The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually
of 3-6 eggs, is laid in a usually domed nest, a cup in the case of the Snowfinch, built
in a cavity or crevice in rocks, buildings or trees.
1.	Pale Rock Sparrow, Petronia brachydactyla.	page 424
2.	Rock Sparrow, Petronia petronia. The markings may vary.	423
(Yellow-throated Sparrow, Petronia xanthocollis. The eggs, not shown here, are
white, tinged greenish or buffish, variably marked with brown, purplish and grey,
often heavily, p. 424.)
3.	Snowfinch, Montifringilla nivalis.	423
FINCHES (see also pl. 64). The eggs are smooth and often glossy; except for the
Hawfinch, they are usually pale blue with sparse reddish markings. A clutch, usually
of 3-6 eggs, is laid in a cup nest, usually in a shrub or tree, sometimes on the ground.
4. (a-b) Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs. Typical variations in markings are shown,
and eggs are sometimes unmarked.	429
5.	Blue Chaffinch, Fringilla teydea.	430
6.	Brambling, Fringilla montifringilla.	429
7.	Red-fronted Serin, Serinus pusillus.	431
8.	Citril Finch, Serinus citrinella.	430
9.	Syrian Serin, Serinus syriacus.	431
10.	Serin, Serinus serinus.	431
11.	Canary, Serinus canaria.	430
12.	Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris.	434
13.	Siskin, Carduelis spinus.	433
14.	Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis.	434
15.	Twite, Acanthis flavirostris.	432
16.	Linnet, Acanthis cannabina.	433
17.	Lesser Redpoll, Carduelis cabaret.	432
18.	Arctic Redpoll, Acanthis hornemanni.	432
19.	Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula.	434
20.	Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator.	438
21.	Parrot Crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus.	439
22.	Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra.	439
23.	Two-barred Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera.	438
24.	Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes.	435
(White-winged Grosbeak, Mycerobas carnipes. Eggs, not shown here, are very pale
blue, sparsely scrawled with black, brown and lilac, mainly at the larger end, p. 435.)
364
20
21
22
23
24
Plate 64	Approx. 9/1 Oths life-size
DESERT FINCHES (see also pl. 63). The eggs are smooth and glossy; light blue
with a few blackish spots. A clutch, usually of 3-5 eggs, is laid in a cup nest low in
a shrub, or in a rock crevice.
1.	Trumpeter Finch, Rhodopechys githaginea.	page 436
2.	Desert Finch, Rhodopechys obsoleta.	436
3.	Common Rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus.	437
4.	Sinai Rosefinch, Carpodacus synoicus.	438
5.	Great Rosefinch, Carpodacus rubicilla.	437
6.	Crimson-winged Finch, Rhodopechys sanguinea.	437
(Mongolian Desert Finch, Rhodopechys mongolica. Eggs, not shown here, are blue
with a few dark spots, p. 436.)
BUNTINGS. The eggs are smooth and glossy; the pattern tending to be of two
types, either boldly scrawled or more finely spotted. A clutch, usually of 3-6 eggs,
is laid in a cup nest, usually on or near the ground hidden in vegetation.
7.	Corn Bunting, Emberiza calandra.	440
8.	Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella.	441
9.	Pine Bunting, Emberiza leucocephalos.	441
10.	Rock Bunting, Emberiza cia.	440
11.	Grey-necked Bunting, Emberiza buchanani.	444
12.	Cinereous Bunting, Emberiza cineracea.	444
13.	Ortolan Bunting, Emberiza hortulana.	443
14.	Cretzschmar’s Bunting, Emberiza caesia.	443
15.	Cirl Bunting, Emberiza cirlus.	442
16.	House Bunting, Emberiza striolata.	440
17.	Little Bunting, Emberiza pusilia.	445
18.	Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica.	445
19.	Yellow-breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola.	442
20.	Black-headed Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala.	443
21.	Red-headed Bunting, Emberiza bruniceps.	442
22.	Reed Bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus.	444
23.	Lapland Bunting, Calcarius lapponicus.	446
24.	Snow Bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis.	445
ORIOLES. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 3-4 eggs, is laid
in a cup nest slung between two horizontal twigs on a tree.
25.	(a-b) Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus.	420
STARLINGS. The eggs are smooth and glossy. A clutch, usually of 3-6 eggs, is laid
in a cup nest in a hole in rocks or buildings, or on a ledge.
26.	Rose-coloured Starling, Sturnus roseus.	423
27.	Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.	422
28.	Spotless Starling, Sturnus unicolor.	422
(Tristram’s Grackle, Onychognathus tristrami. The eggs, not shown here, are pale
blue marked with small red spots, p. 421.)
366
25b
26
27
28
Woodlark	Hine Til
Atjiuilit Warblci	Cut ,v< hnitu '.v liitiitiiii>
Rt </ iu eked (a rhe	\hu /?/< d Dm к
lilat к \ idlin (	Spin winded Plover
THRUSHES
369
BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR Oenanthe hispanica	PI. 58
Breeds in dry open places with rocks or stones, on heathland, waste ground, dry pas-
tures, cultivation or vineyards with stone walls, thin woodland and old ruins. Prefer-
ence for sloping ground. Nest usually at ground level, in a hollow under a stone or
low rock ledge, or in low herbage or shrubby growth, or under a thick bush.
Nest A shallow cup of grass and moss; lined with roots and hair. Built by female
alone.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue; finely speckled,
spotted or with small blotches of reddish-brown, often faint. Markings are sparse
except at the larger end, where they may form a wreath or cap which is at times boldly
marked. 19.9 x 15.1 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female, rarely the male helps. 14 days, usually beginning
with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, back and thighs, plentiful, fairly long;
pale brown. Mouth deep yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at 11-12 days. Indepen-
dent at 20-22 days.
ISABELLINE WHEATEAR Oenanthe isabellina	Pl. 58
Breeds in deserts, steppes, bare hillsides and plains. Nest in fissure or hole in earth bank,
or in rodent burrow. Said to occasionally dig its own hole. Nest may be 95-310 cm
into burrow.
Nest. A shallow, bulky cup of grass, roots, plant stems, hair and wool; lined with hair,
feathers and wool. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-March. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 5-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue like
those of Common Wheatear. Usually unmarked, occasionally with some faint
reddish speckling. 22.2 x 16.6 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, pale grey down on head, and sparse on back.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but mainly by female. They leave nest
at 13-15 days, and are fed for a further 12-14 days. Young may use burrows to hide.
DESERT WHEATEAR Oenanthe deserti	Pl. 58
Breeds in rocky or sandy desert, or dry steppe, and also on rocky, dry mountainsides
at higher latitudes. Nest among stones, or in holes and burrows, natural or made by
rodents; or holes in man-made structures and in tin cans. Said to dig its own hole;
but also commonly on ground under bushes, where a shallow nest-scrape is made.
Nest. A base of thick plant stems with a large, loosely constructed cup of grasses,
plant stems and plant down; lined with wool, hair, grass and feathers. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins March. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale
blue; variably marked with specks, fine spots or small blotches of reddish-brown
markings, often confined mainly to larger end where they may occasionally form a
conspicuous wreath. 20.3 x 15.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
370
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and pale grey. Mouth yellow, gape flanges
whitish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving the nest at 13-14 days.
MOURNING WHEATEAR Oenanthe lugens	PI. 58
On bare open and rocky areas, or rocky ravines in low hills. Nest in a rock crevice
or hollow, or in more open areas in a hole or rodent burrow. The nest entrance is built
up with a rampart of small stones.
Nest. A shallow cup of plant material, lined more softly with hair, feathers or wool.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins February. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
Light greenish-blue; sparsely spotted with reddish-brown, often with a heavier, more
blotched, wreath of markings around the larger end. 20.7 x 15.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back long, plentiful and grey.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female only. They are
in nest 14-15 days.
CYPRUS WHEATEAR Oenanthe cypriaca
Breeds in Cyprus on areas of open stony ground, and rocky hillsides and mountain slopes
with scrub and trees, into open pine forest, on outcrops and low cliffs, and in gardens and
cultivation. Nest in a cavity among rocks, in a bank or wall, or in a building or cave.
Nest. A cup of stems and dry plant material, lined with finer stems, grass, rootlets, hair
and feathers. Some nests have the outer lip built up with twigs or wood fragments.
Breeding season. Early April to July; begins later at higher altitude. Usually single-
brooded.
Eggs. 4-6. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy. Pale blue to greenish-blue, with vari-
able speckling and spotting of reddish-brown, usually sparse and concentrated at the
larger end. 19.3 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. By female only or by both birds. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head, back and wings, long, sparse and
brownish-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges ivory-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at 13-14 days.
PIED WHEATEAR Oenanthe pleschanka	Pl. 58
Breeds on broken, stony hillsides and slopes, and in gullies and ravines in more level
country. Nest in a hole or crevice in a bank or rock outcrop, under stone on rocky
ground, or in hole in wall or building.
Nest. A deep to shallow cup of varying construction, of plant stalks and dry grass;
lined with similar finer material, leaves, roots, hair and feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue or greenish-blue;
variably marked with specks, spots or small blotches of reddish-brown. Markings
often sparse and usually with a wreath or cap around the larger end. 19.6 x 15.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 13-14 days, remaining
near by and fed by parents for 1-2 weeks more.
THRUSHES
371
FINSCH’S WHEATEAR Oenanthe finschii	PI. 58
Breeds in bare rocky areas. Nest in a hole or crevice among rocks, in sandy banks or
in rodent burrows. Nest may be 5-35 cm into hole.
Nest. A cup of plant-stems, grass and roots; lined with fine roots, wool or hair. The
hole entrance or tunnel is paved with small stones. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue, variably marked
with specks, spots or small blotches of reddish-brown. 19.3 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down very pale silvery-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female during first 3-4
days. They leave nest at 15-16 days.
RED-RUMPED WHEATEAR Oenanthe moesta	PI. 58
Breeds in level semi-desert areas, near salt-fiats or similar bare ground. Nest in a hole
in the ground, usually the burrow of a small mammal and occasionally in holes in
walls and buildings.
Nest. A cup of plant material, lined with wool, fur, feathers etc., lacking rampart of
small stones. Built by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins February. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. SubcllipticaL Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale blue with sparse
tiny reddish-brown spots. 26 x 18 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long grey down on head and back. Mouth yellow.
Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, They leave nest at с. 15 days, not
flying until 17-21 days.
RED-TAILED WHEATEAR Oenanthe xanthoprymna	PI. 58
Breeds in rocky slopes of hills and mountainsides. Nest in a crevice or hole in rock
face, in hole among fallen rocks and screes, and between stones of buildings.
Nest. A cup of plant material, sometimes partly hidden by a rampart of small stones
brought by the birds. Nest a shallow structure of dry grass, lined with finer grass,
bark fibres and hair. Built by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth, and slightly glossy. Very pale blue, or
whitish-blue; unmarked or sparingly spotted or flecked with red or light reddish-
brown. 20.9 x 15.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dense and long, warm to pale grey or whitish.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Independent at 2-4 weeks.
HOODED WHEATEAR Oenanthe monacha	PI. 58
Breeds in desert areas broken by rock outcrops, cliffs or ravines. On bare rock areas
with broken rocks, fissures and holes. Sometimes near desert settlements. Nest in a
deep cavity or crevice.
Nest. Small deep cup of dried grass and weeds, lined with softer material, wool and
feathers.
372
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins April.
Eggs. 3-4, sometimes 6. Subelliptical. It is claimed that the nesting is not known,
but eggs attributed to this species are very pale blue with a few tiny reddish specks
at the larger end. 21.6 x 15.6 mm.
Incubation. 14—15 days.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 14-15 days.
EASTERN PIED WHEATEAR Oenanthe picata
Breeds on dry stony hills and mountainsides with sparse vegetation. Nest in holes
among stones, rock crevices or sometimes small rodent burrows; usually associated
with steep banks formed by rivers or ravines.
Nest. A cup of dead leaves and plant stems; lined with finer material and plant
fibres, and sometimes a more distinct inner cup of fibre, hair and sometimes also
feathers.
Breeding season. Start varies with altitude from early April to mid-May. Probably
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Very pale light blue,
finely speckled or spotted with light reddish-brown, mostly confined to a zone
around the larger end. 20.2 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. No information.
HUME’S WHEATEAR Oenanthe. alboniger	PI. 58
Breeds on rocky or boulder-strewn hillsides, or rocky outcrops and gullies. Nest in
a crevice or deep hole in rock, or in an old building.
Nest. Nest usually has a rampart of small stones. A cup of plant stems; lined with
fine grass, feathers and hair.
Breeding season. Begins late March to April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue to whitish-blue;
unmarked, or with a few pale red specks or wreath of reddish spots round the larger
end. 22.5 x 16.8 mm.
Incubation. By female. Period unknown.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, forming family party after fledging.
WHITE-CROWNED WHEATEAR Oenanthe leucopyga	PI. 58
Breeds in desert regions. Nest in a hole or crevice, in rocks or under stones.
Occasionally in holes in walls or buildings. Nest usually low, but sometimes in
high crevice in cliffs. Usually c. 10 cm in hole, occasionally to 25 cm.
Nest. A cup of fine plant and grass stems; lined with wool or feathers. The nest may
be partly built up with a rampart of pebbles. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-February. Often double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue,
white at times, with sparse spots or small blotches of light reddish-brown at the larger
end. 20.5 x 16 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long grey down on head and back. Mouth yellow.
Gape flanges pale yellow.
THRESHES
373
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female for first 7-9
days. They leave nest at 14-16 days, independent about 3 weeks later.
BLACK WHEATEAR Oenanthe leucura	PI. 58
Breeds on rocky slopes, ravines or cliffs. or slopes with small rock outcrops or old
walls or buildings offering suitable sites. Nest in a hole or crevice, at ground level or
above ground.
Nest. A bulky cup of grass, plant stems and dead leaves; lined with feathers, hair and
wool. Usually built up on the outside with a parapet of small stones. Built by both
sexes, mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue to whitish-
blue. Sparsely and variably marked with fine specks, spots, and small blotches
of deep reddish-brown, usually absent from much of the shell but occurring
towards the larger end where a wreath of bolder marks may be present. 24.1 x
17.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-18 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on upperparts only, long and grey. Mouth yel-
low. Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 14-19 days, remain-
ing near nest-site for up to 3 weeks more.
ROCK THRUSH Monticola saxatilis	PI. 59
Breeds on broken, rocky ground, cliffs or ruins, normally at higher altitudes in
mountains. Nest in a shallow cavity or hole under or in rocks, in holes in walls or
buildings; rarely in hole in a tree in the normal habitat.
Nest. A neat cup of grass, roots, moss and plant stems; lined with fine grass and roots.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins May. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue,
slightly darker than that of Blue Rock Thrush; exceptionally marked with a few
reddish-brown specks at larger end. 25.9 x 19.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long; bluish-grey. Mouth dull yellow. Gape
flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 14-16 days in nest.
BLUE ROCK THRUSH Monticola solitarius	Pl. 59
Breeds on rocky hillsides, cliffs and open areas with rock outcrops or ruined build-
ings. Nest under an overhang of a bank, or rock, or in hole in rocks or building.
Nest. A large, loosely constructed cup of moss and grass; lined with roots and fine
grass. Usually built by female only.
Breeding season. Begins April. Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue,
unmarked, or sometimes with sparse fine speckling of reddish-brown, mostly at the
larger end. 27.3 x 19.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and part of back; blackish. Mouth
orange-yellow, gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 17 days in nest.
374
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
THRUSHES Turclus species
Small to medium-sized insect and fruit-eating birds, feeding mainly on the ground.
Breed in a variety of habitats from thick forest to bare mountainsides. Often have
several broods. Nest in a fork, or cavity or on a ledge; in the first instance sometimes
fairly exposed, otherwise sheltered and concealed. Nest a stout cup, built by the
female. Most species either incorporate a complete cup of mud or rotten wood-pulp
within the structure, or build some mud into it, producing a strong structure. Eggs
blue, variably marked with reddish-brown; markings black in the Song Thrush.
Incubation usually by female. Young have buffish down, usually confined to head
and back; yellow mouths, and pale yellow to yellowish-white gape flanges. They are
fed by both adults on insects and various invertebrates brought in the bill.
BLACKBIRD Turdus merula	PI. 59
Breeds in a variety of habitats. Typically a bird of forest, forest edge and scrubland.
In the west of its range shows considerable versatility, nesting wherever there is low
tree or shrub cover, often in association with man. Occurs in all situations where trees
are present, or where there are scattered tall shrubs or thickets, and in mountain areas
will accept low, sparse cover. In cultivated areas where it occurs in association with
trees and shrubs it will nest on or in buildings. Nest in a fork of tree or shrub at heights
of 1-9 m up. Sometimes in shallow cavity or crevice on tree or wall, or behind loose
bark; in creepers, or on a sheltered ledge of any kind, or on a tree stump. In the east
may be on the ground between roots of trees.
Nest. A large, stoutly built cup. Of plant stems, grass, dead leaves, thin twigs and roots;
lined with a solid layer of mud mixed with plant material, and this lined internally with
finer dry grass, flowering grass-heads, pine-needles or dead leaves. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins February in Canary Islands, elsewhere from March in
south to late April in the north. Double- or treble-brooded, sometimes four broods.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-9. SubellipticaL Smooth and glossy. Light blue,
usually profusely marked with speckling and fine mottling of light reddish-brown,
sometimes giving the shell a general brownish tint, sometimes sparser. On sparsely
marked shells the markings may be larger and bolder, exceptionally resembling those
of the Ring Ousel. Markings sometimes thicker at the larger end. At times unmarked,
or with white ground colour. 29.4 x 21.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. Male may
occasionally sit on eggs but does not incubate. 11-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, rather long and sparse; light
buffish-grey. Mouth yellow, gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-19 days in nest. Young fed by
parents for c. 3 weeks after leaving nest.
RING OUSEL Turdus torquatus	PI. 59
In the north of the range breeds on moorland and mountains, usually broken rocky
country lacking tree or shrub cover. Nest on the ground in a hollow, under an over-
hang, or on a sheltered ledge or under a bush, exceptionally in a bush or tree;
usually on a steep slope, stream bank, ravine or rock outcrop. In the south occurs on
mountains above the tree line, but may nest just within the trees, the nest being
normally in a tree or shrub, usually low, but sometimes fairly high in a conifer.
Nest. A bulky cup of grass, heather stalks, moss and leaves, with a little earth mixed
in the base but no mud lining; lined with finer dead grass. Built by female.
THRUSHES
375
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south to late May or early June in north.
Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue
with bold small blotches of reddish-brown, reddish-purple and pale purplish-grey.
Markings usually well distributed over shell, rarely with a concentration at larger
end; and sometimes a reddish wash in addition to marking. 30.4 x 21.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, fairly long and plentiful;
and some scanty down on underside; buffish-brown. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges
yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 14—16 days in nest.
FIELDFARE Turdus pilaris	Pl. 59
Breeds on woodland edge, or in woodland near clearings or marshes; in more open
parkland or scrub; in gardens, orchards and other cultivated areas with trees; and in
north in small areas of trees in open rough country, or in treeless moorland or tun-
dra. Nest usually in a fairly open site, in a fork on a tree or among twigs, or on a post
or stump, or on the ground. Nests are usually in colonies, often in a number of adja-
cent trees with several to a tree.
Nest. A bulky cup of grass, moss, twigs and roots; lined with a layer of mud
forming a cup, lined in turn with fine grass. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins April in south to early or mid-June in north. Often
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-8. SubellipticaL Smooth and glossy. Very variable, at
times resembling those of Blackbird and Ring Ousel. Light blue with reddish-brown
markings. Markings often very small and profuse, covering much of the shell and
partly obliterating ground colour, sometimes markings sparse, or with heavier blotch-
ing, more sparingly distributed and at times capping the larger end. 29.1 x 21.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, fairly long and sparse; pale
buffish-grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-16 days in nest.
REDWING Turdus iliacus	PI. 60
Breeds in broken or young conifer forest, birch and alder woodland, scrub and in the
north on open tundra. Nest in a tree, usually against the trunk, or out on a limb of a
larger one; in a shrub, on a stump, building, creeper on rocks, cavity in bank, pile of
sticks or fallen branches, or on broken ground. 0-3 m up.
Nest. A thick cup of grass, fine twigs, moss and lichen, usually but not invariably
with an inner cup of mud. this lined in turn with fine grass. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April or early May in south to July in north. Usually
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 2-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Similar to those
of Blackbird. Light blue or greenish-blue; profusely marked overall with fine speck-
ling or mottling in reddish-brown, the markings often small and indistinct. 25.9 x
19.1 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with last or next-to-last egg. 11-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and back, long and fairly thick; buff.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 10-15 days in nest.
376
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
SONG THRUSH Turdus philomelos	PI. 60
Breeds in woodland, but in pure conifer wood only towards the edges, also wood-
land edges, and parkland and gardens with shrubby cover, thick hedgerows, and in
the north in scrub or open ground with low shrubby cover. Nest in a tree or shrub,
usually close to the trunk and 1-2 m or up to 4 m up; or in a hollow in creeper, or on
stump or in building, rarely on fallen branches or on the ground, usually in a shady,
well-hidden site.
Nest. A well-shaped cup of grass, thin twigs, roots, moss, dead leaves and lichen;
with a neat smooth inner cup of rotten wood-pulp or mud. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins March in south, to late May or June in north. Usually
double- or treble-brooded, sometimes four broods.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Bright, light blue sparingly speckled or spotted or with a few small irregular blotches
of black or dark purplish-brown, rarely pale purple or brown. Markings sometimes
show blurred reddish edges. Occasionally unmarked. Very rarely brown and white.
27.4 x 20.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female, usually begin-
ning with last egg. 11-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, fairly long. Yellowish-buff.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-16 days in nest.
MISTLE THRUSH Turdus viscivorus	Pl. 60
Breeds usually in more open areas with larger trees. In woodland near clearings and
woodland edge, in parkland and cultivation with scattered large trees, or in more
open mountain areas with trees. Nest in a fork of tree or shrub, from 2 to 9 in up;
exceptionally in low shrubs, hedgerows, or hollows in walls or rocks; sometimes on
tall, metal, man-made structures such as pylons.
Nest. A bulky cup of grass, plant stems, roots, moss and dead leaves, with earth
mixed in and consolidating it; lined with fine grass. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late February in south to late May in north. Double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue, pale
greenish-blue or tinted pale buff; with spots or blotches of reddish-brown, reddish-
purple or pale purple. Markings usually evenly distributed, with occasionally slight
concentration at the larger end. 31.2 x 22.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, on completion of clutch. 12—15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, plentiful and fairly long;
buffish-white. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-16 days. Fly at c. 20 days. Fed
by both adults after leaving nest but male may take over if female begins new
brood.
BLACK-THROATED THRUSH Turdus ruficollis	PI. 59
Breeds in more open parts of woodland, in open woodland, or scattered groups of
trees in more open regions. Nest low in a tree, on log or stump, or on the ground.
Nest. Like that of Blackbird, a cup of grass, moss and thin twigs; lined with a cup of
mud and inner lining of fine grass.
Breeding season. Begins May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4—7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Similar to
WARBLERS
377
those of Blackbird, but more frequently with the sparser, more reddish-brown type
of markings. Markings sometimes denser at the larger end. 29.4 x 21.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-12 days.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. Young leave nest at 11-12 days, hiding in ground or tree
foliage.
CT
WHITE’S THRUSH Zoothera daurna
Breeds in a range of habitats, within the northern Palaearctic in taiga conifer forest.
Prefers thicker forest with undergrowth, in dense conifer, or mixed forest with aspen
and birch. Nest in a tree fork up to c. 6 m, occasionally on the ground among stones
and herbage.
Nest. A large cup of leaves, moss and twigs, plastered internally with mud, and with
a thick inner cup of grass, fine rootlets, leaves and pine-needles.
Breeding season. Begins June in W. Siberia. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. 4-5, sometimes 3. Oval, smooth and fairly glossy. Greenish-blue, heavily
marked with fine reddish speckling; one egg in clutch, or more, with tower, heavier
markings. 32.6 x 23. 8 mm.
Incubation. By female only.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white with yellowish tips, skin greyish-red.
Mouth yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for first few days,
male feeds her and young. Young leave nest barely able to fly.
WARBLERS Sylviidae
GRASS WARBLERS Locustella species
Small skulking warblers, breeding in thick ground vegetation, usually in moist
areas. Nest in or near the ground, or over water, in lush herbage which conceals it
and limits the birds’ avenue of approach. Nest often loosely constructed of dead
grass and leaves, but usually with a deep smooth cup. Eggs very finely and profusely
speckled with red or brown. Young downy on head and back, with orange-yellow
mouths and yellow gape flanges, and with three dark spots on tongue (see diagrams
overleaf).
GRASSHOPPER WARBLER Locustella naevia	Page 378, PI. 55
Breeds in thick low ground cover, in both wet and dry places. In thick herbage of fens
and marshes, rough grassland, moorland, heathland, dunes, thickets, hedgerows and
young plantations. Nest on the ground, or 30-60 cm above it, in a grass or rush tus-
sock or tall herbage.
Nest. A cup built into a hollow in thick vegetation, the birds entering and leaving
by one path. Nest usually has dead leaf base, and is of plant steins and dried grass;
lined w ith hair, plant fibres and fine grasses, and sometimes a little plant dow n and
feathers. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-June in north. Double-brooded
in south, may be single-brooded in north.
Eggs. Usually 6, sometimes 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, finely
and often densely speckled with purplish and lilac, or purplish-brown, often so
thickly that whole shell is tinted; usually with a denser, darker cap or wreath at
378
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS Ob BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Great Reed Warbler
Savi’s Warbler
Reed Warbler
Marsh Warbler
Sedge Warbler
Clamorous Warbler
Graceful Warbler
Fan-tailed Warbler
Graceful Warbler
(variety)
Mouth markings on 29 species of recently hatched warblers (above and right). The most
common markings are two dark elongated or oval markings near the base of the longue
and these are usually noticeable. The markings can vary slightly in shape and size hut
generally appear to be fairly consistent within species. There is evidence for certain
species that the markings become darker and more distinct with age. In certain species,
these markings blend, blur or continue as faint markings or lines to form a triangular-
shaped pattern with one corner near to the tip of the tongue. This corner can vary from
being indistinct in most species, more distinct in others, to being an isolated and
distinct spot, as in the Grasshopper Warbler.
Mouth markings are also present in River, Paddyfield, Blyth's Reed, Moustached,
Booted, Upcher's, RiippelTs and Marmora's Warblers. It is possible that there are also
markings in the mouths of Lanceolated and Arabian Warblers, but this is not known.
The Scrub Warbler apparently has no mouth markings. The Phylloscopus warblers
generally have unmarked mouths, though this is not known for Mountain Chiffchaff and
Plain Willow Warbler.
larger end. More rarely with white ground showing, and sparser, larger markings.
18.1 x 13.8 inm.
WARBLERS
379
Garden Warbler
Whitethroat
Dartford Warbler
Melodious Warbler
Menetries’ Warbler
Barred Warbler
Cyprus Warbler
Orphean Warbler
Subalpinc Warbler
Spectacled Warbler
Tristram's Warbler
Desert Warbler
380
BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-15 days, apparently beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; dark grey. Mouth
orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow. Three black spots on tongue, two larger
ones near base, and a smaller oval spot near the tip.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes. 10-12 days in nest.
SAVI’S WARBLER Locustella luscinioides	Page 378, PI. 55
Breeds in reedy swamps and fens, and overgrown lake edges, with reeds and
sedgebeds. Nest built into the bases of reeds, sedges or tall grasses in swampy places,
on the ground or raised 30 cm or so above ground or over water.
Nest. A cup with outer stmeture loosely built of dead leaves of waterside plants but
inner section often woven more firmly from grass stems; and inner cup often
firm and smooth, lined with finer leaves and fibres. Usually well concealed and
sometimes partly covered. Built by female or both.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south to late May in north. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; finely
and profusely speckled overall with brown, greyish-brown or purplish-brown and
with a more densely speckled area at or around the larger end. Speckling sometimes
fine and dense enough to tint the whole shell. 19.7 x 14.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12 days, apparently beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse; reddish-brown. Mouth orange-yellow,
with two oval black spots either side near base of tongue, sometimes indistinct, and
indistinct spot on tip at first, possibly lost later. Gape flanges deep yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-14 days in the nest.
RIVER WARBLER Locustella fluviatilis	PI. 55
Breeds in a very wide range of waterside habitats, but usually those where lush
herbage or low shrub growth is present. Nest on or near the ground in tall herbage or
at the base of a shrub. Usually in thick cover approached by a single route.
Nest. A cup of plant material loosely put together. The base is of dry grass and dead
leaves, built up with grass stems to form a cup lined with finer grasses and
sometimes hair. Mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 7. Subelliptical to near long elliptical. Smooth and
glossy. White; finely and densely speckled overall with red-purple, buffish-brown or
greyish-brown; sometimes showing a thicker zone of markings around the larger end.
19.2 x 14.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-12 days, beginning with the third egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Almost naked at first with some greyish down on head
and back. Later silky black down covers upperparts, forming short crest on hind-
crown. Mouth orange-yellow, tongue with two black spots at base, and one at tip
probably soon fading. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 14-16 days, fed by
adults for at least another 2 weeks.
LANCEOLATED WARBLER Locustella lanceolate	PI. 55
Breeds in lush herbage of moist areas at the edge of water or marshes, wet grasslands
with scattered shrubs, or moist grassy clearings in forest and scrub. Nest concealed
in tall grass and herbage, often against a mound or tussock, and usually not visible
from above.
WARBLERS
381
Nest. A deep, well-shaped cup, built on a base of small leaves, with a thick outer cup
of grass stems and leaves, with moss and dry leaves; lined with fine grasses in a
smooth cup. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or very pale pink; very
finely and profusely speckled overall with pink, red and purplish, a little denser at or
about the larger end. 17.7 x 13.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down grey.
Nestling period. Young leave nest in 12 days or less.
REED WARBLERS Acrocephalus species
Small, skulking insectivorous birds. Nest in low thick vegetation, usually in or by
water. Nest deep, well-formed cups, usually built among vertical stems, the nest
usually being woven around or bound to these, and stoutly built of leaves and
stems. Those built in young reeds over water may rise as the reeds grow. Eggs show
two major types, either boldly spotted and blotched, but usually showing the paler
ground colour, and usually pale green with darker markings; or so finely mottled
overall as to appear almost uniform in colour, and usually olive or buff. Nestlings
are naked, having yellow to orange mouths with two black spots at base of tongue,
and yellowish gape flanges. Incubation usually by both sexes, and both adults tend
the young.
REED WARBLER Acrocephalus scirpaceus	Page 378, PI. 56
Breeds by or over water in reedbeds and marshes with tall herbage and shrubby
growth. Usually nests in colony. Nest most frequently in reedbed, built around stems
of growing reeds over water, or in bushes in or by water; occasionally in bushes or
tall herbage a little distance from water.
Nest. A deep, cylindrical-walled cup, the sides woven around several upright stems.
Of grass stems and flowcrheads, leaves and flowering stems of reeds, and some plant
down and spiders’ webs. Lined with similar but finer material, plant fibre and
sometimes hair, wool and feathers. Built mainly or solely by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to mid-June in different regions. Single- or
sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greenish-white or
very pale green; blotched, spotted and speckled, usually heavily, with green, olive
and dull grey; the markings often concentrated at or about the larger end to form a
heavy capping. When markings are finer they tend to be more densely and evenly
distributed. 18.4x 13.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11-12 days, beginning with next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow. Two black elongated spots near
base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11-13 days in nest.
MARSH WARBLER Acrocephalus palustris	Page 378, Pl. 56
Breeds in bushy areas especially among nettles, particularly by or over water, but also
in damp and overgrown thickets, hedgerows by growing crops; and towards eastern
part of its range extends up onto slopes with shrubs and tall herbage, often of a dry
type, and in shrubby edges of woodland bordering grassy spaces. Nest is built 30-60
382
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Marsh Warbler: showing loose ‘handles’, c. 10 cm across.
cm up in tall herbage or in shrubs where twigs are slender, at heights of up to 3 m.
Nest. A cup, sometimes cylindrical like Reed Warbler’s, but higher nests often taper
towards the base. The cup is usually hollower than Reed Warbler’s and the rim
extends out in ‘handles’ around supporting stems. Outer part more loosely con-
structed of dry grass, dead plant stems, plant fibres and plant down, the inner cup
more compact, of thinner but similar material with some roots and hair. Built by both
sexes but mainly female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to mid-June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. sometimes 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale
bluish, greenish or greyish, with some minute speckling only visible at close quar-
ters, and conspicuously patterned with irregular markings of bold spots or small
blotches of light and dark olive-green, and varying shades of grey. Heavier markings
often concentrated at or about the larger end. 19.9 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12 days, beginning with next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin dark. Mouth orange-yellow, with two oval black
spots near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow to white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes. 10-14 days in nest.
PADDYFIELD WARBLER Acrocephalus agricola	PI. 55
Breeds in waterside plants and shrubs, by lakes, reservoirs, rivers, ditches and
marshy places. Nest built among reeds, sedges or rarely in shrubs growing in water,
about 30-60 cm up.
Nest. Smooth and well-constructed cylindrical cup bound to vertical stems. Of
tightly woven grass stems, and strips of leaves and reed fibres, and some reed flower-
heads and plant down. The inner cup of fine grasses and reed flowerhcads and
occasionally plant down. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May to June. Single- or possible double-brooded.
WARBLERS
383
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Similar to those of
Reed Warbler but more heavily and darkly marked. Pale green, with indistinct faint
fine speckling, and heavily spotted and blotched with olive, dark green and some
grey. The markings tend to coalesce into a cap at the larger end. Sometimes pink with
reddish-purple markings, or buffish with brown markings. 16.8 x 12.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth yellow or pale yellow, with two black spots at
base of tongue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, leaving nest before able to fly, but
moving rapidly through reedbeds.
BLYTH’S REED WARBLER Acrocephalus dumetorum	Pl. 56
Breeds on the edges of woodland and moist places, wherever dense thickets and tall
herbage are adjacent to open space. Frequently, but not necessarily, by water. Nest
built onto, partly hanging from, stems, near or up to 1 m from ground.
Nest. Smooth, compact and deep. Cup-shaped or conical, with incurved edges; of
narrow leaves and grasses, with external binding of spiders’ webs, plant down and
fibres; and lined with fine stems and sometimes hair. Built by both sexes, sometimes
by female only.
Breeding season. Mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. sometimes 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable, some-
times like those of Marsh Warbler. Very pale greenish, creamy, greyish or pinkish;
with spots or small blotches of olive-green, buffish-brown, greyish-brown or
reddish-brown, and pale grey or purple. The colour of markings tends to vary with
ground colour; and larger markings are sparser than smaller ones. Often a concen-
tration of markings at the larger end. 17.6 x 13.7 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 12-14 days. Some males pair suc-
cessively with several females, which may restrict their share of nesting activity.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth yellow with two black spots at base of tongue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents or by females only of polygamous
males. Leave nest at 15-18 days. Non-polygamous males may divide care of brood
with mate after young leave the nest.
GREAT REED WARBLER Acrocephalus arundinaceus Page 378, PI. 56
Breeds in reedbeds of lakes, riversides and swamps. Usually nests sociably. Some-
times polygamous. Nest in reeds, built around reed stems 60-120 cm above water.
Nest. A tightly woven, deep cylindrical cup. Built of plant stems and leaves, reed-
flowers, plant down, spiders’ webs and fibres; bound around supporting stems; lined
with small leaves, roots, reed-flowers, down, hair and sometimes feathers. Usually
built by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded,
rarely double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Very pale
green, bluish-green or blue, rarely white; variably marked with bold spots and
blotches of blackish-brown, olive-brown, light olive or green, and pale blue-grey; the
markings usually spaced to allow much ground colour to show, rarely dense but
sometimes smaller and more numerous. At close inspection most show a very minute
fine dark speckling. Markings generally distributed but there may be a concentration
at the larger end. 22.6 x 16.2 mm.
Incubation. By female, from last egg. 14-15 days.
384
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND ELROPE
Great Reed Warbler, c. 10-12.5 cm across.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked Mouth orange-yellow, with two elongated (almost
diamond-shaped) black spots near base of tongue Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. 12 days in nest.
CLAMOROUS REED WARBLER Acrocephalus stentorius Page 378, Pl. 56
Breeds in similar habitats to the Great Reed Warbler, nest and site being similar. In
parts of range also breeds in mangroves and occasionally crop fields near water.
Nest. Like that of Great Reed Warbler. Possibly polygamous at times. Built by both
sexes, but mainly by female.
Breeding season. From March or April to July. Possibly double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3-6 Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Not distin-
guishable in colour and pattern from those of the Great Reed Warbler. 215x154 mm.
Incubation. By female only 13-14 days, beginning before completion of clutch.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth orange-yellow, with two large oval black spots
near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 11-13 days, before
able to fly, but able to climb in reeds. Fed for some days afterwards
MOUSTACHED WARBI ER Acrocephalus melanopogon	Pl. 55
Breeds in reedbeds and waterside vegetation and shrubs, on the borders of lakes,
shallow waterways and swamps. Nest built over water in reeds, rcedmace, sedges and
shrubs growing in or by water.
Nest. A deep cup bound between vertical stems; loosely built outer layer of strips of
dry reeds, plant stems, grasses and sedges; lined with reed-flowers and feathers. Built
by female.
WARBLERS
385
Breeding season. Begins early April in south to late April in north. Double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 5-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or greyish-
white, very finely speckled and mottled with light olive over the whole surface,
giving the shell a general greenish-olive tint. 17.8 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 14-15 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth yellow to orange-yellow with two black spots
at base of tongue. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes; leave nest at c. 12 days.
AQUATIC WARBLER Acrocephalus paludicola	Page 378, PI. 55
Breeds in marshy areas with tall herbage and scattered shrubs. Nest built near
ground, low in shrub hidden in tall grasses, or similar site. Tucked among stems but
not woven around them.
Nest. A rounded, well-shaped cup loosely woven of grasses, spiders’ webs and plant
down; sometimes lined with feathers.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Similar to those of
Sedge Warbler. White or very pale buffish or olive; profusely and very finely speck-
led and mottled with olive-buff, often completely obscuring the ground colour. In
some instances almost uniform light olive-buff. Often showing one or two very thin,
broken black hair streaks. 17.6 x 11.8 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-15 days, beginning with last egg, possibly earlier.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth orange-yellow, two oval black spots near base
of tongue. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young cared for by female only. They leave nest at 14-15 days,
remaining near by.
SEDGE WARBLER Acrocephalus schoenobaenus	Page 378, PI. 55
Breeds by water in rank herbage and shrubs, and away from water in bushes,
hedgerows and tall crops. Nest on the ground or 30-60 cm up in tall herbage or base
of shrub, or bound to plant stems over water.
Nest. A rather bulky deep cup, cylindrical to rounded. Longer structures usually over
water. Looser outer structure of dry grasses, plant stems, moss, sedges and spiders’
webs; with thicker internal layer of finer grass stems and leaves; and fine lining of
grass leaves, grass flowerhcads, hair and plant down. Supporting stems outside are
bound to or woven into the structure. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to late May in south to late June in north. Single-
brooded, possibly double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Tinged pale
green or very pale olive-buff; profusely and very finely speckled and mottled with
olive or olive-buff, in many instances producing an almost uniformly coloured egg
with obscured ground colour. General colouring of a medium or fairly light tint,
occasionally darker on olive-brown mottled examples. Many show a very fine, often
broken hair streak. 17.7 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by female. 13-14 days, apparently beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth orange-yellow with two oval black spots near
base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 10-12 days in nest.
386
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
BUSH WARBLERS
The next four species are mostly single members of more widespread genera found
outside the present region.
CETTI’S WARBLER Cettia cetti	Page 378, Pl. 55
Breeds in low, bushy cover in moist places, on river and stream edges, in swamps,
marshy thickets and damp woodland clearings. Males are often polygynous, holding ter-
ritory containing those of two or three females. Nest may be in lush marsh herbage or
reeds, at ground level, or in thick shrubs or hedges, tucked into the fork of a thick branch.
Nest. A bulky, untidy cup, of dead leaves and plant stems at the base, built up with
thinner stems, roots arid fibres; and with a neat, deep inner cup lined with fine
grasses, hair, feathers and reed-flowers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Bright chestnut-
red to deep brick-red and sometimes to paler and duller shades of purplish-pink or
deep reddish-brown. Occasionally showing an indistinct band of darker colour at the
larger end. 18 x 13.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 16-17 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down rather long, on upperparts only, scanty and
dark greyish-brown or blackish. Mouth yellowish-orange, with two elongated black
markings, sometimes greyish or not present, at base of tongue, and sometimes one
at tip. Gape flanges pale yellow or white. Bill, legs and feet flesh-pink.
Nestling period. Young brooded and fed mostly or entirely by female. They leave nest
at 14-16 days, fed for at least 15 days more, independent and dispersing at 30-35 days.
FAN-TAILED WARBLER Cisticola juncidis	Page 378, PI. 57
Nests in marshes and swampy meadows, in fields of cultivated crops, or in clumps of
grass in scrub and open woodland near water. Usually polygamous with up to three
females. Nest well hidden; built into a clump of tall grass or rushes. Males build a num-
ber of outer nest structures in territory', available for lining by an occupying female.
Nest. A deep purse-shaped, or elongated pear-shaped structure with a small opening
at the top; made by binding spiders’ webs around grass or rush stems, the resulting
cavity being lined with grass-flowers and plant down; or in thinner grasses a more
definite shape of dry grass, flowers and down bound with spiders’ webs. Outer part
built by male, lined by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March; season prolonged. Double-brooded, possibly
treble-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 4—6. Short subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable. Ground
colour either white or light blue and both types may be immaculate, or marked with
fine reddish, purplish or black specks, or with larger spots or small blotches of the
same colours, the markings ranging from sparse to dense, although tending to be more
sparing in the case of larger markings. Occasionally some markings concentrated in
a zone around the larger end. 15.1 x 11.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth yellow-orange, tongue with two elongated
black markings, wide at tongue base and tapering for two-thirds of tongue length,
covering much of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only, leaving nest at 14-15 days,
independent 10-20 days afterwards.
WARBLhRS
387
Fan-tailed Warbler, c. 12.5-15 cm deep.
SCRUB WARBLER Scotocerca inquieta	PI. 57
Breeds in low dry scrub growth of desert regions and dry mountainsides. Nests
usually near ground, from within a few centimetres to up to 1 m
Nest. A domed structure with a side entrance, rarely an entrance on either side.
c. 15-20 cm high. 12-15 cm wide, 2.5 cm entrance, and cavity about 6 cm across.
Outer layer of thin twigs, grass stems and plant fibres; rough lining of plant debris, fur
and feathers; and inner lining of feathers and plant down. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-8. sometimes 5-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; very
finely speckled and spotted with red or purplish-red, usually forming a cap or band
at the larger end 15.8 x 11.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-15 days, beginning with last egg.
388
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth yellow. No spots on tongue. Gape flanges
whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They leave nest at 13-15 days, but
earlier if disturbed, remaining together after leaving as family party.
GRACEFUL WARBLER Prinia gracilis	Page 378, PI. 57
Breeds in long grass and bushes on the banks of rivers, in borders of reedbeds and in
drier wadis. The nest is usually built into the grass but occasionally in bushes, 30 cm
to 1 m up.
Nest. A domed structure, c. 10-13 cm deep, 5-7.5 cm wide, with large side entrance
2.5 x 4 cm. Built of fine dry grass mixed with plant debris, seeds, fibres and spiders’
webs; lined with plant down, rarely some feathers. By male, female helps with lining.
Breeding season. Begins late March; prolonged. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Variable, differing with locality. From Africa and Israel usually white, densely
and finely speckled with reddish-brown, often giving the whole shell a light red tint,
frequently with a band of deeper markings around the larger end. Rarely markings
are very pale. From Iraq they are pale greenish-blue speckled and spotted with
Graceful Warbler, c. 12.5 cm deep.
WARBLERS
389
reddish-brown, sometimes profusely, and usually with a darker band at the larger
end. 13.8 x 10.7 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes, beginning with
next to last egg. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Skin yelkwish-pink. Mouth orange-yellow. Two black
markings, which may converge as one at base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults; eyes open at c. 9 days; feathers begin
sprouting c. 4-5 days. Young leave at 13-14 days, when they can only flutter; fly prop-
erly at c. 25-26 days. The male alone may tend fledglings while female begins new nest.
TREE WARBLERS Hippolais species
Small, insectivorous birds. Breed in trees and bushes. Nest well-built cup, deep and
at times, thin-walled, but strong. Usually in a bush or small tree, built among the thin-
ner twigs; but in ground vegetation in some species. Eggs unusual; pink, purplish-
pink or grey, with sparse black spots and specks. Young naked. Yellow mouths with
two dark spots on tongue, and pale yellow gape flanges.
OLIVACEOUS WARBLER Hippolais pallida	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in areas of scrub, or spaced trees, such as gardens, plantations, orchards,
groves and hillside thickets. Nest in the outer twigs of bushes. 30-120 cm up,
sometimes up to 5 m.
Nest. Strongly built, neat cup of fine twigs, plant stems, grasses, sedges and hair with
a layer of finer fibres, and plant down and inner cup of fine fibres and sometimes hair.
Built by the female; male occasionally brings material.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Double-brooded.
Olivaceous Warbler, c. 7.5-10 cm across.
390
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale greyish-
white, sometimes with faint pink tint, sparsely spotted and speckled with black.
Rarely short black scrawls or hair streak. 17.4 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female only. 11-13 days apparently beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Flesh-pink. Mouth orange-yellow, with two black
spots near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 11-15 days.
BOOTED WARBLER Hippolais caligata	PI. 56
Breeds in low shrubs and tall herbage bordering open areas in woodland, or in
thickets and areas of cover in more open habitats, often, but not invariably, near
water or moist places. Nest usually near the ground among stems of tall weeds or
grasses, or stems of shrubs, or less frequently supported by stems or low twigs less
than 30 cm up.
Nest. A strongly built cup of plant stems, dead leaves, roots and some fur or feath-
ers; padded inside with plant down, grass and fibres, and with a deep inner cup of
plant down and sometimes feathers and hair. Raised nests may be bound to one
support, resting on others. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Small population in Arabia begins
in March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale dull pink-
ish, spotted and speckled with sparse black or blackish-brown markings. The race
H. c. rama has greyish-white shells with a heavy zone of blackish-brown or black
irregular scrawling and blotching around the larger end, and sparse spots and specks
elsewhere. 15.6 x 12.3 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female. Male assists occasionally. 12-14 days, beginning
with next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth yellow, with two oval black spots near base of
tongue. Gape flanges white. Bill and legs pinkish-red.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 11-14 days, becoming
independent 12-14 days later.
UPCHER’S WARBLER Hippolais languida	PI. 56
Breeds in scattered shrubs of arid areas, on hill slopes and along valley water-
courses. Nest built in the twigs of a bush, 60 cm-2 m up, built among twigs or slung
between supports.
Nest. Although thin-walled, a strong and well-woven cup. Of thin stems, fibres,
grasses, fur and plant down; with an outer layer of plant fibres and spiders’ webs.
Insect and spider cocoons may occur on outside. Inner layers are of similar but finer
material with cup of plant down, grass-flowers and hair. Built by female, although
both sexes noted collecting material.
Breeding season. Eggs from late April to June. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale pink-
ish, faintly purplish or pale drab grey; sparsely spotted, speckled or rarely scrawled
with black and dark grey. 18.9 x 13.6 mm.
Incubation. By female; male not seen to assist. 13-14 days from next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow with two elongated black spots
near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale lemon yellow.
Nestling period. Tended by both parents. Fledge 11-12 days.
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391
OLIVE-TREE WARBLER Hippolais olivetorum	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in and around olive trees and oakwoods. Nest in a tree or bush, at times near
the ground but may be up to 3 m above ground.
Nest. A deep cup of grass, stems and down; more finely lined; spiders' webs cover
outside.
Breeding season. Begins mid May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale pink or
purplish-pink. Usually paler and less pink towards larger end; with sparse spots,
specks and scrawls of black, and sometimes pale grey. 21.5 x 13.5 mm.
Incubation, с. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Skin pink. Mouth orange-yellow with two black spots
near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
MELODIOUS WARBLER Hippolais polyglotta	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in similar habitats to Icterine Warbler, in more open trees, of woodland, park-
land, gardens, hedgerows and similar places; but usually in association with water
or moist places, especially in trees and bushes bordering streams or rivers. Nest built
in a fork of a shrub or young tree, about 1-2 m up.
Nest. Like that of Icterine Warbler. A deep cup built into a fork of thinner twigs. Of
plant stems, grasses, plant down and spiders’ webs; lined with roots, plant down, hair
and sometimes feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Single-brooded, sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Like those of
Icterine Warbler; light purplish-pink, often pinker towards the narrow end and pale
purple towards the larger end. Sparsely spotted and speckled in black, occasionally
with thin dark hair streak or fainter smudged hair streak. 17.7 x 13.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-13 days, beginning with the last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth orange-yellow. Two oval black markings near
base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12 days in nest.
ICTERINE WARBLER Hippolais icterina	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in areas of open woodland, parkland, orchards, gardens and hedgerows, or
edges of clearings in woods. Nest in a large shrub or small tree of fairly open growth,
usually in the fork of thinner twigs, about 1.2-4 m up; or occasionally higher in the
crowns of larger trees.
Nest. A deep cup, rounded or tapering into a fork. Sometimes built into a horizontal fork.
Nest bound to supports by plant or bark fibres and spiders’ webs, or sometimes woven
around them. Nest of plant stems, grasses, dead leaves, bark fibre and roots, bound with
plant down and fibre and spiders' webs; lined with fine grass, roots, fur, hair and some-
times feathers. Walls often thin, but strong. Built by both sexes or by female only.
Breeding season. Begins late May in south to mid-Junc in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale, dull purplish-
pink, usually more pale purple towards the larger end; sparingly spotted and
speckled in black. Exceptionally with a fine, dark hair streak. 18.3 x 13.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13 days, beginning with last or next-lo-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth orange-yellow, with two slightly tapering
black spots near base of tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 13 days in nest.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
TYPICAL WARBLERS Sylvia species
Small insectivorous birds. Breed in a variety of habitats from sparse desert scrub to
woodland. Nest usually a little above the ground in low cover. Nest a loosely built
cup, lucked into a twig fork or herbage, but rarely attached to it. Usually of dry plant
material and plant down, and lined with roots, fine grass and hair. Eggs very variable
in colour and markings. Male often helps to build nest and to incubate. Young usu-
ally naked. Mouth yellow, orange or pink; often with a pair of dark spots at the base
of the tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow to white. Young fed by both parents on
insects carried in the bill.
GARDEN WARBLER Sylvia borin	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in open woodland, deciduous or mixed, with shrubby undergrowth, or in
areas of tall shrubs, in scrub, gardens and taller hedgerows. Nest in a low shrub or
young tree, or low tree branch, or in tall herbage, often about 30 cm up, sometimes
up to 1-3 m.
Nest. A substantial cup, usually in a fork of twigs or among plant stems, wedged
but not attached to supporting stems and twigs. A loose cup of dry grasses, and
sometimes moss or fine twigs; lined with fine grasses, hair and roots. Built by both
birds.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable. Whitish,
or tinted faintly buffish, greenish or pinkish; irregularly blotched and spotted with
buff, light olive, brown, reddish-brown, purplish and grey. Markings sparse at times
and most specimens show much ground colour. Larger pale blotches often have a
small darker spot on them. Spots with blurred edges frequently occur. Markings
infrequently concentrated at larger end. 20.1 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. By both adults. 10-12 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Mouth bright reddish-pink with two dark but rather
faint markings near base of tongue, fading and narrowing to converge near tongue
tip. Gape flanges dull white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes. 9-12 days in nest.
WHITETHROAT Sylvia communis	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in tall herbage and low shrubby growth in open habitats, in heathland, thick-
ets, hedgerows and scrubland. Nest in low shrub or tall plants, usually about 30 cm
above the ground, rarely on the ground or in thickets up to 5 m up.
Nest. A loosely built, fairly deep cup, wedged into twigs or stems but not bound to
them. Of dry grass and roots; lined with roots and hair, usually dark, and some plant
down and wool. Male builds outer nests before female arrives. Female may use one
or build her own.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Usually double-brooded in south.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable; very pale
blue or green, very finely speckled, mottled or spotted with light green or olive, or
buff, and darker grey spots or blotches. Rarely white with sparser markings, or more
boldly marked in dark olive and grey about the larger end; very exceptionally pink
with reddish spots. 18.6 x 13.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11-13 days, usually beginning with next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-pink, with two elongated black mark-
ings near the base of the tongue. A faint line runs from the tip of each marking to
WARBLERS
393
form a tip of a triangle, almost at tip of tongue; the markings bceome more distinct
at the tip, and are variable at this point, more distinct in some than others. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded continually by female for
first few days. 10-12 days in nest.
LESSER WHITETHROAT Sylvia curruca	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in low shrubby growth, on woodland edges and clearings, parkland, scattered
trees with underbrush, thick hedges and tall shrubs. Thick dark cover preferred,
denser than that used by Common Whitethroat. Southern forms occur usually in
shrubs and trees of open hillsides and into desert zones of more arid regions. Nest
low in a bush or conifer, usually at 60-90 cm, occasionally up to 2-3 m.
Nest. Like Whitethroat’s but smaller and thinner. Of fine twigs, dead grass, roots and
some dead leaves, and spiders’ cocoons on outside. Lined with fine roots and hair, some-
times with plant down and downy catkins, rarely with plant fibre. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early May or late April in south to early June in north.
Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or creamy-
white; sparingly spotted, blotched or speckled with olive, or olive-buff and grey. The
markings often accumulate at or around the larger end. Paler blotches may have a
darker spot like those of Blackcap and Garden Warbler. 17.6 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 10-14 days, beginning with last
or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow. Two oval dark markings near
the base of tongue; markings becoming faint, forming a triangle, with the tip in
direction of tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, female brooding during first few
days. Fledge at 10-13 days, but leave nest when only able to flutter, spending first
week in cover, and grouping to be fed.
BARRED WARBLER Sylvia nisoria	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in thickets and shrubs of woodland edge or clearings, riverine woodland,
parkland, orchards and large hedgerows. Frequently in thorn thickets. Nest in a fork
of branches or thinner stems, 30-240 cm up.
Barred Warbler, c. 15 cm across.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A loosely built, deep cup of dead grass stems; lined with fine roots, hair and
sometimes spiders’ cocoons. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-May. Single-brooded, possibly double-
brooded in some regions.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale whitish-
grey, or faintly blue-grey or greenish-grey. Finely speckled, spotted, mottled or
blotched with very pale blue-grey, purplish-grey or buffish-grey; often with a
concentrated zone of markings around or at the larger end. 21.1 x 14.4 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12-15 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink with purplish feather tracts. Mouth orange-
yellow with two dark oval spots near base of tongue, joining together near base.
Variably distinct faint markings form a triangle tapering in the direction of the tongue
tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Tended by both parents. Eyes open 3-4 days, leave nest 11-15
days.
BLACKCAP Sylvia atricapilla	Page 379, PI. 56
Habitat similar to that of Garden Warbler, but shows a slightly greater preference for
mature trees. Nest also in similar sites, usually in a low bush or low tree branch, or
sucker growth round an old tree. Not on the ground and usually in a higher site than
that of Garden Warbler.
Nest. A cup; smaller, more compact and more neatly built than that of the Garden
Warbler. Of dry grass and roots. Some of the finer material usually binds the rim to
supporting stems. The lining is of fine grass, roots and hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Usually begins mid-April. Double-brooded in some regions.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable.
White, or tinted buffish, olive or pink. Blotched, spotted and speckled, in buff, olive,
brown, reddish-brown or purplish-red, and grey. Markings often sparse, and large
indistinct blotches may have small, darker spots of the same colour. Ground colour
at times almost obscured by light mottling of similar colour to darker markings.
Rarely almost immaculate. 19.6 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 10-15 days, usually 11-13, normally beginning with
next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth dull pink with two long tapering black spots
near base of tongue, sometimes paler. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 11-12 days, before
able to fly, staying near by as a group for 4-5 days. Remain with adults for c. 2-3
weeks after fledging.
SARDINIAN WARBLER Sylvia melanocephala	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in thickets and scattered shrubs among herbage, from scanty growth on dry
hillsides to undergrowth in open woodland. Nest at varying heights, 30-240 cm up,
in shrubs, tall herbage, brambles and climbing plants; often at lowest level.
Nest. A cup of dry plant stems and grass, bound with spiders’ webs; with an inner
padding of plant down in which there is a cup of finer grasses, roots and hair. Built
by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March to mid-April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable. White or faintly
tinted green, buffish or pinkish; speckled, spotted or finely mottled with olive-buff,
light olive, buff, brown, purplish-red and grey. Markings usually evenly distributed.
WARBLERS
395
sometimes sparse, more often profuse; sometimes concentrated at or around the
larger end. A distinct type resembles those of Lesser Whitethroat: whitish, more
sparsely blotched in buff or olive-buff and grey with markings mainly at the larger
end. 17.9 x 13.6 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-14 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow, with two elongated dark spots
near base of tongue. A darkish area, much paler than the spots, leads from their outer
edges, tapering towards the tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11 days in nest.
MENETRIES’ WARBLER Sylvia mystacea	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in arid scrub along watercourses and on hillsides, and in gardens and
plantations. Nest in low shrub, from ground level to a metre or two up.
Nest. A deep, rather flimsy cup of thin twigs, grass stems and other plants; lined with
fine grass and hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or very faintly greenish;
marked with specks, spots or small blotches of olive-brown, brown and grey. Usu-
ally profusely and evenly distributed, but with a tendency for a darker zone at the
larger end. 17.1 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 11-13 days, beginning with last
egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow, with two oval black markings
near base of tongue, more distinct in older individuals. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female when small.
They fledge at 10-12 days.
CYPRUS WARBLER Sylvia melanothorax	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds on Cyprus in shrubs, mainly on scrubby hill slopes, occasionally in young
conifers in open woodland. Preference for low dense scrub, Cistus especially
favoured. Nest c. 30 to 60 cm (to 1.5m) in a shrub.
Nest. A cup of grasses, thistle leaves and bark, commonly bound with spiders’ web,
lined with finer grass and hair. Built by female accompanied by male, who may build
cock nests.
Breeding season. Begins late March or April on low ground, later in higher areas.
Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale
green, rarely white; speckled, spotted or finely blotched with olive-brown and
pale violet-grey. Markings sometimes concentrated at or around larger end. 17.4 x
13.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation mainly by female. 12-13 days,
beginning with the last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. At hatching, skin mainly reddish-pink, blackish-grey
on head, nape, wings and spine and grey on lower back; lower legs and feet orange-
pink. Colours darken somewhat within first two days. Mouth orange-yellow, with
two black elongated markings, one at either side of the base of the tongue; a narrow
line extends from the inside tip of each marking and these almost converge towards
the tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 9-10 days. Fed for up to
10 days after leaving nest.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
RUPPELL’S WARBLER Sylvia ruppelli	PI. 56
Breeds in thick scrub and bushes or rocky hillsides and gullies. Nest in a bush.
Nest. A neat cup of plant stems and grasses, lined with plant fibres.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, tinted pale greenish
or buffish; finely and profusely speckled, spotted and finely mottled with green,
olive, buff or light brown, and grey; often so fine as to obscure the ground colour,
producing olive-green eggs. Sometimes indistinct cap or wreath of denser mark-
ings at larger end. Occasionally markings are larger and sparser blotches. 17.7 x
13.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow with two elongated black spots
at base of tongue. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
ARABIAN WARBLER Sylvia leucomelaena
Breeds in bushy woodland, acacia scrub and mixed open woodland on hills and
mountains. Nest mainly in lower outer branches of trees such as acacia, 80-300 cm
from ground.
Nest. A cup of stems, leaves and fibres, with a finer lining. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. From mid-February to July.
Eggs. 2-3, rarely 4. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy. Whitish, speckled with grey
and brown.
Incubation. By both sexes. 15-16 days, beginning with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial. Mouth light orange. Gape flanges pale yellow. Bill blackish-grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at 10-17 days, but
continuing to be fed for up to 40 days.
ORPHEAN WARBLER Sylvia hortensis	Page 379, PI. 56
Breeds in stunted, open forest and scrub on dry mountainsides, in olive groves,
orchards, plantations and gardens. Nest in the outer branches of small trees at up to
5 m, or in bushes at 90-120 cm up.
Nest. A loosely built cup of thin twigs, stems, grass and roots, with spiders’ webs on
the outside; lined with fine roots or grass and hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-May. Late dates in the east suggest double-
brooding.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, or
very faint bluish-white; sparingly marked with spots, specks and small blotches
in olive, brown, blackish-brown or black, and pale grey or blue-grey. Markings
vary in density; larger markings tend to be concentrated at larger end. 19.8 x
14.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 12-14 days, beginning with next-
to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin dark flesh-colour. Mouth orange-yellow. Two
dark elongated marks at base of tongue, with fainter mark joining them and the two
fading and converging at tongue tip to form a triangle. In older young markings are
darker with narrow black lines bordering tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow to
greenish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at 12-13 days, and are fed
for another 5-6 days.
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397
MARMORA’S WARBLER Sylvia sarda	Pl. 57
Breeds on dry hillsides with heath and low scrub, usually near sea. Nest in small
shrub, usually in low position in herbage growing through base of shrub.
Nest. A cup, thin in cover, thicker in more open sites, with stout rim. Of dry plant
fragments, stems, leaves and lichens, with spiders’ webs and wool on exterior; lined
with fine grasses and hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Two or sometimes three broods.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 5. Short subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
White or greyish-white; spotted with buffish or reddish-brown and grey, often con-
centrated at larger end; or thickly blotched reddish-brown or finely speckled with
light brown and grey. 18 x 13.5 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, but male takes part. 12-15 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin shiny black. Mouth orange with two black spots
at base of tongue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at c. 12 days.
DARTFORD WARBLER Sylvia undata	Page 379, PI. 57
Breeds in areas with low dense broken shrub cover, usually fairly dry; such as heath-
land, moor or maquis. Nest low in shrub; cistus, heather, gorse or bramble. Often
very near ground, sometimes up to 90-120 cm.
Nest. A cup of plant fragments, grass and moss; with wool, plant down and spiders’
cocoons; lined with roots, fine grass, down and hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to mid-June, varying with altitude and latitude.
Double-, or sometimes treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely up to 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, grey-
ish or faintly greenish; finely speckled, mottled or spotted with dark brown or
greyish-brown, and some pale grey. Markings small, varying considerably in den-
sity. Sometimes concentration of heavier markings at or around larger end. 18.6 x
13.9 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, but male assists. 12-13 days, beginning with next-
to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin dark. Mouth orange-yellow. Two elongated black
markings near base of tongue, with a faint narrow black line from edge of each, con-
verging towards tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow. Mouth markings are still pre-
sent in juveniles.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11-13 days in nest.
TRISTRAM’S WARBLER Sylvia deserticola	Page 379, PI. 57
Breeds on hill slopes in low and often rather open scrub and in open stunted wood-
land. Nest low in a shrub, typically at 50 cm.
Nest. A deep cup of dry, coarse grass, lined with finer grass, plant down and hair.
Breeding season. Begins April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greenish-white or
pale green; spotted and blotched with olive-brown and pale grey; markings
sometimes forming a zone at the larger end. 15.6 x 12.4 mm.
Incubation. 13 days. By female only? Beginning with next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Skin dark pink, darker still on head and back. Mouth
orange-yellow. Two distinct elongated black markings, one at either side of the base of
the tongue, with a faint dark narrow line from the tip of each, continuing along the edge
of the tongue and converging near the tip. The two distinct markings arc joined near
398
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
the base by a faint dark marking which tapers to a point halfway down the centre of
the tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Tended by both adults. 13-14 days in nest.
SPECTACLED WARBLER Sylvia conspicillata	Page 379, PI. 57
Breeds in open places with low scrub, or bushes on and around cultivated ground.
Nest in a low, dense bush, often close to the ground.
Nest. A deep neat cup of grass stems, leaves and roots; lined with plant down, and
all inner cup of wool, hair and fine roots. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late February to early March. Double-brooded, possibly
treble-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale,
tinted greenish or buffish-white; very finely speckled, spotted or mottled with light
greyish-green, light olive, or more rarely light buff or brown. Markings sometimes
concentrated at or around larger end. 16.9 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes, usually beginning
with last egg, occasionally earlier. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin dark pink with blackish feather tracts. Mouth
orange-yellow. Two dark elongated oval marks on sides of tongue near base joined
by a faint band, and with a faint narrow black line from each converging on the
tongue centre towards the tip; also small dark mark on throat just behind base of
tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults on insects brought in bill. 12-13 days.
May be fed up to 3 weeks after leaving.
SUBALPINE WARBLER Sylvia cantillans	Page 379, PI. 57
Breeds in shrubby thickets with shady areas, such as open woodlands with thick
undergrowth, lower scrub with scattered trees, overgrown gullies and tall hedgerows.
Nest in low shrub or creepers, 30 cm-1 m up.
Nest. A cup of dry' grasses and plant down; lined with finer grasses, plant fibres and hair.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White or tinted very
pale greenish, buffish or pinkish; speckled, spotted or finely mottled in light buff,
olive, brown, grey or purplish-red. producing several distinct colour types. Markings
often profuse, but vary in density. Often a concentration of heavier markings at larger
end. 16.5 x 12.9 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female alone. Male sometimes assists. 11-12 days, appar-
ently beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow. Two elongated dark markings
near base of tongue, with a faint dark narrow line from the tip of each, converging
near the tongue tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both sexes. 11-12 days in nest.
DESERT WARBLER Sylvia папа	Page 379, PI. 57
Breeds in semi-desert areas of scrub and in well-vegetated wadis in desert areas. Nest
in thick bushes, usually from ground level to 1 m up.
Nest. A thick, strong cup, usually deep and sometimes narrowing at rim. Exterior
smoothed, of small plant fragments, over similar material combined with fibres, bark
strips, wool, plant down and spiders’ cocoons. Inner cup of fine fibres, grasses and
WARBLERS
399
plant down. Sometimes entirely of fibres; or fibres and down. Built by male, possi-
bly completed by female.
Breeding season. Begins in N. Africa in January to May, in Asia late April to early
May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 6 (2-3 more usual in North Africa). Subelliptical.
Smooth and glossy. White, or pale bluish-white; speckled or finely scrawled with light
brown, greyish-brown and grey, very finely marked, with heavier marking at or
around the laiger end. 17.5 x 13.1 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female, helped by male. Beginning with last egg. 12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin flesh-pink. Mouth orange yellow, with two dark
elongated markings, one at either side of the tongue. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 11-12 days.
LEAF WARBLERS Phylloscopus species
Small, insectivorous birds. Breed in or about trees and shrubs. Nest on or near the
ground; domed with a side entrance. Nest often well concealed in ground vegetation
and litter, and the entrance may be the only obvious part of it, although this may only
be visible at ground level. The entrance may be elliptical, wider than it is deep; and
the whole nest may be slightly elliptical rather than rounded. Nest usually built by
female alone. Eggs white, mostly with fine speckling and spotting in shades of red
and brown. Incubation is by the female alone. Young have scanty greyish down on
head and shoulders; yellow to orange mouths, and paler yellow gape flanges. They
arc fed by parents on insects carried in the bill. Recently fledged young often
huddle together while resting or waiting for food.
ARCTIC WARBLER Phylloscopus borealis	PI. 57
Breeds in birch forest and scrub with undergrowth, in poplar, mixed and conifer
forests, but in the latter showing preference for river edges or forest edge areas. Nest
on the ground among sparse herbage, or among moss, tree roots or other cover.
Usually built into dead vegetation so that only the entrance shows. Occasionally in
shrubby growth 60-90 cm up.
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance. Of moss, dry grass and dead leaves;
lined with fine grass, and rarely with hair.
Breeding season. Begins late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-7. Short subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White;
finely speckled and spotted with light reddish-brown or darker brown. Markings
often rather sparse; finer specklings usually profuse but sometimes faint. 16.2 x
12.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head only, pale grey. Mouth yellow. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded at first by female. They
fledge at 13-14 days, soon independent but may be fed for c. 1 week more.
GREEN WARBLER Phylloscopus nitidus	PI. 57
Very little known. This species is sometimes regarded as a race of the Greenish
Warbler, and the information concerning that species may also apply here. Breeds in
mountain forest, and in scrub along mountain watercourses and on higher slopes.
Nest on the ground, often on a sloping site.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance, built against a growing plant or tucked
into a hollow. A loose structure of twigs, leaves, grass stems, rootlets and moss, lined
with finer material, hair and feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded?
Eggs. 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. White. 15.6 x 12.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-16 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down light grey. Skin pink. Mouth yellow. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded at first by female. Fledge
at 14-16 days, tended by both parents for a further period after fledging.
GREENISH WARBLER Phylloscopus trochiloides	PI. 57
Breeds in more open woodland, conifer or deciduous, on woodland edges, scrub of
mountain slopes or northern regions, and overgrown orchards and copses. Nest on
the ground in tall herbage or under low shrub, among vegetation on slopes and
banks, sometimes above ground in hollows or crevices in banks, tree stumps or old
walls.
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance. Loosely built of moss, grass and dead
leaves; lined with hair or fur. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-Junc. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Subelliptical to oval. Smooth but non-glossy. White. 15 x 11.7
mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-13 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges
pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 12-16 days, feeding
themselves after с. I week and independent at c. 15 days after fledging.
WESTERN BONELLI’S WARBLER Phylloscopus bonelli	Pl. 57
Breeds in a variety of woodland types, from dense to open or sparse woodland,
usually on hill slopes, also on level ground. Nest on the ground in a clearing or
undergrowth, usually built into a hollow or side of a bank.
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance. Mainly of grass, with some leaves and
moss; lined with finer grass, roots and hair, and apparently camouflaged by external
material. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Usually single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, clutches tending to be larger in north of range. Short subellipti-
cal to elliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; finely and profusely speckled and spot-
ted dark reddish-brown or purplish-brown; usually with a distinct heavy zone at or
around the larger end. 16x13 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-15 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and sparse, only on upperparts. Mouth
deep yellow or orange-yellow. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, with brooding by female during first
5 days. They fledge at 12-13 days, with adults dividing brood and continuing to feed.
EASTERN BONELLI’S WARBLER Phylloscopus orientalis
Breeds in central and south Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey, and has been recognised
as a separate species. There appears to be no present evidence of distinct differences
in breeding between the two species.
WARBLERS
401
WOOD WARBLER Phylloscopus sibilatrix	Pl. 57
Breeds in woodland where there is little secondary growth between herbage layer
and foliage canopy, or in well-grown parkland offering similar habitat. Nest on the
ground, usually where there is some undergrowth, or natural hollow or irregularity
to provide cover
Nest. A domed structure with a side entrance Of dead leaves, stems, bark fibres,
bracken and grass; lined with fine grasses and hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins from late May in south to mid-June in north. Usually
single-brooded, sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, rarely 4-8. Short, subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; pro-
fusely speckled and spotted with dark reddish-brown, purplish-brown, purplish-grey
or dark brown. Heavily marked overall but some heavier concentration at or around
larger end. 15.9 x 12.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13 days, beginning with last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and shoulders, long but sparse; pale
grey. Mouth bright, deep yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. 11-12 days in nest After leaving nest
young fed by parents for c. 4 weeks.
PLAIN WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus neglectus
Breeds in deciduous and evergreen scrub or woodland on dry mountain slopes. Nest
in a low thick shrub, from almost ground level to 1 m up.
Nest. Domed and laterally elliptical, of grasses and lined with feathers.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 3-5 Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; variably marked with
fine reddish speck mg, usually densest at the larger end. Possibly unmarked at times.
15.2 x 1 l.l mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. No information
MOUNTAIN CHIFFCHAFF Phylloscopus sindianus
Breeds in conifer and broadleaf forest, scrub, scrub thickets and bushes at higher alti-
tudes, above range of local Common Chiffchaffs. Nests in low thick scrub, thorny
shrub or dense tall herbage or on the ground.
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance, outer structure of stems, grass and
leaves, thickly lined with feathers, hair and plant down. Built by female.
Breeding season. Late May to early August.
Eggs. 3-6. Short subelliptical to oval Smooth and non-glossy White with deep red
or reddish-brown spots, speckles and scrawls, concentrated at the larger end. 15.4 x
12 mm.
Incubation. By female only.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young tended by female only.
CHIFFCHAFF Phylloscopus collybita	Pl. 57
Breeds in woodland, tall scrub, more open woodland and shrubby areas with thick
undergrowth, and old hedgerows with trees
Nest. A domed structure on the ground or a little above it in tall herbage, or low thick
bush, low tree branches, or creeper on walls. Fairly wide side entrance. Of plant stems,
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
moss, dead leaves and plant debris, often on a base of dead leaves. Slightly more
loosely made than that of Willow Warbler. Thickly lined with feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to late May in north, possibly to June
in north-east. Single-brooded in north to double-brooded further south.
Eggs. 4—9, varying regionally. Usually only 4-5 in second broods. Short subellipti-
cal. Smooth and glossy. White; sparsely marked with fine speckling or larger spots
or small blotches of dark purplish-brown or purplish, black, or more rarely reddish-
brown; the markings often mainly at the larger end. 15.1 x 12.1 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 13-15 days,
beginning with last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and shoulders, short and scanty; dark
grey. Mouth dull yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed mainly by female, some help from male. 12-15 days in
nest.
IBERIAN CHIFFCHAFF Phylloscopus brehmii
Breeds mainly in Iberia and in extreme south west France, overlapping in range,
close to Pyrenees, with the Chiffchaff, where there is some hybridisation. The eggs
arc generally more thickly speckled than typical eggs of the Chiffchaff. There
appears to be no present evidence of other distinct differences in breeding between
the two species.
CANARY ISLAND CHIFFCHAFF Phylloscopus canariensis
Breeds in scrub and woodland on western Canary Islands. Nest above ground in a
shrub or fork of a low tree. Nest height typically 1-2 m, but up to 3 m. Generally less
well hidden than nest of Chiffchaff. Several pairs may be in close proximity, with
nests as close as 15 m.
Nest. An elliptical domed structure, slightly higher than wide, of dried grasses and
fine stems (and scarcely any dead leaves c/f Chiffchaff.) Side entrance is near top of
nest, much higher than in Chiffchaff. Thickly lined with feathers and hair. Built by
female only ?
Breeding season. Late January to June. Sometimes 2 broods.
Eggs 3-4, rarely 2-5. Subelliptical and glossy. Very pale whitish ground colour with
small brown spots or speckling, usually mainly towards the larger end. 15.5 x 12.1
mm.
Incubation. By female. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Skin flesh-pink. Down on head and back short and
sparse; pale grey. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by female, but male sometimes assists. Leave nest at c.
16-17 days.
WILLOW WARBLER Phylloscopus trochilus	PI. 57
Breeds in open woodland or woodland edge, or scattered trees with foliage canopies
reaching to ground level; scrub, shrubby growth, high hedgerows or bushy areas in
open spaces. Nest on the ground, usually in tall herbage or under low foliage cover
at the edges of trees or shrubs, under shrubs in grass or sparse herbage, in hedge
bases, or sometimes a little above ground level in bushes or in creeper on walls.
Nest. A domed structure of grass, leaves, plant stems, moss, pieces of rotten wood
and roots, making a spherical nest with side entrance, with an inner cup of finer
stems, roots and feathers. Built by female.
WARBLERS
403
Willow Warbler, c. 12.5-15 cm across.
Breeding season. Begins end of April in south to mid-June in north. Double-
brooded in south, single-brooded in north.
Eggs. Usually 6-7, occasionally from 3-9. Short subelliptical. Smooth and glossy.
White; finely speckled overall with light red or reddish-brown; or more sparsely
marked with larger spots or irregular blotches in light red, light to dark reddish-
brown or reddish-buff. Occasionally a concentration of markings on or around the
larger end. 15.4 x 12.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female only. 13 days, begin-
ning with last or ncxt-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and shoulders, fairly long and sparse;
greyish-white. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 13-16 days in nest.
YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER Phylloscopus inornatus	Pl. 57
Breeds in coniferous and mixed woodlands. Nest on the ground. Usually against
some solid tussock, mound or tree root.
Nest. A domed structure with side entrance. Of dry grass, moss, dead wood scraps;
lined with similar material or with hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White;
finely speckled and spotted with reddish-brown, purplish-brown, and pale purplish-
grey. Markings usually heaviest towards larger end. 13.9 x 11.1 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-14 days, beginning with last egg.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and mainly naked, a few silvery-grey down tufts on head. Mouth
orange-yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at 11-15 days.
GOLDCRESTS Regulus species
GOLDCREST Regulus regulus	PI. 57
Breeds in coniferous woodland, or mixed woodland, or woodland with yew trees,
and in parkland, scrub and gardens with suitable trees. Nest suspended in a fork of
twigs under foliage near the end of a conifer branch, or in a sheltered fork; rarely in
other evergreens such as ivy or gorse.
Nest. A deep thick cup, built up tight against the foliage and twigs above so that
access to the small egg-cavity may be restricted. Of moss, lichens and spiders’ webs,
the latter also being used to bind it to the supporting twigs; lined with feathers. Built
by both birds but the male’s assistance varies.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-10, occasionally up to 13. Subclliptical. Smooth and non-glossy.
White to very pale buff, very finely speckled with drab buff ish-brown, or faint pur-
plish or greyish-brown, largely confined to a zone encircling or capping the larger
end. Markings sometimes so fine that zones appear as a change in shell colour rather
than individual markings. 13.6 x 10.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head only, short and sparse; blackish-grey.
Mouth orange. Gape flanges pinkish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open at 7-8 days. 16-21 days
in nest.
Goldcrest, c. 7.5-10 cm across.
SUNBIRDS
405
TENERIFE KINGLET Regulus teneriffae
Occurs on the Canary Islands, on Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierro. Breeds in
tree-heath and mixed laurel forest. Nest in a fork or 4-7 m up on a thin horizontal
branch of a low tree or shrub, in tree-heath or pittosporum.
Nest. A deep woven rounded cup supported by two horizontal twigs through nest
wall on either side, and much finer ones incorporated. Mainly of moss and lichen,
sometimes with fine grass and rootlets, bound with spiders’ webs. More finely lined
with feathers and plant seed down. Built by both adults, mainly by male at first,
female later.
Breeding season. March to June. Double-brooded?
Eggs. 3-6. Subclliptical, smooth and non-glossy, pale pinkish-buff, finely speckled
with drab brown or grey, to almost pure white. 13.9 x 10.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head only; dark grey. Mouth orange-red.
Gape flanges pinkish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, brooded at first by the female. Leave
nest after 19-21 days, independent at c. 27 days.
FIRECREST Regulus ignicapillus	PI. 57
Breeds in coniferous and also deciduous woodland. Nest in a similar site to that of
Goldcrest, usually in a conifer, evergreen, or in ivy on a tree.
Nest. Very similar to that of Goldcrest, but may be a little smaller and more compact.
Built by female, male in attendance.
Breeding season. Begins end of April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-11, sometimes 12. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White, or
more often light pinkish-buff, with similar drab zone of indistinct markings wreathing
or capping larger end to that occurring on eggs of Goldcrest, but differing in that whole
egg has warmer pinkish tint. Madeiran birds have white shell speckled in reddish-
brown or light purplish-brown and more like eggs of leaf warblers. 13.5 x 10.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down grey, on head only. Skin pink. Mouth orange.
Gape flanges ivory-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 19-20 days in nest.
SUNBIRDS Nectariniidae
Small, restless birds, with downcurved bills and long tongues for nectar-feeding. The
males have iridescent, brightly-coloured plumage, but the females are generally
drab. Breed in areas of dry scrub and open woodland, and gardens in irrigated areas.
The nest is in a tree, suspended by its top from the underside of a drooping twig; oval
or purse shaped, with a rounded side entrance below an overhanging ‘porch’. Nests
of some species are untidy at the base, with trailing material and, in Purple Sunbird,
this can be a long dangling ‘tail'. Eggs are usually white, or pale greenish-grey, with
variable speckling. Incubation is by females. Nestlings are naked, with yellow
mouths and pale yellow gape flanges; tended by both parents.
NILE VALLEY SUNBIRD Anthreptus metallicus	PI. 61
Breeds in dry open scrub, particularly acacia. Also in gardens in irrigated areas. The
nest is suspended by its top from the underside of a drooping twig; rarely rests in a
fork. Usually c. 1.5-3 m up, but up to 8 m.
406
BIRD NESTS, EGOS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A neat, oval, flask-shaped structure, 10.5 cm high and 5 cm wide, with a round
entrance hole 2.8 cm in diameter high in one side, with an overhanging ‘porch’ above
the entrance hole. The nest is neatly rounded at base, with no trailing material or dan-
gling ‘tail’. Woven of plant fibres, rootlets, dead leaves, flowers, plant down and
seeds, bound together with spiders’ webs and lined with down and feathers, thickest
at the bottom of the cup. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins in March, sometimes prolonged. Double- or sometimes
treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3, rarely 4. Subclliptical to long subclliptical. Smooth and glossy.
White, finely flushed pink when fresh, with fine reddish speckling and larger grey
markings at broader end. 16.9 x 11.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. By female only. 12-14 days. Beginning
with last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. In early stages, skin is mainly reddish-pink, paler on
undersides and legs and feet. After a few days, skin becomes much darker, purplish;
legs and feet darker purple. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, mainly by female who also broods
them. They fledge at c. 13 days, roosting in the nest for first few days.
PALESTINE SUNBIRD Nectarinia osea	Pl. 61
Breeds in dry, semi-desert scrub. Nest suspended from a twig, frequently a thorn
twig, and usually well hidden in leaves. Usually c. 1.5-2 m up, but up to 5 m.
Nest. A loosely built, purse-shaped structure c. 15 cm high and 8 cm wide, with a
round entrance hole 2.5 cm in diameter about half way up on one side; with an over-
hanging ‘porch’ above the entrance hole. The nest is usually untidy at the base, often
with trailing material; of grass, leaves and plant down, bound with hair, wool and
spiders’ webs; lined with wool and some feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins March. Two to three broods.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subelliptical to long subelliptical. Smooth and moderately
glossy. White, very finely speckled, or with indistinct fine mottling of grey or
purplish-grey, markings may be sparse or overall, but usually mainly concentrated
in a zone around the larger end. 15.5 x 11 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin flesh-pink, darker on lower back. Mouth yellow.
Gape flanges whitish-yellow to white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 14-16 days. Independent
7-14 days later.
FLY CATCHERS Muscicapidae
Small, insect-eating birds, catching prey by flying out from perch. Breed in areas of
woodland or scattered trees. Nest a cup tucked into a niche or hole, usually in or on
a tree. Eggs blue, mottled with brown in open nests, plain blue in cavity nests. Incu-
bation by the female. Nestling with dark grey down, yellow mouth and yellow to
whitish gape flanges. Young tended by both parents, fed on insects carried in the bill.
SPOTTED FLYCATCHER Muscicapa striata	PI. 58
Breeds in open woodland, parkland, plantations, gardens and hedgerows with trees.
Nest usually against a tree-trunk, supported by a dead twig-shoot, in tree-trunk hollow
or crevice caused by breaks or decay, behind dead bark, in a hole, or on top of a broad
FLYCATCHERS
407
branch, or in creeper; on house walls, on ledges, or behind a pipe support. Very excep-
tionally on a quarry or cliff face. At heights of 30 cm-9 m but usually about 2-4 m up.
Nest. A cup, varying in size according to site. Of grass, thin twigs, roots, lichen, plant
down, fibres and spiders’ webs; lined with small feathers, hair, fibres and dead
leaves. Built by both birds but mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins May in south to mid-June in north. Sometimes double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 2-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. Very pale blue,
greenish-blue, buffish or creamy-white; usually mottled and blotched overall, often
heavily, with reddish-brown and purplish-grey. Markings often show a tendency to
concentrate at larger end. Rarely unmarked. 18.5 x 14.1 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female only. 11-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, back and thighs, long and scanty;
blackish-grey. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Female feeds young at first with insects brought by male and
broods. Later both bring food. Young leave at 12-14 days, but this may be delayed
by bad weather. Adults feed young up to 20 days after leaving nest.
RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER Ficedula parva	Pl. 58
Breeds in forests, particularly with large deciduous trees. Nest on the side of a tree, sup-
ported by twigs, or in hollow or hole in tree-trunk, or hole in wall. Usually 1-9 m up.
Nest. A small cup, mainly of moss, and of dead leaves, fibres, spiders’ webs and
plant down, with lichen and thin twigs on outside; lined with hair. Built mainly by
female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to early June in north. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Whitish, or faintly
buff or blue-green; very finely speckled and mottled with reddish-brown, often faint
and with markings poorly defined. Occasionally a wreath of darker markings around
the larger end. 16.5 x 12.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 12-13 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse, long and smoke-grey, on head and
back. Skin flesh-pink. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for first 5 days.
They leave nest at 12-13 days and hide in foliage, fed for 4-5 days, then follow parents.
PIED FLYCATCHER Ficedula hypoleuca	Pl. 58
Breeds in deciduous and coniferous woodland, usually near open space, or in open
woodland, parkland, gardens and cultivated areas with scattered trees Often near
water. Nest in a natural hole, woodpecker hole, hole in building or wall, or a nest-box.
Nest. A large loose cup of leaves, grass, thin bark, roots, moss and lichens, lined with
hair, grass, thin bark and sometimes wool. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Single-brooded. Sometimes polygamous.
Eggs. Usually 4-7. rarely 1-11. Larger clutches probably from two females. Later
clutches are smaller. Subelliptical. Smooth, and slightly glossy. Pale blue, rarely
showing some fine reddish-brown speckling. 17.9 x 13.4 mm.
Incubation. By female only, fed by male. Beginning with last egg. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, sparse; dark grey. Mouth
orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents but mainly by female. 13-16 days,
longer on some occasions.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
SEMI-COLLARED FLYCATCHER Ficedula semitorquata
Breeds from the Balkans to the Caspian region, south of the range of the Collared
Flycatcher, nesting in similar habitats and sites to the Collared and Pied Flycatchers.
Some males possibly polygynous.
Nest. A cup of dead leaves, stems, moss and lichens, lined with fine roots, fibres and grass
or similar materials. In a hole in tree, wall or building, or a nest-box. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins in mid-April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. 5-6, rarely 4-7. Subelliptical, smooth and slightly glossy. Uniform pale blue,
slightly darker than those of Collared Flycatcher. 17.6 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse grey-black down on crown, nape and back.
Skin yellowish-pink. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents, brooded by female only. Fledge
at 14-17 days.
COLLARED FLYCATCHER Ficedula albicollis	Pl. 58
Has a more easterly distribution, but breeds in similar habitats to those of Pied
Flycatcher, and in similar nest-sites.
Nest. Like that of Pied Flycatcher. A loose cup of dead leaves, grass, fibres and thin
bark; lined with fine fibres and hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-7, sometimes 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale
blue. 17.2 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse, short, pale grey down on head and back only.
Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow to white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 15-18 days, becoming
independent 6-10 days later.
BABBLERS Timcdiidae
BABBLERS Turdoides species
Medium-sized, seed- and insect-eating birds. Breed in more open or scrub country,
with low cover. Nest usually low in a thick bush, or in one species occasionally in
grass-tussock. Nest a large cup of varied plant material, with finer lining. Eggs are
bright blue. Little information on nesting except in Common Babbler. Mouth and
gape flanges usually bright yellow. Most species described here live and breed in
social groups, nesting co-operatively.
FULVOUS BABBLER Turdoides fulvus	PI. 60
Breeds in low, scattered scrub bordering desert areas. Gregarious, additional birds
possibly helping at nest? Nest 60 cm-2 m up in a thick bush.
Nest. A loose bulky cup of fine twigs, plant stems and grasses; lined with wool, hair,
plant down, etc.
Breeding season. Begins April. Prolonged and variable. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 3-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and very glossy. Bright blue. 24.5 x 17.5 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. No information.
BABBLERS
409
PI. 60
ARABIAN BABBLER Turdoides squamiceps
Breeds in acacia woodland and scrub on desert edge. Nests sociably in groups of up
to c. seven birds, the nest being built by the group. Nest in a bush, in a branch fork,
or on top of a bush or low tree.
Nest. A thick bulky cup of mainly dried grasses and plant material (resembling
Blackbird) with twigs in the base, thickly lined with hair and rootlets; rarely partly
domed. Built mainly by dominant pair of group.
Breeding season. Begins March. Three to four broods.
Eggs. 3-5 laid by dominant female, other females add 6-13 more. Subelliptical.
Smooth and very glossy. Bright blue. 22.5 x 18 mm.
Incubation. By all females within a co-operative nesting group. 13-14 days, begin-
ning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, and naked. Skin flesh-
pink at hatching, darkening to brown
within a few days. Mouth and tongue
orange-yellow. Tongue narrow and elon-
gated. with two dark grey but faint mark- U
ings, one at either side of the base of	T*
tongue, joining together near the base, to	V/
form a horseshoe shape. The mouth mark-
ings are larger, darker and more distinct Mouth pattern of a recently hatched
within a few days. Gape flanges whitish-	(right) and about an eight-day-old (left)
yellow.	Arabian Babbler.
Nestling period. Young are tended and fed
by all group members. They leave nest at c. 14 days and join group. Fed by all group
members, including young of previous broods, for a further 5-8 weeks.
COMMON BABBLER Turdoides caudatus
Breeds in dry grasslands, in gardens and orchards and around buildings. Nest 60 cm-
2 m up in bushes, or on the ground in a grass-tussock.
Nest. A neat and compact, but large, cup of thorn twigs, grass and thicker roots; lined
with finer grass and roots, and sometimes hair. Built by both adults.
Breeding season. Extended; March to September. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 2-5. Subelliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and very
glossy. Bright blue. 20.9 x 15.1 mm.
Incubation. By individuals of both sexes within breeding group, beginning with the
last egg. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Mouth and gape flanges bright yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by parents and group members. Fed on insects
brought in bill. Leave nest at c. 12 days, fed by group for up to 6 months after fledging.
IRAQ BABBLER Turdoides altirostris
Breed in trees and shrubs associated with river margins and reedbeds. Breed in pairs,
not social groups. Nest built in fork of poplar or tamarisk tree, or among Arundo reed
stems. Usually less than 2 m from ground, not woven to stems.
Nest. A deep untidy cup of stems; compactly lined with grass, and inner lining of
grass, leaves, rootlets and fibres, occasionally feathers. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. March to July. Two or three broods.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. Subelliptical, smooth and glossy. Blue with turquoise tint. 21.6
x 16.8 mm.
410 BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Incubation. Mostly by female, male helping. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked at first. Mouth yellowish-orange. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but mainly by female. Leave nest at
9-12 days. Brood usually keeps together and fed by parents for at least 2 and possi-
bly up to 6 weeks.
PARROTBILLS Paradoxornithinae
BEARDED REEDLING Panurus biarmicus	Pls 16,60
Breeds among extensive growths of reeds and sedges in swampy ground. Nest is
built among stems near the edge of a stand of reeds or sedge, usually set low. near
the ground.
Nest. A deep cup of dead leaves of reeds and sedges, lined with reed-flower heads
and sometimes some feathers. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late March-April. Double-, sometimes treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes up to 12. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Creamy-
white; sparsely sprinkled with tiny short streaks, scrawls and specks of dark brown,
the markings usually very thin and fine. 17.6 x 14 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin dark flesh-colour. Mouth bright scarlet towards
the sides, tongue black with thin edge, tip and spurs white. Palate black with
two arches of tiny prominent white spots, one inside the other. Gape flanges light
yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Usually fledge at 12-13 days, but
if disturbed may leave at 10 days. They can feed themselves at 1 week, independent
at 2 weeks.
LONG-TAILED TITS Aegithalidae
LONG-TAILED TIT Aegithalos caudatus	Pl. 60
Breeds in open woodland, woodland edge, scattered copses, scrub, thickets and thick
hedgerows. Nest usually in brambles or thick shrubs, 1.5-6.5 m up, in twiggy growth
near the outside of the bush, but may also be in conifer or evergreen trees, or in more
open trees, usually near the trunk or in a large fork at heights of up to 21 m. Occa-
sionally one or two additional birds may help the pair during nesting.
Nest. A large, compact domed structure, usually slightly elongated vertically. Of
moss bound with spiders’ webs and hair, coated outside with lichen and thickly lined
with feathers. It may take about 3 weeks to build. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Occasionally double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 8-12, sometimes 5-16. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White,
unmarked or finely speckled with minute purplish-red spots, sometimes forming a
zone around larger end. 14.2 x 10.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation mainly by female, fed by male.
12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin flesh-pink. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges
pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents and any helpers. 14-18 days in nest.
They are fed for 10-14 days after leaving nest. Two broods may join together, fed
by all adults.
PENDULINE TITS
411
Long-tailed Tit, c. 10-12.5 cm across.
PENDULINE TITS Remizidae
PENDULINE TIT Remiz pendulinus	Page 412, Pl. 60
Breeds usually near water in thickets of willow and poplar, in trees standing in or
by water in marshes or river borders; occasionally in scrubby woodland away from
water. Nest is suspended from thin twigs at the tip of a branch, often overhanging
water. Nests in thickets over water may be low, from c. 1 m upwards, but elsewhere
may be in trees up to c.10.5 m from ground.
Nest. A domed structure with entrance tube; whitish in colour. It begins as a pendent
fibrous loop, and is then built out as a bag on one side and extends to a downward-
slanting short tube on the other. The walls are of thick, strong, felted material, formed
from plant down, mainly willow and poplar seed, mixed with seed cases and fibres.
Built by both birds, taking about 2 weeks.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded. Possibly occasional
second broods.
Eggs. Usually 6-8. sometimes 5-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White;
may have a pink flush when first laid. 15.5 x 10.5 mm.
Incubation. By either male or female alone. Not shared. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth light orange with two elongated indistinct
dusky spots on palate. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 16-18 days. Remain in family party
for some weeks after leaving.
412
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Penduline Tit, c. 12.5 cm deep.
TITS Paridae
Small insectivorous birds, nesting in a variety of habitats but usually in association
with trees. Nest in a hole in a tree, wall or bank, one or two species excavating their
own in soft or rotten wood. Take readily to artificial nest-boxes. Nest a cup within
the cavity, usually of moss, lined with hair and sometimes some feathers. Material
is added to pad out the whole base of the cavity around the nest cup. Nest made
by female, who may also excavate, or enlarge, cavity. Eggs are white, variably
patterned with small reddish markings. Incubation is by female, fed by male.
Nestlings have greyish down, orange to yellow mouths, and pale yellow gape
flanges. Broods are often large, and in small nest cavities almost-fledged young
may be virtually in two layers, rising to be fed, sinking when full. Young fed by both
adults on insects brought in the bill. The young fly fairly well when first leaving
nest After leaving nest the family party tends to remain together for some time after
young become independent.
TITS
413
CRESTED TIT Parus cristatus	PI. 60
Typically a bird of coniferous woodland, pure or mixed. Nest in a hole excavated by
the bird in rotten wood in a stump, partly dead tree, or occasionally in relatively
slender dead saplings; rarely in a large old nest or drey.
Nest. A cup within the excavated cavity, of moss and sometimes lichen; lined
with hair or wool and sometimes spiders’ webs. Built by female, which also exca-
vates.
Breeding season. Begins early or mid-April to May. Usually single-brooded in
north, sometimes double-brooded in south.
Eggs. Usually 4-8, rarely up to 11. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White;
speckled, spotted and finely blotched with purplish-red, or shades of reddish-brown;
markings frequently sparse except at larger end where they may form a dense zone
or cap. 16.4 x 12.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and central back, long and fairly
plentiful; dark grey. Mouth dull yellow. Gape flanges pale bright yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. For first 6-7 days female broods
while male brings food, later both bring food but feeding mainly by female,
although where second brood occurs male will take over feeding nestlings. 17-21
days in nest.
SIBERIAN TIT Parus cinctus	PI. 60
Breeds usually in conifer woods, occasionally in mixed woods. Nest a hole in a tree;
a natural cavity or often an old woodpecker hole. In conifers, or in birch, alder or
aspen. Nest often low, 60 cm-4.5 m up.
Nest. Female will partly excavate hole in rotten wood. Nest of moss with a cup lined
with hair. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May to early June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White; speckled, spotted or
finely blotched with light red or reddish-brown; fairly evenly distributed but tending
to form poorly defined zone at larger end. 16.4 x 12.6 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone, fed by male,
beginning with last egg. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head, nape and upper back; grey. Mouth yel-
lowish-pink. Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for first few days
while male brings food, insects carried in the bill. 19 days in nest, independent c.
7-13 days after fledging.
MARSH TIT Parus palustris	PI. 60
Breeds in deciduous woodland and scrub, copses, cultivation with scattered trees,
orchards, gardens or thick hedgerows. Nest usually in a natural hole in a tree or
stump, rarely in a wall. Holes in rotten wood may be modified and infrequently it
excavates a hole. Occasionally uses nest-boxes.
Nest. A cup of moss, lined with hair and some feathers to form a felted layer. Built
by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to early May. Usually single-brooded in north,
often double-brooded further south.
Eggs. Usually 6-9, rarely 5-11; second clutches usually smaller. Subelliptical.
Smooth and slightly glossy. White; markings light brown, reddish-brown or purplish-
414
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
red; usually sparse except at larger end where they may form wreath or cap. 16.2 x
12.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy Down, on head and back, short and sparse, brownish-
grey. Mouth dull buffish-yellow, yellow or orange yellow. Gape flanges pale
yellow
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods young for 9-10 days.
16-21 days in nest. Young rely on parents for about a week after leaving.
WILLOW TIT Parus montanus	Pl. 60
Habitat often similar to that of Marsh Tit but more likely to occur in areas of decid-
uous scrub in conifer forest regions or borders. Tends to prefer damper areas. Nest
in a dead tree, tree stump or dead sapling where wood is soft enough for bird to exca-
vate its own cavity, although occasionally in natural hollow or woodpecker hole.
Will use old or rotten fence-posts.
Nest. Cavity and nest made by female. Nest mainly cavity lining of wood fibre and
small fragments, rarely moss; with an inner lining, sparse at times, of hair and occa-
sionally a few feathers.
Breeding season. Begins mid April in south to early June in north Single-
brooded
Eggs. Usually 6-9, rarely 5-13. Subelliptical Smooth and glossy. White; variably
speckled, spotted or finely blotched with reddish-brown, light red or purplish-red;
sometimes sparse and usually with a zone or cap of markings at the larger end. 15.5
x 12.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male, beginning with last egg. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Sparse grey down on head and upperparts. Mouth
orange-yellow Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 17-19 days in nest.
SOMBRE TIT Parus lugubris	PI. 60
Breeds in mountain woodland, parkland, orchards, gardens and scrub. Nest in a hole
in a tree, or among rocks.
Nest. A cup of dry plant fragments and wool, and lining of feathers. Nest built by
female only.
Breeding season. Begins March to early April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes 10 Subelliptical Smooth and slightly glossy. White;
finely speckled, spotted or with small blotches of reddish-brown or purplish-red,
sometimes pale. Markings variably distributed, sometimes sparse except at larger
end where a wreath of markings may occur. 17 x 13.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 21-23 days,
independent after c. 12 days.
COAL TIT Parus at er	Pl. 60
Breeds normally in association with conifers, but not necessarily in a conifer, in
woodland, copses, parkland or cultivation with trees. Nest in a hole in a tree, wall or
bank, or in the ground.
Nest. A cup of moss and spiders’ webs; lined with hair, plant down and feathers;
thickly felted. Built by female.
TITS
415
Breeding season. Begins mid-April to May. Usually double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 7-9, sometimes 12. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White;
finely speckled, spotted or with small blotches of light red, purplish-red or reddish-
brown, usually sparse and often concentrated at or about the larger end. Rarely
unmarked. 14.9 x 11.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long on head, shorter on back; grey.
Mouth pinkish-orange. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open 7-8 days. Leave at 16-19
days. Independent after c. 2 weeks.
GREAT TIT Parus major	Pl. 60
Breeds in woodland, or in more open places but in association with trees, in copses,
orchards, parkland, large thickets and hedgerows, and cultivation with trees. Nest in
a hole in a tree, wall or rocks, or among the twigs of large old nests and dreys. Will
utilise nest-boxes and similar cavities.
Nest. A cup of roots, moss, lichens and grass with wool, down and spiders'
webs mixed in; lined with hair, plant down and occasionally feathers. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins February in south to early May in north. Apparently
single-brooded in west and south, double-brooded in north and east.
Eggs. Usually 8-13, sometimes 7-15. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
White; with spots, specks and small blotches of purplish-red, and some pale purple.
Markings variable, usually rather profuse, occasionally sparse, rarely absent. 17.5 x
13.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. Eggs may be covered with nest lining
before incubation starts. Beginning with last egg. 10-22, usually 13-14, days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and upper back; fairly plentiful,
sparser on back; grey. Mouth orange. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open at 8-9 days. Leave at
16-22 days. Independent in 2-4 weeks.
AZURE TIT Parus cyanus	PI. 60
Breeds in woodlands in thickets and undergrowth usually near water, or in willow
scrub and marshes. Nest usually in tree cavity 1.5-4.5 m up.
Nest. A cup of moss, dead grass and hair, felted together, and lined with finer hair,
wool and fur. Nest probably built by female only.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 9-11. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White; finely speck-
led, or with spots or small blotches of purplish-red; usually sparse except towards
the larger end where they may form an encircling zone. 16.5 x 12 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Few tufts of whitish down on head and shoulders
only. Skin red. Gape flanges white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They leave nest at 16-21 days, inde-
pendent 10-12 days later.
BLUE TIT Par us caeruleus	Pls 16,60
Less associated with trees than some other species. Breeds in woods, copses, park-
land, gardens, orchards, thickets, hedges and cultivation with scattered trees or
416
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
shrubs. Nest in hole or cavity of any type, usually in tree or wall, sometimes in
nest-boxes or similar sites.
Nest. A cup of moss, grass, wool, dead leaves, hair and spiders’ webs; lined with
hair, feather down and feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south to early May in north. Usually single-
brooded in west and south, double-brooded in east and north.
Eggs. Usually 7-12, sometimes 5-16. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
White; very variably marked with purplish-red, light red or reddish-brown, as fine
specks, small spots or variable blotches; often sparse and frequently forming a zone
around larger end. 15.6 x 12 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male, often beginning before last 2-3 eggs are
laid. Before incubation eggs may be covered with nest lining. 12-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and shoulders, short and sparse;
greyish-white. Mouth dull orange-red. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 15-23 days in nest.
NUTHATCHES Sittidae
Small seed- and insect-eating birds; find food by moving over the surfaces of tree-
trunks, branches and rocks. Breed among woodlands or bare rocky hills, nesting in
holes in trees or rock crevices. Nests vary from natural holes, to holes with entrances
reduced by mud plastering, and to complete rounded mud structures built into rock hol-
lows. Inner nests are crude cups of moss, bark flakes, hair and feathers. Eggs are white
with reddish markings. Owing to type of nest there is little information on nestlings,
and little on incubation or nestling periods. Incubation where known is by the female
alone, fed by the male. Young are fed on insects and invertebrates brought in the bill.
KRUPER’S NUTHATCH Sitta kruperi	Pl. 61
Breeds in conifer forests of hillsides and mountainsides. Nest in a hole in a tree,
enlarged by the bird, or cavity behind bark of a dead tree, or old woodpecker hole.
Nest. Entrance is not plastered. Nest a cup of moss, hair, wool and feathers. Built
mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. White; speckled
and spotted with dark red, purplish-red and reddish-brown. Markings usually con-
sist of very fine speckling and spotting, sometimes sparse over much of the shell with
a concentrated area of markings capping the larger end. 16.5 x 14 mm.
Incubation. By female only. Probably 14-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 16-19 days,
independent after c. 9 days. Down on head, back, and front edge of wing; buffish
grey. Mouth orange-yellow; throat pink. Tongue pink, yellow at edges and tip, with
cream rear spurs. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
ALGERIAN or KABYLIE NUTHATCH Sitta ledanti
Breeds in relict mountain forest of broadleaf and conifer trees in northern Algeria at
over 1,800 m. Nest in a hole, usually in a branch of a large dead or dying tree, usu-
ally a conifer, c. 3.6-14 m above the ground.
Nest. In an excavated cavity or an old woodpecker hole. Entrance may be reduced
by plastering with clay or rotten wood. Nest hollow lined with wood-chips, dead
NUTHATCHES
417
leaves, hair (including boar bristles) and feathers.
Breeding season. Begins May to early June.
Eggs. Possibly up to 4. Almost certain to be subelliptical, smooth and white with fine
reddish markings.
Incubation. Probably by female only.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at <?. 22-25 days. Soon
able to feed themselves, but fed by adults for a few days afterwards.
CORSICAN NUTHATCH Sitta whiteheadi	PI. 61
Breeds in Corsica in mountain pine forests at over 1.000 m. Nest an excavated
or natural hole or old woodpecker hole in a conifer, at varying heights from 2.5-
30 m.
Nest. No plastering around hole. Nest a cup of pine-needles, bark flakes and
wood-chips; lined with hair, moss, feathers, plant fibres and lichens. Built by both
birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 5-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. They resemble those of
Kriiper’s Nuthatch. White; finely and rather sparsely speckled and spotted in dark
red, purplish-red and reddish-brown, with a capping of denser and larger markings
often including small blotches at the larger end. 17.2 x 13 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. Period unknown.
Nestling. No information.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, the female brooding continually
while the young are small. Young begin feathering at 15 days, leave at 22-25 days,
and are independent c. 6 days after leaving.
NUTHATCH Sitta europaea
PI. 61
Breeds in deciduous and mixed woodland, parkland and cultivation with scattered laige
trees. Nest in a hole in tree or wall, in old woodpecker hole or nest-box.
Nest. Large holes are reduced by plastering mud around the entrance, and internal
crevices may be filled. Nest a loose cup of bark chips and flakes, and dead leaves.
Built mainly by female but male may assist with plastering.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Usually single-brooded, occa-
sionally double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6-9, rarely 4-13. Subelliptical. Smooth and
moderately glossy. White; speckled, spotted and blotched
with light red, reddish-brown, reddish-purple and some taint
purple. Markings frequently rather sparse and bold, and usu-
ally with a heavier concentration at or about the larger end.
19.3 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by
female alone, fed by male; beginning with completion of
clutch. 14-18 days. Between incubation spells, eggs are
covered with nest material.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, shoulders and
central back, long and sparse; dark grey. Mouth dark flesh-
colour. Gape flanges ivory-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 23-25 days
in nest.
Nuthatch. Plastering
around hole.
418
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
EASTERN ROCK NUTHATCH Sitta tephronota	PI. 61
Breeds in rocky, mountainous areas, on sheltered faces of outcrops, cliffs and
ravines. Nest in a small hollow or crevice, often low on the rock face.
Nest. Suitable crevices may be unlined inside, but on most hollows the whole is lined
with a layer of mud which is continued outwards to form a projecting bowl or blunt
cone-shaped structure of hardened mud, mixed with saliva and plant resin including
lumps, at the centre of which is the entrance hole with a short projecting tube. The
whole may project 15-20 cm. with 2.5 cm of tube, and be more than this across. The
outside is decorated while still soft with feathers and other debris, or covered with
plant resin, especially near entrance hole, and surrounding rock may be similarly
decorated. Within this mud structure is a cup of hair, fur, wool, feathers, snake skins
and moss. A similar structure may occasionally be built into a hollow on a tree. Built
by both birds, often reused, renovated after breeding, possibly for roosting.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early April. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-7. Short subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White; sparsely
marked with fine speckling and spots, and larger blotches of reddish-brown, light
red, buffish and faint purple. 21 x 16.5 mm.
Incubation. By female only, male bringing food. 12-14 days, usually beginning
with first egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 24-26 days, when
ready for flight. They may stay together until autumn.
ROCK NUTHATCH Sitta neumayer	PI. 61
Breeds in rocky areas. Nest usually in a slight hollow of rock under overhang or shel-
tered from rain, in cave entrance, a similar site on building, or rarely on hollow on
tree-trunk.
Nest. A rounded structure like that of Eastern Rock Nuthatch, but more smoothly
finished. With rounded or cone-shaped front, with tunnel-like entrance projecting
forwards, up to 10 cm long. Built mainly of mud. with hair, feathers, animal dung
and resin. Insects bodies and berries are used as binding and smoothing material.
Feathers, wool and debris are stuck into crevices and rocks around site. Inner cup of
moss, hair, feathers, broken raptor pellets, grass and other debris, sometimes lining
whole cavity. Built by both birds, taking 10-18 days.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-April. Single-brooded, possibly double-
brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 6—10, rarely to 13. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy.
White; with small blotches, spots and speckles of light red. reddish-brown and
purplish-red. Markings usually sparse except at the larger end where they may be
concentrated in a limited zone. 20.6 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 15-18 days. Beginning with fourth or fifth egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down white. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges
lemon-yellow. Skin pinkish-yellow at first, becoming purple later.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 25 days. Fed for fur-
ther 25-30 days.
WALLCREEPER Tichodroma murina	PI. 61
A bird of rock faces on mountains. Breeds on cliffs and steep rock faces, or high stone
walls of buildings in these regions. Nests in a cave, hole or crevice, often deeply hidden.
Nest. A cup of moss, grass, roots and wool; lined with hair and feathers. Built by female.
TREECRF.EPERS
419
i
Rock Nuthatch, c. 20-25 cm across.
Breeding season. Mid-May to mid-June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical Smooth and moderately glossy.
White, with a sprinkling of fine black or dark brown specks, and sometimes a few
larger spots and faint grey marks, at the larger end. 20.9 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 18-20 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, long and pale grey. Mouth orange.
Gape flanges creamy-white
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents, c. 28-30 days
TREECREEPERS Certhiidae
TREECREEPER Certhia familiaris	Pls 16, 61
Breeds in woodland, parkland or farmland with large trees. Nest is concealed in the
narrow space behind loose bark on a tree, in a crevice in a tree, or where ivy or
accumulated debris offers a similar site Rarely in a crevice in a wall or wooden
building.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Treecreeper, c. 7.5 cm across.
Nest. A narrow loose cup of twigs, roots, moss and grass; lined with feathers, fine
bark and wool. The base may be built up with twigs. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins in April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 6, occasionally 3-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White, very
finely speckled or spotted with pink or reddish-brown, the markings mostly or entirely
confined to a cap at the larger end or a narrow zone around it. 15.6 x 12.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, beginning with last egg. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, thick and long; greyish-black. Mouth
yellow. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 14—16 days. On leaving nest young
fly weakly but climb well.
SHORT-TOED TREECREEPER Certhia hrachydactyla	Pl. 61
Breeding and nest similar to that of Treccrceper. but tends to remain at lower alti-
tudes; also tends to avoid thicker forest, occurring in more open woodland and park-
land and areas with scattered large trees.
Breeding season. Begins late March. Double-brooded.
WRENS
421
Eggs. 6-7. Subellipt-icaL Smooth and non-glossy. White; spotted with chestnut-red
and purplish-red, the markings chiefly confined to a zone around the larger end and
usually bolder and darker than those of the Common Treecreeper. 16.4 x 12.4 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head only, long, plentiful and blackish-grey.
Skin, legs and feet pink. Mouth yellow to orange-yellow. Gape flanges white or yel-
lowish-white.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. 16-17 days in nest.
WRENS Troglodytidae
WREN Troglodytes troglodytes	Pl. 61
Breeds in a wide range of habitats which provide low cover. The nest is built into
almost any type of hollow, cavity or hole available from ground level upwards, but
most often on the side of a tree, wall or steep bank from about 0-3 m up. The male
is often polygamous, building a number of nests within the territory and installing
several females in succession in different nests.
Nest. A stout domed structure of leaves, moss, grass and other plant material; lined
with feathers. The male builds the outer nest, the female selecting one of the several
he builds and lining it. Domed roof may be absent when in nest boxes.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-8; up to 16 have been recorded. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy.
White; at times immaculate, or with a limited area of minute speckling or tiny spots
of black or reddish-brown at the larger end. 17.6 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 13-18 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, short and sparse; dark grey.
Mouth bright yellow. Gape flanges very pale yellow.
Nestling period. Fed by both parents. Polygamous males usually have broods which
hatch at intervals, the male helping with first one, then another. 15-20 days in nest.
After fledging, brood may roost in nearby nest made earlier by the cock.
Wren. c. 15-17.5 cm across.
422
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
DIPPERS Cinclidae
DIPPER Cinclus cinclus	Pl. 61
Breeds by mountain and hill streams and on rivers, exceptionally by shallow edges
of lakes or lowland streams. Nest built on a raised site overlooking and often over-
hanging the water; on a bank, rock face, roots of a waterside tree, in a crevice or on
a ledge under a bridge or culvert, sometimes behind a waterfall. Nest often tucked
into a crevice or hole, or on a ledge or support, more rarely built onto the top of a
bank, or on a rock in a stream.
Nest. A bulky domed structure of moss, with an internal cup of moss and grasses,
lined with dead leaves. The canopy of the dome overhangs the edge of the cup to
form a downward-pointing entrance, directed towards the water. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins occasionally February, but usually late March to early
April in south. Late May to June in north. Nests later at higher altitudes. Double-,
sometimes treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 3-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. White. 26.1 x
18.5 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. By female alone. 15-18 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head and back, long and thick; dark grey.
Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 19-25 days. The young can dive and
swim before they can fly.
SHRIKES Laniidae
Small predatory birds, mainly of open country with tree and shrubs. Nest a usually
substantial, well-built cup of twigs and stems with a soft lining. Leafy fragments of
fine-leaved aromatic plants are often used as nest material. Nests are in trees or tall
shrubs, usually towards the outer end of a branch near the foliage canopy. Eggs of
some species arc very variable and show a scries of distinct colour types. Young are
naked, or almost so. They arc tended by both adults. The habit of impaling food items
on thorns is an aspect of food abundance and not directly correlated with nesting.
BLACK-HEADED BUSH-SHRIKE Tchagra senegala	Pl. 54
Breeds in dry scrub and woodland of semi-desert regions. Also in cultivated areas
and gardens of these regions. Nest in a low tree or a bush in dense cover, usually a
metre or two from the ground and usually on a horizontal branch or in a fork.
Nest. A shallow cup, neatly built, of grass stems, plant stems and tendrils, lined with
rootlets. By both sexes.
Breeding season. May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2-3. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White, rather sparsely
marked with dark red, chestnut-red, purple, purplish-grey or violet in the form of
spots or small blotches, elongated small blotches or streaks often longitudinally
aligned, and fine short scrawling. Usually a concentrated wreath around the larger
end; markings irregularly and thinly distributed elsewhere. 23.8 x 17.7 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by female. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin brownish-pink. Mouth yellow. Gape flanges pale
yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Leave the nest at c. 16 days and keep
to cover until well able to fly.
SHRIKES
423
GREAT GREY SHRIKE Lanins excubitor	Pl. 55
Now commonly treated as two separate species. The Southern Grey Shrike, Lanius
meridionalis of southern France and Iberia prefers to nest in low bushes with
closer spacing of scrub and small trees than excubitor, and at higher densities.
Lanins excubitor prefers open country, such as clearfells, heathland, and peat-bogs,
with trees and bushes, wires and fences, and nests in higher bushes and in trees.
There appear to be no noticeable differences in other aspects of breeding.
Nest. A bulky cup of dry grass and moss on a foundation of twigs, greater use being
made of twigs in more arid areas; lined with roots, wool, hair and feathers. Built by
both sexes, but mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins January to February in south, to April to May in north.
Eggs. 5-7, occasionally 8-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, tinged green-
ish or buffish, usually heavily marked with spots and small blotches of brown, light
reddish-brown, olive, buff or pale purplish-grey; the markings are present over most
of the surface but also tend to concentrate in a wreath about the larger end. 26.3 x
19.3 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by female, fed by male. 15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Flesh-coloured, becoming darker after a few days.
Mouth and tongue orange-yellow, throat pink. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for first day or two,
male bringing food. Young leave nest c. 19-20 days, independent at c. 35 days.
LESSER GREY SHRIKE Lanins minor	PI. 55
Breeds in open country, grassland, wasteland or cultivation, with scattered trees or
shrubs; also gardens, plantations and hedgerows. Nest 3-9 m up in a tree, but may
be only 1.5-1.8 m in areas without higher trees. Usually on horizontal branch or
against trunk.
Nest. A well-made cup of twigs, plant stems and rootlets, although occasionally
almost entirely made of leafy stems of herbaceous plants. Lined with feathers, roots,
fine grass, hair and wool. Built by both, mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale green
or bluish-green, rarely creamy or buff; marked with spots and small blotches of
medium olive or olive-brown, and light lavender-grey. A heavy zone of markings
encircles the larger end, but markings sparse or very sparse over the remainder.
25.1 x 18.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and almost naked, with some traces of white down on belly and
near tail. Mouth orange. Gape flanges bright yellow. I^egs and bill flesh-coloured
becoming greyer.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at c. 16-18 days.
RED-BACKED SHRIKE Lanius collurio	PI. 55
Breeds in open places with scattered shrubs and small trees, scrub, heathland, and
grassland with hedgerows and scattered bushes or thickets. Nest in a shrub about
1-3 m up.
Nest. A bulky cup. of grass stems, plant stems and moss; lined with hair, rootlets and
some wool or down. Built mainly by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May to mid-May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 7. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable. Pale
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Red-backed Shrike, c. 12.5-15 cm across.
greenish, olivaceous, pinkish, huffish, creamy or almost white; usually with a dis-
tinct zone of specks, spots and small blotches forming a band around the larger end.
The markings arc medium to light brown, olive, chestnut-red, dark red. grey and pur-
ple, varying in accordance with the ground colour of the egg. Small markings are
very sparsely distributed or absent elsewhere on the shell. 22.9 x 17.1 mm.
Incubation. Usually by female. Male feeds female and exceptionally assists.
14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth orange-yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for first week while
male brings food, later both bring food. 12-16 days in nest. After leaving nest young
remain near by.
WOODCHAT SHRIKE Lanius senator	Pl. 55
Breeds in open woodland, woodland edges, scrub, olive groves, gardens, orchards
and open areas with scattered trees. Nest in a tree, or exceptionally in shrub, usually
on an outer branch.
Nest. A substantial cup of roots and pieces of leafy herbaceous plants; lined with
feathers, wool and hair. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Usually single-brooded, occasionally
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 7. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Most often very pale
green, sometimes pink, whitish or creamy-buff. Usually heavy zone of spots and
blotches of light brown, olive-brown and light grey in a zone around larger end, and
CROWS, MAGPIES AND JAYS
425
similar smaller marks sparsely scattered elsewhere. Markings browner on buffish
eggs, reddish-brown or purple on pink eggs. 22.8 x 16.9 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by female, fed by male. 16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and almost naked. Some whitish, very short scanty down, barely
visible. Mouth orange. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 15-16 days in nest.
MASKED SHRIKE Lanins nubicus	PI. 55
Breeds in forest clearings, scrub or open areas with scattered trees, including park-
land, gardens and cultivation. Nest in tree or tall shrub, 2.5-9 m up, on a lateral
branch.
Nest. A cup of twigs, plant stems and roots; lined with fine roots and plant fibres.
Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April in south to late April or early May in north. Dou-
ble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Creamy to pale
buff or yellowish, with a distinct zone of heavy spots and blotches of brown and grey
around and at the larger end, and a sparse sprinkling of similar marks elsewhere.
20.7 x 15.7 mm.
Incubation. 14-15 days, probably by female alone, beginning from last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin orange, darkening later. Mouth orange-yellow.
Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Tended by both adults, 18-20 days, fed for further 12-14 days.
CROWS, MACxPIES AND JAYS Corvidae
Medium to large perching birds, nesting in trees or bushes, on rock ledges or in holes.
In most species nests are made mainly of twigs, and muddy earth is added to these,
helping to bind the structure. There is a soft inner lining. The eggs are mostly blue
or green with olive-green and blackish markings. In the true crows there arc fre-
quently one or two pale, atypical eggs in a clutch. Although the information varies,
most species are said to begin incubation with one of the earlier eggs in the clutch;
but from the appearance of small young in the nest it seems more likely that true
incubation may often be from the last egg. Young are downy or naked, the mouth
usually red or pink, and gape flanges pink or yellowish. Food is brought to the young
pouched in the throat, and regurgitated.
NUTCRACKER Nucifraga caryocatactes	PI. 62
Breeds in coniferous and mixed woods. Nest in a conifer, usually near the trunk and
fairly high up.
Nest. A cup of twigs, moss and lichens, some soil mixed with it; lined with a thick
layer of grass and hairy lichens. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March in south to April or May in north. Single-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, at times 2-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue or
greenish-blue, very finely spotted and speckled with olive-brown and grey, the mark-
ings so fine that the ground colour is the more conspicuous feature. 33.9 x 24.9 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 17-19 days, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked at first. Skin pink, later greyish-white down on head,
back and upper wings. Mouth dark flesh-red. Gape flanges white.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by both. They fledge at
24-25 days but arc dependent for several more months. May still be fed at 15 weeks.
JAY Garrulus glandarius	Pl. 62
Breeds mainly in woodland, coniferous and deciduous, but also in more open woods,
scrub, parkland, plantations, orchards and occasionally in thickly wooded
hedgerows. Nest in tree from 1.5 m upwards; usually in a fork, or against the trunk;
has been recorded in a tree cavity; and in tall heather.
Nest A cup of twigs and stems, with a little earth mixed in; and lined with fine roots
and hair, forming a neat inner cup. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, rarely 3-10. Subelliptical. Smooth and fairly glossy. Pale green,
blue-green, olive or olive-buff; very finely speckled and spotted overall with olive-
green, buff or greyish-green. At times with a black hair streak at the larger end.
Sometimes thickly marked zone or cap at larger end. 31.6 x 22.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 16-17 days; although earlier eggs are sat on, begins
properly with second to fourth eggs.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth pale pink. Gape flanges pinkish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. At first female broods while male
brings food. Later both bring food. Young leave at 19-20 days.
SIBERIAN JAY Perisoreus infaustus	PI. 62
Breeds in conifer forests. Nest in a conifer tree, usually near the trunk at 1.5-13 m.
Nest. A deep, rather loosely constructed cup of twigs and strips of bark, thickly lined
with lichens, feathers and reindeer hair. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins early April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, rarely 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale bluish-
green, blue or bluish-grey; spotted and finely blotched with olive-brown, grey and
lilac-grey, usually more heavily mottled on the larger end. 29.8 x 21.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male, and may begin with any egg of clutch.
18-20 days.
Nestling. Altricial and almost naked, with some sparse greyish-brown down. Mouth
red. Gape flanges whitish-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for most of first
week while male brings food. Eyes open at 7-8 days. Young leave nest at 21-24
days. Family remain together through following winter.
MAGPIE Pic a pica	PI. 62
Breeds in woodland edge, scrub, orchards and tall hedgerows, and in scattered trees
or bushes in more open country. In cultivated areas where sites are scarce may rarely
nest on houses or man-made structures.
Nest. A bulky cup of sticks, with mud incorporated and partly lining it, with a cup
of fine roots, and occasionally plant fibre or hair. An openwork, sketchy looking
dome of twigs built over the cup, leaving an opening at the cup edge. Sometimes the
dome is absent. Nest built by both sexes, the male bringing material.
Breeding season. Begins early April, rarely late March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-8. rarely up to 10. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue or
greenish-blue, or rarely pale olive or buff; heavily spotted and speckled, or more
exceptionally blotched, with olive-brown and grey. Sometimes more heavily marked
at one end. 34.7 x 24 mm.
CROWS, MAGPIES AND JAYS
427
Incubation. By female only. 21-22 days. May begin with any egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth deep pink with white spines on palate. Gape
flanges pale pink. Skin pinkish-orange darkening to blackish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. 22-28 days in nest.
AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE Cyanopica cyanus	Pl. 62
Breeds in woodlands and moister valleys, and gullies with trees and scrub in dry
areas. Nest in a tree, in a main fork of trunk or larger branches. Very sociable, breed-
ing in colonies, with nests in adjacent trees,
Nest. Bulky cup of twigs, roots and moss, with some mud mixed in; lined thickly
with plant fibres, hair and fur. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes up to 9. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale
creamy-buff or creamy-olive, rarely bluish-white; sparsely but boldly marked with
dark brown, olive-brown or pale grey spots or small blotches. 28.1 x 20.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 15-16 days, beginning with third or later egg of clutch.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. At hatching, mouth and tongue pink, deepening to
crimson within a few days; prominent pale pink rear tongue spurs and tip. Gape
flanges pale pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, the female brooding and passing on
the food from the male at first. They leave nest at 14-16 days, not fully able to fly,
and hide near by. They may be fed for another 4 weeks.
CHOUGH Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax	Pl. 62
Breeds on rocky outcrops, crags and cliffs of mountains, cliffs of sea coasts, quar-
ries and occasionally on old buildings. Nest on a ledge in a cave or under overhang,
or in a crevice or hole.
Nest. A bulky cup of sticks, plant stems and grasses; thickly lined with hair and wool.
Built by both sexes, in 2-4 weeks.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded, but may replace
a lost clutch.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. rarely 2-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale, tinged
greenish, creamy or faintly buff. Marked overall with small blotches, spots and
specks of olive-brown and grey, often profuse, sometimes sparser and bolder. 40.6 x
28.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 17-23 days, from first or later egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin pinkish-flesh. Greyish-brown down on head,
back, wings and thighs. Bill mauve, with whitish tip and edges, and pale yellow gape
flanges. Mouth orange-pink with whitish palate spurs; tongue base yellowish. Legs
and feet flesh-pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for 2-3 weeks; occa-
sionally a young helper with the pair may also feed young. They fledge at 31-41
days, hiding for several days, then leave after c. 9 days and follow the parents, being
fed for 2-3 weeks while gradually becoming independent.
ALPINE CHOUGH Pyrrhocorax graculus	PI. 62
Breeds on cliffs and rocky outcrops of mountain areas. Nest in a hole or crevice, on
ledge in cave or mine, often deeply hidden.
Nest. A bulky cup of sticks and dry roots, with thinner, similar material towards
inside; lining of fine grasses, rootlets, hair and some feathers. Built by both birds.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Variable, beginning April to May. Single-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Whitish,
tinted ercamy or faint buff; rarely greenish; profusely marked overall with small
blotches, spots and specks of dark brown, olive-brown and purplish-grey. 39 x
26.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. c. 17-21 days, beginning before clutch
is complete.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Short sparse dark grey down on crown and upperparts
and upper wings. Mouth flesh-pink. Gape flanges white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for most of first
3 days. They fledge at 29-31 days, but may remain in nest-cave for c. 10 days. They
then fly with adults and may be fed by individuals other than their parents. Feeding
may occur for 1-2 months.
ROOK Corvus frugilegus	Pls 16,62
Breeds in open cultivated country or grassland with groups of trees or broken wood-
land. Nests are in tops of larger trees in colonies formed in groups of adjacent trees,
and may be very close to each other.
Nest. A bulky cup of sticks with earth built into it; lined with grass, roots, leaves,
moss, plants, wool and hair. Nest of previous year may be refurbished and reused.
Both adults build, male bringing material which is built in by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March and early April in south to May in north.
Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 6-9. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Various shades
of light blue, bluish-green or dull green; marked with greenish-buff, olive, olive-
brown or blackish-olive. Markings vary from large blotches and spots to fine pro-
fuse speckling, fine streaking or scrawling, and indistinct olive-green mottling.
Considerable variation, often within a clutch, from sparsely marked pale blue to
heavily obscured brownish-green. Very exceptionally pale pink with red-brown and
purple markings. 40 x 28.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female, fed by male. 16-20
days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on back and thighs, short and scanty. Dark
smoky-grey. Mouth orange at first, becoming pinkish-red. Gape flanges flesh-
coloured tinged with yellow.
Nestling period. Young are brooded by female and fed by male at first; later by both
parents. Young leave nest at 30-36 days. They remain in the trees of the colony for
some days. Fed by parents for c. 6 weeks more.
CARRION CROW/HOODED CROW Corvus corone	Pl. 62
Occurs in a wide, range of habitats from woodland and mountains to open lowlands
and shores. Nest is usually in a tree, often at a considerable height with a wide view
around, but in less favourable habitats may be low in a small tree or shrub, on a ledge
of a cliff or rock outcrop, or in a small gully; rarely in heather on low islands. Will
also use man-made structures such as pylons.
Nest. A bulky cup, usually in a fork, of sticks and moss bound with earth; or
seaweed stems on coasts; lined with wool, hair and sometimes feathers. In parts of
range may use dry bones in the absence of sticks. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Varies with region, mostly beginning mid-March to April, and to
mid-May further north. Single-brooded.
CROWS, MAGPIES AND JAYS
429
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 7. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Variable,
like those of the Rook. Various shades of light blue, greenish-blue or green;
spotted, speckled, blotched, mottled, streaked or scrawled to varying degrees by
olive-green, olive-brown, dark brown and blue-grey; from almost unmarked to
completely obscured. Very rarely pink with red and purplish markings. No
consistent variation between eggs of Carrion Crow and Hooded Crow. 43.3 x
30.4 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 18-20 days, from first, second or third egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly plentiful; smoke-grey. Mouth bright
pink. Gape flanges flesh-pink.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults. Leave nest at 4-5 weeks.
JACKDAW Corvus monedula	PI. 62
Breeds in a variety of habitats where nest-holes are present. Nest in a hole or crevice
in tree, rocky outcrop or cliff, in building or in hole in ground. Breeds in colonies
where possible.
Nest. In more open sites a stick nest, lined with wool, hair and plant fibre. In small
holes sticks may be reduced or absent. In vertical holes, such as tall chimneys, nests
are built on lodged twigs and considerable quantities of twigs may accumulate under
such sites. Nest built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins in late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—6, sometimes 2-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale light blue
of varying intensity; marked with small blotches, spots and specks of blackish-
brown, olive-brown and blue-grey; the markings vary from small and profuse to
large and sparse, and rarely almost absent. 35.7 x 25.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 17-18 days, beginning with second, third
or rarely later egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, back, and thighs, short and scanty.
Pale smoke-grey. Mouth purplish-pink. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 28-32 days, flying
well by c. 35-36 days.
RAVEN Corvus corax	PI. 62
Breeds mostly in hilly and mountainous regions and on coasts, but also in forests.
Nest on a sheltered rock ledge, or on a large fork of a tree.
Nest. A large mass of twigs, and larger sticks and coarser vegetable matter, bound
with earth and moss; well lined with grass tufts, leaves and moss; inner lining of wool
and hair. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins February and early March. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very variable in
markings. Light blue, greenish-blue, or pale green; with specks, spots, irregular
blotches, streaks or scribblings of light olive, olive-brown, or dark or blackish-
brown, and light grey. Markings vary from sparse to very heavy, and sometimes
show irregular patches of olive or greenish washes over more distinct markings.
Often variations within a clutch, with one sparsely marked blue egg. 49.7 x
33.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at 1-2-day intervals. Incubation by female alone, fed by male,
and beginning before clutch is complete. 20-21 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down, on head, back and thighs, short and thick, dull
brown. Mouth purplish-pink. Gape flanges yellowish-flesh.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, the female brooding for the first few
weeks. They fledge at 35-49 days, and are independent in about 3-4 weeks more,
but may remain with the parents for longer.
BROWN-NECKED RAVEN Corvus ruficollis	Pl. 62
Breeds in arid regions, nesting in desert scrub or on rocky or mountain areas. Nest
in a tree or bush; on a rock ledge; or in an old building or other man-made structure.
Nest. A large stick nest; lined with plant fibres, grass, wool and hair, and sometimes
paper and rags. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late January to February. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 2-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue; with
spots, small longitudinal streaks or scribbles, and small blotches of olive-buff to
olive-brown and blue-grey. The markings are often pale and sparse; and on average
the eggs are paler than those of other raven species. 45.8 x 31.6 mm.
Incubation. Mainly or wholly by female. 18-23 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin pinkish-orange. Down long but sparse, on head
and back; light brownish-grey. Mouth and tongue reddish pink; tongue with promi-
nent white rear spurs and yellowish tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both parents. They leave the nest at 35-38
days, not able to fly until 42-45 days. They are fed for a time by parents, and may
remain together for a few months.
FAN-TAILED RAVEN Corvus rhipidurus	Pl. 62
Breeds on steep cliffs and ravines of arid regions. Often breeds in loose colonies with
up to five nests on a cliff area. Nest in a hole or crevice, or on a sheltered ledge.
Nest. A cup of sticks and roots; lined with wool, hair and various debris.
Breeding season. Begins late January to February. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-6. Subelliptical to long oval. Smooth and glossy.
Pale blue, finely blotched and speckled, or irregularly and faintly streaked with
olive-brown, dark brown and pale grey. 48.5 x 31.8 mm.
Incubation. 18-20 days. Beginning with second egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin orange-pink. Down long but sparse, on head and
back; brownish-grey. Mouth and tongue pinkish-red, with cream rear tongue spurs.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 35-40 days. Stay with
adults in family parties.
HOUSE CROW Corvus splendens
Breeds around ports, settlements and cultivated areas, and into arid areas with
scattered trees. Nests on trees, buildings and tall man-made structures.
Nest. An untidy mass of twigs, wire, plastic, string and various debris. A central
depression is usually lined with fibrous material, bark, grass and hair. Both birds
gather material, the female building.
Breeding season. Begins mid-March onwards. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. 2-5. Usually subelliptical, but may vary in shape from pyriform to short oval.
Fairly glossy. Pale bluish-green, speckled, streaked and blotched with blackish-
brown and grey. 38 x 26.5 mm.
Incubation. Mainly or wholly by female. Laid at intervals of 1-2 days. 16-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin very dark purplish, almost black. Mouth deep red-
dish-pink with many small white marks on the tongue. Gape flanges very pale purple.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 21-28 days. After
STARLINGS
431
Golden Oriole, c. 12.5 cm across.
leaving nest young perch near by to await feeding, then follow adults, begging for
food. Young remain with adults for several weeks after fledging.
ORIOLES Oriolidae
GOLDEN ORIOLE Oriolus oriolus	Pl. 64
Breeds in open woodland, parkland, orchards and cultivated regions with trees. Nest
in a tree, slung between two horizontal adjacent branches or in a horizontal fork.
Nest. A cup slung between two horizontal supports, the rims of the cup being firmly
bound to the twigs. Nest of grass stalks, strips of bark, wool and similar long mate-
rial passed over the supports and woven into the nest cup. Lined with softer mater-
ial; wool, paper and grass-heads. Built by female.
Breeding season. Variable, beginning May to early June. Single-brooded, possibly
double-brooded at times.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely to 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, creamy or
faintly flushed with pink; marked with sparse bold spots, often concentrated near the
larger end, and at times showing blurred pinkish edges. 30.8 x 21.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick and short; buffish-white. Mouth bright
pink. Gape flanges whitish.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. 14-15 days in nest.
STARLINGS Sturnidae
Small insect- and fruit-eating birds. Nests are untidy cups of plant material in holes
and crevices. In areas where the Common Starling is resident the nest-hole may be
used for roosting at other times of year. Eggs are glossy and light blue, with reddish
spots in one species. The young are downy. Young are fed on insects and fruit
brought in the bill. The young are noisy when in the nest, and when following the
adults and begging for food after leaving it.
432
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
TRISTRAM’S GRACKLE Onychognathus tristrami
Breeds in rocky gullies and ravines of arid country. Nest in a recess, crevice or ledge
of rock face. Recently began nesting in uninhabited buildings. Loosely colonial.
Nest. A deep plate- or bowl-like structure of sticks, twigs and plant remains, with a
softer lining of feather, hair and paper. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth. Pale blue marked with small spots of
chestnut-red. 27 x 21 mm.
Incubation. By female only. c. 16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female. Fledge at 28-31
days. Fed for c. 10-13 days more, then form juvenile flocks.
COMMON MYNA Acridolheres tristis
Breeds mainly in association with human activity in urban and suburban areas, also
to semi-desert, scrub or plantation habitats. Nest is in any type of cavity, natural ones
in holes in trees, dense vegetation or among rocks; in walls or earth banks, or in
buildings.
Nest. A loose mass of natural material or debris, with or without a central cup, which
is sometimes lined with feathers, leaves and debris. Material is added during nest-
ing. Built by both sexes, the site often reused.
Breeding season. May to August, or may depend on rains. Up to three broods.
Eggs. 4-5. Oval or pyriform, smooth. Blue to greenish-blue. 30 x 21.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-18 days, beginning in mid- to late clutch-laying
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Almost naked at hatching, with a few wisps of pale
grey down on crown, nape, along central back and on sides. Mouth yellow. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Both parents tend young. Female broods at night for first 14 days.
Young fledge at 22-35 days, often leaving nest before able to fly. Dependent on
adults for several weeks.
STARLING Siurnus vulgaris	Pl. 64
Breeds in a range of habitats where nest-site holes occur with open areas of herbage.
Nest in hole in trees, rocks, buildings, creepers on trees, or nest-box.
Nest. An untidy accumulation of stems, leaves and other plant material, with cup
lined with feathers, wool and moss. Male begins nest before pairing, female com-
pletes nest. Some females appear to lay only in the nests of others.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April, exceptionally at other times. Single- or double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, rarely 4—9. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Pale light
blue, varying in tint. 30.2 x 21.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 12-15 days, beginning at completion of clutch.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; greyish-white. Mouth
bright yellow. Gape flanges pale yellow;
Nestling period. Young fed by both sexes. 20-22 days. Dependent on parents for
food after leaving nest, following them and food-begging.
SPOTLESS STARLING Sturnus unicolor	Pl. 64
Occurs in similar habitats to Common Starling, breeding in holes in trees, buildings
or rocks.
SPARROWS AND SNOWFINCH
433
Nest. An untidy accumulation of plant material and other debris, with cup lined with
feathers, hair and wool. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Uniform pale light blue.
31.2 x 21.5 mm.
Incubation. Mainly by female. 10-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy, almost naked at first with sparse grey or white down
on head, back, flanks and wings. Later down dense, long and sooty-grey. Mouth yel-
low. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, female doing most feeding. Fledge
at 21-22 days, fed by adults for up to 7 more days.
ROSE-COLOURED STARLING Sturnus roseus	Pl. 64
Breeds in open grassy regions, nest in hole in rocks, ruins, stone walls or in ground.
Usually breeds in colonies which may change nesting area from year to year.
Nest. An untidy mass of grass, plant stems and leaves; lined with roots, feathers and
hair. Built by both sexes but mainly by female.
Breeding season. Variable. Early May to mid-June. Usually single-brooded, but
double-brooded in seasons of exceptional locust abundance.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, more rarely 3-9. Subclliptical. Smooth and very glossy. Very
pale light blue, paler and glossier than those of Common Starling. 28.7 x 21 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 16-18 days, beginning before completion of clutch.
Nestling. Altricial and downy, almost naked at first with sparse, light grey down on
upperparts. Later replaced by thicker chocolate-brown down. Mouth orange-yellow.
Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, fledging at c. 24 days and
independent soon after, forming juvenile flocks.
SPARROWS AND SNOWFINCH Passeridae
Small, seed-eating birds. Usually sociable, nesting near each other. Most build
domed nests in trees or bushes; in holes make domed nests or cups. Eggs very vari-
ably patterned, without apparent need for pattern. Young of most species are naked;
with yellowish-pink to red mouth and yellow to pale yellow gape flanges; fed mainly
on insects.
SNOWFINCH Montifringilla nivalis	Pl. 63
Breeds on rocky areas in mountains, at altitudes of 1,800-2,100 m in north, to 2,700
m further south. Nest in a hole or crevice in rock; or mammal hole; or on buildings
where these exist and ski lift tranchons and structures.
Nest. A cup of grass, moss, leaves and feathers; lined with feathers, wool and hair.
Built by female only.
Breeding season. Late April to early May, varying with altitude and thawing of
snow. Sometimes double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 6-7. Subclliptical. Smooth. Glossless or very slightly
glossy. White. 23.4 x 16.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13-14 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial, mainly naked but with two long down tufts on head, one on back,
some short tufts on upper wings. Down white to greyish-white. Mouth red. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
434
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 20-21 days, then stay
near by for 2-3 days before following parents.
ROCK SPARROW Petroma petroma	Pl. 63
Breeds in open mountain areas, dry plains and rocky areas in open cultivated regions,
or in old trees in similar areas. Nest in a hole in rock crevice, hollow tree, old build-
ing or wall, burrow or old martin nest.
Nest. A domed structure of plant stalks and roots, but if in a cavity only cup may be
built; lined with feathers, down and fur. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins March in Canary Islands, April further north. Usually dou-
ble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4—8. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White
or greenish-white; variably spotted, speckled and finely blotched with brown, dark
brown and grey. Markings often confined to the larger end. Eggs are rather like those
of House Sparrows, but usually uniform within the clutch. 21.6 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. By female. 13-14 days, from next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin pink. Down long but sparse on head and upper-
parts; pale grey. Mouth and tongue pinkish-red. Tongue with pale pink rear spurs and
tip. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female. Leave nest at
18-19 days, begin self-feeding at 20 days, independent at c. 30 days.
PALE ROCK SPARROW Petronia brachydactyla	Pl. 63
Breeds in dry, rocky mountainous areas with scattered trees. Nest in low twiggy or
thorny bush or tree, from 1.5 m to almost ground level, occasionally in tall plants.
Often near water.
Nest. Loose bulky cup of thorny twigs, stems, roots and grass, with smooth felted
lining of plant down, hair, grass and plant debris. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4—5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White with sparse, small black
spots and minute dark specks. 19.2 x 13.4 mm.
Incubation. By female. 13-14 days. From next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and upperparts only. soft, long and
dense, yellowish fading to white. Mouth yellow, becoming pink.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave at 10-16 days, before able to
fly, hiding near by. Fledge at 16-18 days, and arc independent at c. 20-27 days.
YELLOW-THROATED SPARROW Petronia xanthocollis
Breeds in cultivated areas and around human habitation. Nests in holes in trees and
buildings or old domed nests of other species.
Nest. A large untidy mass of material with a poorly defined cup hollow of grass, leaves
and various debris; lined with feathers, hair or wool. Constructed by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins April. Double-brooded in some areas.
Eggs. Usually 4—5. Subelliptical. Smooth but only slightly glossy. Variable; white,
tinged greenish or buffish; spotted, streaked and finely blotched and smudged with
dark brown, olive-brown, purplish or grey. At times so heavily marked, particularly
on brown-speckled examples, that ground colour is obscured. 18.5 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Mouth pinkish-red. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
SPARROWS AND SNOWFINCH
435
SPANISH SPARROW Passer hispanolensis	Pl. 61
Breeds in cultivated and inhabited regions, often near houses, in similar habitats to
the House Sparrow, but also in more arid, semi-desert regions. Nests in colonies, in
trees and well-grown bushes such as tall brambles, usually near water.
Nest. A bulky domed structure with a side entrance. Of plant stems, straw and
grasses; lined with feathers, hair and down. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Double- or treble-brooded. In arid areas
birds may move extensively before re-nesting.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy.
Similar to those of House Sparrow, but usually pale in colour. White, or faintly
tinted blue or green; marked with specks, spots, or small blotches in various shades
of grey, violet-grey, blackish-violet or purplish; often with darker, heavier markings
concentrated at the larger end. 22.8 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, mainly by female. 11-12 days. From second or third
egg-
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Mouth and tongue flesh coloured to
yellowish-pink, with paler rear tongue spurs. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 11-12 days and are
fed by adults for another 4-5 days.
HOUSE SPARROW Passer domesticus	PI. 61
Breeds around or near human habitation, usually in association with cultivation. Nest
in a hole or crevice of any kind in or near a building, in creepers growing on build-
ings, or occasionally among twigs in trees and hedges.
Nest. In trees a neat rounded domed structure with side entrance, in creepers or
crevices an untidy domed structure, or in holes may be a cup. Of straw, plant stems
and any rubbish such as paper, string or cloth; lined with feathers, hair and wool.
Built by both sexes, but mainly by the male.
Breeding season. Usually begins about May, but very variable; exceptional nests
have been recorded in most months. Treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, rarely up to 8. Subelliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy.
White, or faintly tinted greenish or greyish; very variably marked with spots, speck-
ling or small blotches of grey, blue-grey, greenish-grey, purplish- grey, black, brown
or purplish-brown. Eggs may vary within a clutch, usually one being much more
sparsely marked and appearing whiter. Rarely unmarked. 22.5 x 15.7 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by the female, beginning with the completion of the clutch.
11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Mouth and tongue pink, with whitish-pink
rear tongue spurs. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents, mainly on insects brought in the bill.
Brooded by female, which also roosts in nest, for c. 7 days. Leave nest at 11-16 days
and are fed by adults for up to another 14 days.
TREE SPARROW Passer montanus	PI. 61
Breeds in sites offering nest-holes in regions of cultivation or wasteland. Nest a hole
in a tree, cliff, quarry, wall or thatched roof; in a haystack or thick creepers on walls;
or in rocks, pipes, or mammal holes.
Nest. A domed structure or untidy cup of plant stalks and twigs; lined with down and
feathers. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins April. Double- or treble-brooded.
436
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 2-9. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Variable,
but less so than those of the House Sparrow, being darker, browner and smaller.
Ground colour white to very pale grey; heavily marked with spots, small blotches or
speckling, usually in dark brown, sometimes purplish or greyish. Markings often
heavy enough to obscure ground colour. At times very fine speckling makes eggs
appear uniform in colour but usually darkening towards the larger end. Markings
tend to concentrate towards the larger end. Many clutches show one or two pale,
sparsely marked eggs. 19.3 x 14 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11-14 days. Usually from last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Mouth and tongue pink. Tongue with
whitish-pink rear tongue spurs and tip, rarely with dark spot at tongue tip. Gape
flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 12-14 days in nest.
DEAD SEA SPARROW Passer moabiticus	Pl. 61
Breeds in arid areas in the trees and scrub along watercourses and around moistcr
areas. Nest is built in a tree, c. 4-10.5 m up, and several may be built close together.
Nest. A very large cone-shaped or rounded structure, with an entrance at or near the
top, built of twigs or tamarisk needles, and thickly lined with feathers, hair, down
and various soft debris. Begun by male, completed by both sexes.
Breeding season. Begins late March to early May. Two or three broods.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. rarely 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White or buff-
ish, variably spotted or speckled with purplish-brown or grey. Often so heavily
speckled as to obscure ground colour, or more sparsely spotted, with markings
largely confined to larger end. 18.9 x 13.2 mm.
Incubation. Almost entirely by female. 9-16 days. From last or next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink with purplish feather tracts. Mouth and
tongue flesh-pink, with pale pink rear tongue spurs. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young fed mainly by female, brooded only by female, fledge at
11-13 days. Male helps to feed fledglings.
DESERT SPARROW Passer simplex	Pl. 61
Breeds in desert, in areas of sand- or grass-dunes, or broken country with scrub.
Nests may be in holes in buildings, walls or similar structures; in the crowns of palm
trees, or forks of small branches of other trees; or the foundations of large twiggy
nests of large birds.
Nest. A domed structure; those built in branches may have an entrance spout. In more
complete forms the outer layer is loosely made of coarse grass and fibre, inner layer a
more closely woven structure of grass, twigs and plant fibre with an entrance sloping
up to a nest cup which is lined with fine fibre, grass and feathers. Built by both birds.
Breeding season. Begins late March to late April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 2-5. varying with annual climate, rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly
glossy. White, spotted and blotched with shades of brown and violet-grey. 19.2 x
13.5 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 12-13 days, beginning with first
egg or possibly later in laying.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Skin pink. Mouth and tongue crimson, with paler rear
tongue spurs. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female. The young
fledge in 12-14 days, hiding in nearby cover for several days.
WAXBILLS
437
WEAVERS Ploceidae
STREAKED WEAVER Ploceus manyar
A species from Asia, introduced to Nile Delta Breeds in tall grass, reedbeds and tall
swamp growth in marshy areas and in water Nest a woven structure hung from top
of reed stems, 2-3 m above water. Elsewhere in range also in trees overhanging
water. Nests in small colonies. Males sometimes polygynous
Nest. A pendent, coarsely woven structure of long strips of grass or leaves of vary-
ing widths, male tearing strips from stalk outwards on growing plants by grasping
tip and flying. It is hung from a group of reed-stem tops bound together and partly
incorporated. The elongated brood-pouch is c. 20 cm long and c. 12 cm in diameter,
with side entrance to a short, downward pointing entrance tube 5-10 cm long, some-
times longer, and c. 6 cm in diameter. Built by male only, the first stage is an inverted
basket, rapidly finished when selected by a female, who may be laying eggs before
entrance is complete. It may be ornamented on the outside by clusters of mud or dung
embedded with flower petals. Old nests are bitten loose by male, new ones built for
each brood.
Breeding season. Begins May Double-brooded
Eggs. 2-3. Subelliptical, smooth and non-glossy. White. 20.4 x 14.4 mm.
Incubation. Male assists at first. 11-17 days for first egg, 13-14 days for last, start-
ing with second egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy Down fairly long and plentiful; white on upperparts,
wings and flanks. Mouth red? Gape flanges pale yellow?
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female during first
7 days, but male may not begin feeding them for c. 10 days. They fledge at 13-
20 days.
WAXBILLS Estrildidae
INDIAN SILVERBILL Euodice malaharica
An Indian species introduced to other areas. It appears to
have spread westward in Arabia with recent settlement and
now breeds along the eastern rift valley of Israel. Breeds in
oases and warm vegetated lowlands, in grassland, sparse
scrub, and in undergrowth, scrub, date groves and open
woodland of cultivated areas. Nest low m a bush or date
palm; elsewhere in niche or hole of building, or nest of other
birds such as weavers. Loosely colonial in nesting; highly
sociable, groups roosting in old nests.
Nest. A well-made rounded structure or deep cup of grass,
fine stems and plant fibres; lined with finer grass, feathers,
plant down and soft material. In its full form it is usually
Mouth pattern of a
recently hatched
Indian Silverhill.
spherical with a rounded side entrance projecting as a short tube
Breeding season. Mid-March to mid-June.
Eggs. 2-7. Subelliptical. White and non-glossy. 15.2 x 11 8 mm.
Incubation. By both birds, which roost in the nest. с. 11-15 days,
Nestling. Altricial and almost naked. Small amount of scant grey down, on back
only. Mouth almost white with pale pink throat Tongue white. A thick black band
arches above the palate and around below the tongue inside the gape flange to
produce complete circular band in the mouth Gape flanges thick and white.
438
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS DE BRITAIN AND EEROPE
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Droppings are not removed but dry
in nest wall. Food, including a crop milk-like secretion, is regurgitated. Fledge at
10-13 days. Tended by both adults after fledging. Male feeds if female re-nests.
Young beg by crouching and twisting head upwards. Fed fore. 2 weeks more. Young
tend to remain with parents until subsequent nestings.
COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild
An African species introduced to Spain and Portugal. Breeds in open grassy or cul-
tivated areas. Nest in a tree, small bush, hedge or creeper, or in a tall grass clump in
open country; sites from ground level to c. 3 m up.
Nest. A pear-shaped structure, the entrance protruding sideways and slanting down.
10-35 cm long. Nest constructed of grass stems; lined with finer grass and feathers.
A shallow, cup-shaped nest-like structure is usually built on top of the nest. Feath-
ers and grass-heads may be placed in this, and very rarely an egg has been found in
it. The male brings nest material, the female builds it into the nest.
Breeding season. February to November, mainly in April
brooded in Africa.
Eggs. Usually 5, sometimes 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and
non-glossy. White, with faint pink flush when first laid. 13.5
x 10.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes but mainly by female. 11-12
days.
Nestling. Altricial and naked. Pair of small white lumps,
separated by black marks, at gape flanges. Mouth white with
five black marks arching across the upper palate, two small
spots on palate edge. Two black marks tapering inwards on
outer sides of tongue, and curved black mark below tongue.
Nestling period. Young brooded and fed by both parents.
to July. Often double-
Mouth pattern of a
recently hatched
Common Waxbill.
Adults regurgitate food. c. 17 days in nest. Young remain with parents for a long
period.
RED AVADAVAT Amandava amandava
An Asiatic species now introduced to Spain, Italy and Egypt. It lives in wetland
rcedbeds, marshes with tall grassy vegetation, sugarcane, cultivated crops and thick
waterside vegetation. Nest hidden in a bush, reeds or tall grasses
Nest. A spherical structure with a central side entrance, sometimes on a flat platform
of grass or twigs. Strongly constructed of grass, strips of vegetation and stems, some-
times held together with spiders’ webs. The lining is of finer grasses, grass flower-
heads, down and feathers. Fragments of burnt wood
sometimes added to lining. Built by both sexes.
Breeding season. Late June to December in Spain, Novem-
ber to December in Italy, April in Suez. In area of origin
breeding is linked to rains.
Eggs. 4—7. Subclliptical to short subelliptical. Non-glossy
and white, sometimes showing pinkish contents. 14.5 x
11.2 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Loose brownish down on
head and back. Mouth pale yellow with a broken ring of
slate-coloured spots showing on the open gape as an arch of
Month pattern of a
recently hatched
Red Avadavat.
FINCHES
439
eight on upper palate, vertical row of three on either side of lower, and a curved black
mark below the tongue, with in addition two spots on mid-upper palate and five on
the tongue.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, fledging at 17-21 days. Independent
at 10-14 days after fledging.
FINCHES Fringillidae
Small, seed-eating birds. Nests in trees, shrubs or terrestrial herbage. Nest a cup, usu-
ally substantial and well made; varying from the neat moss cup of the Chaffinch to
the looser stick nest of the Bullfinch. Nest usually built by female. Eggs usually very
pale blue, variably but often sparsely marked in purplish or red, the markings largely
confined to the larger end. Often several broods Frequently a number of pairs nest
near each other in a social group, but Fringilla species are strictly territorial. The
female incubates alone and may be fed by the male. Young are downy, with red
mouths and yellowish gape flanges. Both adults tend them, but if successive broods
overlap the male may care for Hedged young while the female begins re-nesting.
Young are usually fed on regurgitated seeds and plant material, but Fringilla species
bring insects in the bill. In some species parents fail to remove droppings of young
for some or all of the nesting period, and these often accumulate at the edge of the
nest. Young rely on parents for food for a while after leaving the nest and may fol-
low them, noisily begging for food.
BRAMBLING Fringilla monlifringilla	Pl. 63
Breeds in deciduous woodland and on the edges of coniferous woodland. Nest in
trees, 1.5-9 m up but usually towards the lower parts. Usually in a conifer, close to
the trunk or on a limb Rarely in a bush
Nest. Similar to that of Chaffinch but larger. A deep cup of moss mixed with grass
and hair, bound with spiders’ webs, decorated with flakes of white bark and lichen,
and lined with hair, down, feathers and wool. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May in south to early July in north. Sometimes
double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-7, sometimes 4-8 Subell ptical to short oval Smooth and glossy.
Light blue, variably tinged or blotched with pink or light red. sparsely marked with
spots or small blotches, usually smaller and more numerous than those of the
Chaffinch, often with finer lines, mottlings and scribblings. 19.5 x 14 6 mm
Incubation. Eggs usually laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 11-12
days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and dense, white, in tufts on crown, back,
upper wings and rump; some on thighs and vent. Mouth red. Gape flanges yellow-
ish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended and fed by both parents. Leave nest at 11-13 days.
CHAFFINCH Fringilla coelebs	PI. 63
Breeds in woodland and woodland edge, also in scrub, thickets, parkland, gardens,
and hedgerows. Nest in a tree or taller shrub, usually built tightly into a fork.
Nest. A neat, deep cup. Of moss mixed with lichen, grasses, roots and feathers;
bound together with spiders’ webs; decorated with lichen and bark flakes; lined
with feathers, rootlets, wool, fur and plant down. Built by female, accompanied
by male.
440
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Chaffinch, c. 12.5 cm across.
Breeding season. Begins in April to May (sometimes mid-March). Single- or dou-
ble-brooded in different parts of range.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 2-8. Subelliptical, to short subelliptical or oval.
Smooth and glossy. Light blue, often variably tinged or blotched with pink, some-
times largely obscuring blue colour; sparsely spotted, streaked or scrawled with dark
chestnut-red, usually with smudged pinkish edges to markings. Rarely faintly
marked or unmarked. 19.5 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 10-16 days, usually beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down pale smoke-grey, on upperparts, upper wings,
thighs and vent. Skin flesh-pink. Mouth deep reddish-pink to red, more orange on
palate. Gape flanges white, or tinged cream to yellowish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but greater share by female, which
broods them during first 6 days. Leave nest at 11-18, usually about 14, days.
BLUE CHAFFINCH Fringilla teydea	Pl. 63
Breeds in pine forest on Tenerife and Grand Canary. Nest on branches of trees,
с. 1.5-9 m up.
Nest. A cup of moss, pine-needles, twigs and lichen; lined with hair, feathers, plant
down and moss. Built by female.
Breeding season. Late May and June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 2. occasionally 1. Subelliptical, longer than those of Chaffinch.
Smooth and glossy. Light blue; spotted and marked with chestnut-red or purple,
and with fainter blotching of the same colour, chiefly confined to larger end. 23.6 x
16.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14-17 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down thick and plentiful; black. Mouth deep reddish-
pink to red. Gape flanges white.
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441
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. Fledge at 17-18 days, becoming
independent after c. 10 weeks old.
CITRIL FINCH Serinus citrinella	PI. 63
Breeds on mountain slopes, on rocky ground with scrub and scattered trees, or on the
edge of forest areas. Nest is in a tree, 3-4.5 m up. Nest usually in a conifer, but in
some areas in a broadleaf tree.
Nest. A cup of grasses, wool, roots and lichen; lined with roots, plant down, hair and
feathers. Built by female, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Late April to June. Often double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very like those of the
Goldfinch, but usually more heavily marked at the larger end. 16.5 x 12.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; brownish-black.
Mouth light flesh-pink. Gape flanges creamy-white with pink spot at base.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Droppings not removed after 11
days. They fledge at 14-16 days, independent 3-5 weeks later.
CORSICAN FINCH Serinus corsicana
Recently separated from Citril Finch. Breeds in Corsica, Sardinia, Elba. Capri
and Gorgona. Occurs in scrub covered rocky ground, in maquis or cultivation
down to sea level, nesting mainly in tree heath and juniper at с. 1 m from the
ground. Nest is flimsy and shallow; fine grass, lined with hair, feathers, moss or
plant down. Eggs are slightly smaller (15.9 x 12.1 mm) than those of Citril Finch
and clutch is only 3-4. There appears to be no present evidence of other distinct
differences in breeding.
CANARY Serinus canaria	Pl. 63
Breeds in the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira in forests, plantations and culti-
vated areas with trees and shrubs. Nest in a tree or shrub.
Nest. A cup of twigs, lichen and plant down; lined with plant down, feathers and hair.
Built by female only, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins January. Tends to be earliest on Tenerife, and earlier on
low ground than at higher altitudes. Two broods, sometimes three.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 3. Subclliptical. Smooth and non-glossy. Pale light blue, on
average deeper in colour than those of Common Serin and more profusely marked with
fine speckling, spots and small blotches of purple, red or reddish-brown; concentrated
towards the larger end but also extending over other parts of the shell. 17.2 x 13.3 mm.
Incubation. By female only, fed by male. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down smoky-blue-grey. Mouth orange-red. Gape
flanges creamy-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults. Droppings of well-grown young not
removed from nest edge. Fledge at 15-17 days, independent at c. 5 weeks old.
SERIN Serinus serinus	PI. 63
Breeds in open woodland, scrub, areas with scattered trees, and cultivation such as
olive groves, vineyards and gardens. Nest is in a bush or tree, 1.5-6.5 m up. in a small
fork or towards the end of a branch.
Nest. A neat compact cup, of plant stems, roots, moss and lichens; lined with hair,
feathers and plant down. Built by female.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins March in south to May in north. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4, sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale light
blue, sometimes slightly greenish; spotted, speckled and scrawled with purplish,
brownish-red and pale lilac, the markings mainly confined to the larger end. 16.7 x
11.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and rather long; pale grey. Mouth bright
pink. Gape flanges pink.
Nestling period. Young are tended by both parents. They leave nest at c. 14 days,
before they can fly properly, and are dependent on parents for 6-7 days after
leaving nest.
SYRIAN SERIN Serinus syriacus	Pl. 63
Breeds in woodland on mountain slopes. Nest in a tree or bush, 1-2 m above ground.
Nest. A small cup nest, like a Goldfinch’s but more loosely built and shallower.
Breeding season. Begins April. Two to three broods. Later nests sometimes at
higher altitudes.
Eggs. Usually 4. Subclliptical to oval. Smooth and glossy. Very pale light blue
sparsely speckled with light reddish-brown and more heavily marked at the larger
end with reddish-brown or purplish-brown. 17 x 12.4 mm.
Incubation. Probably by female only. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. Young leave nest at 14-16 days.
RED-FRONTED SERIN Serinus pusillus	PI. 63
Breeds on mountainsides with low dense scrub, cliffs and screes, and open areas.
Nest low in a dense bush or tree, sometimes high in a conifer, or in a crevice or
hollow among rocks.
Nest. Compact and relatively large cup of grass, bark strips, stalks and moss; lined
with plant down, hair, wool and feathers. Built by female, accompanied by male,
which rarely may help.
Breeding season. Begins April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 3-5. Short, subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale light blue faintly
speckled with fine pinkish specks and spots, and sparsely marked with darker spots,
small blotches and scrawls of purplish-black, lilac or reddish-brown; mostly at the
larger end. 16.6 x 12.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Fairly plentiful short down on upperparts, wings,
thighs and vent; pale grey. Mouth pink, violet on palate. Gape flanges yellowish-
white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female at first, male
bringing food for both. Droppings not removed from nest-rim after 11-12 days.
Young fledge at 15-17 days, fed mainly by male for 5-7 days more.
LESSER REDPOLL Carduelis cabaret and
COMMON REDPOLL Carduelis Jlammea	Pl. 63
Recently recognised as two distinct species; Common Redpoll is further divided into
three subspecies occurring mainly in northern Scandinavia, northern Russia and Ice-
land. Whilst there arc regional differences in nest site, clutch and egg size, most other
aspects of breeding appear closely similar, and the following text relates to both species:
FINCHES
443
Breeds in birch scrub, mixed conifer and birch woodland; areas of scrub, heath or
moorland with scattered trees; or cultivation with plantations and shrubberies. Nest
in a tree, shrub or bush, often high in trees, but at times down to ground level. Pairs
often nest near each other in loose social association.
Nest. A small untidy cup of fine twigs, grass and plant stems; lined with plant down,
feathers and hair. Nest lining usually appears very white. Built by female only,
accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to June in north. Single- or double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy
or non-glossy. Pale blue, a little deeper than that of Linnet and Twite, but similarly
marked with fine specks, spots, small blotches and scrawls; many of them pale pink
or lilac, and sparser purple and red-brown markings. Most markings concentrated at
the larger end. 16.9 x 12.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 10-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and thick; dark grey. Mouth red with
two pale spots on palate. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for first week,
male bringing food for both. Droppings not removed from nest edge in last few days.
Young leave nest at 11-14 days, become independent 17-26 days later.
ARCTIC REDPOLL Acanthis hornemanni	PI. 63
Breeds in northern scrub and tundra. Nest in a low tree or bush, or on the ground
sheltered by a rock.
Nest. A cup of grass and twigs, and sometimes roots; lined with feathers, hair and
plant down. Built by female only, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Late June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, rarely 4-6. Similar to those of the Common Redpoll but larger and
a little paler in ground colour. 17.4 x 12.9 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 11-12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy, presumably similar to Common Redpoll or perhaps
more downy. Mouth purplish-red. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, brooded by female for first 10 days,
fledging at 10-12 days.
TWITE Acanthis flavirostris	PI. 63
Breeds on rough pastures, heather and gorse moors, and areas of moorland scrub on
hillsides, reaching sea-level in north, and on higher hills in the south. Nest on the
ground in low cover and rough herbage, in heather and gorse, in hollows and holes
of banks and rocky slopes, and on rock ledges.
Nest. A bulky cup of grasses and plant stems; lined with wool, hair and feathers.
Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Single-brooded, or double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, sometimes 4—7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy or non-
glossy. Very like those of Linnet but more frequently with scrawled pattern. Pale
blue; with varied specks, spots, small blotches and scrawls in dark purple or reddish-
brown. with lighter pink or lilac markings. Markings are mainly confined to the
larger end. 17.3 x 12.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-13 days, beginning before clutch complete.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; pale buffish-grey.
Mouth red, purplish in the throat. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Young fledge at 11-17 days,
independent с. 15 days later.
LINNET Acanthis cannabina	Pl. 63
Breeds on heathland, areas with low scrub or scattered bushes, plantations, hedge-
rows and bushy gardens, and marram dunes. Nest in a bush, or rarely in tall herbage
or a marram clump. A number of pairs often nest in loose association in adjacent
bushes.
Nest. A bulky cup of grass, plant stems, moss and sometimes small twigs; lined with
hair and wool; sometimes down and feathers. Built by female only, accompanied by
male.
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 7. Subclliptical. Smooth but only slightly glossy or non-
glossy. Very pale blue to whitish-blue; speckled, spotted, finely blotched and
streaked with pale pink or purple, mostly at the larger end; and more sparingly
marked with bolder spots, small blotches and streaks in chestnut-red or purplish-
black. 18.2 x 13.2 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone. 10-14
days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; smoke-grey. Mouth
pink. Gape flanges pinkish-yellow to pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young brooded by female and fed by male for first few days, later
both parents bring food. Brooded longer in bad weather. In nest 11-14 days, 14-17
days in north. Young remain near nest for first few days, independent c. 14 days after
fledging.
SISKIN Carduelis spinus	PI. 63
Breeds in coniferous or mixed woods. Nest usually in a conifer, occasionally in
birch, usually out towards the end of a branch, and often high up.
Nest. A small rounded cup, sometimes with hanging twigs woven into it, of small
lichened twigs, grass, moss and wool; lined with roots, hair, wool, plant down and
feathers. Built by female, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Varies with seed crop; begins mid-March to mid-May.
2 broods.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 2-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue to
very pale blue; finely speckled and spotted with lilac and pink; and more sparsely
marked with spots, small blotches or scrawls of purplish or reddish-brown. All
markings concentrated at or around the larger end. 16.4 x 12.3 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-14 days, beginning with next-to-last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down smoky, blue-grey. Mouth crimson. Gape
flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young brooded by female while male brings food for first 6-7 days,
later both parents bring food, feeding young by regurgitation. 13-15 days in nest.
Tended for several weeks after fledging.
GOLDFINCH Carduelis carduelis	Pl. 63
Breeds in areas with scattered trees, usually cultivation or wasteland, or gardens and
orchards; also on woodland edges and in open woodland with clearings. Nest in a
FINCHES
445
tree or more rarely in a tall shrub, usually in twigs towards the end of a branch of a
tree with fairly open foliage.
Nest. A neat compact cup of moss, roots, grass, lichens, wool and plant down; lined
with plant down and wool, and sometimes hair and feathers. Built by the female, and
rarely the male may bring material.
Breeding season. Begins late April to early May. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 3-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Variable;
very pale blue; finely spotted, speckled, blotched and streaked with purple, purplish-
black. red or pink, the markings usually fine and confined to the larger end. the
dark markings sparser than the paler ones. Rarely immaculate blue or white. 18.3 x
13.4 mm.
Incubation. Incubation by female alone, fed by male. 10-14 days, beginning with
third egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and thick; dark grey. Mouth
crimson, becoming purplish on the roof. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for 7-9 days.
Droppings are left on edge of nest after c. 10 days. Young fledge at 13-18 days,
following parents after a few days.
GREENFINCH Carduelis chloris	Pl. 63
Breeds in fairly open habitats where trees and bushes are present, on woodland bor-
ders, in cultivation, parkland, hedgerows and gardens, and scrubland. Nest in a bush
or tree, in a fork or against a trunk.
Nest. A bulky cup of grasses, plant stems and moss; lined with plant fibres, roots,
hair and sometimes feathers. Built by female, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins April to early May, prolonged. Double- and at times tre-
ble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 3-8. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue;
finely marked with dark purple or blackish spots and small blotches, and with paler
lilac-pink markings. Markings arc rather sparse and often concentrated in a zone
around the larger end. 20.6 x 14.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, sometimes beginning before completion of clutch.
12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; greyish-white. Mouth
deep pink. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both adults, fed by regurgitation. Eyes open at
c. 8 days. Droppings not removed from nest edge after c. 8 days. Young leave nest
at 13-16 days, before being able to fly well. If broods follow in quick succession
male may care for fledgling young of earlier brood while female re-nests.
BULLFINCH Pyrrhula pyrrhula	PI. 63
Breeds in woods with shrubby undergrowth, woodland edge, scrub, gardens,
hedgerows and plantations. Nest usually 1-2 m up in bush or shrub.
Nest. A loose structure of fine twigs, moss and lichen; with a neat inner cup of roots
and hair; hairy lichen often used by northern form. Nest built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Single-brooded in north and east,
double-, possibly treble-brooded, elsewhere.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, occasionally 7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue, vary-
ing in depth; with spots, small blotches and scrawls of blackish-purple, purplish-
brown and pale lilac; mostly concentrated at or around the larger end. 20.2 x 14.6 mm.
446
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPF.
Incubation. By female, fed by male. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and thick; blackish-grey. Mouth
pink with purplish-grey spots at the sides of the throat. Gape flanges are pale yellow.
Nestling period. Female broods young while male brings food for first 6 days, later
both bringing food. 12-18 days in nest.
AZORES BULLFINCH Pyrrhula murina
Breeds only on Sao Miguel in the Azores, usually in thick mountainous woodland
of laurels and introduced Japanese Cedar. Nest in a tree, well hidden in foliage.
Nest. A loose, shallow cup of thin twigs and stems, with a neater inner cup of fine
grass and rootlets.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Possibly only 2. Subelliptical, smooth, slightly glossy. Pale blue, with a few
brownish-purple spots and paler violet-red blotches at the larger end. 18.7 x 15 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy.
Nestling period. No information. Possibly similar to that of Common Bullfinch.
WHITE-WINGED GROSBEAK Myc.erobas carnipes
Breeds in open, stunted woodland on mountain slopes, often near stream or water.
Nest 1.5-4.5 m up in tall shrub or small tree.
Nest. A cup of coarse twigs, lined with grass, and with a finer inner lining of strips
of bark and fibre.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue; sparsely but boldly
scrawled with black and purplish-brown lines, and with paler lilac scrawlings; the
markings mainly in a wreath around the larger end. The markings show some pink
blurring at the edges. 30 x 18.3 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes, but mainly by female. 15-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful on head and upperparts;
grey. Mouth pink. Gape flanges white.
Nestling period. Tended by both adults. Young fledge at c. 20 days.
HAWFINCH Coccothraustes coccothraustes	Pls 16, 63
Breeds in woodland, mixed or deciduous; in parkland with scattered trees; in
orchards, gardens and cultivated areas with large trees.
Nest. A flimsy and loosely built cup of twigs, roots and lichens; lined with finer
roots, plant fibres and hair.
Breeding season. Begins late April and early May. Usually single-brooded,
occasionally double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, sometimes 2-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Light
blue, or greyish-green, rarely pale buff or grey. Sparsely, but usually fairly evenly,
marked with bold spots and scrawls and paler scribbling of blackish-brown, at times
concentrated towards the larger end. 24.2 x 17.4 mm.
Incubation. By female, male occasionally helping. 9-14 days, beginning with
penultimate egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; white. Mouth pink with pur-
plish-red palate and whitish tongue spurs. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults, female broods young at first. Leave at
10-14 days.
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447
DESERT FINCH Rhodopechys obsoleta	PI. 64
Breeds in open areas with sparse bushes and trees. Nest in trees and bushes of scrub
and gardens of these areas; usually 1-4.5 m up, rarely low in thick bushes, but
usually conspicuously placed in a fork or on branches.
Nest. A cup of twigs, grass and roots; lined with finer grasses and with an inner cup
of feathers, hair and wool.
Breeding season. Begins late March. Single-brooded, and at times double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6, rarely 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue; sparsely
marked with small blackish-purple or black dots, specks and very fine lines, mostly
confined to the larger end. 18.9 x 14.2 mm.
Incubation. By female only, occasionally helped by male. 12-15 days, beginning
with second egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head, back and upper wings; white or
greyish-white. Mouth pink. Gape flanges whitish.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, female brooding for first few days,
male feeding female and young. In hot weather adults shade young by perching on
nest-rim, and sometimes cool them by fluttering wings. Young leave nest at 13-14
days, independent 12-17 days after fledging.
MONGOLIAN DESERT FINCH Rhodopechys mongolica
Breeds in arid mountainous areas, usually on the higher parts of steep rocky slopes
with very broken terrain and rocky outcrops, in areas of mixed stones and soil with
sparse, scattered low shrubs, trees and clumps of herbage. Nest on the ground in a
small crevice or hollow sheltered by an overhanging rock or low bush.
Nest. A shallow cup, loosely made of thin, dry grass stems with some fibrous parts
of dead leaves towards the inside and an inner cup of hair and wool. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins in May, but erratic. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue or slightly greenish-
blue; sparingly marked with specks or small spots of black or blackish-brown, and
occasionally one or two fine broken lines. The markings are generally confined to
the larger end. 18.8 x 14.6 mm.
Incubation. Possibly by both sexes.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down plentiful and white. Thickest on head and back,
sparser elsewhere. Mouth violet-red. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Female broods for first few days.
Leave nest at c. 18 days, independent 12-17 days after fledging.
TRUMPETER FINCH Rhodopechys githaginea	Pl. 64
Breeds in rocky, desert areas. Nest in a rock crevice or cavity, in natural site or in
walls, terracing or old buildings; or on the ground, sheltered under a low plant or
stone.
Nest. A cup of rough grass, plant stems and twigs; lined with wool and hair. Built by
female only, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Laid at daily intervals. Usually 4—6 eggs. Subelliptical to short oval. Smooth
and slightly glossy. Pale blue; with a sparse sprinkling of small black or purplish-
black irregular marks, and fine minute specks at the larger end. 18.4 x 14.7 mm.
Incubation. 13-14 days. By female, beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, fine greyish-white down on head, back and
wings; absent on throat and underside. At hatching mouth orange-yellow and gape
448
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS Ol- BRITAIN AND EUROPE
flanges yellowish-white; later mouth is crimson and gape flanges are pale yellow.
Bill and legs pale orange.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female at first. Leave
nest at c. 14 days before able to fly properly. Independent c. 11 days later.
CRIMSON-WINGED FINCH Rhodopechys sanguinea	PI. 64
Breeds on mountainsides 900-3.600 m up. on areas of old volcanic lava, stony
slopes with very sparse vegetation, or bare earth and stones. Nest on the ground in a
crevice or hollow where a slight overhang provides cover, or sometimes in a low
bush.
Nest. A shallow cup of loose material, built into a slight hollow; of plant stems
and grass stalks, with the inner cup lined with finer grasses, plant material and
fibres. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early April. Possibly double-brooded?
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale blue sparsely marked with
fine specks and a few small spots of dark brown or purplish-brown. 21.5 x 16.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 13-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse and white; on head, back and upper
wings. Skin pink.
Nestling period. Young fed by both adults, food being carried in throat pouches.
Young leave the nest before able to fly properly. Fledge at 10-17, usually 13-15,
days.
COMMON ROSEFINCH Carpodacus erythrinus	PI. 64
Breeds in swampy areas or by water, in swampy woodland with undergrowth,
copses, scrub thickets and cultivation with bushy cover. Nest in a shrub or low tree,
from ground level to c. 3 m up.
Nest. A loosely built structure of plant stems and grass; lined with roots and hair.
Built by female only.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5, rarely 3-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue, but deeper
colour than that of other finches, sparingly marked at the larger end with spots,
streaks or small blotches of purplish-black or black. Sometimes unmarked. 20.4 x
14.6 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dark grey, dense and long on upperparts. Skin
pink. Mouth crimson or pink. Gape flanges pale yellow or yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11-17 days in nest.
GREAT ROSEFINCH Carpodacus rubicilla	PI. 64
Breeds on upland and montane areas, usually near water, on rocky slopes with
shrubby vegetation. Nest in a crevice among rocks, or possibly low in a shrub.
Nest. A cup of twigs, roots, grass and moss; lined with wool and hair. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins June? Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Light blue like those of other
rosefinches, with a few bold spots and fine specks of black at the larger end. and
sometimes some deep lavender marks. 24 x 17 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 16 days.
Nestling. No information.
I-INCHES
449
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but for first few days by female only.
Fledge at 16-17 days, independent at c. 35 days from hatching, but fed for another
c. 5 days.
SINAI ROSEFINCH Carpodacus synoicus	PI. 64
Breeds on dry rocky hills and mountainsides. Nest in a shallow hole in rock face.
Nest. A cup of coarse dry roots and stems, with a finer lining of plant material and
hair.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Possibly double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Uniform light blue like those
of other rosefinches; with a few black spots at the larger end. 19 x 14 mm.
Incubation. Possibly by both sexes but mainly by female. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial, and downy. Down on head and back.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Fledge at 14-16 days, and remain
in vicinity of the nest for a further two weeks.
PINE GROSBEAK Pinicola enucleator	PI. 63
Breeds in coniferous or mixed forest. Nest in a conifer, juniper or birch, usually low,
2-4 m in conifers, close to main trunk.
Nest. Like a large Bullfinch nest. A loose structure of twigs; with an inner cup of
fine roots, grass and moss. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May or early June. Single-brooded, but as Cross-
bill.
Eggs. Usually 4. sometimes 3-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. Deep
light blue; sparsely spotted and blotched with bold black and purplish-brown spots
or small blotches, and more profusely marked with pale lilac or purplish speckling
or spotting. Often most heavily marked at the larger end. 26.1 x 17.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only, fed by male. 13-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on upperparts and head; thick, blackish fading
to browner tint. Mouth red. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female for first 7-10
days. They fledge at 13-18 days, relying on adults for food for a further 3 weeks.
TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL Loxia leucoptera	PI. 63
Breeds in conifer forests. Nest in a tree, particularly cedars, built on branches.
Nest. A cup built on a foundation of twigs; of grass, lichens, moss and leaves; with
inner lining of roots, lichen, hair and feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late March. Usually single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 5. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Like those of
Common Crossbill. Pale bluish or greenish-white, spotted or variably marked in dark
purple at the larger end. 20.8 x 14.7 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 14-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down dark smoke-grey. Mouth bright purplish-red.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for 10-12 days.
They fledge at 22-24 days, fed for another 4 6 weeks or more until crossed bill tips
have developed.
CROSSBILL Loxia curvirostra	PI. 63
Breeds in conifers on edges of woodland, or in scattered groups or lines of trees. Nest
at varying heights, 2-18 m up.
450
BIRD NESTS. EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A basal cup of pine twigs, built up with grasses, moss, lichen and wool: and
with a finer inner cup of fine grass, hair, fur and feathers. Built by female only.
Breeding season. Very variable, usually beginning in January or February, but at
times earlier, and extending sometimes to July. Single-brooded; double-brooded if
food supply is good.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, sometimes 2-5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue
or bluish-white, variable and sparsely marked with specks, spots and short scrawls
of purple or purplish-black, and fainter pale pink and lilac, mostly limited to the
larger end. 21.9 x 16 mm.
Incubation. By female only, 13-16 days, beginning with first or sometimes with a
later egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Dense down on upperparts, upper wings and thighs;
very dark grey. Mouth deep red. Gape flanges yellowish-pink.
Nestling period. For about a week the female broods the young while the male
brings food, later both parents bring food. Young fledge at 17-25 days, but
are still fed by parents for 3-6 weeks afterwards, until the crossed bill tips have
developed.
SCOTTISH CROSSBILL Loxia scotica
Populations of Common Crossbills feeding mainly on larger pine seeds in Scot-
land and in various Mediterranean regions have developed heavier bills and other
minor differences. Most of the Scottish population, feeding principally on Scots
Pine, have been separated as a species. They differ in having slightly heavier bills
and deeper voices, but arc otherwise similar to the Common Crossbill (above),
although parental feeding is said to continue for at least 8 weeks while the bill
develops its overlapping tips.
PARROT CROSSBILL Loxia pytyopsittacus	Pl. 63
Breeds in pine forests, often near clearings. May breed in loose social groups of nest-
ing pairs. Nest 3-13.5 m up in conifer. Higher nests near trunks, but lower ones may
be out on branches.
Nest. A more substantial structure than that of Common Crossbill, but a cup
similarly built on a solid foundation of twigs or grass, pine-needles and moss lined
with fine grass, bark, lichen and feathers. Built by female only, accompanied
by male.
Breeding season. Variable, usually beginning in late March, but at times from
December to June. Usually single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4, rarely 5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. In colour and
markings like those of Common Crossbill but larger. 22.6 x 16.6 mm.
Incubation. By female alone, fed by male. 14-16 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down sparse at first, then thicker and longer, dark
lilac-brown. Mouth light reddish-violet. Gape flanges bright yellow. From fourth day
reddish bill shows conspicuous yellow swellings on either side of base of lower
mandible.
Nestling period. Young fed on pine seeds, regurgitated by adults. For first week
female broods young while male brings food, later both bring food. Eyes open at
7-8 days. Young fledge at 21 -23 days, but are fed by parents for 6 weeks or longer,
until crossed bill tips have developed.
BUNTINGS
451
BUNTINGS Emberizidae
Small seed-eating birds, chiefly nesting in more open habitats with raised song-posts
of some kind. Cup nests, usually built by the female, often on or near the ground and
well concealed in vegetation. Eggs with pale ground colour, sometimes spotted and
blotched but more often marked with intricate scrawling and scribbling. Incubation
is usually by female alone. Nestlings downy. Down sparse or sometimes absent on
the underside. Mouths usually pink, and gape flanges yellow or creamy-yellow.
Young fed mainly on insects brought in the bill. With ground-nesting species young
may leave the nest fairly early on. while still unable to fly.
CORN BUNTING Emberiza calandra	PI. 64
Breeds on open bare areas of grassland, heathland, wasteland and cultivated fields.
Nest frequently on the ground in grass or herbage, but at times in thick bushes or
hedgerows up to 2 m from ground, exceptionally up to 5 m in tree. Males sometimes
polygamous.
Nest. A loosely constructed cup of grass, lined with finer grass, roots and hair. Built
by female.
Breeding season. Begins April in south (late February in Israel) to June in north.
Single- or double-brooded, rarely treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, sometimes 1-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy.
White, or tinted pale bluish, purplish or buffish. Sparsely marked with faint mottling
and blotching of grey or purplish-grey; and bold blotches, streaks and short scrawls
of black, purplish-brown or dark brown, sometimes with blurred purplish edges.
Markings sometimes mainly confined to larger end. 23.3 x 17.8 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; yellowish-buff. Mouth and
tongue pinkish-red. Tongue with prominent pinkish-white rear spurs, edges and tip.
Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by female, rarely male may assist. 9-12 days. Young
leave nest before they can fly.
HOUSE BUNTING Emberiza striolata	Pl. 64
Breeds in sparrow-like association with man in arid regions. Nest in a hole or crevice
of a wall or building, on a ledge or cornice of a building, in crevices of rocks, in cliffs
or on ground low under bushes.
Nest. A small shallow cup of twigs, rootlets, stems, etc., lined with hair, wool and
down. Built by female, with male in attendance; occasionally helped by male.
Breeding season. Begins March to April. Often three broods, rarely four.
Eggs. Usually 3, sometimes 2-4. Subclliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White
or faintly tinted blue or green; very finely speckled or more heavily spotted with
purplish-grey, dark brown or purplish-brown, the markings light at the smaller end,
becoming heavier towards the larger end and often concentrated in a zone around it.
20 x 15 mm.
Incubation. By female only. 12-14 days. Beginning with last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Long, dense, whitish-grey down on head and upper-
parts only. Mouth and tongue deep pink; tongue with prominent pale pink rear spurs
and pale-yellow edges and tip. Gape flanges whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. They fledge at 17-19 days, and are
fed by parents, usually by the male only, for 2-3 weeks more.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
ROCK BUNTING Emberiza cia	Pl. 64
In mountainous regions breeds on rocky slopes with some scrub and trees. Breeds at
lower altitudes on rocky slopes, or cultivated areas with stone walls or quarries. Nest
in a cavity among rocks, on a stony slope, or in a wall; sometimes in low bushes
among stones.
Nest. A cup of grass, strips of bark and moss; lined with roots and hair. Built by
female only.
Breeding season. Begins early April, later at higher altitudes. Single-brooded or
double-brooded.
Eggs. 4-6. Subclliptical. Smooth and only slightly glossy. Very pale greyish or
bluish-white, sometimes partially tinted with faint purple or brown. Sparsely and
intricately scrawled with hair-fine black lines and similar, fainter blurred markings.
Markings usually mainly concentrated in a wreath around larger end. 21.1 x 15.5
mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 12-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; dark grey. Mouth and
tongue yellowish-pink. Tongue with prominent pale pink rear spurs, yellow edges
and tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Brooded by female at first. Eyes
open at 4 days. Leave nest at c. 10-13 days, not able to fly for a few days and hid-
ing near nest. Fledged young fed for 2-3 weeks, sometimes 4.
PINE BUNTING Emberiza leuc.ocephalos	PI. 64
Habitat varied; coniferous or birch forest, scrub or open country, but often near water.
Nest on the ground among grass and low herbage, usually among bushes or on the
edges of thickets.
Nest. A well-woven bulky cup of stems, grass and roots, lined with hair and fine
grass. Built by female alone.
Breeding season. Begins end of May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 4 -5. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. Very pale whitish-blue, finely
and faintly spotted and blotched in purplish and lavender-grey, sparsely marked with
fine scrawling and scribbling of brownish-black. 21.5 x 16.1 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head, back, wings, thighs and belly; smoke-
grey.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, but mainly female; brooded by
female only. They fledge at 9-10 days, often leaving nest not able to fly until 1-3
days later.
YELLOWHAMMER Emberiza citrinella	PI. 64
Breeds in open woodland, scrub, heathland and cultivation. Nest frequently on the
ground hidden in grass and herbage against a bush or the edge of some taller growth
such as a hedgerow, roadside bank or group of bushes or young trees. Sometimes the
nest is in a thick bush a metre or so up.
Nest. A cup of grass, plant stems and moss; lined with hair and fine grass. Built by
female.
Breeding season. Begins late April. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5, sometimes 2-6. Subelliptical to short subelliptical. Smooth and
slightly glossy. White, tinted bluish, greyish or purplish, usually with faint fine spot-
ting or thin scribbling in pale purple-grey or reddish-purple; and with sparse bold
BUNTINGS
453
irregular scrawls and small blotches in black or purplish-brown; markings often tail
away into fine hair-like scribblings. 21.6 x 15.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation usually by female (fed by
male?). 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; dark grey. Mouth and
tongue pink; tongue with prominent whitish-pink rear spurs, edges and tip. Gape
flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Eyes open at c. 5 days. Leave at
9-14 days, before they can fly properly. Fly at c. 16 days.
CIRL BUNTING Emheriza eirhts	PI. 64
Breeds in scrub, woodland edge, or more open country with scattered trees, includ-
ing parkland and cultivation with hedgerow trees. Nest usually above ground in thick
bushes, hedgerows or on low tree branches; sometimes on the ground.
Nest. A cup of grass, roots and moss; lined with hair and finer grasses. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Double- or treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-4. rarely 2-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and slightly glossy. White,
tinted bluish, greenish or rarely pinkish; marked with fine speckling and sparser, bold
scrawling and spotting in black, purple and pale grey. The scrawl marks often rapidly
tail away. 20.9 x 15.9 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; dark grey. Mouth and
tongue pink at hatching, deepening to crimson later. Tongue with prominent whitish-
pink rear spurs, yellow edges and tip. Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 11-13 days.
YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING Emheriza aureola	PI. 64
Breeds mainly in moistcr scrub, willow thickets and bushy marshes, but also occurs
on dry scrub and open grassland. Nest on the ground sheltered by shrub, or up to
1 m above ground in wetter sites, in tall coarse herbage or a low bush.
Nest. A cup of dried grass; lined with finer grass and hair. Built usually by female
only.
Breeding season. Begins June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. rarely 6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Greenish or greyish,
ground colour often overlaid by light smudging of olive or purplish-grey; with sparse
spots, small blotches or scrawls of purplish-black or brown. Rarely pale greenish-
blue with faint grey blotches and darker markings. 20.5 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone beginning with
completion of clutch. 13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on upperparts only, brown. Mouth and tongue
pink with paler rear tongue spurs. Gape flanges creamy-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Leave nest at 13-15 days.
Independent after a further c. 2 weeks.
RED-HEADED BUNTING Emheriza hruniceps	Pl. 64
Breeds in taller cover and bushes, often but not invariably near water. Nest in scrub,
thickets, reedbeds, tall herbage in open places, orchards, plantations, gardens and
hedges in cultivated areas. Nests mostly less than 160 cm up.
Nest. A well-constructed cup of dry grass and plant stems; lined with hair, plant
fibres and fine grasses. Built by female only, accompanied by male.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Breeding season. Begins in May. Single or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 3-5. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, very finely speckled
or finely spotted with pale grey, purplish-grey and brown, the markings usually
concentrated towards the larger end. 20.3 x 15.5 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down brown. Skin of throat yellowish-red. of bare
underside whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by female alone for c. 5 days, then by both adults.
Young leave nest at 12-13 days. Independent in a further c. 2 weeks.
BLACK-HEADED BUNTING Emberiza tnelanocephala	PI. 64
Breeds mainly in open country with patches of scanty cover, but also occurs in open
cornfields and areas of cultivation with gardens and plantations, and occasionally in
wooded areas. Nest in thick herbage, low thick bushes and vines within a metre or
two of the ground, or on it; or 2-3 m up in low trees.
Nest. A cup of grass and dead leaves; lined with finer grasses and hair. Built by
female only.
Breeding season. Begins mid-May. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, rarely 6-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue or
grccnish-bluc, finely spotted and speckled, with light purplish-grey and darker
purplish-brown and olive-brown, the markings usually concentrated at or around the
larger end, sparser elsewhere. 22.4 x 16 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 13-14 days, from next to last egg.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Skin pink, down long and whitish. Mouth and tongue
pink at first, deepening to red. Tongue with whitish-pink rear spurs and pale yellow
edges and tip. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young variously recorded as tended by female only or by both
parents, fledging at 10-16 days.
ORTOLAN BUNTING Emberiza hortulana	Pl. 64
Breeds in open areas with low or sparse herbage, cultivation, waste ground with scat-
tered shrubs or taller herbage, vineyards, thickets and woodland edge. Nest in grass
or rough herbage or under bush, on ground.
Nest. A cup of dead grass and roots; lined with fine roots and hair, or rarely feath-
ers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins early May in south to early June in north. Double-brooded.
Eggs. 4 -6. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale bluish, pinkish, purplish or
grey; sparingly but usually fairly evenly marked with spots, small blotches, scrawl-
ings and fine specks, and sparse faint grey markings. Sometimes a wreath of mark-
ings around the larger end. 20 x 15.7 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 11-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful; pale buffish-grey.
Mouth and tongue reddish-pink. Tongue with whitish-pink rear spurs and yellow
edges and tip. Gape flanges pale-yellow.
Nestling period. Young fed by both parents. 10-15 days in nest.
CRETZSCHMAR’S BUNTING Emberiza caesia	PI. 64
Breeds in more arid open areas, dry hill slopes with rocks and scattered shrubs or
grassy areas. Nest on the ground, often against a clump of herbage or by a bush.
Nest. A cup of plant stems; lined with fine roots, grass and hair.
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455
Breeding season. Begins mid-April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Similar to those of Ortolan.
Very pale bluish, greyish or purplish; with fine speckling and sparse small blotches,
spots or occasional scrawls in purplish-black or black, and some fainter purplish
markings. 19.3 x 15.1 mm.
Incubation. Possibly usually by female only. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Thick grey down. Mouth and tongue pinkish-red.
Tongue with whitish-pink rear spurs, edges and tip. Gape flanges creamy-white or
whitish-yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female. Leave nest
before able to fly, fledging period 12-13 days.
GREY-NECKED BUNTING Emberiza buchanani	Pl. 64
Breeds in open mountain areas of bare rocky slopes and screes with sparse scrub
and scanty herbage. Nest on the ground, hidden and sheltered by rock or shmb, or
overhanging grass on slope.
Nest. A fragile cup of stalks and grass stems, with a smaller, neater lining of fine
grass, hair and wool; often very thin where pressed against a support at rear, and thick
and solid in front. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins end of April. Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. White, tinged very pale blue or
buff, sparsely speckled with faint purplish-grey and with sparse spots or scrawls of
black or purplish-black, concentrated towards the larger end. 19.2 x 15.4 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female alone.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long and plentiful; grey. Mouth orange-pink.
Gape flanges pale yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Remain with adults for 7-8 days
after fledging.
CINEREOUS BUNTING Emberiza cineracea	PI. 64
Breeds on higher slopes, dry and rocky with sparse shrubby vegetation, in upland
and mountain areas. Nest on the ground, usually on a slope with sparse vegetation,
against the base of a rock and hidden by overhanging vegetation.
Nest. A thick cup of dry stems, leaves and grass-heads, lined with rootlets and hair;
thin at the back against a solid support, thicker and more solid in front. Built by
female, sometimes accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins late April to May. Probably double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Short subelliptical. Smooth and moderately glossy. White, tinged
blue-grey; sparingly marked with thin scrawls and scribbles in blackish-brown and
pale grey, mainly concentrated at the larger end. 20.5 x 17 mm.
Incubation. No information.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down grey and plentiful, on head and back. Mouth
deep reddish-pink. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents.
REED BUNTING Emberiza schoenichis	Pl. 64
Breeds usually near water, in rank vegetation, reedbeds and fen or waterside scrub.
Typical of fresh or saline open marshland with grassy banks or scattered shrubs. May
nest in rank vegetation of drier areas. Nest on the ground, often in a grass or rush
clump, or a metre or two up in a bush.
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BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Nest. A cup of grass and moss; lined with finer grasses, hair and reed-flowers. Built
by female.
Breeding season. Begins late April in south to June in north of range. Double- or
treble-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5, occasionally 6-7. Subclliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale
purplish or lilac-grey, rarely buffish or greenish; with bold, often sparse scrawls and
blotches in black or blackish-purple, markings often showing a blurred purplish
edge. 19.9 x 14.7 mm.
Incubation. Chiefly by female. 12-14 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and abundant but sparse and some-
times absent on underside; sooty-black. Mouth and tongue pink. Tongue with
whitish-pink rear spurs, edges and tip. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. 10-13 days in nest.
LITTLE BUNTING Emheriza pusilia	PI. 64
Breeds in birch and willow scrub on tundra regions, or in swamps and clearings
in taiga forest. Nest on the ground among shrubs, small trees and tall herbage, often
hidden in plants or grass.
Nest. A cup of dead leaves, moss and grass, built into a small hollow; lined with hair
and fine grass.
Breeding season. Begins early to mid-Junc. Single-brooded, occasionally double-
brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. rarely 6-7. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale green,
grey, pink or olive; with sparse spots and scrawls in blackish-purple or blackish-
brown, often showing blurred edges; and faint greyish or purplish markings. 18.7 x
14.3 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by both sexes. 11-12 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down long; dark brown.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents. Young leave nest very early, at
6-8 days, but do not fly until c. 11 days.
RUSTIC BUNTING Emheriza ntstica	PI. 64
Breeds in marshy areas with shrubby undergrowth, in swamps, along watercourses,
woodland borders or woodland clearings, and wet heathland with scattered trees.
Nest usually on the ground in vegetation, often near water. In grass tussock, among
tree or shrub roots, under overhanging plants, against base of a tree or shrub,
occasionally raised on a stump or low in a tree.
Nest. A cup of grasses, moss or Equisetum stems; lined with finer grass, hair and
roots, and sometimes feathers.
Breeding season. Begins late May. Single- or double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-5. rarely 6. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale light blue or
greenish-blue; heavily speckled and spotted with grey, greyish-brown or olive, the
markings often concentrated towards the larger end. 20.2 x 15.1 mm.
Incubation. By both sexes. 11-13 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Dense, dark grey down on upperparts. Mouth pale
pink becoming fleshy-red. Gape flanges yellowish-white becoming bright yellow.
Nestling period. Young tended by both parents, brooded by female for first c. 5
days. Leave nest at 7-10 days before able to fly. and fed by adults for a further
9-15 days.
BUNTINGS
457
SNOW BUNTING Plectrophenax nivalis	PI. 64
Breeds on bare roeky areas and screes, from sca-lcvei in north to similar terrain on
mountain tops further south. Nest on the ground, concealed in a crevice among rocks
and boulders, or hole in a wall or old building. Male sometimes polygamous.
Nest. A cup of dry grass, moss and lichens; lined with finer grass, hair, wool and
feathers. Built by female.
Breeding season. Begins late May to July. Varying with locality and altitude.
Double-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 4-6, rarely 7-8. Subelliptical. Smooth and glossy. Very pale blue or
greenish-blue, very variably blotched, spotted or speckled with light reddish-brown,
dark brown, purplish-brown, light purplish-grey and occasionally purplish-black.
Markings may be sparse and concentrated at the larger end, or heavier and more
widely distributed. 21.9 x 16.2 mm.
Incubation. By female alone. 10-15 days.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down fairly long and plentiful but absent from under-
side; dark grey. Mouth and tongue pink at hatching, deepening to red. Tongue with
whitish-pink rear tongue spurs and pale pink tip. Gape flanges yellow.
Nestling period. Young brooded by female for c. 5 days while male brings food.
Later both parents bring food. 10-14 days. Young are active at 8 days and may come
out of nest and return.
LAPLAND BUNTING Calcariits lapponicus	PI. 64
Breeds on open tundra or on similar habitat on northern mountain tops, often in moist
places. Nest on the ground in a depression; often in the side of a bank or hummock.
Nest. A cup of grasses, moss and roots; lined with finer grass, hair and feathers. Built
by female only, accompanied by male.
Breeding season. Begins end of May to June. Single-brooded.
Eggs. Usually 5-6. sometimes 2-7. Clutches may be small in cold seasons. Sub-
elliptical. Smooth and glossy. Pale greenish, buffi.sh or greyish; usually largely
obscured by indistinct mottling of dull reddish-brown or purplish-brown, and with
some sparse dark spots or scrawls of black or purplish-black, the darker markings
sometimes absent. 20.7 x 14.9 mm.
Incubation. Eggs laid at daily intervals. Incubation by female only. 10-14 days,
beginning with completion of clutch.
Nestling. Altricial and downy. Down on head and upperparts; brown. Mouth and
tongue red; tongue with prominent white rear spurs. Gape flanges yellowish-white.
Nestling period. Young brooded and fed by both parents. They leave nest at
8-10 days, 3-5 days before they are able to fly.
Index of English Names
Numbers in bold type refer to pages opposite colour illustrations.
Accentor, Alpine 230,348
Black-throated 231,348
Radde’s 230, 348
Siberian 230,348
Auk, Little 182, 264,330
Avadavat, Red 438
Avocet 129,260, 320
Babbler, Arabian 358,409
Common 409
Fulvous 358,408
Iraq 409
Bee-eater 205, 268, 342
Blue-cheeked 205, 342
Little Green 205, 342
Bittern 50, 242, 278
Little 51, 242, 278
Blackbird 356, 374
Blackcap 350, 394
Blackstart 235, 354
Bluctail, Red-flanked 233, 356
Bluethroat 235,356
Brambling 364, 439
Bulbul, Common 229,348
White-cheeked 228, 348
Yellow-vented 229
Bullfinch 364,445
Azores 446
Bunting, Black-headed 366,454
Cinereous 366,455
Cirl 366,453
Corn 366, 451
Cretzschmar's 366, 454
Grey-necked 366,455
House 366,451
Lapland 366, 457
Little 366, 456
Ortolan 366, 454
Pine 366,452
Red-headed 366, 453
Reed 366, 455
Rock 366,452
Rustic 366,456
Snow 366, 457
Yellow-breasted 366,453
Bush-shrike, Black-headed 346,422
Bushchat, Rufous 233, 354
Bustard, Great 126, 252, 308
Houbara 127, 252,308
Little 127,252, 308
Buttonquail, Small 119, 256, 310
Buzzard. Common 92, 296
Honey 94, 292
Long-legged 93, 294
Rough-legged 93, 294
Canary 364,441
Capercaillie 107,252.304
Chaffinch 364,439
Blue 364,440
Chat, Canary Island 237, 354
Chiffchaff 352, 401
Mountain 401
Chough 362, 427
Alpine 362,427
Chukar 115, 304
Coot 123, 256,310
Crested 123,310
Cormorant 48, 276
Pygmy 49, 276
Corncrake 120, 256, 308
Coucal. Senegal 192,266,336
Courser, Cream-coloured 133, 260, 322
Crake, Baillon’s 121,308
Little 120,308
Spotted 120,308
Crane. Common 124, 256, 306
Demoiselle 125,256,308
Siberian 125, 306
Crossbill 364, 449
INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES
459
Parrot 364, 450
Scottish 450
Two-barred 364, 449
Crow, Carrion 362, 428
Hooded 362, 428
House 430
Cuckoo, Eurasian 191, 266. 336
Great Spotted 191.336
Oriental 192,336
Curlew 150, 260. 318
Stone 131,260. 322
Darter 49, 276
Dipper 360, 422
Diver. Black-throated 34, 272
Great Northern 35. 272
Red-throated 33. 272
White-billed Northern 35, 272
Dotterel 134, 260, 312
Dove, Collared 189. 334
Namaqua 188,334
Palm 190,334
Rock 186,334
Rufous Turtle 189, 334
Stock 186, 334
Turtle 189, 266, 334
Duck, Ferruginous 76. 288
Harlequin 78. 248 290
Long-tailed 79, 248 290
Mandarin 69, 246, 288
Ruddy 81.292
Tufted 75, 246 288
White-headed 81, 248, 292
Dunlin 143, 258, 316
Dunnock 231,348
Eagle. Bonelli s 94 296
Booted 95, 296
Eastern Imperial 96. 296
Golden 95, 250, 298
Lesser Spotted 97, 296
Pallas’s Sea 83. 294
Short-toed 85,300
Spanish Impcr al 96
Spotted 96, 296
Steppe 97
Tawny 98, 296
Vcrreaux’s 98
White-tailed Sea 83, 250, 294
Egret, Cattle 53, 278
Great White 54. 278
Little 55, 242, 278
Eider 76, 248, 288
King 77. 290
Stoller’s 77, 290
Falcon. Barbary 101, 302
Eleonora’s 101,302
Lanner 100, 300
Red-footed 104 302
Saker 99, 300
Sooty 101
Fieldfare 356. 375
Finch. Citril 364.441
Crimson-winged 366. 448
Desert 366 447
Mongolian Desert 366 447
Trumpeter 366. 447
Finch-lark, Black-crowned 218.344
Firecrest 352, 405
Flamingo, Greater 61,244, 280
Flycatcher, Collared 354, 408
Pied 354, 407
Red-breasted 354,407
Semi-collared 408
Spotted 354. 406
Francolin, Black 116, 254. 304
Double-spurred 116, 306
Fulmar 40. 274
Gad wall 70. 286
Gallinule, Purple 122. 256, 310
Gannet 45, 276
Garganey 73, 286
Godwit, Bar-tailed 150, 260, 318
Black-tailed 149,318
Goldcrest 352,404
Goldeneye 79, 248, 290
Barrow’s 79. 290
Goldfinch 364, 444
460
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND LLROPI
Goosander 80 292
Goose, Bar-headed 67. 282
Barnacle 67. 244. 280
Bean 65, 282
Brent 67, 280
Canada 68, 280
Egyptian 69. 244 286
Grey lag 64, 244 282
Lesser White-fronted 66, 244.
282
Pink-footed 65, 282
White-fronted 65. 282
Goshawk 91,294
Dark Chanting 92. 294
Grackle, Tristram’s 366, 432
Grebe. Black-necked 39. 272
Great Crested 36, 272
Little 39, 272
Red-necked 37. 272
Slavonian 37, 272
Greenfinch 364. 445
Grecnshank 153. 316
Grosbeak, Pine 364 449
White-winged 364 446
Grouse. Black 106, 252 304
Caucasian Black 107, 304
Red 105. 252
Willow 105, 302
Guillemot 180, 264, 332
Black 182, 264. 330
Briinnich’s 181.332
Guineafowl. Helmeted 118. 254, 306
Gull, Armenian 166,262
Audouin's 160. 326
Black-headed 163, 262, 324
Common 168,326
Glaucous 167,326
Great Black-headed 163,324
Greater Black-backed 167, 326
Herring 166, 262, 324
Ivory 170
Lesser Black-backed 166, 324
Little 164, 262, 322
Mediterranean 164 262,324
Sabine’s 165, 322
Slender-billed 160,324
Sooty 162
White-eyed 162,326
Yellow-legged 165, 262
Gyrfalcon 99. 300
Harrier, Hen 89. 300
Marsh 88, 300
Montagu's 90. 300
Pallid 89. 300
Hawfinch 270. 364, 446
Hazel Hen 106, 252, 302
Hemipodc, Andalusian 119, 256,
310
Heron, Goliath 56
Grey 55. 242, 278
Night 53, 242, 278
Purple 56, 278
Squacco 52, 278
Striated 52. 278
Western Reef 54
Hobby 102, 302
Hoopoe 204. 268. 342
Hypocolius 227, 346
Ibis, Bald 58. 278
Glossy 57. 242, 278
Sacred 58, 278
Jackdaw 362.429
Jay 362, 426
Siberian 362, 426
Kestrel 103. 250, 302
Lesser 103, 302
Kingfisher 203 268 342
Pied 204, 342
Smyrna 204.342
White-breasted 204 342
Kinglet. Tenerife 405
Kite, Black 84. 250. 292
Black-shouldered 85, 292
Red 84, 292
Kittiwake 168, 264. 326
Knot 143.258
INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES
461
Lammergeicr 86, 298
Lapwing 140, 260, 314
Red-wattled 141.314
White-tailed 142,312
Lark, Bar-tailed Desert 214. 344
Bimaculated 216, 344
Black 216, 344
Calandra 215, 344
Crested 213,344
Desert 215, 344
Dunn's 214, 344
Dupont’s 215, 344
Hoopoe 219, 344
Lesser Short-toed 214, 344
Shore 217, 344
Short-toed 213.344
Tcmminck’s Horned 217, 344
Thekla 213, 344
Thick-billed 217.344
White-winged 216. 344
Linnet 364,444
Magpie 362, 426
Azure-winged 362,427
Mallard 70, 246. 286
Martin, Crag 220,344
House 220. 270. 344
Plain Sand 219, 344
Rock 220, 344
Sand 219. 344
Merganser, Red-breasted 80, 248.
292
Merlin 102,302
Moorhen 122, 256, 310
Myna. Common 432
Nightingale 232,356
Thrush 232, 356
Nightjar 119, 268, 340
Egyptian 200,340
Nubian 200, 340
Red-necked 200. 340
Nutcracker 362,425
Nuthatch 360, 417
Algerian 416
Corsican 360,417
Eastern Rock 360, 418
Kabylie 416
Kriiper's 360.416
Rock 360,418
Oriole, Golden 366.431
Osprey 82, 250, 292
Ousel. Ring 356, 374
Owl, African Marsh 196. 338
Barn 199, 266, 340
Brown Fish 195,338
Eagle 195, 338
Great Grey 197, 340
Hawk 196, 338
Hume’s lawny 199
Little 193.338
Long-cared 195,338
Pygmy 193,338
Scops 194,338
Short-eared 196, 266, 338
Snowy 197, 266, 338
Striated Scops 194, 338
Tawny 198.338
Tcngmalm’s 193.338
Ural 192,340
Oystercatcher 127, 260, 310
Parakeet. Ring-necked 190. 266,
334
Partridge. Barbary 115, 304
Common 113, 254, 306
Grey 113. 254, 306
Red-lcggcd 114. 254, 304
Rock 114,304
Sand 117.304
See-see 117, 254, 304
Pelican, Dalmatian 47, 276
White 46. 276
Peregrine 100,302
Petrel, Bulwer’s 41,274
Cape Verde 40
Fea’s 40
Madeira 40, 274
Frigate 44. 274
462
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Zinc’s 40, 274
Phalarope, Grey 157, 320
Red-necked 157, 258, 320
Pheasant 108, 254,306
Golden 111
Lady Amherst’s 111
Reeves 111
Silver 112
Pigeon, Bolle’s 188
Laurel 188,334
Long-toed 188, 334
Wood 187,334
Pintail 73, 246, 286
Pipit, Berthelot's 225,346
Long-billed 226, 346
Meadow 223,346
Olive-backed 224, 346
Pechora 224, 346
Red-throated 223,346
Rock 225,346
Tawny 225, 346
Tree 223, 346
Water 224, 346
Plover, Caspian 135
Crab 130, 260
Egyptian 132, 260, 322
Golden 140, 260,312
Greater Sand 135, 312
Grey 139,312
Kentish 137,312
Kittlitz's 139,312
Little Ringed 137, 310
Ringed 136, 260, 310
Sociable 142,314
Spur-winged 141,314
Pochard 76, 246, 288
Rcd-crested 74, 288
Pratincole. Black-winged 134, 322
Collared 133,260,322
Ptarmigan 105, 252, 302
Puffin, Northern 181, 264,330
Quail 117.254,306
Bobwhite 113
Californian 112
Rail, Water 121,256,308
Raven 362,429
Brown-necked 362,430
Fan-tailed 362.430
Razorbill 180, 264, 330
Redpoll, Arctic 364,443
Common 442
Lesser 364,442
Redshank 152.258,316
Spotted 151,316
Redstart 236. 356
Black 235. 356
Guildenstadt’s 236,356
Moussier’s 236, 356
Redwing 358, 375
Reedling, Bearded 270. 358,410
Robin 234, 270. 356
White-throated 233, 356
Roller 206, 268, 340
Indian 206. 340
Rook 270. 362.428
Rosefinch. Common 366,448
Great 366. 448
Sinai 366, 449
Rubythroat, Siberian 234,356
Ruff 146. 258. 316
Sanderling 144, 258, 316
Sandgrouse. Black-bellied 184. 334
Chestnut-bellied 184,334
Crowned 183,334
Lichtenstein’s 183.334
Pallas’s 185.266, 334
Pin-tailed 184,334
Spotted 183, 334
Sandpiper, Broad-billed 145. 258. 316
Common 155. 258,318
Green 154,258,318
Marsh 153,316
Purple 145,316
Terek 155, 258. 318
Wood 154.318
Scaup 75, 288
Scoter. Common 78, 248, 290
Velvet 78, 248, 290
INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES
463
Serin 364. 441
Red-fronted 364,442
Syrian 364,442
Shag 47, 276
Shearwater, Balearic 42
Cory’s 41, 274
Levantine 42
Little 43, 274
Manx 42, 274
Yelkouan 42
Shelduck 68. 244, 286
Ruddy 69, 286
Shikra91,294
Shoveler 74, 246, 288
Shrike, Great Grey 348, 423
Lesser Grey 348, 423
Masked 348,425
Red-backed 348,423
Woodchat 348, 424
Silverbill, Indian 437
Siskin 364, 444
Skua, Arctic 158, 264,322
Great 158, 264, 322
Long-tailed 159.322
Pomarine 159, 322
Skylark 212, 270. 344
Small 212, 344
Smew 80, 290
Snipe. Common 146. 258,320
Great 147, 320
Jack 148,320
Painted 131,260
Pintailed 147, 320
Snowcock, Caspian 116, 304
Caucasian 115,304
Himalayan 254
Snowfinch 364. 433
Sparrow, Dead Sea 360, 436
Desert 360, 436
Hedge 231,348
House 360, 435
Pale Rock 364, 434
Rock 364,434
Spanish 360,435
Tree 360. 435
Yellow-throated 364.434
Sparrowhawk 90, 250, 294
Levant 91
Spoonbill 57, 242, 278
Sprosscr 232.356
Starling 366,432
Rose-coloured 366,433
Spotless 366,432
Stilt, Black-winged 128, 260. 320
Stint, Little 145, 314
Temminck’s 144, 258,314
Stonechat 237, 354
Pied 238,354
Stork. Black 60, 280
White 59, 242, 280
Storm Petrel, European 43, 274
Leach’s 44. 274
Madeiran 44, 274
White-faced 44, 274
Sunbird, Nile Valley 360,405
Palestine 360. 406
Swallow 222,344
Red-rumped 221,344
Swan, Bewick's 62, 284
Mute 63, 244, 284
Whooper 62, 244, 284
Swift 202, 268, 340
Alpine 202, 268, 340
Little 201.340
Pallid 203, 340
Plain 202, 340
White-rumpcd 201,340
Teal 72, 246, 286
Marbled 74, 288
Tern, Arctic 172, 328
Black 178. 262.326
Bridled 176,262, 328
Caspian 170.262.328
Common 173, 262, 328
Gull-billed 177, 326
Lesser Crested 171,328
Little 174.262.328
Roseate 172, 328
Sandwich 176, 262, 328
464
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OE BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Swift 171.328
Whiskered 179, 326
White-cheeked 174.328
White-winged Black 179.326
Thick-knce, Senegal 132. 322
Thrush. Black-throated 356. 376
Blue Rock 356, 373
Mistlc 358. 376
Rock 356, 373
Song 358. 376
White’s 377
Tit, Azure 358. 415
Blue 270, 358,415
Coal 358, 414
Crested 358, 413
Great 358, 415
Long-tailed 358. 410
Marsh 358,413
Penduline 358. 411
Siberian 358, 413
Sombre 358,414
Willow 358, 414
Treecrecpcr 270, 360.419
Short-toed 360, 420
Turkey 118
Turnstone 156, 258. 314
Twite 364,443
Vulture, Black 87, 298
Egyptian 86. 298
Griffon 88. 250 300
Lappet-faced 87, 298
Wagtail. Citrine 227, 346
Grey 226,346
White/Picd 226. 346
Yellow 227, 346
Wallcreepcr 360,418
Warbler, Aquatic 348, 385
Arabian 396
Arctic 352, 399
Barred 350, 393
Blyth’s Reed 350, 383
Booted 350, 390
Cetti's348 386
Clamorous Reed 350, 384
Cyprus 350. 395
Dartford 352, 397
Desert 352, 398
Eastern Bonelli s 400
Fan-tailed 352, 386
Garden 350. 392
Graceful 352. 388
Grasshopper 348, 377
Great Reed 350. 383
Green 352, 399
Greenish 352. 400
Icterine 350, 391
Lanceolatcd 348 380
Marmora’s 352. 397
Marsh 350, 381
Melodious 350, 391
Mcnctrics’ 350, 395
Moustached 348. 384
Olivaceous 350 389
Olive-tree 350, 391
Orphean 350, 396
Paddyfield 348, 382
Plain Willow 401
Reed 350. 381
River 348, 380
Riippeli’s 350, 396
Sardinian 350, 394
Savi’s 348. 380
Scrub 352. 387
Sedge 348, 385
Spectacled 352. 398
Subalpinc 352. 398
Tristram’s 352, 397
Upcher’s 350, 390
Western Bonelli’s 352 400
Willow 352.402
Wood 352.401
Yellow-browed 352.403
Waxbill, Common 438
Waxwing 228, 346
Weaver, Streaked 437
Wheatear 238. 354
Black 354. 373
Black-eared 354, 369
1NDFX OF ENGLISH NAMES
465
Cyprus 370
Desert 354, 369
Eastern Pied 354, 372
Finsch's 354, 371
Hooded 354, 371
Hume's 354. 372
Isabelline 354, 369
Mourning 354, 370
Pied 354, 370
Rcd-rumpcd 354, 371
Red-tailed 354,371
White-crowned 354, 372
Whimbrcl 151.320
Whinchat 238, 354
Whitethroat 350, 392
Lesser 350, 393
Wigcon 72, 246, 286
Woodcock 148, 258. 320
Woodlark 210,344
Woodpecker. Black 207. 342
Great Spotted 208, 268. 342
Green 207, 342
Grey-headed 207, 342
Lesser Spotted 209, 342
Levaillant’s 208
Middle Spotted 208. 342
Syrian 208. 342
Thrcc-tocd 209, 342
White-backed 209,342
Wren 360, 421
Wryneck 209. 342
Yellowhammer 366, 452
Index of Latin Names
Numbers in bold type refer to pages opposite colour illustrations.
Acanthis cannabina 364, 444
flavirostris 364,443
hornemanni 364, 443
Accipiter bad ins 91.294
brevipes 91
genfilis 91.294
nisus 90, 250, 294
Acridotheres tristis 432
Acrocephalus agricola 348, 382
arundinaceus 336, 350, 383
dumetorum 350, 383
melanopogon 348, 384
paludicola 348. 385
palustris 350, 381
schoenobaenus 348. 385
scirpaceus 336. 350, 381
stentoreus 350, 384
Aegit halos caudatus 358. 410
Aegolius Junereus 193, 338
Aegypius monachus 87, 298
Aix galericulata 69, 246, 288
Alaemon alaudipes 219. 344
Alauda arvensis 212, 270, 344
gulgula 212, 344
Alca torda 180. 264, 330
Alcedo atthis 203, 268.342
Alectoris barbara 115, 304
chukar 115, 304
graeca 114. 304
rufa 114 254.304
Allealle 182,264, 330
Alopochen aegyptiacus 69, 244, 286
Amandava amandava 438
Ammomanes cincturus 214, 344
deserti 215. 344
Ammoperdix griseogularis 117, 254,304
heyi 117, 304
Anas acuta 83. 246. 286
angustirostris 74 288
clypeata 74. 246, 288
crecca 72, 246. 286
penelope 72. 246, 286
platyrhynchos 70. 246. 286
querquedula 73. 286
strepera 70. 286
Anhinga anhinga 49. 276
Anser albifrons 65. 282
anser 64, 244. 282
brachyrhynchus 65. 282
erythropus 66, 244, 282
fabalis 65. 282
indicus 67. 282
Anthreptes metallicus 360. 405
Anthropoides virgo 125.256,308
An th us bertheloti 225. 346
campestris 225. 346
cervinus 223,346
gustavi 224, 346
hodgsoni224, 346
petrosus 225, 346
pratensis 223, 336, 346
similis 226. 346
spinoletta 224. 346
trivialis 223, 346
Apus affinis 201,340
apus 202. 268.340
caffer 201,340
melba 202, 268.340
pallidas 203. 340
unicolor 202, 340
Aquila adalberti 96
chrysaetos 95, 250, 298
clanga 96. 296
heliaca 96, 296
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES
467
nipalensis 97
pomarina 97, 296
rapax 98, 296
verreauxi 98
Ardea cinerea 55, 242, 278
goliath 56
purpurea 56, 278
Ardeola ralloides 52, 278
Arenaria interpres 156, 258, 314
Asio capensis 196,338
flammeus 196, 266, 338
otus 195, 338
Athene noctua 193,338
Aythya ferina 76, 246, 288
Juligula 75, 246, 288
marila 75, 288
nyroca 76, 288
Bombycilla garrulus 228, 346
Botaurus stellaris 50, 242, 278
Branta bernicla 67, 280
canadensis 68, 280
leucopsis 67, 244, 280
Bubo bubo 195, 338
Bubulcus ibis 53, 278
Bucephala clangula 79, 248, 290
islandica 79, 290
Bulweria bulwerii 41, 274
Burhinus oedicnemus 131, 260, 322
senegalensis 132, 322
Buteo buteo 92, 296
lagopus 93.294
rufinus 93, 294
Butorides striatus 52, 278
Calandrella cinerea 213, 344
rufescens 214, 344
Calcarius lapponicus 366, 457
Calidris alba 144, 258, 316
alpina 143,258,316
canutus 143, 258
mari lima 145,316
minuta 145, 314
temminckii 144, 258, 314
Calonectris diomedia 41, 274
Caprimulgus aegyptius 200, 340
europaeus 199, 268, 340
nubicus 200, 340
ruficollis 200, 340
Carduelis cabaret 364, 442
carduelis 364, 444
chloris 364, 445
flammea 442
spinus 364. 444
Carpodacus erythrinus 366, 448
rubicilla 366, 448
synoicus 366,449
Centropus senegalensis 192, 266, 336
Cepphus grylle 182, 264, 330
Cercomela melanura 235, 354
Cercotrichas galactotes 233,354
Certhia brachydactyla 360. 420
Jami Haris 270,360, 419
Ceryle rudis 204. 342
Cettia cetti 348, 386
Charadrius alexandrinus 137. 312
asiaticus 135
dubius 137, 310
hiaticula 136, 260, 310
leschenaultii 135,312
pecuarius 139,312
Chersophilus duponti 215. 344
Chlamydotis undulata 127, 252, 308
Chlidonias hybrida 179. 326
leucopterus 179, 326
niger 178, 262. 326
Chrysolophus amherstiae 111
pictus 111
Ciconia ciconia 59, 242, 280
nigra 60. 280
Cinclus cinclus 360. 422
Circaetus gallicus 85, 300
468
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OI- BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Circus aeruginosas 88, 300
cyaneus 89, 300
macrour us 89, 300
pygargus 90. 300
Cisticola juncidis 352, 386
Clamator glandarius 191,336
Clangula hyemalis 79, 248, 290
Coccothraustes coccothraustes 270,
364, 446
Colimts virginianus 113
Columba bollii 188
junoniae 188,334
livia 186, 334
oenas 186, 334
palumbus 187, 334
trocaz 188, 334
Coracias benghalensis 206, 340
garrulus 206, 268, 340
Corvus corax 362, 429
corone 362, 428
frugilegus 270, 362. 428
monedula 362, 429
rhipidurus 362. 430
ruficollis 362, 430
splendens 430
Coturnix coturnix 117, 254, 306
Crexcrex 120, 256, 308
Cuculus canorus 191,266. 336
saturatus 192. 336
Cursorius cursor 133. 260, 322
Cyanopica cyanus 362, 427
Cygnus bewickii 62, 284
cygnus 62. 244, 284
olor 63, 244. 284
Delichon urbica 220, 270, 344
Dendrocopos leucotis 209, 342
major 208. 268, 342
medius 208, 342
minor 209, 342
syriacus 208, 342
Dromas ardeola 130, 260
Dryocopus martins 207, 342
Egretta alba 54, 278
garzetta 55, 242. 278
gularis 54
Elanus caendeus 85, 292
Emberiza aureola 366, 453
bruniceps 366,453
buchanani 366, 455
caesia 366, 454
calandra 366, 451
cia 366,452
cineracea 366. 455
cirlus 366. 453
ci trine I la 366. 452
hortulana 366, 454
leucocephalos 366. 452
melanocephala 366. 454
pusilia 366, 456
rustica 366, 456
schoeniclus 366, 455
striolata 366, 451
Eremalauda dunni 214. 344
Eremophila alpestris 217. 344
bilopha 217. 344
Eremopteryx nigriceps 218. 344
Erithacus rubecula 234, 270, 356
Estrilda astrild 438
Eudromias morinellus 134, 260, 312
Euodice malabarica 437
Falco biarmicus 100, 300
cherrug 99,300
columbarius 102.302
concolor 101
eleonorae 101, 302
naumanni 103. 302
pelegrinoides 101.302
peregrinus 100, 302
rusticolus 99, 300
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES
469
subhuteo 102.302
tinnunculus 103, 250, 302
vespertinus 104. 302
Ficedula albicollis 354. 408
hypoleuca 354. 407
parva 354, 407
semitorquata 408
Francolinus bicalcaratus 116, 306
francolinus 116, 254, 304
Fratercula arctica 181,264, 330
Fringilla coelebs 364, 439
montifringilla 364. 439
teydea 364, 440
Fulicaatra 123,256.310
cristate 123,310
Fulmarus glacialis 40. 274
Galerida cristata 213, 344
fW7«e213.344
Gal linage gal linage 146, 258, 320
media 147, 320
stenura 147, 320
Gallinula chloropus 122, 256. 310
Garrulus glandarius 362, 426
Gavia adamsii 35, 272
arctica 34, 272
immer 35. 272
stellata 33, 272
Gelochelidon nilotica 177, 326
Geronticus eremita 58, 278
Glareola nordmanni 134. 322
pratincole 133, 260, 322
Glaucidium passerinum 193, 338
Grus grus 124. 256. 306
leucogeranus 125, 306
Gypaetus barbatus 86. 298
Gypsfulvus 88, 250,300
Haematopus os tra legits 127, 260. 310
Halcyon smyrnensis 204, 342
Haliaeetus albicilla 83, 250. 294
leucoryphus 83, 294
Hieraaetus J'asciatus 94, 296
pennatus 95, 296
Himantopus himantopus 128. 260, 320
Hippolais caligata 350, 390
icterina 350, 391
languida 350. 390
oliveforum 350. 391
pallida 350. 389
polyglotta 350, 391
Hirundo daurica 221.344
rupestris 220, 344
rustica 222. 344
Histrionicus histrionicus 78, 248.
290
Hydrobates pelagicus 43, 274
Hypocolius ampelinus 227. 346
Irania gutteralis 223, 356
Ixobrychus minutus 51, 242, 278
Jynx torquilla 209, 342
Ketupa zeylonensis 195, 338
Lagopus lagopus 105, 302
lagopus scoticus 252, 302
mutus 105, 252.302
Lanius collurio 348, 423
excubitor 348, 423
minor 348, 423
nubicus 348,425
senator 348,424
Ixirus argentatus 166, 262, 324
armenicus 166
audouinii 160. 326
cachinnans 165
canus 168, 326
fuscus 166. 324
genet 160, 324
hemprichii 162
470
BIRD NESTS, EGGS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN XND EUROPE
hyperboreus 167, 326
ichthyaetus 163, 324
leucophihalmus 162,326
marinus 167, 326
melanocephalus 164, 262, 324
minutus 164, 262, 322
ridibundus 163, 262, 324
sabini 165, 322
Limicolafalcinellus 145, 258, 316
Lirnosa lapponica 150, 260, 318
limosa 149, 318
Locustella fluviatihs 348, 380
lanceolata 348, 380
luscinioides 348, 380
naevia 348, 377
Lophortyx californicus 112
Lophura nycthemera 112
Loxia curvirostra 364. 449
leucoptera 364,449
pytyopsittacus 364, 450
scotica 450
Lullula arborea 210, 344
Luscinia calliope 234, 356
luscinia 232, 356
megarhynchos 232, 356
svecica 235, 356
Lymnocryptes minimus 148, 320
Melanitta fusca 78, 248, 290
nigra 78. 248. 290
Melanocorypha bimaculata 216, 344
calandra 215, 344
leucoptera 216, 344
yeltoniensis 216. 344
Meleagris gallipavo 118
Melierax metahates 92, 294
Mergus albellus 80, 290
merganser 80, 292
serrator 80, 248, 292
Merops apiaster 205, 268, 342
orientalis 205, 342
superci I iosus 205. 342
Milvus migrans 84. 250, 292
milvus 84, 292
Monticola saxatilis 356, 373
solitarius 356, 373
Montifringilla nivalis 364,433
Motacilla alba 226. 346
cinerea 226, 346
citreola 227,346
flava 227, 346
Muscicapa striata 354. 406
Mycerobas carnipes 364, 446
Nectarinia osea 360. 406
Neophron percnopterus 86, 298
Netta rufina 74, 288
Nucifraga caryocatactes 362, 425
Numenius arquata 150, 260. 318
phaeopus 151,320
Numida meleagris 118. 254. 306
Nyctea scandiaca 197, 266, 338
Nycticorax nycticorax 53. 242, 278
Oceanodroma castro 44,274
leucorrhoa 44, 274
Oena capensis 188, 334
Oenanthe alboniger 354, 372
cypriaca 370
deserti 354, 369
finschii 354, 371
hispanica 354, 369
isabellina 354, 369
leucopyga 354. 372
leucura 354, 373
lugens 354, 370
moesta 354, 371
monacha 354, 371
oenanthe 238. 354
picata 354. 372
pleschanka 354, 370
xanthoprymna 354, 371
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES
471
Onychognathus tristrami 366, 432
Oriolus or io!us 366, 431
Otis tarda 126, 252, 308
tetrax 127,252, 308
Otus brucei 194, 338
scops 194,338
Oxyura jamaicensis 81,292
leucocephala 81,248, 292
Pagophila eburnea 170
Pandion haliaetus 82, 250, 292
Panurus biarmicus 270, 358, 410
Parus a ter 358, 414
caendeus 270. 358, 415
cinctus 358,413
cristatus 358, 413
cyan us 358,415
lugubris 358,414
major 358. 415
montanus 358, 414
palustris 358, 413
Passer domesticus 360, 435
hispanolensis 360, 435
moabiticus 360. 436
montanus 360, 435
simplex 360, 436
Pelagodroma marina 44, 274
Pelecanus crispus 47, 276
onocrotalus 46, 276
Perdix perdix 113, 254. 306
Perisoreus infaustus 362, 426
Pernis apivorus 94. 292
Petronia brachydactyla 364, 434
petronia 364 434
xanthocollis 364, 434
Phalacrocorax ar is tote Its 47, 276
carbo 48, 276
pygmaeus 49, 276
Phalaropus julicarius 157. 320
lobatus 157, 258, 320
Phasianus colchicus 108, 254, 306
Philomachus pugnax 146, 258, 316
Phoenicopterus ruber 61,244, 280
Phoenicians erythrogaster 236, 356
moussieri 236, 356
ochrurus 235, 356
phoenicurus 236, 336, 356
Phylloscopus bonelli 352. 400
borealis 352, 399
collybita 352.401
inornatus 352,403
neglectus 401
nitidus 352, 399
occipitalis 336
orientalis 400
sibilatrix 352, 401
sindianns 401
trochiloides 352. 400
trochilus 352, 402
Pica pica 336, 362, 426
Picoides tridactylus 209, 342
Picus canus 207, 342
vaillanti 208
viridis 207, 342
Pinicola enucleator 364, 449
Platalea leucorodia 57, 242, 278
Plectrophenax nivalis 366, 457
Plegadis falcinellus 57, 242, 278
Ploceus manyar 437
Pluvial is apricaria 140, 260, 312
squatarola 139, 312
Pluvianus aegyptius 132, 260, 322
Podiceps auritus 37, 272
cristatus 36, 272
grisegena 37, 272
nigricollis 39. 272
Polysticta stelleri 77, 290
Porphyrio porphyrio 122, 256, 310
Porzana parva 120, 308
porzana 120, 308
pusilia 121,308
Prinia gracilis 352, 388
472
BIRD NESTS, E >GS AND NESTLINGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE
Prunella atrogularis 231,348
collaris 230, 348
modularis 231,336. 348
montanella 230. 348
ocularis 230. 348
Psittacula krameri 190, 266, 334
Pterocles alchata 184, 334
coronatus 183,334
exustus 184, 334
lichtensteinii 183. 334
orientalis 184. 334
sene gal I us 183.334
Pterodroma feae 40
niadeira 40. 274
Ptyonoprogne fuligula 220, 344
Puffinus assimilis 43. 274
mauretanicus 42
puffinus 42. 274
yelkouan 42
Pycnonotus barbatus 229. 348
leuc ogenys 348
leucotis 228
xanthopygos 229
Pyrrhocorax graculus 362. 427
pyrrhocorax 362, 427
Pyrrhula marina 446
pyrrhula 364, 445
Rallus aquations 121.256. 308
Recurvirostra avosetta 129. 260, 320
Regulus ignicapillus 352. 405
regulus 352. 404
teneriffae 405
Rerniz pendulums 35&. 411
Rhamphocorys clot bey 217. 344
Rhodopechys githaginea 366, 447
mongolica 366, 447
obsoleta 366, 447
sanguinea 366. 448
Riparia paludicola 219, 344
riparia 219, 344
Rissa tridactyla 168. 264, 326
Rostratula benghalensis 131,260
Saxicola caprata 238, 354
dacotiae 237. 354
rubetra 238. 354
torquata 237, 354
Scolopax rusticola 148. 258. 320
Scotocerca inquieta 352. 387
Serinus canaria 364, 441
citrinella 364, 441
pusillus 364,442
serinus 364. 441
syriacus 364. 442
Sitta europaea 360, 417
kruperi 360, 416
ledanti 416
neumayer 360. 418
tephronota 360, 418
whiteheadi 360. 417
Somateria mollissima 76. 248. 288
spectabilis 77, 290
Stercorarius longicaudatus 159, 322
parasiticus 158, 264. 322
pomarinus 159, 322
skua 158,264.322
Sterna albifions 174, 262, 328
anaethetus 176, 262. 328
bengalensis 171.328
bergii 171,328
caspia 170. 262, 328
dougallii 172,328
hirundo 173, 262,328
paradisaea 172. 328
repressa 174. 328
sandvicensis 176. 262. 328
Streptopelia decaocto 189, 334
orientalis 189. 334
senegalensis 190, 334
turtur 189. 266. 334
Strix aluco 198, 338
INDEX OF LATIN NAMI S
473
butleri 199
nebulosa 197.340
uralensis 198,340
Sturnus roseus 366. 433
unicolor 366, 432
vulgaris 366. 432
Sula bassana 45, 276
Surnia idula 196. 338
Sylvia atricapilla 350. 394
borin 336,350, 392
cantillans 352, 398
communis 350. 392
conspicillata 352. 398
curruca 350. 393
deserticola 352, 397
hortensis 350, 396
leucomelaena 396
melanocephala 350. 394
melanothorax 350. 395
mystacea 350. 395
папа 352, 398
nisoria 350. 393
ruppelli 350, 396
sarda 352. 397
undata 352, 397
Syrmaticus reevesi 111
Syrrhaptes paradoxus 185. 266,
334
Tachybaptus ruficollis 39. 272
Tadorna ferruginea 69, 286
tadorna 68. 244. 286
Tarsiger cyanurus 233, 356
Tchagra senegala 346. 422
Tetrao mlokosiewi -~i [07. 304
tetrix 106. 252. 304
urogallus 107. 252.304
Tetraogallus caspius 116. 304
caucasicus 115, 304
himalayanus 254
Tetrastes bonasia 106. 252. 302
Threskiornis aethiopicus 58, 278
Tichodroma murina 360, 418
Torgos tracheliotos 87, 298
Tringa cinereus 155, 258, 318
erythropus 151.316
glareola 154.318
hypoleucos 155. 258 318
nebularia 153.316
ochropus 154, 258, 318
stagnatilis 153.316
tetanus 152. 258. 316
Troglodytes troglodytes 360, 421
Turdoides altirostris 409
caudatus 409
fulvus 358. 408
squamiceps 358. 409
Turdus iliacus 358, 375
merula 356, 374
philomelos 358, 376
pilaris 356. 375
ruficollis 356, 376
torquatus 356. 374
viscivorus 358. 376
Turnix sylvatica 119. 256. 310
Ту to alba 199. 266. 340
Upupa epops 204, 268, 342
Uria aalge 180, 264, 332
lomvia 181.332
Vanellus gregarius 142. 314
indicus 141.314
leucurus 142,312
spinosus 141.314
vanellus 140, 260, 314
Zoothera dauma 377