ADELINE'S
ART DICTIONARY
CONTAINING A COMPLETE INDEX
OF ALL TERMS USED IN
ART, ARCHITECTURE, HERALDRY, AND ARCHAEOLOGY
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, AND
ENLARGED
WITH NEARLY 2000 ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1905

Authorized Edition.

703
Ad3a
1905
INTRODUCTION.
•-
ALTHOUGH Adeline's name appears on the title-page of this
Dictionary, there will be found within its pages a large number
of definitions and numerous illustrations which are not con-
tained in that work. While nothing that has made M. Jules
Adeline's " Lexique des Termes d'Art " so excellent an autho-
rity has been omitted, a large amount of information has been
incorporated from Mr. F . W . Fairholt's " Dictionary of Terms
in Art."
The publishers do not doubt of the reception that
will be given to a work based on these authorities, and also
thoroughly revised and brought up to date by an expert who
has spent some years over the task.
For instance, take the word "Academy:" First we find
the origin of the word from a grove in Athens, where Plato
taught, named after a local hero named Academus ; then the
modern definition—any society of litterateurs, scientific men,
or artists ; then an account of the first Academy of Art estab-
lished in Europe, and so on to an account of the formation of
the Institute of France. Under the separate heading of Royal

vi
INTRODUCTION.
Academy we find a succinct account of our own Royal Aca-
demy, its foundation in 1768 by George III., and its objects.
Finally, under the heading of Academician we are told how
that name is applied in England with respect to the members
of the Royal Academy.
The plan includes all such terms as are generally employed
in painting, sculpture, engraving, and architecture, whether
descriptive of real objects, or the principles of action which
rule the mind and guide the hand of the artist. It thus com-
prises the ^Esthetics of Art, as well as their practical results.
But, as it is desirable to make this a useful hand-book for all
persons interested in Art, such terms, ancient or modern, as
are used in describing the contents of a museum or picture-
gallery, are here explained. Thus, the technical terms for
antique vases, or mediaeval pottery ; sacred and domestic im-
plements; as well as for civil and military costume, armour,
arms, etc., are described ; everything which forms the compo-
nent part of a picture, or may be included in its description ;
notices of the various schools of Art, and of public picture-
galleries in England ; an analysis of colours and artistic
implements ; descriptions of ornamental woods or precious
stones ; of the saints and their symbols ; such manufacturing
processes as call Art to their aid, or such terms in architecture
and the cognate arts as are necessarily used in general Art.
To give a concise definition of all the terms used in Paint-
ing, Sculpture, Architecture, Etching, Engraving, Heraldry—in

INTRODUCTION.
vii
fact, in everything connected with Art—that is the aim of the
present book. It is not intended that with its possession the
student should altogether dispense with large and exhaustive
works especially devoted to the subject; but he will find
within these pages definitions, concise but to the point, suffi-
cient for all ordinary purposes, of every term connected with
the theory and the practice of Art.

A DICTIONARY
OF
TERMS IN ART.
Abaculus. (Arch.) A die or small
tile made of stone, glass, or a composi-
tion in imitation of stone, and used in
mosaic pavements.
The illustration
represents a pavement at Herculaneum
composed of abaculi.
Abacus. (Arch.) A tablet placed upon
the capital of a column, which adds to
the surface of the capi-
tal and so enables it the
better to support the
superincumbent archi-
Some monuments are
found in Egypt in which
the capital is nothing but an abacus.
Other monuments, however, present be-
neath the abacus a capital consisting
of lotus flowers or acanthus leaves.
In Greek and Roman architecture
the abacus varies according to the
order. In the Doric order the abacus is
strong and simple in outline, while in
the Ionic it is ornamented, and in the
Corinthian it is cur-
vilinear instead of
straight. In the Go-
thic style the aba-
eus varies according
to the period. In
the Romanesque period, i.e . in the
12th and 13th centuries, it is square,
and projects beyond the foliage of the
capital ; in the 13th century it is some^
times polygonal, and very often the
foliage of the capital projects beyond
it. There are also found, chiefly in Nor-
mandy, some abaci belonging to this
period perfectly circular in shape. In
the 14th century they project less, and
in the 15th their importance still more
diminishes.
At the Renaissance the
ancient orders were restored to honour,
with some modifications, and the abacus
then regained the dimensions which
belonged to it in the Greek and Roman
orders.
Abat-jour. (Arch.) An opening in the
1

ABA
ART
DICTIONARY.
ABR
form of an air-hole, intended to admit
light to basements and other places
which could only be lighted from above.
[Skylight.]
Abat-son. (Arch.) Pieces of wood
covered with tiles or
sheets of lead placed
obliquely in the win-
dows of steeples in
Gothic buildings, so
as to drive downwards
the sound of the bells.
In the 12th and 13 th
centuries the abat-
son was sometimes
decorated with sheets
of lead carved and
otherwise ornamented.
Abat-vent. (Arch.) A term some-
times used synonymously with abat-son
(q.v.), and also to denote the earthenware
cowl or cylinder of sheet iron which is
placed at the top of chimneys to turn
aside currents of air which might other-
wise interfere with the regular draught
of the chimney.
Abat-voix.
(Arch.) A canopy
placed over pul-
pits, either archi-
tectural in charac-
ter or composed of
draperies embroi-
dered with alle-
gorical figures, as
in Belgian chur-
ches.
Its pur-
pose is to deflect
the sound of the
voice downwards.
Abaissé. (Her.) Said of a charge,
which generally occupies the centre of a
shield, when it is lowered beneath the
centre.
Abatement. (Her.) A mark of degrada-
tion placed on a shield. There were nine
such marks, indicating nine offences, but
they have entirely fallen into disuse now.
Abbatial. (Arch.) A palace, house,
or church is termed abbatial when it
forms or has formed part of the collec-
tion of buildings which constitute an
abbey.
Abbey. (Arch.) In the Middle Ages
considerable tracts of land were occu-
pied by abbeys. These institutions con-
sisted of a collection of buildings, the
most important of which was a chapel,
very often of vaster dimensions than the
churches belonging to the territory on
which the abbey was situated. In lite-
rary and artistic language the name
abbey is still given to the churches
which once belonged to religious com-
munities, and by an extension of mean-
ing to any church of a remote origin.
" An ancient abbey " is a stereotyped
phrase in romantic descriptions, and
is applied to what are merely parish
churches.
Abbozzo. (Paint.) The first dead
colouring or first sketch of a picture,
whether painted in monochrome or in
colour.
Abezzo, Olio di. (Paint.) The oil
which exudes from the Pinus picea of
Linnaeus.
It is very valuable as a
varnish.
Abococke. (Cost.) A hat turned up
behind and coming to a peak in front.
It was worn by kings and nobles in the
14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.
Abolla. (Cost.) A cloak of double
cloth worn by the Romans.
It was
fastened by a brooch on the neck or
shoulder. Originally a military garment,
it came into general use about the time
of Juvenal.
Abraxas stones were gems worn as
amulets by the Gnostics. On them was

ABS
ART
DICTIONARY.
ACA
inscribed the mystic word
Ά
β
ρ
α
ξ
α
ς
,
which is said to have been the name
given by Basilides, a Gnostic, to the
Supreme Being, the seven letters of this
word, according to Greek reckoning,
making up 365. In date these gems
belong to the 2nd century after Christ.
Absorb. (Paint.) The canvas in oil-
painting or the paper in water-colour is
said to absorb when, owing to its grain
or some flaw in its sizing, the colours
cannot be perfectly laid on, but lose
their intensity as soon as the surface
is covered.
Abutment. (Arch.) A solid piece of
masonry to support a body, which it has
a tendency to thrust outwards. Examples
of an abutment are the solid pier, against
which an arch abuts, or in bridge-build-
ing the extreme pillars which connect the
bridge with the river bank.
Academic. A figure is said to be
academic when it is treated as a study,
with perfect accuracy but little inspira-
tion, or when it is over-emphasised and
unnatural. A figure is academic in pose
when its attitude is the conventional
attitude of the studio, when it has not
been drawn from life, and does not har-
monise properly with the subject of the
picture. A drawing is of academic size
when its dimensions are those of the
studies of the antique or life customarily
produced in schools of art, i.e . a little
less than half life-size.
Academician. A member of
an
Academic Society. In England the term
is usually employed in connection with
the Royal Academy (q.v.), whose members
are called Royal Academicians.
Academy, a grove in Athens, where
Plato taught, named after a local hero
named Academus. The term was then
applied to Plato's school, and later on to
any society of littérateurs, scientific men,
or artists. It also denotes a school of
art, where public courses of instruction
are given in drawing, painting, sculpture,
and architecture. The first Academy of
Art established in Europe was founded
in 1345 by the Venetian painters, who
formed themselves into a society called
the Guild of St. Luke. In Paris, a society
of St. Luke was established in 1391,
which was organised in 1648 under royal
patronage into the " Academy of Fine
Art."
In 1671 the Academy of Archi-
tecture, which had been established by
Colbert, was incorporated in it, and the
united institutions formed the fourth
class of the Institute of France. Most
of the important cities of Europe have
now their Academy of Art.
Academy, Royal, was founded in
London in 1768 by George III. Its first
president was Sir Joshua Reynolds, and
it consisted of forty members. Its object
was to give art-teaching, and especially
to instruct in drawing from the living
model, and to hold exhibitions of English
Art. It was at first located in Trafalgar
Square, where the National Gallery now
is, but its present head-quarters are at
Burlington House.
Acanthus. (Arch.) The acanthus is
a plant of distinctly marked foliage, which
is frequently found as a motif in archi-
tectural decoration.
Its place is pre-
eminently on capi-
tals, and it serves as
the distinguishing
mark of the Corin-
thian order. Vitru-
vius has handed
down to us a curi-
ous legend in con-
nection with the
origin of this order,
author, Callimachus,
According to this
who flourished
3

ACC
ART DICTIONARY.
ACH
about 440 B.C., was inspired with the 1
idea of the Corinthian capital from seeing
on a young girl's tomb a basket covered
with a tile and surrounded with acan-
thus leaves. It is probable, however,
that the invention of this capital was but
a modification of motifs already well 1
known in Egypt. Modern architects
have employed the acanthus for purposes
of ornamentation under every aspect. ;
They have represented it as pointing j
downwards or upwards, and with its I
leaves either folded up or turned back.
In fact the acanthus may be termed the
classical foliage of decorative sculpture.
Accentuated Outlines. (Paint.) This j
expression is applied in painting or
drawing to the strongly accentuated lines
either of the drapery which covers the
figures or of the different planes of a land- 1
scape. It is also used to indicate that
the artist has by a few strong and firm
lines converted a sketch drawn in rapid
broken strokes into a finished drawing.
Accessories. (Paint.) The accessories,
in a portrait for example, are the drapery,
the furniture, and the ground on which
the subject is represented. Theoretically
speaking, the accessories are all those
details which are necessary for the real-
isation of a scene, but which at the same
time play a secondary part in the com-
position. They should accordingly be
treated with greater soberness than the
principal figure, which remains the
centre of interest in the picture. If a
painter, in the portrait of a woman, 1
for instance, bestows as much care on the
folds of her dress or on her lace as he
does on her face, he is guilty of paying
too much attention to accessories.
Accidental Lights. (Paint.) Real or fic-
titious combinations of light and shade.
When a ray of light throws into promi-
nence the principal part of a picture, it is
necessary to connect this luminous por-
tion with other parts of the picture by pick-
ing out with delicate touches various ob-
jects represented in it. The rays of light, |
illuminating the prominent parts of the I
picture, produce spots of great brilliance,
which increase the picturesqueness of
outline of the subjects represented. In
landscape, rays of light coming through
masses of foliage are termed accidental.
Accolé. (Her.) When two shields
are placed side by side
they are said to be accolé.
This
Juxtaposition indi-
cates the alliance of two
families or nations.
It
is equivalent to Collared (q.v.),
Accosted. (Her.) A term used of
charges placed side by side.
Accoudoir. (Arch.) A French term
signifying the ledge of a window or seat
high enough to lean the elbow on.
Accrued. (Her.) Full-grown.
Gene-
rally of a tree that has come to maturity.
Acerra. A small box used by the
Romans to hold incense at sacrifices.
The incense was not burned in the acerra,
but only taken out of it and thrown on
the altar. Boxes of this kind are fre-
quently figured on bas-reliefs, from one
of which our illustration is taken.
Acetabulum,
A small vase used
by the Romans to
hold vinegar, and
employed by jug-
glers in playing the
game of thimble-
Achromatism.
An achromatic lens is a complex lens
4

ACÏ
ART
DICTIONARY.
ADD
which prevents the appearance of the
iridescent colours seen by a person look-
ing at an object through a single lens.
Aciérage. (Engrav.) A process in-
vented by Salmon and Gamier, and
brought to perfection by Jacquin.
It
consists in covering copper-plates with a
very fine film of steel by means of electro-
plating. The object of aciérage is to
obtain a metal surface with more power
of resistance than copper, and not so
likely to be worn out by the continual
wiping which printing necessitates. In
addition, the process can be repeated
if the wear and tear of the plate ren-
der it necessary or if the artist wishes
to retouch the plate. The removal or
renewal of the steel coating is an opera-
tion of extreme facility.
Acinaces.
A short dagger worn
by the Persians,
Medes, and Scy-
thians.
It was
suspended round
the waist and so
arranged as to lie
against the right
thigh.
Acketon. (Cos.)
A sleeveless tunic
of buckram
or
buckskin
worn
under the armour,
to which a refer-
ence will be found
in Chaucer's " Sir
Topaz. "
At the
end of the 15th
century the term was applied to de-
fences of plate.
Acratophoron. A term used by the
Greeks and Romans to denote the vessel
in which unmixed wine was put on the
table.
Acropolis. (Arch.) The citadel in
ancient Greek towns. The acropolis was I
generally a lofty rock, constituting a
natural fortification, which was further
strengthened by the construction of walls
proof against any attack. On it was I
built the temple consecrated to the deity
under whose protection the city existed.
The most famous acropolis in ancient
times was that of Athens, on which stood
the Propylsea, the temple of Athene
Parthenos adorned by the sculptures of
Pheidias, the Erechtheum, and many
national monuments.
Acrostolium. A
sculptured orna
ment, generally in the shape
of a volute, which sur-
mounted the prow of ancient ,
galleys. It sometimes pre-
sented the form of an ani-
mal's snout, or of some de-
fensive arm, such as a helmet or buckler.
Acroterium. (Arch.) A pedestal
placed at the corners as well as on the
summit of the pediment in Greek and
Roman temples. These acroteria were
sometimes of great importance, and con-
sisted of pedestals carrying figures of
colossal size. We
still find, in some
monuments of the
Romanesque pe-
riod, examples of
acroteria placed
as end-ornaments
on the gable of the
apse.
Acus. A Latin
term for a pin or
needle. It especi-
ally denotes a pin,
made of gold, sil-
ver, bronze, ivory,
or wood used to
fasten garments
or pass through
plaited hair.
Addorsed, Adorsed. (Her.) Said of
5

ADI
ART
DICTIONARY.
AGN
two charges when placed back to back.
Thus, we say two lions
addorsed. Two crescents
are addorsed when their
flanks are turned towards
one another and their horns
**
to the sides of the shield.
Adit. (Arch.) The entrance or ap-
proach to a building.
Adobe. Sun-dried bricks, such as are
in use in Egypt and in other countries
with a warm and dry climate. They were
introduced into Spain from Africa, and
they are found under the same name in
Mexico and other parts of America.
Adrian, St. The patron saint of
soldiers, is represented in art with an
anvil and a sword, the former referring
to his martyrdom and the latter being
the attribute of a military saint.
Adze. (Sculp.) A
small hatchet,
one
end of which serves as
a hammer. It is used
by sculptors for work-
ing the plaster. Car-
vers in wood also
make use of an adze,
one end of which is bevel-edged.
Aegipan. A mythological deity of the
mountains and woods represented with
horns and the feet of a goat. It is often
met in Bacchanalian pictures.
Aegis. Originally a protection of
goatskin worn by
the early inhabit-
ants of Greece.
Hence it denoted
the shield carried
by Zeus and Ath-
ene, which was
made of the skin
ν
of the goat Amal-
jl thaea and had the
Gorgon's head in
its centre. Later
on
it came to
mean a breast-
plate
worn
by
emperors and others.
Aesculapius. In Greek mythology
the God of Medicine. He is represented
in ancient art as a bearded man of a
type very similar to that of Zeus. He
often leans upon a staff, round which
is coiled a serpent, the symbol of
rej u venescence.
Aesthetics. Strictly speaking the
theory of perception, but in a more
exclusive sense the science of the beau-
tiful. During the last ten years the
terms aesthete, aesthetic, &c, have been
used as slang terms referring to a sham
admiration of art, which has been per-
sistently ridiculed in certain journals
and plays.
Aetos. (Arch.) The name given to the
triangular pediment or gable which sur-
mounted the portico of the Greek temple.
[Pediment.]
Affronté, Affronted. (Her.) This is
the converse of addorsed, and
is said of two charges facing
one another. It is also used
in the sense of " full-faced "
to the spectator.
Thus a
V*·
peacock affronté means a peacock with
his tail expanded.
Agate. A siliceous stone of great
hardness.
The varieties of agate most
generally employed by gem-engravers
are the cornelian and sardonyx.
The
chrysopras is used exclusively for jewel-
lery, while vases, pedestals, &c, of much
richness are manufactured from the
onyx and the numerous other varieties
of agate.
Agatha, St. A martyr saint of
Catania, who was tortured and put to
death by Quintian, a governor of Sicily.
She is represented in art as holding in
one hand a palm, in the other a dish Or
salver, on which is a woman's breast.
She wears a crown of martyrdom and a
veil, and beside her lie the shears, the
instrument with which her breast was
cut off. The best known picture of her
martyrdom is by Sebastian del Piombo,
and is at the Pitti Palace.
Agnes, St. The favourite saint of the
6

AGN
ART
DICTIONARY.
ALA
Roman women. She refused to marry
the son of the prefect of Rome, de-
clared herself a Christian, and was put
to death. In art she bears the palm
of martyrdom and sometimes the book.
She is also represented as crowned
with olive and with a lamb by her
side.
Agnus Dei. [Lamb of God.]
Agora. (Arch.) A public place where
the Greeks held their assemblies and
dispensed justice. It was an enclosure
richly decorated with porticoes, statues,
and altars.
Agrafe. (Arch.) In the art of con-
struction an agrafe is a piece of iron or
copper,
the pur-
pose of
which is
to hold together or consolidate. In de-
corative architecture the agrafe is the
keystone of an arch, the voluted orna-
ment of which, as
it were, clasps to-
gether the mould-
ings of the arch.
By an extension
of meaning the
term is applied to any decorative projec-
tion which breaks a moulding.
Aiglets. (Cost.) Tags of metal attach-
ed to the laces, and
used to draw together
slashed sleeves, to
fasten portions of
dress, or to ornament
caps. They were often
made of gold and
other precious metals,
and were cut into a
variety of forms.
Aileron. (Arch.)
A French term ap-
plied to the inverted
\\ consoles, placed at
each side of a dormer
window to take off from the hardness of
the right angle formed by the roof
and the vertical uprights of the dormer
window. The façades of some churches
of the 17th and 18th
centuries afford
us
examples of ailerons
of considerable size,
which serve to con-
nect a ground floor
with a first floor of
much smaller dimen-
sions.
Ailette. (Cost.) A
kind of epaulette, generally made of
leather, and displaying the badge of the
wearer. It was worn in the 13th and
14 th centuries.
Air. (Paint.) We say that a picture
lacks air when the figures are painted
with hardness, and do not appear to be
seen through the medium of the atmos-
phere, or when they seem stuck on to the
canvas and so fail to give us the illusion
of reality. We say that a portrait lacks
air when the face is badly placed on the
canvas, and when insufficient space is
left in the upper part of the picture, be-
tween the head and the frame, so that the
model seems stiff and cramped in pose.
Aisle. (Arch.) A division of or addi-
tion to a building. In church architec-
ture the aisle is the lateral division
which flanks the nave or choir. In Greek
temples the lateral colonnade was termed
an aisle (
π
τ
ε
ρ
ο
ν
). In French the term also
means the returning ends of a building,
which we call wings (q.v .).
Alabaster. A name given to a kind
of white half-transparent stone some-
times veined, which is capable of receiv-
ing a high polish, and is so soft that it
can be scratched with the nail.
—, Calcareous. A variety of carbonate
7

ALA
ART
DICTIONARY.
ALI
of lime, milky white in colour and veined
with yellow, red, or brown. It is some-
times called oriental alabaster.
Alabaster, gypseous. A variety of
sulphate of lime or gypsum, quite white
and half-transparent. It is also called
white alabaster.
— , Oriental. See Alabaster, Cal-
careous.
— , White. See Alabaster, Gypseous.
Alabaster. (2.) A small vase for hold
ing perfumes, gener-
ally in the shape of
ν
a pear, and with or
' without a handle of
very small dimen-
sions. Some of the
specimens now in
museums are Egyp-
tian or Phoenician
in origin. In certain
Greek and Etruscan
tombs they have
been found made of
onyx.
Alae. (Arch.) Wings. In Roman
houses the alae were the two rooms
which were placed one on each side of
the atrium.
A la Grecque. (Arch.) An architec-
tural ornament employed in rectilineal
moulding, which resembles twisted
ribbon.
Alb. A white ecclesiastical garment,
which reached to the heels and was
fastened by a girdle. It was the second
vestment put on by the priest. From it
is derived the surplice. From the 10th
to the 16th century it was richly em-
broidered and even ornamented with
jewels round the edge.
Alban, St. Earliest British saint.
He is represented as carrying his head
in his hands.
His attributes are a
sword and a crown.
Albertotype. A process by means of
which a photographic plate, when covered
by chromate of potash and exposed to
the influence of the light, can be inked
like a lithographic stone so as to furnish
prints with the roller and printer's ink.
Alcarazza. A name given to porous
vessels used as water-coolers.
They
are found in Egypt, Asia, Spain, &c.
In the present day they are manufac-
tured in large numbers in Egypt and
are rarely used twice, as their cost is
trifling.
Alcazar. (Arch.) A fortified palace
of the Moorish kings. The alcazars of
Cordova, Seville, and Ségovie may be
quoted as models of their kind. In our
time the name of alcazar is given to
certain theatres, music-halls, and other
modern constructions of pseudo-Arabian
design, the decoration of which is set off
by brilliant illumination.
Alcove. (Arch.) A part of a room,
often richly decorated, for the recep-
tion of a bed, which can be entirely con-
cealed by means of folding doors or
curtains, so arranged that the room does
not lose its rectangular shape.
Alexis, St. The patron saint of pil-
grims and beggars, is represented in a
pilgrim's ragged habit. His attributes
are a dish and a palm.
Alhambra. (Arch.) Palace of the
Moorish kings at Granada, the interior
walls of which are decorated with extra-
ordinary profusion.
The courts of
Abencerages and of the Lions, sur-
rounded by porticoes and marble colon-
nades, have a legendary celebrity. The
name is given to modern constructions
intended to serve as theatres or music-
halls.
Alidade. A flat rule of metal pro-
vided at each end
with plates of cop-
per placed at right
angles to the rule.
These plates are
pierced with longi-
tudinal openings, across which a thread of

ALI
ART
DICTIONARY.
ALM
silk is stretched vertically. The alidade
is placed on a table, and a ray of light
passing through the two threads serves
to determine a direction.
Alignment. A series of
menhirs
(q
ν
) or blocks of stone placed in two
or more parallel lines, several examples
of which exist in Brittany and else-
where.
Alia Prima. (Paint.) When a picture
is painted at once without retouching, it
is said to be executed " alia prima."
This method was followed by the Van
Eycks and early Flemish painters, and
later on by Rubens. In more modern
times a good example of the method is
Wilkie's " Preaching of John Knox."
Allecret. (Cost ) A light plate armour
worn in the 16th century by French light
cavalry and German and Swiss in-
fantry.
2
Allege. (Arch.) A very thin wall closing
the lower compart-
ment of Gothic
windows. In the
15th century these
leaning-places are
often
decorated
by arcades, and
in the 16th cen-
tury by bas-reliefs
or systems of orna-
ment, in the cen-
tre of which is a
scroll flanked by
figures of children.
Allegory. A name given to groups or
figures painted or sculptured, which
represent symbolic personages.
For
instance, we speak of an allegory of
justice, an allegorical figure of youth.
Allerions.
(Her.)
Small birds without claws
or beaks, represented in
the attitude
of
eagles
displayed. Heralds apply
the term allerions only to
eaglets.
Almayne Rivets were originally over-
lapping plates of armour, but subse-
quently gave their name to complete
suits of armour thus fastened.
Almery. (Arch.) A cupboard near
the altar, in which were placed the
chalices, basins, cruets, and other
sacred utensils. It was either in the
thickness of the wall or was made of
wood.
Almond. An elliptical aureole which
surrounds the repre-
sentation of divine
figures in the works
of early painters or
in Gothic glass-work.
This almond is also
termed a " gloria," or
an " elliptic aureole."
Almonry. (Arch.) A
room
in monastic
buildings used for the
distribution of alms.
9

ALM
ART DICTIONARY.
ALT
Almuce. (Cost.) A hood offur, which was
worn by the clergy
from the 13th to
15th century dur-
ing the recital of
the divine office.
As an ecclesiastical
vestment it had
little or no signifi-
cance.
Indeed,
its primary object
was to shield the
officiating priest
from cold. It was
also worn by bache-
lors of canon law,
and, according to
Planché, in later
times by ordinary
laymen.
Alphege, St.
An English saint
who suffered mar-
tyrdom
at
the
hands of the Danes in 1012. He is
represented as a middle-aged man with
a battle-axe, or a chasuble containing
stones, as emblematic of his martyrdom.
Altar. The altar of an ancient tem-
ple was a table of stone or marble, on
which the offerings to the presiding
deity were placed, or a pedestal decorated
with bas-reliefs. The altar of the Chris-
tians is a consecra-
ted table, which was
in theory the tomb
of the martyrs, and
at which the priest
celebrates the mass.
Druidical
monu-
ments, too, are as a
matter of fact altars
_.__.._
erected for the offer-
ing of human sacrifices. The altars of
the nth, 12th, and 13th centuries are
quite simple. In the Gothic period the
altar took the form of a small edifice
elaborately adorned with screens, pin-
nacles, and gables. At the Renaissance
it assumed the form of the entablatures
of the classical orders, while in the 17th
and 18th centuries it developed into a
portico with pediments, brackets, and
volutes, and was sometimes entirely
gilded. In Italy there are still in exist-
ence—at St. Peter's at Rome for instance
— altars covered with rich baldachinos.
In England the altars were taken down
at the Reformation about 1550 ; they were
restored at the beginning of the reign of
Queen Mary, and again removed by Queen
Elizabeth. The high altar at Arundel,
Sussex, is supposed to be the only original
altar left in England.
Altar-back. (Arch.) The wall in which
the altar-piece is set.
Altar-cloth. (Dec.) A rich stuff em-
broidered with gold and silk, and some-
times ornamented with precious stones,
which was stretched over the altar in the
early times of the Church.
Altar-piece. (Arch.) An altar deco-
ration consisting of a panel, in the centre
of which is placed, according to the
period to which it
belongs, a bas-re -
lief or picture. Be-
fore the 13th cen-
tury
altar-pieces
were movable, but
after this time they
were
generally
fixed. In the 15th
century
altar-
pieces were often ornamented with extra-
ordinary magnificence, while from the
Renaissance to the 17th or r8th century
they were conceived in an architectural
10

ALT
ART
DICTIONARY.
AMA
spirit as porticoes, and were decorated
with entablatures and columns, flanked
by niches, in which
statues
were
placed, and termi-
nated by pedi-
ments and vases.
Sometimes they
were of sculptured
wood, of marvel-
lous workmanship
and
completely
gilded.
Altar-screen. [Reredos.]
Alternation. A system of ornament
which consists in the decoration of a sur-
face by means of two distinct motifs,
which repeat themselves in succession
in the same order.
Alto-Relievo. (Sculp.) An Italian
term signifying high-relief. Sculptured
figures are said to be in alto-relievo, when
they project entirely or almost entirely
from the surface of the block from which
they are cut. The metopes from the
Parthenon, now among the Elgin mar-
bles, are the best extant examples of
alto-relievo.
Alura. (Arch.) A way or passage gene-
rally applied to clerestory galleries or
passages on the roof along the gutters.
Amasette. (Paint.) The amasette was
an instrument of wood, ivory, or horn,
with which the painters of the last
century mixed their colours on the
palette. Nowadays the palette-knife is
generally used for this purpose.
Amatito. (Paint.) A pigment prepared
from red haematite and used by early
artists in fresco-painting.
Amateur. One who, though he does
not practise any branch of the fine arts,
has a taste and feeling for them. The
word is sometimes used in a contemp-
tuous sense to denote an unskilled
artist.
Ambrose, St. The patron saint of
Milan, of which city he was bishop. In
devotional pictures he is represented as
wearing the pallium and mitre and carry-
ing the episcopal crosier. His attributes
are a beehive, because tradition says
that when he was in his cradle a swarm
of bees alighted in his mouth without
harming him, and a three-thonged
scourge, which he carries as the casti-
gator of sin.
Amazons. A race of female warriors,
the myths concerning whom were often
illustrated by Greek artists. They are
frequently represented on painted vases
as habited in Persian or Scythian dress
and wearing a Phrygian cap. They are
always armed, carrying a bow, spear,
sword, or battle-axe as well as a shield,
which is sometimes round, sometimes
crescent shaped. They were also a
favourite subject with sculptors, and
Pliny tells us of a competition between
Polycleitus, Pheidias, and three other
sculptors for a figure of an Amazon. The
cut here given is said to be a copy of the
II

AMB
ART DIC
statue produced on that occasion either
by Polycleitus or Pheidias. The battle
between Theseus and the Amazons
is figured in the well-known bas-reliefs
from the Temple of Theseus, while that
between the Amazons and Centaurs is to
be seen on the Phigaleian frieze. Both
these series of bas-reliefs are at the
British Museum.
Amber. A substance washed up by
the sea in several parts of the world, but
found in especially large quantities in the
Baltic. Its vegetable origin is now gene-
rally admitted. It is probably the resin-
ous product of a particular species of
a coniferous tree. A picture varnish of
great value is obtained from it, which
was used with success by Van Eyck and
the early Flemish painters, and has been
employed ever since.
Amber Tone. A warm tone observed
in certain paintings.
An amber tint
varies from a shade of pale yellow to
light carmine red.
Ambo. (Arch.) A name given to
pulpits in Christian basilicœ, and to the
tribunes placed opposite one another in
the nave, from which the Epistle and
Gospel were read. They ceased to be
used about the end of the first half of the
13th century.
Ambulant. (Her) Walking or passant
Ambulatory. (Arch ) A part of a
building suitable for walking in, such as
cloisters, &c.
Amethyst. A precious stone of a
violet hue.
Amice. (Cost.) The first of sacerdotal
vestments, consisting of a piece of linen,
which was worn on the head like a hood,
NONARY.
AMP
until the priest appeared at the altar and
was then thrown back (see cut). It came
into use about the 7th century.
Amorini. A name given to the Cupids
or small love-gods often represented in
art.
Amortissement. (Arch.) A French
term denoting an ornament, generally
pyramidal in form, used to terminate a
building.
Amphiprostyle. (Arch.) A temple is
said to be amphiprostyle when it has a
façade of columns at,each end.
Amphitheatre. In Roman architec-
ture amphitheatres were large buildings,
circular or elliptical in shape, with a large
empty space in the middle. This space
or arene was devoted to combats of
gladiators or wild beasts, while the spec-
tators sat on tiers and were protected
12

AMP
ART
DICTIONARY.
ANA
from the rays of the sun by an immense
curtain. In modern times large halls
intended for public meetings or confer-
ences, and containing seats in tiers,
where the audience sit, are called amphi-
theatres.
The name is also given to
certain parts of theatres which contain
rows of seats rising one above another.
Amphora. A name given to a kind of
Greek vase, two-handled, and
generally of large size, which
was used to hold liquids. Some
amphorae were mounted on a
foot, others were not. They
were often mere objects of
ornament, and specimens have
been found with no hollow
interior, and therefore incap-
able of being put to any use.
The victors in the Panathenaic
games were awarded an amphora as
a prize. The unit of capacity among
the Romans was called an amphora.
Ampul. A small vessel of clay or glass
which contained
consecrated
oil
or wine for the
Eucharistie ser-
vice. Such was
the holy vase pre-
served at Rheims
until the first
French Revolu-
tion, which con-
tained the sacred
oil employed in
the consecration
of the kings of
France.
Ampulla. A name given
to small glass vases of glo-
bular form, which were car-
ried by the ancients.
Amulet. A word of East-
ern origin applied to objects
of very varied character, which were
worn round the neck to ward off illness,
to turn away the evil eye, or confer
good luck on the wearer. Stones, plants,
or parts of animals, such as a hyena's
tooth, served as amulets, as well as all
kinds of small ornaments made of metals
or precious stone and cut into grotesque
forms.
Anachronism. A method of repre-
senting an event artistically, in which
the order of time is violated. For
instance, in mediaeval representations of
scriptural scenes the costume, archi-
tecture, and accessories often belong to
the time of the artist, not of the event
portrayed.
Anadyomene.
" She who rose from
the sea."
The goddess Aphrodite was
said to have been born among the foam
of the sea, rising from which she has fre-
quently been represented by both ancient
and modern artists.
Anastatic Process. A process of re-
producing in facsimile any printed page,
either type or picture. The page to be
copied is first moistened with dilute
acid and then pressed down on a smooth
plate of zinc. As the acid only affects
that portion of the page which is not
printed on, the result is that the part of
the zinc plate which comes in contact
with the unprinted portions of the page
is slightly etched, while the printed
portion leaves a film on the metal. The
plate is then inked, and impressions
struck off as in lithography. Photo-
l
S

ANA
ART
DICTIONARY.
ANG
lithography has now entirely superseded
the anastatic process.
Anaglyph. A name given by the an-
cients to sculptures in bas-relief (q.v .).
Anastasia, St. A saint who suffered
martyrdom at Rome for professing
Christianity. Her attributes are the
stake, the faggots, and the palm.
Anatomy. From the artistic point of
view, anatomy for the sculptor and pain-
ter is the study of bodily forms and the
play of muscles. The branches of ana-
tomy most important for artists are
osteology (the study of bones) and myo-
logy (the study of muscles). In addi-
tion to this they ought to possess a
knowledge of the elementary principles
of physiology, i.e . the science of the
phenomena of life and the functions of
the various parts of the body.
Anchor. The anchor in religious art
is the symbol
«\
of hope. It is
1
ζ
the attribute
of Pope Cle-
ment, who is
said to have
been tied to an
anchor and
thrown into
the sea in the
year 80 A.D. It
is also
a
charge in he-
raldry, which
unless other-
wise specified
is represented
in pale (q.v.)
and without a
cable.
Ancones.
(Arch.) Sup-
ports placed
in doors and other apertures under the
cornice.
Andirons. Utensils of metal, placed on
the hearth in old houses for the purpose
of holding logs of wood and aiding in their
combustion. Though generally of iron,
they are sometimes of copper, silver (as
at Knole, in Kent), or even gold, and
often artistically decorated. As a rule
they were two in numbei, but at Pens-
hurst, in Kent, a single one is found.
Andrew, St. Brother of Simon Peter
and patron saint of Scotland and Russia.
He suffered martyrdom A D. 70. His
attribute in art is the transverse cross, on
which he is said to have been crucified.
Anelace. A short sword or dagger car-
ried by civilians until the end
of the 15th century. It was
double-edged and tapered to
a point. In representations
of it* which have come down
to us on monuments and else-
where, it is suspended from
the girdle. Our cut is from
a monumental brass of the
time of Edward III.
Angels. The worship of
angels was early introduced
in the Christian Church, and they are
constantly represented in devotional art.
Their characteristics are the following :
they are human in form and winged ;
they are always young and masculine,
and are draped generally in white.
They are the messengers of God, the
rulers of the stars and elements, the
guardians of the just, and the choristers
of Heaven, in which last capacity they
are frequently represented with various
musical instruments. In Christian archi-
tecture they fill up every space ; they are
found on friezes, in the spandrils of
arches, and as corbels ; they also hold
emblems, labels with inscriptions, and
candlesticks.
They have been repre-
sented pictorially by many artists from
the earliest times down to William Blake,
whose drawings of angels are full of
originality and poetry. Their attributes
are trumpets, flaming swords, sceptres,
censers, and musical instruments.
Angle. The inclination of two straight
lines to another. An angle is rectilinear
when the lines which contain it are
straight lines. It is called curvilinear
14

ANG
ART
DICTIONARY.
ANI
when it is contained by portions of
curves. When one straight line standing
on another straight line makes the ad-
jacent angles equal, each of these angles
is called a right angle. A right angle
measures go°.
An angle of 45
0
(i.e . half
a right angle) is the angle most frequently-
employed in architecture. Every angle
which measures less than a right angle
is called an acute angle, and every angle
which measures more than a right angle
is called an obtuse angle. Two angles
are called complementary when their
sum is equal to a right angle, and sup-
plementary when their sum is equal to
two right angles.
Angle, Facial. The angle formed on
the face by two straight lines drawn from
the base of the nose, the
one to the base of the
ear, the other to the most
projecting point on the
forehead. In
antique
statues the facial angle
is generally 900
.
Asa
general principle it may
be said that intelligence is proportional
to the facial angle.
It is at any rate
an incontestable fact that the lower
one descends in the human race the
more the facial angle diminishes.
Angle-shaft. (Arch.)
A round
moulding,
either unbroken or or-
namented, placed at an
angle.
It replaces a
sharp angle, which is
always fragile, by a
round surface, capable
of greater resistance and
less likely to wear out.
Angled. (Her) This term is used
when the division of a shield forms a
projection instead of a perfectly straight
line. As an armorial bear- (
ing it has been used to in-
dicate a bastard, and ac-
cording to some authorities
it is one of the six marks
of bastardy. *
Anglo-Saxon Architecture. (Arch.)
The style of architecture which prevailed
in England between the 6th and nth
centuries. Its chief characteristics are
the following : the walls were of rubble
and herring-bone work; the arches
semicircular ; doorways either round-
arched or triangular-headed, and the
windows small. The decoration was of
the simplest character, and the balusters
or small columns bear traces of being
copied from woodwork. The tower of
Sompting Church, in Sussex, is a good
example of the style.
Animals, Hybrid. In ancient and
mediaeval art we find represented cer-
tain animals which are a combination
of different species, such as centaurs
(horses with their upper part human),
sphinxes (lions with human faces), &c
Animals, Symbolic. (Arch.) Symbolic
animals are those fantastic monsters
with which the surface of walls was
15

ANI
ART
DICTIONARY.
ANT
covered both in ancient times and in
the Middle Ages. Examples of them
exist in the temple of Belhus, while the
façades of our own Gothic cathedrals
are sometimes entirely covered with
grotesque figures, the symbolic meaning
of which has been interpreted in various
ways by archeologists.
Animation. (Paint.) Certain qualities
of vivacity, quickness of imagination,
and execution which a skilful artist
can put into his work. Thus we speak
of a painter having more skill than
animation.
Anime is a resinous gum which is mixed
with copal varnish to make it dry quicker.
Anklet. A gold ornament worn by the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans just
above the ankle, as a bracelet is on the
arm.
Anne, St. The mother of the Virgin
Mary. She is frequently represented in
pictures of the Holy Family, and is
generally reading a book.
Annealing. To prevent glass and cer-
tain metals from becoming suddenly
brittle after melting they undergo a
process called annealing. This process
consists in placing glass vessels in a hot
oven, where they take several hours or
even days to cool, and in heating metals
again after hammering.
Annodated. (Her.) Bent like the let-
ter S.
Annulated, Annuly. (Her.) Said of a
charge which has an annulet at each ex-
tremity.
Annulet. (Her.) A ring, used either as
a charge or as a mark of difference of
the fifth son.
Annulets. (Arch ) Small projecting
mouldings in the shape of a ring, which
in the ancient orders are found at the
16
intersection of the shaft of the column
with the capital. In Gothic
monuments of the 12th and
13th centuries annulets are
found distributed at different
heights along the shaft of the
column, so as to slightly in-
terrupt the lines of the column
and to increase its appearance of resist-
ance.
Annunciation. This event in the life
of the Virgin is frequently treated in
Christian art. As a mystical subject it
almost always formed part of an altar-
piece, whatever its subject, being let in
either in the spandrils or the predella.
As an event the annunciation is a
frequent subject of the early painters.
The scene is laid in a house or porch,
and the accessories are a pot of lilies,
a basket of work, or distaff. The angel
is represented as descending to earth
and generally carries a lily or a sceptre,
the latter being surmounted by a cross.
Antae. (Arch.) Pilasters increasing
the thickness of a wall at the angles of
a building. In classical architecture a
temple is said to be in antis when the
façade is decorated by two columns of
the same thickness as the pilasters or
antae, which they help in supporting the
beams and roof of the temple.
Ante-chapel. (Arch.) That portion of
a chapel which lies to the west of the
choir-screen.
Antefixae. (Arch ) Ornaments which
generally take the shape of a palm leaf

ANT
ART DIC
—or
sometimes that of a mask—and
form the coping of a cornice, or serve
to hide the semi-cylindrical ridge-tiles
or the overlapping projection of the
roof. They are often of exquisite work-
manship.
Antependium. Decorations placed in
front of a Christian altar, such as hang-
ings of embroidered cloth, plates of
metal or panels of carved wood.
Anthony, St. A hermit who lived in
the 4th century and underwent every
kind of temptation.
St. Anthony is
generally represented as wearing the
monk's habit and cowl, and his attri-
butes are the crutch, to mark his age,
and the bell and asperges, the instru-
ments of exorcism. Beside him a hog,
the demon of sensuality, is often figured.
The temptation of St. Anthony is vari-
ously treated. In early pictures he is
only confronted by a beautiful woman,
but in later times he has been repre-
sented as surrounded by foul demons
of every sort and shape, as in the gro-
tesque prints of Martin Schongauer and
Callot.
Anthropomorphism. The practice,
universal in ancient art, of representing
the gods in human guise.
Antiplastic. A term applied to certain
substances, such as quartz, sand, &c,
which are used in pottery to mix with
the paste, in order that the plasticity
of the aluminous silicates of which the
paste consists may be diminished.
Antiquaille. A term of contempt used
to denote antiques of small value or no
interest.
Antiquary. In former times a man
skilled in ancient lore or a collector of
antiquities was called an antiquary. The
term is only used to-day to imply con-
tempt or to describe a vendor of curiosi-
ties. The antiquary as a learned man
is now called an archeologist.
Antique. Under this designation are
included Greek and Roman works of
sculpture, such as statues, bas-reliefs
and engraved gems. The study of the
ANT
antique is the study of the beauty of
form and the purity of outline as ob-
served in classical works of art. In
modern art schools students generally
go through a course of drawing from
the antique before entering the life-
school.
Antiquities. Under this name are
classed the ruins of buildings, monu-
ments, arms, furniture, ornaments, all
the remains in fact of ancient art. The
term is especially applied to the artistic
objects of the Byzantine, Gothic, and
Renaissance periods, the term antiques
being reserved for Greek and Roman
works of art.
Antonine Column. A pillar erected in
honour of M. Aurelius and decorated by
a spiral series of reliefs, representing
scenes from that Emperor's war with
the Germans. It is a close imitation of
Trajan's column, to which it is artisti-
cally inferior. Its pedestal was restored
in the 16th century, and a statue of
St. Paul now stands on its summit.
Though of little artistic merit, it is of
considerable archaeological value, as it
TIO NARY.
η

ANV
ART DIC
is our best source of information as to
the costumes, arms, and equipments of
both the Romans and Barbarians of the
second century.
Anvil. In Christian art the attribute of
St. Adrian (q.v.) and St. Eloy (q.v .) .
Ape. The symbol of malice and lust.
In Christian art the devil is often figured
under this guise.
Aphrodite. In Greek mythology the
goddess of love. In the best period of
Greek art she was represented draped,
but in later times nude. A celebrated
picture of Apelles represented her as
Anadyomene (q.v .), or rising from the
sea. Her symbols were the dove, hare,
dolphin, swan, and tortoise, besides the
apple, the rose, and various other flowers
and fruits.
Aplustre. A wooden ornament which
surmounted the stern of a Roman gal-
ley. It was very graceful in shape,
resembling a fan or the outspread
feathers of a bird. It is accordingly
employed in art to symbolise a sea-
faring life or a naval victory.
Apodyterium. (Arch.) The room in
an ancient bath, in which the bathers
undressed.
Apollo. In Greek mythology the god
of light, both mental and physical, and
18
Ί
Ο
Ν
Α
Κ
Υ
.
ΑΡ
Ο
so of knowledge, music, and purity. He
is generally represented in Greek art of
the best period as a youthful athlete. In
the art of Greek decadence the Apollo
type became more effeminate. As the
god of music he holds a lyre, and is re­
presented as draped or with long flowing
hair. He is also found with a bow and
arrow in his hand, as killing a lizard
(Sauroctonus), and as vanquishing Mar­
syas, whom he afterwards flayed. The
symbols of Apollo are the lyre, the
laurel, the wolf, swan, raven, &c.
Apollonia, St. The patroness against
toothache and diseases of the teeth.
She suffered a martyr's death in 250 A.D .,
her teeth being drawn out. Her attributes
are a palm and a pair of pincers with a
tooth.
Apophyge. (Arch.) A concave curve, by
which the shaft of a column
is connected with the projec­
ting mouldings of the base
and capital.
Apostles. In earliest time
the representation of the
apostles is purely emblematical, they
being figured as twelve sheep. They
were next represented as twelve men,
all alike, each with a sheep, and later
with a scroll. From the 6th century they
were distinguished each by his attribute.
Apotheosis. A ceremony by which a
mortal was placed among the gods.
There are in existence a number of
medals, paintings, and sculptures in­
tended to perpetuate the memory of this
ceremony. An essential part of it was the
burning of an effigy of the deceased. As
the smoke ascended an eagle was let loose,

APP
ART
DICTIONARY.
APP
which was supposed to carry the soul of
the dead man to heaven. Consequently
on Roman coins struck in honour of an
apotheosis we often find a fire burning
on an altar and an eagle ascending. In
the British Museum there is an apotheosis
of Homer in bas­relief, which is said to
date from the time of the Emperor
Claudius.
In modern times some
painters have designed apotheoses, such
as that of Charles V. by Titian, and of
James I. by Rubens, the latter of which
decorates the ceiling of Whitehall Chapel.
This term is also used on the stage to
denote the final tableau in fairy scenes
or in great spectacles.
Apparels. (Cost.) A word used to de­
note the embroidered borders of ecclesi­
astical garments. They were very richly
ornamented, and often studded with
gems.
As a rule, they were placed
round the bottom and on the waist of
the vestment.
Appaumée. (Her.) Said of a hand
when it is blazoned upright with the palm
presented to view.
Apple. In classical art the apple was
an attribute of Aphrodite. In devotional
art it typifies the temptation and fall of
man.
Appliqué. A general term for orna­
ments which are let into or fixed on to
the surface of an object. For instance,
a wood panel may be decorated by ap­
pliqués of bronze. The name is par­
ticularly given to candelabra, the hori­
zontal shank of which
is terminated by an
ornament, fixed on a
vertical surface, such
as panelling, wainscot­
ing, or pilasters.
Apse. (Arch.) The
semi­circular or poly­
gonal termination of a
church, situated behind the choir. In
Christian churches, which run from west
to east, the apse is at the east end. In
the Romanesque or Norman churches
the apse generally takes the shape of a
semicircle.
In
the 13th century
it is polygonal,
but flanked by
chapels at its
base.
Though
the apse is more
commonly met
with on the Con­
tinent, many
specimens remain in England, especially
from Norman times. Good examples are
to be seen in Westminster Abbey, St.
Bartholomew's, Smithfield, and Glou­
cester Cathedral. In the latter case the
apse has disappeared in the superstruc­
ture, but remains in the crypt.
Apsidal Chapels. (Arch.) Small
chapels attached to the apse of a church.
They are sometimes semicircular, some­
times polygonal. They are nearly always
uneven in num­
ber, the one
placed at the
axis of the
church being as
a rule consider­
ably larger than
the others, and
dedicated to the Virgin. In English
cathedrals this chapel is called the Lady
Chapel. Apsidal chapels exist at Tewkes­
bury Abbey, Westminster Abbey, and in
the crypt of Gloucester Cathedral.
Apteral. (Arch.) A name given to
19

AQU
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARC
ancient temples which have no lateral
colonnades.
Aquatint. (Engrav.) A process of en­
graving by which sepia drawings can be
reproduced with great accuracy. The
copper plate, before being exposed to
the action of the acid, is covered by
powdered mastic.
This prevents the
aqua­fortis from acting upon it, and a
mottled surface is thus produced.
Aquae-manalis. A vessel used in
churches for washing the hands by the
celebrant of the liturgy.
Aqua-fortis. Diluted nitric
acid,
which is used by etchers for biting in.
Aqua-marina. A gem of a green tint,
often used by gem­engravers in ancient
times.
Aqueduct. Constructions either
above or under ground employed to
conduct water.
Aqueducts of Roman
construction, some of which are still in
existence, are absolute monuments of
art, and in some cases harmonise won­
derfully with the lines of the landscape.
In modern times aqueducts are built
from the designs of engineers, and are
as a rule nothing more than water­pipes
of immense girth. They are generally
carried underground that they may
escape the frost in winter and that the
water they convey may be kept cool in
summer.
Arabesque. A system of ornament
consisting of wreaths of foliage and
realistic or fantastic figures, combined in
an absolutely capricious style, delicately
interlaced and describing graceful curves.
In the Arabian style Arabesques are
composed entirely of ornaments drawn
from the vegetable kingdom, for repre­
sentations of men and animals were
forbidden by the prophet. In the style
of the Renaissance Arabesques were
wonderfully rich and
elegant
Raphael
employed this sys­
tem of ornament in
the decoration of the
Loggia at the Vati­
can. It is a mistake
to apply the term
Arabesque to the
friezes of buildings
belonging to the Ro­
man period. The
regular bands of or­
nament in vogue at
this period can only
be termed foliage.
Arae
ο
s tyle.
(Arch.) A temple is
called
araeostyle,
when the distance
between its columns
is more than three
times the diameter
of the column.
Araeosystyle.
(Arch ) A term ap­
plied to an arrangement of columns set
two and two together, having half a dia­
meter for the smaller interval, and three
and a half diameters for the larger.
Arbalest. The name given in the
Middle Ages to the cross­bow, a weapon
which was invented by the Romans in
the East, and called by them arca-balista.
It was introduced into England at the
Norman Conquest, but its use was
prohibited by the Church in 1139.
Richard I. reintroduced the arbalest into
England, and was killed by one as a
judgment, it is said, for using a pro­
hibited weapon " in defiance of God."
Arcade. (Arch.) A series of arches,
which are employed for decorative
purposes chiefly in buildings of the
Pointed style. The term includes the
large arches and piers which in many
English cathedrals separate the aisles
from the nave ; but it is especially applied
to series of arches which decorate the
20

ARC
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARC
space under the windows either within
or without the building Sometimes
arcades are set right against the wall,
sometimes they are detached so that
there is a clear space behind them.
When set near the ground they frequently
project so as to form sedilia.
An arcade
sometimes occupies the triforium space
(q.v .), an instance of which may be seen
in the Temple Church. Finally, as a
system of ornament, small arcades are
found on fonts, altars, &c
Arch. (Arch.) An arch is a solid con­
struction composed of separate stones
or bricks, so arranged that their lower
surfaces shall form the arc of a curve.
The origin of the arch is unknown, but it
was first brought into general use by the
Romans. The earliest known instance
ofanarchisin
the Cloaca Max­
ima at Rome.
The pointed
arch first made
its appearance in
Western Europe
about the end of
the 12th century, and is held by some
writers on architecture to have been
suggested by the interlacing of round
arches in arcades. In all probability,
however, it was previously known, and
was adopted because it was not only
beautiful but practical. The arch is the
distinguishing characteristic of Gothic
architecture. The highest point of an
arch is called the crown or vertex ; the
lowest line is termed the springing line ;
the spaces between the vertex and the
springing line are called the flanks. The
upper and lower surfaces of an arch are
called the extrados and intrados respec­
tively. The piers of an arch are termed
abutments
or springing walls.
The
stones of which an arch is composed are
termed voussoirs, and the top stone of
all, the key­
stone.
The
term arch is
also applied
to the vault of
abridge. The
highest and
largest arch
in a bridge is
called the main arch, and occupies the
centre of the bridge.
Arch, Angular. An arch formed by the
,** •:.* ··
.
inclination of straight lines to one
another at an angle.
— , Basket-handle. An arch formed
by the segments of three circles meeting
each other.
— , Byzantine. [Arch, Horseshoe.]
— , Catenarian. An arch in the form
of an inverted catenary, a catenary being
a mechanical curve, which a flexible body
of uniform density would form itself into,
if freely hung from its two extremities.
—, Contrasted. [Arch, Ogee.]
— , Depressed. A flat­headed opening
21

ARC
ART DIC
with the angles rounded off into segments
of circles, frequently met with in the
Perpendicular style of architecture.
Arch, Discharging, or Relieving. An
arch placed over a lintel of stone, wood
or iron, the object of which is to relieve
the lintel from the weight placed upon
it.
—, Elliptic. An arch which is in the
form of a segment of an ellipse.
— , Extradossed. An arch the vous­
soirs of which are pierced, and of which
the intrados and extrados (q.v.) are
determined by segments of concentric
circles.
—, Four-centred. An arch with four
centres, two of which are on the springing
line and two below. These four centres
may be determined by describing a square
under the springing line, each of its sides
being equal to one­third the springing
line. This arch was characteristic of the
Tudor style in England, which took its
rise in the reign of Henry VII.
—, Horse-shoe. An arch which con­
ARC
sists of a segment of a circle, greater
than a semicircle.
— , Ogee An arch with four centres,
two of which are in or near the springing
line, the other two above the arch. It is
called an ogee arch because each of its
flanks exactly resembles the contour of
the ogee moulding. The monuments
of the 15th and 16th century belonging
to the Perpendicular or Flamboyant style
afford many examples of the ogee arch.
x
—, Fointed. An arch formed by two
22

ARC
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARC
segments of circles, which make an angle
at their intersec­
tion.
Pointed
arches are of three
kinds: i. The equi-
lateral arch, i.e .
described from two
centres, which are the whole breadth of
the arch from one another, and form
the arch about an equilateral triangle
(illustrated at bottom of opposite page).
2. The drop
arch,
which has its radius
shorter than the
breadth of the arch,
and is described about
an obtuse­angled tri­
angle. 3 . The lancet arch, which has
a radius longer than the breadth of the
arch, and is described about an acute­
angled triangle.
Arch, Rampant. An arch the imposts
(q.v.) of which are placed at different
heights. These arches have frequently
been employed in Gothic architecture
and in the construction of piers from
flying buttresses.
—, Reversed. An arch built in the
reverse direction to ordinary arches.
It serves to connect separate piles of
masonry, and is frequently employed to
strengthen the foundations of a wall and
for other structural purposes.
—, Semicircular. An arch in the form
of a semicircle ; it has its centre in the
springing line.
Arch, Sloping. [Arch, Weathering.]
—, Stilted, or Surmounted. An arch
enclosing a figure
made up of a semi­
circle standing on a
rectangle, the centre
of the circle thus ly­
ing in the upper sice
of the rectangle.
—, Surbased. An arch is terme 1·1 r
based when it is less than a semicircle,
i.e ., when the height from its spring to
its crown is less than half its span.
— , Trefoil. An arch formed of three
foils or segments of circles.
­
— , Triumphal. A monument to com­
memorate a victory, consisting of one
large archway flanked very often by two
smaller ones, surrounded with pilas­
ters, and decorated with allegorical bas­
reliefs. Among the triumphal arches
of the Roman period we may mention
those of Trajan, Septimus Severus,
Augustus, and Constantine, while among
those of quite recent construction the
most famous is that which stands in the
Place de l'Étoile, in Paris. The latter
was erected in honour of the Grande
Armée, and is decorated with a fine
bas­relief by Rude.
23

ARC
ART DIG
Arch, Tudor. [Arch, Four­centred.]
—, Weathering. An arch included
between two planes, the one vertical, the
other oblique. It is often met with in a sus­
taining wall or the wall of a fortified castle.
— , Zigzag. An arch of which the ex­
trados is cut into a zigzag pattern.
Archaeological. That which relates
to archaeology.
Archaeologist. One who devotes him­
self to the study of archaeology.
Archaeology. The science of anti­
quity, the object of which is the study of
all that relates to the arts and monuments
of former times. It includes the study of
the styles of every period and every
people. It is also concerned in the re­
construction of the buildings, the social
state, and the manners and customs of
preceding generations by the documen­
tary evidence furnished by ruins or the
remains of monuments which have come
down to us from early times.
Archaeology of Art is that particular
branch of archaeology which is concerned
with the study of the monuments of the
art of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the
Renaissance. It includes the study of
architecture, painting, sculpture, engrav­
ing, numismatics, i.e . coins and medals,
iconography, i.e . the portraits of illus­
trious men, and glyptics, i.e . engraved
stones. The archaeology of art includes
the whole history of the fine arts from
the most remote times.
Archaic. When a monument is said
to be decidedly archaic in style, it means
that it presents the characteristics of
primitive art. The object of archaic
studies is to discover the methods and
processes of the ancients, and so to
render possible the production of works
not exactly like those of the ancients, but
70NARY.
ARC
possessing numerous points of similarity
with them. We say, too, that a picture
is conceived in an archaic spirit when
it recalls to us some ancient work, and
reminds us of the productions of genera­
tions long since passed away.
Archaism. The imitation of the
methods and processes of the ancients.
Archaism is a danger in the arts of
design, and should seldom be employed
except in the restoration and reconstruc­
tion of works of ancient art.
Archangels. The seven angels who
stand in the presence of God. In
Christian art they are represented with
the following attributes :—Michael bears
the sword and scales ; Gabriel, the lily ;
Raphael, the pilgrim's staff and gourd ;
Uriel, a roll and a book ; Chamuel, a cup
and a staff ; Zophiel, a flaming sword ;
and Zadkiel, the sacrificial knife.
Architect. An artist who designs a
building and superintends its construc­
tion.
Architectural. That which is con­
cerned with architecture.
Architectural Painter. A painter who
only executes pictures which are archi­
tectural in subject. Among architectural
painters we may mention the Dutchmen,
Van der Heyden and De Witte, the Ital­
ians, Bellini and Canaletti, and the Eng­
lishman, Samuel Prout.
Architecture. The art of designing and
constructing buildings.
Architecture
should keep in view above all things the
permanence of a building and the pur­
pose to which it is to be put. Though it
belongs as much to the domain of science
as to that of art, the study necessary to
enable the architect to realise the con­
ditions we have named is subordinated
to the demands of art.
—, Civil. The art of architecture ap­
plied to the construction of civil build­
ings either public or private.
— , False. A decorative painting or
theatrical decoration, which attempts to
represent the relief of a real building
just as it would appear at the same dis­
24

ARC
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARC
tance as that at which the spectator is
placed from the painting or decoration.
Architecture, Military. Architecture
applied to military constructions.
— , Religious. The art of architecture
applied to religious constructions.
Architrave. (Arch.) The lower part of
the entablature. The architrave is placed
directly on the capital with a free bearing
from column to column or pilaster to
pilaster. In the Doric
order the architrave
is simply one smooth
block. In the Ionic
order it is composed
of three blocks, each
jutting slightly beyond the one under­
neath it. Generally speaking the archi­
trave is unornamented, so as to form a
contrast to the rich decoration of the
frieze. This simplicity renders it quite
clear that the purpose of this portion of
the entablature is to form a horizontal
connection between the vertical supports
of the structure.
Archivolt. (Arch ) A moulding decora­
ting an arch
and
corres­
ponding
ex­
actly to the
contour of the
arch. In an­
cient architec­
ture the archi­
volt only deco­
rates one side
of an arch In buildings of the Gothic
style, however, the same moulding is gene­
rally repeated
v
on each side of
\
the arch. The
outline of the
archivolt var­
ied
consider­
ably in the dif­
ferent periods
of Gothic ar­
chitecture. In
the 13th cen­
tury it is of the utmost simplicity ; in
3
the 14th century it is decorated with as­
tragals, and in the 15th century is deeply
cut out. In the Arabian style archi­
volts frequently consist of stucco tra­
ceries. The term archivolt is frequently
used by mediaeval writers to mean a
mere vault.
Archway. (Arch.) A circular opening
which assumes the various forms of the
arch.
—, Twin. An opening which presents
the appearance of two archways of similar
dimensions, placed side by side, or an
opening formed by two semi­circles,
which touch at one of their extremities.
Arcs doubleaux. [Ribs, Transverse.]
Arena. (Arch.) The space reserved in
the Roman circus for races and gladia­
torial combats. The term is also applied
to entire buildings which are employed
as circuses or amphitheatres.
Areotectonics. The application of
military architecture to the construction
of fortifications.
Ares. The Greek god of war. He is
represented in art as a youth of powerful
frame, wearing a helmet and carrying a
shield and spear. A burning torch and
a spear are his attributes, while he is
symbolised by a vulture and a dog.
Argent. (Her.) The metal silver. It
is generally written ar.
In engraving
2
5

ARM
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARM
it is represented by a plain white sur­
face.
Arm-chair. A chair with arms and a
back. The arm­chairs or faldstools (q.v.)
of the Middle Ages were simple in con­
struction and easily folded up and trans­
ported. At a later period they were
decorated with tapestries and, in the
14th century, often covered with a canopy.
In the 15th and 16th centuries the arms
were more and more ornamented. Finally
in the 17th and 18th centuries arm­chairs
assumed a curvilinear form ; their out­
lines became more graceful and their com­
fort was much increased. In France, un­
der the First Empire, they were decorated
with heads of sphinxes and designed in a
pseudo­classical style. The arm­chairs
of to­day are, as a rule, reproductions of
those of former times. If we can be
said to have produced any special form
of our own, it is one in which the de­
mands of art are entirely subordinated
to considerations of comfort.
Armature. (Arch.) Iron bars used
for strengthening or sustaining. Archi­
traves, for instance, with a wide free
bearing, when placed upon slender
columns, are strengthened by armatures.
The term is also applied to the iron
frame­work of windows.
Armed. (Her.) Provided with the
natural weapons of defence. A lion is
armed of his claws and teeth, &c.
In
blazoning, a knight is said to be armed at
all points when he is completely cased
in armour.
Armes Parlantes. (Her ) Under this
term are included arms and crests sug­
gested by the name of the
family which bears them,
and so forming a kind of re­
bus. Thus the coat of arms
of the King of Grenada in
Spain is a grenade. The
families of Salmon, Sturgeon, and i^mb
bear salmons, sturgeons, and lambs re­
spectively.
Armet. A helmet of uncertain form
in use in the latter half of the 15th cen­
tury. It was worn with or without a
beaver, and the cuts here given probably
represent it.
Armilausa. A sleeveless garment open
at each side, worn
by knights over
their armour. It
varied in form
considerably, but
always
retained
the name armi­
lausa.
Armorial Bear-
ings. (Her.) The
devices painted
on a shield which
serve to distin­
guish families,
cities, and corporations.
In the nth
26

ARM
ART
DICTIONARY.
ARR
century jousts or tournaments were in
vogue in Germany, and the
knights who
competed
adopted colours or devices.
When they returned from
the wars in the East the
Western Christians pre­
served the armorial bear­
ings, which had rendered them recog­
nisable during the combat. That is how,
according to Viollet ­ le ­ Duc, armorial
bearings became hereditary like the
name and property of the head of the
family. Blazoning a coat of arms is
giving a technical description of it. By
the Art of Heraldry the rules of blazon­
ing were set forth in the 12th century,
developed in the 13th century, and finally
fixed during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Armour. Defences worn by the an­
cients as well as by the knights and
warriors of the Middle Ages. Among
the Egyptians a helmet and cuirass were
worn, but the
shield was the
most impor­
tant defensive
arm.
The
Greeks
car­
ried a shield
and
added
greaves to the
helmet
and
cuirass of the
Egyptians.
The armour
of the Romans
only differed
in detail from
that of the
Greeks.
In
England mail
armour
was
used until the
time of Ed­
ward I., when a mixture of mail and
plate began to be worn. In the time of
Richard II. plate entirely superseded
mail, and remained in vogue until the
beginning of the 17th century, when the
altered conditions of warfare rendered
armour unnecessary.
Armourer's Art. The art of fashion­
ing armour, which was often enriched
with gold and silver work, chasing, and
damascene, and was sometimes inlaid
with ivory.
Arm-rest. (Arch.) A term applied to
the arm of church stalls on which persons
leaned their elbows. The arm-rest is
a flat surface or
ledge supported
by colonnettes,
ornamented con­
soles, or groups
of figurines, often
grotesque.
Arquebus
or
Arcubus.
A
primitive form of
gun invented in
the 15th and in
use until the 17th
century. It was the first gun fired off by
the action of a trigger.
Arraché. (Her.) [Erased.]
Arrangement. (Paint.) The method
in which a painter composes his figures
and combines his groups.
Arras. A woven material made at
Arras in France in the 14th century and
used as a hanging for rooms.
Arris. (Arch.) The angle or corner
formed by the intersection of two surfaces.
Arrondi. (Her.) A term applied to
charges which, instead of
being represented in their
ordinary shape, are curved
or rounded. Thus we speak
of a stag's antler arrondi,
serpent arrondi, &c.
Arrow. The arrow of the Romans had
a plain bronze head without a barb, the
barbed head being characteristic of
Asiatics.
The arrows of the early
27

ARR
ART DIC
Britons were headed with flint or bone,
those of the Saxons and Danes with iron.
By the latter peoples they were chiefly
used for the chase. The Normans used
arrows with deadly effect as weapons of
war, and after the conquest the English
became expert bowmen, the ' ' cloth­yard ' '
shaft of the English yeoman being very
celebrated in the Middle Ages.
Artemis. The moon­goddess and pat­
roness of hunters. The Ephesian Arte­
mis, of Eastern origin, is represented as
wearing a mural crown with a disc, as the
emblem of the full moon. Her legs are
swathed and ornamented with figures of
bulls, stags, bees, and flowers, and she is
many­breasted. In Greek Art she gene­
rally figures as a huntress. The inci­
dent of Actaeon being turned into a stag
and torn to pieces by his own hounds for
gazing on Artemis in her bath, is a
favourite subject both in vase­paintings
and bas­reliefs.
Stags and dogs were
sacred to her.
Artisan. A name formerly applied to
artists, but now only given to those work­
men employed in various mechanical
trades who possess some special skill, in
which, however, invention plays no part.
The artisan's business is to translate in
various materials the artist's design.
Artist One who practises the fine arts.
Artist's Proof. [Proof.]
Aryballus. An antique vase, which
was used to draw liquids from
vessels of a larger size, and also
to hold the oil with which
bathers rubbed
themselves
down. It was almost spherical
in form with a narrowed neck and a
small handle.
Ascus. An antique vase in the form of
a hemisphere, having a neck
and a semicircular handle.
It was supposed to resemble
a wine­skin in shape, and
was used to hold liquids.
Ashlar. (Arch.) Stones hewn and cut
square for use in buildings, opposed to
rough stones straight from the quarry.
28
10NARY.
ASS
Asp. In Christian Art the asp symbo­
lises malice. It is frequently placed be­
neath the feet of saints, bishops, and even
representations of Faith, Charity, &c, to
indicate their triumph over evil. Our
illustration is taken from the monument
of a bishop in the Temple Church.
Aspectant. (Her.) Face to face.
Asperges. The rod used for sprink­
ling the holy water in the service of the
Roman Catholic Church.
Asphalt. A bituminous material used
as mortar by certain Eastern peoples, and
employed in our times as a covering for
such surfaces as walls, causeways, and
roads.
Asphaltum. A brown pigment used
in the arts. The best kind comes from
Egypt.
Assemblage. Method of joining tim­
ber­work and carpentry. There are
several methods of assemblage, such as
by mortise and tenon, dovetailing, &c,
but the study of their peculiarities
belongs rather to construction than to
art.

ASS
ART DIC
Assumption. The assumption of the
Virgin is a favourite subject with early
painters. The tomb is represented be­
low, the virgin is pictured as ascending
to heaven or else as seated on a throne,
while St. Thomas receives the mystic
girdle.
Astragal. (Arch.) A moulding the
profile of which is a semicircle, placed
at the base of capitals in the ancient or­
ders. Astragals are also called baguettes
or beads, when the moulding consists of
an alternation of round Or pearl­shaped
and angular forms. They are sometimes
found on Gothic capitals.
Astragalus. The name among the
Greeks for the knuckle-bone of animals.
Astragali were used in several games,
and boys playing at knuckle­bones (as-
tvagalizontes) were a favourite subject
with classical sculptors.
At Bay. (Her.) A term used in de­
scribing a stag with its head down in an
attitude of defence.
At Gaze. (Her.) Full­faced, said of an
animal of the chase.
10NARY.
ΑΤ
Η
Atelier. A French term denoting the
workroom of sculptors or painters.
[Studio.]
Athenaeum. A building in which the
philosophers of antiquity met, and
poets and orators publicly read their
works. In modern times this word, like
Alhambra and Alcazar (q.v.), has abso­
lutely lost its meaning. It may now be
applied to any hall where public meet­
ings are held, and particularly to build­
ings where conferences take place or
courses of lectures are delivered.
Athene. Among the Greeks the virgin
goddess of gentleness, wisdom, and art,
and above all the protectress of Athens.
She is represented as fully draped and
wearing the aegis, and armed with hel­
met, spear, and shield. The most cele­
brated statue of her was of gold and ivory,
the work of Pheidias, which was in the Par­
thenon at Athens. The incidents of her
birth, her contests with the giants, &c,
were often represented on painted vases.
The symbols of Athene are the owl, the
cock, the snake, and the olive­tree.
Athletes. The combatants in the
Greek games provided Greek artists with
29

ATL
ART
DICTIONARY.
AUG
their finest models. Many statues of
athletes have come down to us, and are
marked by distinct characteristics, such
as short hair, sturdy limbs, powerfully
developed body, and small heads. Ath­
letes are also often represented with
their attributes on Greek vases.
The
study of the athletic type exercised a
decided and important influence on
Greek art.
Atlantes. (Arch.) The athletic male
figures in a standing or
kneeling posture, em­
ployed as supports in
some
ancient Greek
temples. The word is
derived from A tlas,
whom the
ancients
figured as holding the
earth on his shoulders.
In Roman buildings
these figures were called
Telamones. The tepi-
darium in the public baths at Pompeii
was decorated with figures of this kind.
Atrium. (Arch.) In Roman buildings
the atrium was a central court sur­
rounded by a colonnade, round which
the smaller rooms were grouped. It
was a kind of vestibule,
either open to the sky
or covered with a cur­
tain. In Byzantine I **·
" 'l·
architecture the atrium
is the courtyard outside a building.
Such is the atrium of the mosque of St.
Sophia, which is surrounded by Ionic
columns and decorated with basins of
jasper.
Attachment. Attachments in ana­
tomy are the points to which the muscles
or ligaments are fixed. In the language
of Art we particularly mean by attach­
ment the way in which a limb is set on
the body. Thus we say a piece of sculp­
ture has delicate attachments if the
limbs are well set on the body, and that
the attachments are bad when they lack
style and show signs of careless study.
Attic. (Arch.) The part of the en­
tablature above the cornice. Its pur­
pose is to hide the roof and add dignity
to the design. The name attic is also
given to the top story of a building when
it is only one­half or at most two­thirds
of the story below it. A good specimen
of an attic is to be seen in Somerset
House in London, on the side looking
towards the Strand.
Atticurge. (Arch.) A square support,
such as a pedestal, pillar, or pilaster.
Attired. (Her.) As a lion is said to
be armed (q.v.) of his claws, so animals
with ornamental weapons of defence
such as stags are said to be attired.
Attitude. (Paint.) The attitude, the
pose, the movement of a figure should
always be true to nature, and at the
same time should afford the artist an
opportunity for drawing beautiful lines.
Attributes. (Paint.) Attributes in
painting are those accessories which
give character to a scene or figure. In
a portrait, for instance, should the
model be a literary man, he should be
surrounded with books, if a painter with
pictures, &c. Discretion and tact must
be exercised as well in the grouping of
the attributes as in their choice.
In
decorative art we speak of a group of
attributes. In this case the word attri­
butes denotes the instruments and acces­
sories characteristic of an art, a profes­
sion, or even a sport—the attributes of
painting, for example, of sculpture, of
fishing, of the chase, &c.
Augmentation. (Her.) An honour­
3°

AUR
ART
DICTIONARY.
able addition granted by a sovereign for
distinguished services.
For instance,
the Duke of Wellington was allowed to
charge upon an inescutcheon the Union
Jack. This was an augmentation.
Aureole. An aureole in the language
of art is the luminous
circle which surrounds
the head of deities or
saints represented in pic­
tures or stained ­ glass
windows.
Sculptors, too, sometimes
place above their figures a circle gilded
or ornamented with stars to represent
an aureole. In this case, however, it is
generally called a nimbus.
Aure ole d. (Her.) Said of sacred figures
the head of which is surrounded by an
aureole.
Autography. A process which con­
sists in writing or drawing with thick
ink on paper specially prepared. The
drawing or writing is then transferred
simply by pressure on to a lithographic
AZU
stone, and by means of another stone
any number of prints can be struck off.
The advantage of autography is that it
is a process which any one can employ
who can draw with pen and ink, and
that the original can be exactly repro­
duced ; its drawback is that, except
when handled by skilled specialists, the
prints furnished by this process are apt
to be blotchy and blurred.
Avantail. The front of a helmet
which could be pushed back at pleasure.
In a helmet which covered the whole
face it was a necessity, to prevent suffo­
cation. It superseded the nasal of the
nth century, and itself gave way to the
visor of the 14th century.
Aventurine. A delicate kind of glass,
the peculiar brilliancy of which is due
to the presence of copper filings. A ven-
turine is also the name given to a cer­
tain colour between a green and a yel­
low.
• Axe. The attribute of St. Matthew
(q.v.) and St. Matthias (q.v .).
Axis. A straight line drawn through
the centre of a figure in such a way that
the portions of the figure lying on oppo­
site sides of the line correspond to one
another symmetrically.
Azulejo. Tiles of enamelled faience
of Mauro­Spanish manufacture, used to
cover the walls of buildings. The Hôtel
de Cluny possesses some large plaques
enamelled in this style, earlier in date
than the end of the 15th century, as well
as a large signboard of the factory of
this Spanish pottery, which bears the
inscription Fabrica de Azulejos.
31

AZU
ART
DICTIONARY.
Azure. (Her.) The tincture blue. It is
generally written az., and is represented
in engravings by horizontal lines. The
term is also used in painting to denote
a fine blue tint suggesting the colour of
the sky. It is obtained from copper,
mercury, and lead. The name is also
given to cobalt and ultramarine.
In
painting on enamel powdered azure is
used to produce a fine turquoise tint.
B.
Bacchantes. The inspired worship­
pers of Bacchus, the wine­god. In every
branch of ancient art they were popular
as subjects. In sculpture the school of
Praxiteles and Scopas was particularly
attracted towards their representation.
They are frequently found painted on
vases, and Bacchic heads are carved in
many of the finest Greek gems. They
are generally represented with vine­
leaves in their hair, with loose­flowing
ungirt garments, and with a tiger­skin
thrown over their shoulder. They carry
the thyrsus, timbrels, portions of kids,
and serpents. They are also known under
the names of Thyades, Maenades, &c.
Bacchus. [Dionysus.]
Back. The part of a seat, either ver­
tical or slightly sloping, against which
one leans one's back — the back of a
chair for instance. The term is also
applied to the tapestries or decorated
panels placed at the head of a bed.
Back-enamel (Dec.) Enamel applied
to concave surfaces.
Back-ground In painting the back­
ground is the space round a portrait or
group of figures, which is so rendered as
to appear behind them. In the treat­
ment of back­grounds infinite variety has
been shown. In the portraits of the old
masters, such as Vandyke, Titian, and
Rembrandt, the back­grounds only repre­
sented space, and were generally of a
warm brown grey tone. In the hands of
modern artists, however, back­grounds
have become more ambitious and minute,
32
BAD
so minute, in fact, as very often to
detract from the main interest of the
picture.
Back­painting. A method of giving
to prints and photographs the appearance
of painting on glass, by affixing them to
glass and staining them with varnish
colours. This process was popular in
the last century with mezzotints, and has
been applied of late years to photographs
under the fanciful name of crystoleum.
Back­plate. The part of the cuirass
(q.v.) which protects the back; it is
fastened to the breastplate by a hinge
and clasp or by leather­straps.
Back-yard (Arch.) A courtyard which
serves to light the rooms of a house,
and is, generally speaking, a clear space
situated at some distance from the prin­
cipal façade of a building.
Baculus. A rod or staff, upon which
persons are often represented as lean­
ing in ancient works of art. The long
baculus was only borne by divinities,
kings, and persons of dignity, while
simple folk carried a far shorter one, as
in our illustration.
Badge. (Her ) A mark of distinc­
tion, differing from both the crest and
the device, which was worn during the
Middle Ages, and was the origin of all
armorial bearings.
It was generally
worn to distinguish the servants or

BAD
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAL
retainers of a feudal lord, and it is said
that the Normans
adopted a badge
at the battle of
Hastings.
Na­
tions as well as
individuals have
had their badges.
Thus St.George's
Cross and the
Red Rose are the
badges of Eng­
land, the thistle
that of Scotland,
and the harp that
of Ireland. Badges worn by servants were
embroidered on the back, breast, or
sleeve, or executed in metal and attached
to the arm. They were also used as
decorations for buildings, furniture, Sec.
Badgers. (Paint.) Brushes made of
badger hair, broad, flat, or cylindri­
cal in form. By means of badgers two
colours freshly laid on are blended the
one with the other. They give a picture
a smooth appearance, but as they de­
stroy outline their use cannot be recom­
mended.
Badigeon. (Paint.) A coarse method
of painting. Many buildings are coated
with a badigeon of a yellow tint. Some­
times it consists of chalk and ochre with
some finely­ground freestone added to it.
Bague. (Arch.) An annular moulding
encircling the shafts of pillars, either
half­way between base and capital or at
lesser intervals.
Baguette. (Arch.) A moulding with
a semicircular profile. In
architecture plain ba­
guettes are generally used,
but for decorative pur­
*«*""
"
poses cabinet­makers em­
ploy baguettes ornamented with head­
ings, garlands, and foliage.
Bainbergs. Shin­guards introduced
in the 13th cen­
tury as an addi­
tional protection
for the legs, and
worn over chain­
armour. At a later
date they gave
way to greaves
or joints.
Our
illustration is
from a monumen­
tal brass in West­
ley Waterless
Church, in Cam­
bridgeshire.
Baking. (Pot.)
The operation of
hardening pieces
of pottery after they have been moulded
by submitting them to the action of the
fire. The operation is simple when the
paste and the glazing require the same
amount of baking. A double baking is
necessary when the paste, which then
becomes biscuit (q.v.), has to be baked
at one temperature and the glazing has
to be obtained at another.
Balance. (1.) The emblem of Justice,
which is often represented as a female
figure blind­folded and holding a balance.
It is also the attribute of the archangel
St. Michael, who is pictured weighing
human souls in a balance.
Balance. (2.) (Paint.) A synonym for
equilibrium. In a picture we say that
the composition is well­balanced, or that
the groups of figures have balance when
the work is
harmonious
and when the
lights
and
shades are in
equal masses
Balcony.
(Arch.) A pro­
jecting plat­
form on the
outside wall of
a building. Balconies are provided with
33

BAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAL
balustrades of wood, stone, or iron, and
are supported by props of wood or
iron, or in the case of more ambitious
structures, by consoles of stone. In thea­
trical architecture the galleries which
run round the theatre are called bal­
conies.
Baldachino. A richly ornamented
canopy, suppor­
ted by columns,
suspended from
the roof or pro­
jecting from the
wall. The bal­
dachino of St.
Peter's at Rome,
which dates from
the 17th century,
and is the work
of Bernini, mea­
sures about a
hundred feet in
height, and is the largest work in bronze
of its kind in the world. In addition to
monumental bal­
dachinos, con­
structed of metal
or wood, we find
examples entirely
composed of dra­
peries tastefully
arranged and of
the richest tex­
tures. The seats
Of priests
and
princes, as well as
altars, are fre­
quently covered with baldachinos. The
name was also given to the rectan­
gular or circular coverings, adorned
with plumes, which were placed over
the beds of the Louis XIV. period.
Baldric. A broad belt attached
to the shoulder and passed dia­
gonally across the body on to the op­
posite hip, by which swords, daggers,
&c, were suspended. It was fre­
quently ornamented with jewels, and
denoted the rank of the wearer; on
battle­fields surgeons wore it, and
so were marked out for special protec­
tion.
Ball-flower. (Arch.) An ornament
frequently employed
in Gothic architec­
ture, consisting of a
bead or ball partially
enclosed in a round
cup or flower, some­
times perfectly spheri­
cal, sometimes open. The name is also
given to any projecting circular decora­
tion, either plain or ornamented.
Ballistraria. An opening in a wall in
1
the shape of a cross.
These cruciform loop­
holes were especially de­
signed for the discharge
of missiles from cross­
bows. It was possible
to shoot arrows from
them in several direc­
tions ; on the inside they
were often splayed.
Ballium, or Bailey. (Arch.) The area
situated between the outer walls of a
fortress or castle and the keep. Some
mediaeval castles had double ballia, an
example of which is to be seen in the
Tower of London.
34

BAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
Balteus. The baldric of the Romans,
serving to support a sword or dagger.
It was generally of leather, and fre­
quently ornamented with gold and gems.
It was passed over the right shoulder and
under the left.
Baluster. A part of a balustrade in
the form of a small cylindrical column
terminated at the neck by a hemisphere,
to which it is attached by a splay. The
capital and base of a baluster are en­
riched by projecting mouldings.
In
Renaissance buildings balusters are
found of very varied form.
They are
sometimes even square, and their surface
is often covered with sculptured reliefs.
Balusters, Interlaced. (Arch.) Are
those which are connected by a system
of ornamentation.
—, False. (Arch ) A balustrade which
is not pierced.
Balustrade. The front of a gallery,
composed of stone, wood, or iron. Ba­
lustrades of wood are employed in the bal­
BAN
conies and staircases of dwelling houses.
Iron balustrades, of which the last cen­
tury has left us some fine specimens,
are used for balconies and staircases, and
are often superb in design. Balustrades
of stone are used in public buildings ;
their form and ornament varies accord­
ing to the order of architecture to
which the building, in which they are
introduced, belongs. In Gothic archi­
tecture balustrades sometimes bear the
name of gallery, and are ornamented
with interlaced mullions, resembling
the tracery of the period to which they
belong.
Bambino. A name given in artistic
phraseology to representations of the
Infant Christ wrapped in swaddling
clothes and bound round by ligatures,
according to the custom prevailing in
Southern Europe. In Italian paintings
bambini are often represented aureoled
and sometimes surrounded by angels.
Bambocciata. (Paint.) A drawing
or picture representing a grotesque or
rustic subject, such as Teniers or Van
Ostade delighted in. This class of com­
positions was brought into fashion by
Pier van Laer, to whose nickname, II
Bamboccio, the pictures owe their appel­
lation. This painter flourished in the
17th century. His humorous drawings
were celebrated, while he himself was
grotesque on account of a physical de­
formity. The word is now but seldom
used.
Band. (Arch.) A continuous mould­
ing, very slightly projecting, carried
along a horizontal surface or following
35

BAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
the curve of an arch. It is frequently
quite flat, but in Gothic architecture
many examples of
bands are found
decorated
with
sculptured
orna­
ments, and some­
times
running
round a whole building.
Banded. (Her.) A charge, such as a
sheaf of arrows, bound with a band of a
different tincture is said to be banded
of that tincture.
Bandelet. (Arch.) A small and simple
moulding, rectangu­
lar in form, and ap­
proaching more or
less nearly to a square
according to the
height and proj ec­
tion which is given to
it. Bandelets serve
to unite mouldings,
the profile of which
is a curve.
Banderolle. A band of fine and
wavy material, sometimes rolled up at
its ends, displaying
a legend, inscrip­
tion, or device. Ban­
derolles are fre­
quently used in de­
corative or alle­
gorical
composi­
tions, where they
either encircle ornaments or are held
in the hands of figures who are repre­
sented as unrolling them. The name
is also given to flags or banners which
are carried at the funerals of distin­
guished persons, and which display the
36
BAP
illustrious marriages of the deceased's
ancestors.
Bandoleer. A belt of leather fitted
with cases for holding cartridges. It
was worn by musketeers in the 17th
century.
Banner. (Her.) A square standard
fixed to a vertical staff by one of its sides,
or attached to the pole by the centre of
its upper side, so as to hang loose.
Such were the ensigns of the knights
bannerets and the banners of the Church.
They were often fringed and tasselled
and decorated with symbols and paint­
ings. The national banner or standard of
Great Britain is religious in character,
and is made up of the three crosses of
St George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick.
Banquette. (Arch.) A French term
indicating a narrow window seat.
Baptistery. (Arch.) A circular or poly­
gonal building placed near ancient basi­
licae for the performance of the rite of
baptism. Later baptisteries were con­
nected with the church by porticoes.
After the nth century baptisteries were
replaced by baptismal fonts, large ves­
sels of stone, marble or metal, very often

BAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAR
richly decorated, and covered with a
movable baldachino of
elaborate workmanship.
These baptisteries were
placed either in a chapel
or near the entrance of
the church. Among sepa­
rate buildings serving as
baptisteries that at Flo­
rence must be placed
first. It is decorated with
­'"
­
mosaics and its entrance
is closed by the celebrated bronze gates
of Lorenzo Ghiberti and Andreas of
Pisa.
Bar. (Arch.) A name given to gate­
ways in the walls of towns such as were
erected in the Middle Ages. (Her.) An
honourable ordinary, drawn horizontally,
occupying one­fifth of the field ; a dimi­
nutive of the fess.
Barbadoes Tar, or Jews' Pitch, is
really asphalte and is employed in
the manufacture of the black varnish
used in photography. In the process
of heliogravure it is the base which is
exposed to the action of the light.
Barbara, St. A virgin martyr who
suffered martyrdom in the year 383 A.D ,
having been converted to Christianity
by Origen, and so having incurred the
anger of her father and the pro­consul
Marcian.
She is one of the patron
saints of Mantua. Her chief attribute
is the tower, in which she was impri­
soned by her father, and in addition the
sword, the palm­branch, and the crown
of martyrdom.
In reference to the
belief that those who worshipped her
should not die without the sacrament
she carries a chalice.
She is the
patroness of fire­arms and the protect­
ress against sudden death.
Barbe. A piece of linen worn by
women in the 15th and 16th cen­
turies, either over or under the chin,
according to the station of the wearer.
Ladies of high degree wore it above the 1
chin.
Barbican. A small tower of defence, I
generally built in the Middle Ages at the
entrance to a bridge, town, &c.
Barbotine. A kind of paste reduced
to a pulp out of which certain figures
may be modelled. The name is in the
present age almost exclusively given to
vases decorated with flowers and leaves
in high relief and variously coloured.
Barded. (Her.) A term describing a
charger caparisoned.
Barge-board. A broad board, gener­
ally richly carved, placed in front of a
gable. It was used from the 14th century,
principally in domestic architecture, or
in churches with timber porches. Its
chief value is decorative not structural.
Barge-course. That portion of the
tiling of the roof which projects beyond
the roof. The barge­board (q.v.) is
placed beneath it.
Barnabas, St. Apostle and martyr,
companion and fellow­traveller of St.
Paul. He suffered martyrdom by ston­
ing in Cyprus, where he was born,
about the year 60 A.D. He is repre­
sented as a man of dignified presence
holding a stone, the symbol of his mar­
tyrdom, and the preacher's staff: but
pictures of him are seldom met with.
Baroque. A term used in decorative
art to denote a class of ornamental de­
signs, in which everything is sacrificed
to give an impression of richness,
meaningless dis­
play being more
considered than
refinement and
appropriate­
ness. [Rococo.]
Barrel-vault.
(Arch.) A vault
built in the
shape of a surmounted arch (q.v.), its
height being greater than its breadth.
37

BAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAS
The barrel­vault sometimes has the ap­
pearance of a hollow semi­cylinder. It
is also called " Waggon­head Vaulting. "
Barrow. A term given by archaeolo­
gists to the mounds of earth heaped up
in ancient times over the remains of a
great warrior or otherwise distinguished
person. There are many barrows in ex­
istence in England, and they are the old­
est monuments which have come down to
us. Among famous European barrows
the three at Gamia Upsala, in Sweden,
should be mentioned, which tradition
asserts are the burying­places of the
gods Odin, Thor, and Freya.
Barrulet. (Her.) Diminutive of bar,
of which it is one­fifth in width.
Barry. (Her.) Said of a shield divided
horizontally or barwise.
Barry-bendy. (Her.) Divided by lines
horizontally and diagonally into a num­
ber of equal parts, alternating the tinc­
tures.
Barry-pily. (Her.) Said of a shield
covered with piles placed bar­wise.
Barry-wavy. (Her.) Said of a shield
covered with undulating lines.
Bars Gemelles. (Her.) A term applied
to beads or bars arranged
two and two on a shield.
When two bars gemelles are
placed on a shield, the dis­
tance between them is al­
ways greater than the
Λ
'
Λ
'
distance between the two
charges themselves.
Bartholomew, St. Apostle and mar­
tyr, was crucified head downwards ac­
cording to one account, or flayed alive
according to another, at Albanopolis, in
Armenia. He is represented in art as
holding a knife, with reference to his
cruel torture, a book, St. Matthew's Gos­
pel, and a human skin, sometimes with
the face attached to it.
Bartizan. (Arch.) A corbelled out
turret of stone surmounted by a conical
roof, and placed either at the angle of
walls or at the summit of towers in
mediaeval castles. Bartizans date from
the 12 th century. In the 14th century
they were con­
structed with a
view to defence
and pierced
with loopholes,
and then as­
sumed especial
importance.
Basalt. A
hard compact
stone of a grey­
ish­black hue,
tinged with
copper colour,
out of which
the Egyptians
carved statues and constructed palaces
and temples.
Bascinet. A helmet
worn during the 14th
century, spherical in
shape, sometimes plain,
sometimes fluted. The
crest of the wearer was
often placed on the top.
In warfare a helmet was
worn over it.
Base. (Arch.) The sub­basement of a
building. This pro­
jecting sub ­ base­
ment is often en­
riched with mould­
ings. In the Arabian
style the bases of
columns generally
consist of very
simple mouldings.
— , Attic. A base consisting of two
tori and a scotia.
The attic base
possesses consi­
derable elegance,
and is used in
the Ionic, Corin­
thian, and Composite orders.
— , Composite. A base formed of wo
tori, one astragal, and two scotiae.
—, Continuous. A moulding forming a
base, running the whole length of a build­
38

BAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAS
ing and following the projection of the
columns or pilasters which adorn a
façade.
Base, Corinthian. A base consisting
of two tori, two astragals, and two
scotiae, frequently replaced by the Attic
base (q.v .).
—
of a pediment. The moulding of
a cornice which forms at the same time
the base of a pediment.
— , Doric. A base consisting of two
fillets, a torus, and a plinth. Though
this base bears the name of Doric, it must
be added that it never occurs in ancient
Greek buildings and is only characteristic
of Roman jporic. Greek temples of the
Doric order are of great purity of line—
such as the Parthenon for instance—and
their columns, which are remarkable for
the elegance of their outline, have no
other base than the flight of steps run­
ning round the building.
— , Gothic. Gothic bases are very
varied in form. In the very earliest
period they are rude imitations of an­
cient bases. In the ioth century they
consisted of fillets and combinations of
particular mouldings. In the 12th cen­
tury the space left between the circular
torus and the square plinth was filled by
an ornament of foliage. In the 13th cen­
tury this foliage ornament disappeared,
the plinth became polygonal, and the
torus sometimes projected beyond it. In
the 14th century the mouldings forming
the base begin to lose their height and
projection, and finally in the 15th cen­
tury the principal base is broken by the
intersection of smaller bases. In the
16th century before the revival of the
ancient orders Roman and Gothic bases
are mixed. [Gothic]
Base, Ionic A base consisting of a
torus and two scotiae separated by many
smaller mouldings.
— , Tuscan. The base of the columns
of the Tuscan or­
der. It consists of
a fillet, a torus,
and a plinth. Ac­
cording to Vitru­
Λ
}·
vius the height of
Tuscan base ought to be equal to half its
thickness.
Base-court. In the military architec­
ture of the Middle Ages this name was
given to the courts surrounded by towers
and ramparts of defence.
Basil, St. Bishop of Caesarea, was
born 328 A.D . and died 379. Artistic
representations of this saint are rare.
One of the mosaics at St. Peter's in Rome,
designed by the French painter Subley­
ras, represents the most dramatic scene
in St. Basil's life—the Emperor Valens,
namely, swooning with rage at St. Basil's
refusal to depart from the orthodox
ritual and administer the rites after the
custom of the Arians.
Basilica. (Arch.) Among the Greeks
and Romans the basilica was a building
with side aisles, a tribune, and an apse,
where justice was dis­
pensed and public busi­
ness transacted. The name
was afterwards given to
Christian churches from
the 4th to the nth cen­
tury, which were built with
some modification of detail on the plan
of the ancient basilica. To­day the word
basilica is used to denote Catholic cathe­
drals of vast dimensions without re­
ference to the period of their construc­
tion. The apsidal termination seen in
many Gothic churches was derived from
the basilica. [Apse.]
Basilidian Gems. [Abraxas Gems.]
Basilisk. A legendary creature said
to have been hatched from the egg of a
hen thirty years old by a toad under
water. It was of enormous size, with the
39

BAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAS
body of a cock, beaked and clawed with
brass, and with a tail consisting of three
serpents armed with sharp points.
It
destroyed everything it glanced at, and
could only be killed by gazing on its own
reflection in a mirror, when it burst with
rage. In early Christian art it is the
symbol of the Spirit of Evil.
Basket. In Christian art a basket is
the attribute of several saints: for in­
stance, St. Dorothea is represented hold­
ing a basket of flowers and fruit.
Basket. (Arch.) The part of the
Corinthian capital to which the acanthus
leaves are applied. The term probably
refers to the legend quoted under Capital,
Corinthian, and is sometimes justified
by the ornamentation on the capital.
Bason. A flat shallow vessel with a
rim, used for various domestic and ec­
clesiastical purposes.
In churches it
was used for collecting alms, for wash­
ing the hands of the priests, and for
holding the sacred vessels. Basons were
made of various metals and were often
richly ornamented.
Bas-relief. (Sculp.) A sculpture exe­
cuted upon and at­
tached to a flat or
curved surface.
Its
projection from this
surface is less than
that of the mezzo­
relievo or the high­
relief. Pictorial or con­
tinuous subjects are
best suited to repre­
sentation in bas­relief,
and the finest extant
specimen of this kind of sculpture is the
frieze which ran round the cella of the
Parthenon, a large portion of which is
now among the Elgin marbles at the
British Museum.
Basterna. A kind of palanquin in the
form of a covered carriage borne by two
mules, one in front and one behind. It
was chiefly used by women. Our illus­
tration is from a MS. of the 14th century
in the British Museum, and the drawing
corresponds exactly to the descriptions
of the basterna of the ancients.
Bastide. (Arch.) This term was for­
merly a synonym for bastille, but now­
adays denotes the villas and country
houses of the south of France.
Bastille. (Arch.) A name given in
military architecture to fortified con­
structions, either of wood or masonry,
which contribute to the defence of strong­
40

BAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
BAT
holds. It is specially applied to the citadel
erected in Paris in 1369, which was en­
larged in 1383, and in 1553 comprised
eight towers connected by curtains of the
same height. For many years it served
as the state prison, and was destroyed at
the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789.
Bastion. (Arch.) An outwork placed at
the angle of a fortified enceinte, present­
ing two faces and forming a projecting
rampart on the line of defence.
Bath. A tank of oblong shape to hold
water for bathing. The baths generally
in use are made of zinc, but there exist
many which are real works of art. Some
are made of silver and richly chiselled,
while others are of marble.
Baths. (Arch.) An establishment
erected for the purpose of bathing. Of
the baths of the ancient Greeks but little
is known, but the baths of the Romans
were structures of great size and mag­
nificence. They were uniform in con­
struction, and consisted of several cham­
bers, of which the following were the
most important. First came a courtyard,
flanked by stone seats, where slaves
waited for their masters to come out of
the bath ; this led into the apodyterium,
or undressing room, which communicated
on one side with the frigidarium,
or
cold bath, and on the other with the
tepidarium, or tepid chamber; beyond
the latter was the caldarium, or hot
chamber, containing the alveus, or hot
bath, and the laconicum, which was
heated by hot air. The caldarium was
supported on brick pillars and was hollow
underneath, the walls being furnished
with flues, so that hot air might warm
the whole chamber.
Baton. (Her.) A diminutive of the
4
bend, being one­fourth of the width of
that charge.
Batter. (Arch.) The inclination given
to the outside of the wall of a building,
the inside of which is perfectly vertical.
Battle-axe. A weapon which has been
used in war from
the earliest times.
It was formed of
a stone or bronze
head fastened to a
haft of wood. In
ancient times it
frequently had two
edges, and was
then called bipen-
nis. This species
of axe is generally
represented in the
hands of Amazons.
It was never used
by the Romans,
who regarded it
asa
barbarous
weapon. It was the original weapon of
the British Isles, and many specimens
have been found in this country which
date from Druidical times. It went out
of use in the 15th century. The battle­
axe which had an edge on one side and
a sharp point on the other was called a
pole­axe. We give a representation of
each of these weapons.
Battlement. (Arch.) The indented
parapet which was placed upon the sum­
mit of fortified walls, and consisted of
projecting portions entitled merlons alter­
nating with open spaces called crenelles.
Through these open spaces the defenders
of a fortress discharged their missiles on
the enemy. Corresponding to the vari­
4t

BAT
cms periods and styles there are various
kinds of battlements. Some, and these
are the most common, have square mer­
lons, in others the merlons are pointed,
indented, or pyramidal­shaped, while the
profile of some resembles that of wall­
copings. Battlements were most often
employed in the Middle Ages.
They
are also found as parapets in reli­
gious buildings. In the 16th century
battlements of wood were used as decora­
tion. The word battlement, now applied
to the entire parapet, once only desig­
nated what are now called the merlons
Battle-piece. A picture belonging to
that class of painting which is specially
devoted to the representation of battles
One of the most famous battle­pieces in
existence is the admirably executed
mosaic representing the Battle of Issus
discovered at Pompeii, which is particu­
larly interesting as being a translation
into mosaic of a painting by a Greek
artist named Helena.
Among other
celebrated battle­pieces we may mention
those by Wouvermans, the battles of
Constantine by Raphael, and Le Brun's
battles of Alexander
Baudekyn. A term which is said to
be derived from Baldeck or Babylon, and
designates a woven stuff which was intro­
duced into Europe at the time of the
Crusades. Gold thread was frequently
used in its manufacture, and sometimes
it was richly embroidered. It was origin­
ally only used for regal garments, but
afterwards for priestly vestments.
Bay. (Arch.) A rectangular or curvi­
linear opening in a wall. When a bay
serves as a door the lower part of it is
called the groundsill, when it serves as a
window the lower part is called the sill.
The upper part of a bay is called the
lintel when it is horizontal, and the arch
when it is curvilinear. In Gothic archi­
ART DICTIONARY.
BAY
tecture the divisions formed by the
arcades of nave, cloister, or gallery are
called bays. Thus we speak of a nave of
eight bays. In classical architecture the
term is applied to the space between two
pilasters.
Bay Window. A rectangular or poly­
gonal window which projects from an
apartment and so forms a recess.
It
came into use about the 14th century,
and was generally found in the hall,
being situated at one end of the dais.
Sometimes a hall had two bay windows,
one at each end of the dais. Good ex­
amples of bay windows are to be seen in
college halls. For instance, there is a
very fine one at each end of the high
table at Trinity College, Cambridge
Bayeux Tapestry. The Bayeux ta­
pestry is one of the most interesting
42
monuments of the Middle Age?. It is a
long roll of canvas, seventy yards long
and more than half a yard wide, on

BAZ
ART
DICTIONARY.
BEA
which is embroidered a representation
of the conquest of England by the
Normans.
Tradition says it was the
work of Queen Matilda, wife of William
the Conqueror, and that she presented
it to the cathedral of Bayeux. It is of
immense value as a history of the man­
ners, costume, armour, &c, of the nth
century, but from an artistic point of
view it is entitled to little praise.
Bazaar. (Arch ) A covered oriental
market, which often occupied a consider­
able surface of ground.
Bead. (Arch.) A system of ornament
consisting of small spherical beads ap­
plied to a convex moulding. (Dec.) The
term also denotes small spherical objects
made of glass, amber, metal, or precious
stones, perforated so that they may be
strung together
They have been
used as
orna­
ments in all times
and among all people. The Greeks prized
Egyptian beads above all others, and
many beads have been found in Greek
tombs which seem to be of Egyptian
origin. From the Middle Ages onward
Venetian beads
were
more
es­
teemed than any
others.
Beadsman.
In
the Middle Ages
persons called
beadsmen were paid
to offer up prayers
for the welfare of
states or individuals.
The accompanying
cut represents a
beadsman holding
the beads and torch
of his office.
An
order of " bedes­
men " existed in
Scotland. Their in­
signia of office were
a torch and beads,
as represented in the cut.
Beaked. (Her.) A term in heraldry
used when a bird's beak is of a different
tincture to the head.
Beak-heads. (Arch ) An ornament em­
ployed in England in
the decoration of Ro­
mano­Byzantine
monuments, and con­
sisting of a series of
beak­heads which pro­
ject over a semi­
circular moulding.
Beam. (Arch.) A piece of stone or
wood placed in a horizontal position for
the purpose of supporting a heavy mass,
is termed a beam. An architrave is an
instance of the beam.
Beard. In ancient art Zeus, Posei­
don, Cronus, the full­grown Hercules,
Janus, and Aesculapius were repre­
sented with beards ; sometimes also
Dionysus, and the Indian Bacchus, called
by the Romans Bacchus Barbatus,
always. In Christian art the beard is
the attribute of kings, patriarchs, and
prophets.
Bearing. (Arch.) A term denoting the
length of a piece of timber or iron placed
horizontally and upheld at each end by
supports.
Beasts, Heraldic. The heraldic beasts
of the 13th, 14th, and 15th century were
drawn in an entirely conventional style.
The object aimed at in the rendering of
these figures was simplicity, it being im­
portant that the outlines should be sharp,
and so easy to distinguish at a distance.
According to Viollet­le­Duc the coats­of­
arms of the 14th century should be pre­
ferred to all others, for it is then that the
traditional forms of this decorative art
are found in the greatest purity. In the
16th century the types of heraldic beasts
43

BEA
ART
DICTIONARY.
BEL
began to degenerate, for then a tendency
sprang up to render animals realisti­
cally, which is clearly out of place in
an art so purely conventional as that of
heraldry.
Beaver. The lower part of the face­
guard of the helmet, introduced in the
14th century. It could not be moved up
and down, and when Shakespeare says,
" He wore his beaver up," he is con­
fusing it with the visor (q.v .).
Bed. (Arch.) A term denoting the
horizontal surface of a stone; thus we
speak of the upper or lower bed.
As an article of furniture the bed has
always been of importance. The Greek
bed was very simple in construction, con­
sisting simply of an oblong plank on four
legs; the material used was generally
wood, and the coverings were very sim­
ple, being generally skins or long­haired
woollen blankets ('
ρ
ή
ν
ε
α
). The Roman
beds resembled the Greek in shape, but
were far more costly and elaborate.
They were made of rare woods, fre­
quently inlaid with ivory and tortoise­
shell, of bronze, or even silver, while
their legs were carved in all kinds of
fantastic shapes. The mattresses were
stuffed with straw, wool, or down. The
beds of the Middle Ages were generally
in the form of a shallow box with raised
ends.
After the Norman period beds
were often decorated with carvings,
surmounted by canopies, and draped
with beautifully embroidered stuffs. In
Renaissance times beds were still works
of art, but at the end of the 16th cen­
tury comfort alone was aimed at, and
hangings, &c, became more important
than the bed itself.
Bees. In Christian art an attribute
of St. Ambrose (q.v ), and generally
speaking of saints celebrated for their
eloquence.
Belfry. (Arch ) A tower on the out­
side of a town, or on a castle or church.
During the Middle Ages watchers were
placed in the belfry, as well as a bell on
which an alarm might be sounded. The
44
term also denotes the timber­work in­
side a clock­tower.
Bell. In Christian art the attribute
of St. Anthony (q.v .).
Bell. (Arch.) A term applied to the
ornamented part of a capital (especially
in the Corinthian order) which somewhat
resembles a bell in shape. It is also
termed the basket.
Bell Canopy. A stone or wooden
structure shaped like a canopy under
which a bell is placed.
Bell Cot. A small structure terminating
in a spire, in which a bell is hung.
Belled. (Her.) A term ap­
plied to figures of animals
represented with a bell round
their neck. Thus we say a
cow gules belled in azure.
Bell Gable. A stone
structure terminating
in a gable and pierced
with openings,
in
which bells may be
placed.
Bell Turret. (Arch.)
A pyramidal structure
of
several
sides,
shaped like a small
steeple, terminating
a pier or flanking the
angles of a steeple.
Some bell turrets of
the nth century are
square ; these, how­
ever, are rare. Those
of the 12th century
are of delicate pro­

BEL
ART
DICTIONARY.
BER
portions and often octagonal. After the
13th and 14th centuries they became
more slender, and their arrises were
ornamented with crotchets.
At the
Renaissance they disappeared alto­
gether.
Belt. (Arch.) A slightly projecting
band running round a tower or turret is
termed a belt. The term band (q.v.) or
string course, however, is now generally
used.
In costume a belt is a cincture worn
round the hips, often highly ornamented.
From it were suspended the sword and
dagger. In the 14th and 15th centuries
it was a mark of knighthood, and so
was often worn as a mere badge without
any arms attached to it.
Belvedere. A covered terrace.
A
kind of pavilion or prospect tower
placed on the roof of a building, so that
a spectator may obtain from it a widely
extended view of the surrounding coun­
try.
Berna. (Arch.) A name given in
ancient architecture to the orator's
tribune or the proscenium of theatres.
In early Christian buildings in the East
it designated the pulpit, the sanctuary,
and the throne of the bishop placed in
the apse.
Bench. A seat to hold several per­
sons formed of a slab of stone or
wood, sometimes with and sometimes
without a back. In the dwelling houses
of the Middle Ages coffers played
the part of benches. Churches were
not
furnished
with benches for
the faithful until
the 16th century.
In the parks and
gardens of the
17th century we
find benches of
stone or marble,
elegant in out­
line and deco­
rated with much skill and care. In the
present practical and economic age
artistic benches have been replaced by
cast­iron supports, upon which planks of
wood are screwed, to serve as seat and
back.
Bench Table. (Arch.) The table of
stone which projects from the interior
wall of a building and forms a seat. In
many cases a blind arcade runs along
above it and the base of the columns
rest upon the bench table.
Bend. (Her.) An ordinary, crossing
the shield diagonally from dexter to
sinister, and occupying when charged
one­third of the shield, when uncharged
one­fifth.
Bendlet. (Her.) An ordinary, half the
width of the bend.
Bendy. A shield having several bends
may be described as bendy.
Benedict, St., was born 480 A.D ., and
was the founder of the Benedictine order
of monks. He established several mo­
nasteries, in which the strictest dis­
cipline prevailed. His attributes are
a cup on a book, a raven with bread
in its bill, and a sieve. He is repre­
sented as surrounded by nettles and
thorns, indicative of his ascetic life,
and he carries the asperges and pastoral
staff.
Benetier. [Stoup.]
Benzoin. A balsam, used as an in­
gredient in spirit varnishes.
Beryl. A precious stone of a bluish
reen tint, called also aquamarine.
This
45

BES
ART
DICTIONARY.
BIF
stone was used by the Greeks for in­
taglios, and was much prized by the
Romans.
Bestiarium. A term used to denote
poems of the 12th and 13th centuries,
which created a kind of mystic zoology,
and gave rise to the allegorical repre­
sentation of the virtues and vices of
mankind under the form of animals. It
was the bestiario,, according to some
archaeologists, which inspired the enig­
matical bas­reliefs which decorate so
many Gothic monuments. Other writers,
however, regard these reliefs as pure
works of the imagination or as vague
reminiscences of illiterate men, who
could not understand the bestiaria, the
interpretation of which is difficult even
to scholars.
Beton. (Arch.) A mixture of peb­
bles and limestone mortar, of which
the foundations of buildings are com­
posed.
Bezants.
(Her.) A subordinate
charge in the shape of a disc and
always of metal, i.e . of or or argent.
There are never more than eight bezants
on one shield. In architecture the term
is applied to a simple ornament consist­
ing of roundles or discs on a flat sur­
face.
Bezants-tourteaux.
(Her.) Discs,
half of metal and half of
colour. For instance, we
speak of Bezants­tourteaux
of argent and gules, vert
and argent, &c.
Bezel. A metal mount­
ing, either pierced or solid,
^
Λ
generally in the shape of a disc, on
which precious stones are fixed when
they are going to be mounted in rings or
other ornaments.
Biacca. (Paint.) The Italian term
for white lead, used for painting in secco
but not in fresco
Biadetto. (Paint ) An Italian term for
a blue pigment derived from copper.
It is synonymous with bice (q.v ).
Bianco Secco. (Paint.) A white pig­
46
I ment, prepared from slack lime and
water, which is of great value in fresco
painting.
Bibelots. By this term we understand
any object which is used to decorate a
whatnot, a chimney­piece, a sideboard,
or the surface of a wall. Bibelots are,
according to the taste of the collector,
bronzes, faïence, arms, works of Chinese
or Japanese art, or a thousand other
curiosities. In fashionable houses all
possible corners are crammed with them ;
they are piled one upon another or heaped
up in pyramids. They form a distinct
subdivision of curiosities.
They have
their own bibliography and authors de-
voted to their discussion, and thanks to
fashion there is scarcely a house which
in some degree or another is not an
asylum for bibelots.
Bice. (Paint.) An obsolete term which
once denoted a blue pigment prepared
from lapis armenius.
Green verditer is
sometimes called green bice.
Bickern. The extremities of an anvil
It is on the bickern that
pieces of iron are
curved.
Bickerns vary in form,
they may be round,
square, pointed, &c.
Biclinium. A hybrid word, half Latin,
half Greek, denoting a couch or sofa in
which two persons might sit or recline
at table.
Β
i-c or
ρ
orate. (Her.) Having two
bodies joined in one.
Bidental. (Arch.) A shrine or small
temple consecrated by the Roman augurs
on a spot which had been struck by
lightning. The name originated in the
custom of sacrificing a sheep two years
old in such shrines
Bifoil. That which has two foils or
arcs.
Bifrons. (Sculp.) A double­faced bust
representing two persons with different
features and as it were placed back to
back. The distinction between the two
is often lost in the upper part of the head
and in the hajr,

BIG
ART
DICTIONARY.
Biga. An antique chariot drawn by
BIR
two horses. A biga is often figured on
the reverse of ancient coins.
Bill. A weapon used in the 14th and
15th centuries, consisting of a broad blade
fixed to a long staff. Its edge was
curved like a scythe, and it was furnished
with two sharp points, one at the end and
the other at right angles to the blade.
Billet-moulding. (Arch) A kind of
moulding used for decorative purposes
in the Romanesque period. It consists
of a bowtell (q.v.), cylindrical, square,
or prismatic in form, and cut up into
parts equal in size and divided by equal
spaces.
Billets. (Her.) A subordinary in the
shape of a small oblong figure rather
longer than it is broad. They are said
to be reversed when they are placed on
their long side. In blazoning it must be
specified whether they are voided or not.
Billeté. (Her.) Said of a shield strewn
with billets.
Bill-head. A kind of curved chisel.
The term is also applied to other objects
twisted in the shape of a sharp hook or
bill­head.
Binding-joist. (Arch.) A beam or arch
strengthening or doubling the resistance
of a ceiling or vault.
Bipennis. An axe with two edges, used
principally as a weapon
of war but also as an
ordinary chopping tool
It was never carried as
a weapon by the Ro­
mans, but Amazons
and other mythical
persons are figured
with it in their hands.
[Battle­axe .]
Birds. Representa­
tions of birds are found
in the art of all peoples
and ages. Among the
Egyptians a bird sym­
bolised the soul of man.
Certain birds were sa­
cred to the Greek
deities, the eagle to Zeus, for instance,
the peacock to Hera, the owl to Pallas
Athena, &c. In Christian art birds sym­
bolised the human soul as well as the
virtues and vices of mankind. In Gothic
47

BIR
ART
DICTIONARY.
BIT
architecture birds are a frequent orna­
ment, and are generally symbolic.
In
the Renaissance style they are purely
decorative and conventional.
Bird-bolt. (Her.) A flat­headed arrow
used as a charge in heraldry.
Bird's-eye View. A method of draw­
ing by which objects are represented
as though seen from an elevation, the
point of sight being far above the objects
represented. It is valuable principally
in depicting groups of buildings or wide
tracts of country.
Biremis. A vessel having two banks
of oars placed diagonally one above the
other.
Representations of the biremis
are common on bas­reliefs, and one is to
be seen on Trajan's column.
Biscuit. (Pot.) A term applied to
pieces of unglazed white faïence or porce-
lain, the surface of which is neither
enamelled nor painted. The term is also
applied to the double baking which some
pieces of porcelain undergo.
Bisellium. A seat of honour which
was occupied in the Roman provinces by
magistrates and distinguished persons,
as the sella curulis was at Rome. Though
48
large enough for two, as is suggested by
its name, it was probably only used by
one, the specimens found at Pompeii
having but one footstool in the centre.
Bishop's Length. A term applied to
canvas of certain dimensions, 58 inches
by 94-
Bishop's Throne. The seat of a bishop
placed in the choir of a cathedral church
from the 12th century onwards.
In
some churches in Italy there are
thrones decorated with mosaics.
The
throne at Avignon is of veined white
marble, while that at Toul is of stone
and dates from the 13th century. At the
end of the 14th century stuff canopies
were replaced by canopies of sculptured
stone. In the 15th century the throne
was placed among the stalls surrounding
the choir, and the bishop's throne could
only be distinguished from the others by
the richness of its ornamentation.
In
the 17th and 18th centuries bishops'
thrones were often constructed with ca-
nopies of carved wood. In early times
in England they were called bishop's
stools.
Bistre. (Paint.) A brown colour gene-
rally of a light yellowish tint. The artists
of the last century prepared it in an ex-
tremely simple way by boiling the soot
of wood in water, and have left us many
sketches in bistre, some of which are in
an admirable state of preservation.
Biting-in. (Engrav.) A term used in
etching to denote the action of nitric
acid diluted with water upon those
parts of the copper plate from which the
etching-ground or varnish has been re-
moved by the etching-needle.
Before
beginning the biting-in the protected
surfaces of the plate are once more
coated with the etching-ground, and the

BIT
plate, if it is a small one, is plunged in a
bath. If the plate is of large dimensions
it is rimmed with wax and so transformed
itself into a bath. In all cases feathers
are necessary to burst the bubbles which
form while the metal is being attacked.
The acid used for this process is gene­
rally common nitric acid mixed with
water in equal proportions. The process
of biting­in is repeated according to the
difference of depth which the artist
desires to produce in his etching. The
higher is the temperature of the studio
the more rapid is the action of the acid.
Finally, some artists use perchloride of
iron for the last biting­in. The latter
process enables them to obtain very deep
lines, which when printed produce fine
velvety blacks.
Bitumen. (Paint.) Scientifically speak­
ing, bitumen is a hydro­carbon rich in
hydrogen. It is sometimes liquid, some ­
times of the consistency of pitch, and
sometimes solid. The bitumen used in oil­
painting produces a colour closely allied
to sepia or bistre. Many of the pictures
of the school of to­day, and above all
those of the first half of the present
century, have suffered from the use of
bitumen. It contracts and cracks with
atmospheric change to such an extent,
that pictures in which it is employed
soon deteriorate.
Bituminous. (Paint.) The tones of a
picture are said to be bituminous when
it has a reddish brown appearance.
Bizarre. That which is opposed to
the canons of good taste or offensive to
the cultivated eye ; capricious.
Black denotes a quality classed among
colours, due to the absence or total
absorption of light. Black pigments
are of two kinds, they are either pro­
duced by the calcination of animal or
vegetable substances, or they are found
in a natural state. To the first class
belong lamp black, ivory black, Indian
ink ; to the second, black ochre, graphite,
&c In the art of the Middle Ages black
symbolised darkness, death, mourning,
BLE
evil, falsehood, and despair. In heraldry
black is termed sable (q.v .) .
Black Chalk. A kind of bituminous
schist or ampellite, used in the manu­
facture of drawing crayons.
Black-lead, also termed plumbago or
graphite, is a carboniferous substance
which is found in Cumberland, and is
used for making lead pencils. Its name
is confusing, as it contains no lead.
Bladed. (Her.) A term used when the
stem or stalk is of a different tincture
from the fruit or ear.
Blank. (Numis.) A disc of metal,
which, after it is struck, becomes a coin.
Blanket. (Engrav.) A name given
to the piece of flannel or thick cloth
which is wrapped round the roller of the
press when a line­engraving is to be
struck off. An elasticity of pressure is
thus ensured during the printing, and
the sheet of paper is applied with greater
force to the surface of the plate.
Blase, St. Bishop of Sebaste and
martyr. He is represented in Christian
art in episcopal vestments, and he holds
a crozier and book and a wool­comb.
From the last attribute, which was the
instrument with which he is said to
have been tortured, he has become the
patron saint of the wool­combers.
Blasted. (Her.) Said of a trunk of a
tree with its branches lopped off and
without leaves.
Blazon. (Her.) The charges or devices
of a coat of arms
are called bla­
zons. The accom­
panying cut re­
presents Shake­
speare's coat of
arms.
Blaz
ο
nr y.
(Her.) A know­
edge of the he­
raldic art and of delineating coats of arms.
Blend. (Paint ) To soften tints so that
they gradually diminish in intensity and
blend with another tint or colour, which
has been similarly softened. In oil­paint­
ART
DICTIONARY.
49

BLE
ART
DICTIONARY.
BOA
ing colours are blended by delicately
softening the colours into one another,
and by gently mixing them with a light
brush passed over the surface. In water­
colour or washed drawings tints are blen­
ded by means of fine brushes charged
with colour more and more diluted
with water and finally with pure water.
Blender. [Badgers.]
Blind-story. (Arch.) A name some­
times given to the triforium (q.v .) of a
church. It is so called as opposed to the
clerestory which is above it and is
pierced with windows.
Blister. (Paint ) A term applied to
parts of a picture which swell, and so
become detached from the canvas or
panel.
Block. (Sculp.) A mass of unhewn
stone or marble. The piece of wood
upon which engravers work is also called
a block.
Block of buildings. (Arch.) A collec­
tion of build­
ings forming a
compact mass.
In the construc­
tion of
new
streets or pub­
lic ways whole
blocks
of
houses often
have to disappear. We speak of a block
of buildings forming the angle of a street
or of a block of houses isolated by four
streets.
Bloodstone. A green jasper with red
spots upon it. In the Middle Ages it
was held in high honour, because it was
said to have been the stone which lay at
the foot of the cross and received the
blood which dropped from the wounds
of Christ.
Blottesque. (Paint.) Painted in heavy
blots or masses ; a term introduced into
the language of art criticism by Ruskin,
who opposes it to Dureresque. It first
occurs in " Modern Painters," vol. iv.
Blue. (Paint.) One of the three primary
colours, which possesses the quality of
coldness. The typical blues are Prussian
blue, ultramarine, cobalt, and indigo.
In the symbolism of early Christian art
blue, as suggesting the sky, is symbolical
of heaven and so of eternity, as well as
of piety, godliness, &c. It has always
been adopted as the colour of the Vir­
gin's robe. On ceilings it is used to
represent the sky.
Blue, Prussian. (Paint.) The Prussian
blue used in water­colour painting is
of a greenish tint, but is easily laid on
and of wonderful transparency and per­
manence.
The Prussian blue used in
oil­painting is one of the colours which
have the most body, and when mixed
with white it produces tones of great
intensity It is a compound of iron and
cyanogen, the base of prussic acid.
Blue-black. (Paint.) A cold black pig­
ment obtained from well­burnt charcoal.
When mixed with white lead it produces
silvery greys.
Boar. In Christian art the boar is
symbolic of sensuality and gluttony.
Board, Leather. Board, in the paste
of which scraps of leather are mixed. It
is used in the manufacture of orna­
ments which are moulded by a special
process.
Boards. A term applied to a method of
bookbinding, in which the sides consist of
a thin board covered with linen or paper.
Boaster. (Sculp.) An instrument used
for working clay or wax. Boasters vary
considerably in size and form.
They
generally consist of a short piece of
iron, wood, or ivory, rounded and slightly
curved at one end and flat at the other.
50

BOD
ART
DICTIONARY.
BOR
Bodkin. A large pin, several inches in
length, of gold, silver,
ivory, or wood, which
Greek women used to
pass through their
j hair at the back when
it was plaited and
turned up. The head
of the bodkin was
often elaborately or­
namented,
some­
times even with sculptured figures.
Body-colour. (Paint.) Water­colour
drawings are said to be executed in body­
colour when the colour is laid on thick and
mixed with Chinese white, in contradis­
tinction to the older method of water­
colour, in which the colours are laid on
in transparent washes. Generally speak­
ing a colour is said to have body
when it possesses the quality of
covering the canvas when thickly
laid on.
Boldness. That quality of con­
fidence and fearlessness which
characterises the work of an
artist who is thoroughly master
of his art and of the material in
which he works. It is at the op­
posite pole from tameness.
Bole, Armenian. (Gild.) An
oily earth of a red colour found in
Burgundy and in the neighbour­
hood of Paris. It enters into
the composition of the material
which forms the ground on ob­
jects which are to be regilt.
Bolt. A flat­headed arrow.
Boitant. (Her.) Springing forward.
Bombylios. An antique vase of small
dimensions, which in shape
suggests the cocoon of a silk­
worm, but is more elongated.
Vases of this shape were some­
times made in ancient times
with so narrow an orifice that
the liquid could only escape a
drop at a time
Bond. (Arch.) A term employed to de­
note the way in which bricks or stones are
arranged. The two bonds generally
used are English Bond and Flemish
Bond. In the former the courses are laid
alternately, consisting one of headers
the other of stretchers ; in the latter all
the courses are alike and are made up of
alternate headers and stretchers.
Bonder. (Arch.) A stone or brick
placed in a wall so that its shorter face,
i.e . one of its ends, is alone apparent.
Bone-black. A black pigment obtained
by burning bone in close vessels, kept
from contact with the air.
Book. In Christian art the book is
the symbol of learning, knowledge, and
intelligence. It is therefore an attribute
of the evangelists, apostles, bishops,
and fathers. When the Holy Ghost is
represented as a man he carries an open
book, the tables of the law.
Border, (i) An engraved design illus­
trating a book, within which a white or
empty space, defined by a regular or
irregular outline, is left to receive the
text.
Border. (2) A flat or convex moulding,
either simple or ornamented, which forms
the frame of a picture. The name is also

BOR
ART
DICTIONARY.
BOT
given to the systems of decoration which
run round the edge of carpets, tapestry,
hangings, pavements, &c, and form a
frame for panels, mosaics, &c.
Bordering Wax. (Engrav.) Green or
moulding wax which engravers use as
a border to their plates, thus transform­
ing them into a bath. Bordering wax
is awkward to handle, as it is glutinous
and sticks to the fingers when it is too
soft. It is made into small sticks,
which are flattened by the thumb, and
placed vertically along the copper­plate
so as to form a ledge.
A key or piece
of hot iron is then passed over the wax,
which causes it to melt, and thus closes
up all the interstices by which the acid
might escape.
Bordure. (Her.) A belt at least one­
sixth the size of the shield,
which it completely sur­
rounds. The bordure is a
mark of difference of a
younger son. Bordures com­
pony (q.v.) indicate the
number of younger sons
there are in a family.
Boss. (Arch.)
richly sculptured
stud
employed
to ornament
doors, &c. Bos­
ses
sometimes
have a structural
purpose, some­
times they are
merely decora­
tive. The bosses
on the door of
the Pantheon at
Rome are espe­
cially famous. The term is also applied
to metal nails placed as ornaments on
boxes, leather belts, &c.
It denotes in addition the rosettes or
other ornaments placed at the intersec­
tion of the ribs of a vault. In the 13th
century they were simply rosettes or
geometric patterns ; in the 14th century
they became much larger in size ; and
were superseded in the 15th and 16th
centuries by flat rosettes, pierced and
bordered with ornaments. Sometimes
we find pendants in the place of bosses.
The lower surface of
the pendant projects
below the spring of the
vault, and is generally
terminated by an or­
nament in the form of
an agrafe. In build­
ings of the Gothic style
these bosses, which
are really pendants placed at the key of
the vault, are ornamented with rosettes
and foliage, and are often of considerable
dimensions.
The term boss in armour denotes the
stud or projecting ornament in the centre
of a shield or buckler.
Bossage. (Arch.) A term applied to
masonry, in which the angles of the
stones are cut off obliquely, so that when
they are laid side by side a space is left
between them, which gives them an
appearance of projecting.
Bòttcher Ware. (Pot) A kind of
pottery of red unglazed clay, polished
with a lathe. It was first manufactured
52

BOT
ART DICTIONARY.
BOW
in 1709 by Bôttcher, an alchemist who
was occupied in searching for gold.
Bôttcher also made the first white porce­
lain manufactured in Germany.
Bottega. An Italian word, literally
meaning " a shop," but generally applied
to the place where Italian artists
used to paint their pictures and
expose them for sale, as well as
instruct their pupils.
Botteroll. (Her.) The piece
of iron with which the bottom
of a scabbard is shod, used as a
charge in heraldry.
Bottony. (Her.) A term applied to a
cross, the extremities of which end in
trefoils or buds.
Boudoir. A name given to a small
room decorated in an elegant and refined
manner, where a lady receives her most
intimate friends.
Boulevard. Originally an earth­work
fortification, but in the present day an
avenue or walk planted with trees.
Bourdon. A tall staff, on which pil­
grims are often represented as leaning
The scrip and purse were sometimes
suspended from it.
Bourse. (Arch ) A name given to
buildings containing large halls in
which financial business is carried on.
Bow. (Arch.) An old term for an
arch or an arched gateway. One of the
gates at Lincoln is still called " Stone
Bow."
As a weapon of defence the bow has
been used from the remotest times and
by all nations. Our illustrations repre­
sent the Egyptian bow (1), the Greek
(2), the Roman (3), and the Phrygian
(4), which is almost crescent ­ shaped.
The bow was of immense importance in
England from the 12th century onwards.
The most fully developed form of it, the
long bow, was of yew or ash, and six feet
in length. It shot an arrow a yard
long, and was a deadly weapon in the
hands of the English yeomen.
The
bow was an attribute of Apollo, Arte­
mis, and Cupid in classical art, while
in Christian art the bow and arrows
symbolise the martyrdom of St. Sebas­
tian.
Bowed. (Her.) A term applied to ser­
pents coiled up, with their heads coming
through the folds.
Bow-drill. A tool, which consists of a
shank of steel, furnished with a handle
at one end. It is
bent in the form
ofanarcbya
piece of catgut.
By drawing the bow backwards and for­
wards, a circular movement is commu­
nicated to the drill. The bow­drill is em­
ployed in all kinds of locksmith's work,
but sculptors in stone, marble, and wood
also find it of considerable use.
Bowl. (Pot.) A round vase, without a
rim and without pro­
jecting handles.
The
bowls of China and
Japan, which are some­
times very large in size,
are often placed upon
pedestals of wood or mounted upon
bronze.
Bowtell, Boutell, or Bottle. (Arch.)
53

BOW
ART
DICTIONARY.
RA
An old term denoting a round moulding
or bead.
Bow Window. (Arch.) A projecting
window which differs from a bay window
(q.v.) in being circular or segmental.
Box, Colour. (Paint.) A box of oil­
colours is generally almost square and
divided into compartments, in which are
placed brushes, a maulstick in three
pieces, tubes of colour, and bottles of
oil with screw­tops. It contains also a
palette and some panels of thin wood, on
which to fix drawing paper for making
sketches from nature.
— , Studio. (Paint.) A table with draw­
ers, the upper part of which forms a box
in which colours, brushes, &c , are kept.
Boxwood. (Engrav.) The box is a
tree (Buxus sempervirens), the wood
of which is very hard and has a
close and equal grain. It is of a bright
yellow colour, and its stem is richly
veined and in great demand for artistic
purposes.
In wood­engraving small
blocks of box are used equal in height
to printers' types.
In engravings of
large dimensions these small blocks are
fastened together by means of sizing
and are held secure by screws. They
may be separated at will, if, as is the
case with large wood­cuts intended for
illustrated papers, it is necessary, in
order to expedite the work, to distribute
the small blocks among different engrav­
ers. All that is necessary when the
blocks are finally joined together is to
add a few touches to make the different
parts of the engraving harmonise. Some
box­trees are found in the Jura, but it is
­­~
from the East that we
obtain most of the
boxwood used by
engravers.
Brace. (Arch.) A
piece of timber
either straight or
curved, used in roofs
to keep the purlins,
tie­beams, &c, in
their proper positions.
Bracelet, d) (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment employed on the shaft of columns,
the purpose of which is to break the
line of flutings in the an­
cient orders. At the Renais­
sance the bracelet came once
more into use. In Gothic
architecture the bracelets
which serve to connect the
columns with the horizontal
mouldings, decorating the
adjacent surfaces, are often
called armlets.
Bracelet. (2) An ornament which has
been worn upon the wrist in all ages
and in all countries. It was generally
made of gold or silver and was often
enriched with precious stones. It not
unfrequently takes the form of a ser­
pent.
Bracket. A small support of wood, iron,
or other material,
sometimes richly
carved, project­
ing from a wall,
and serving to
hold
lamps,
clocks, statues
and other orna­
ments. [Corbel.]
Brass. A very
ductile alloy of
copper and zinc,
to which is some­
times added
a
small quantity of
tin, lead, or iron.
Brassard. That portion of plate ar­
mour which protects the arm from the
shoulder to the wrist. It consisted of
54

BRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
BRI
two parts which were joined at the
Brasses, Monumental. A form of
sepulchral monument, consisting of
a plate of en­
graved brass,
or latten, as the
alloy was called,
representing
the personage
whose death
it commemo­
rates.
Those
found in Eng­
land are always
cut to the out­
line of the figure
they represent,
and are inlaid
in a stone slab,
while those of
Flemish
and
French
work­
manship are
square pieces
of brass with
the background to the figure richly
carved. Monumental brasses are of
extraordinary value to the student of me­
diaeval art, as they illustrate completely
the armour, costume, and heraldry of
the period to which they belong.
Brazier. A flat shallow vessel of
metal, standing upon four legs, in which
wood, &c, was burnt for the heating of
rooms. Braziers were commonly in use
among the Greeks and Romans, and also
in the Middle Ages.
Breach. An opening, generally irre­
gular, made in a wall.
Breadth. (Paint.) In painting the
quality of grandeur or largeness is termed
breadth. This quality is not limited by
the size of the picture, and is often found
in the smallest canvases, nor does it
depend on finish. It is to be obtained
by skilful colouring and light and shade.
Breast-high . The balustrade of a win­
dow­sill, when it is of average height, is
said to be breast-high. It may be rather
less than four feet, but it is never more.
Breast-plate. A term applied among
the Romans to that part of the armour
which protected the breast. The high­
priests of the Jews wore a breast­plate
consisting of an embroidered square de­
corated with twelve precious stones
Bressummer. (Arch.) A term applied
to beams of wood or iron, which span
wide openings, and generally support a
wall. In modern buildings bressummers
of iron are commonly used. In some
cases they remain apparent, in others
they are concealed in plaster ceilings.
Bretess. (Arch.) A balcony of wood
often attached in the 15th and 16th
centuries to the façade of town halls.
The term also denotes additional gal­
leries or fortifications of carpentry fre­
quently used in the Middle Ages.
Bretessé. (Her.) A fess
bend or bend sinister is
said to be bretessé when
it is embattled on both
sides, and when the pro­
jections lie opposite each
other
Bric-a -brac. A general term applied
55

BRI
to curiosities of all sorts, works of art,
furniture, whether valuable or worthless,
which the curiosity dealer exposes for
sale in his shop. Here the amateur
often unearths what he takes to be fine
pearls and pays heavily for them, but
finds them out to be nothing but vulgar
paste when he gets home. Apart from
their value, however, they often produce
a picturesque effect.
Bricks. (Arch.) Pieces of clay dried
and baked in a furnace in the shape
of small rectangular parallelopipeds.
Bricks have been universally used in
rustic buildings, or those constructed
only with a view to use and economy.
At the same time in artistic buildings
excellent results have been produced
from judiciously mixing bricks and stone.
In the façades of chateaux of the time
of Louis XIII. pilasters of stone form a
framework with excellent effect to panels
of brick. In the annex of the South
Kensington Museum an ingenious sys­
tem of decoration is furnished by the
use of ornamentally stamped bricks.
— , Common. (Constr.) Bricks made of
sandy clay mixed with argillous or cal­
careous marl.
— , Perforated. (Constr.) Bricks
pierced with cylindrical holes used to
lighten the construction of partitions.
— , Floating. (Constr.) Bricks manu­
factured of porous magnesia or siliceous
tufa, which have the property of floating
on water. They are employed on account
of their infusibility in the construction
of reverberating furnaces.
— , Dutch or clinker. Bricks half vit­
rified by constant baking.
Brickwork. (Arch.) A construction or
facing of masonry composed of bricks.
Bridge. (Arch.) A construction of
stone, wood, or iron, which spans a
river or connects two points separated
by a natural depression of the earth. A
bridge may consist of several arches, or
of beams or girders supported by piers,
or it may be suspended on iron chains.
The Romans were the first who tho­
56
BRO
roughly understood how to make bridges,
and their bridges still remain among the
most wonderful constructions of ancient
times. In the Middle Ages chapels and
dwelling houses were frequently built
upon the roadway of bridges, as was the
case on old London Bridge.
Brigandine Armour. A species of
defence consisting of small thin plates of
iron sewn on to leather. It was worn in
the 13th century, and is said to have got
its name from the fact that it was first
worn by irregular troops called " ori­
gans."
Its great advantage was its flexi­
bility.
Brinded, or Brindled. (Her.) Spotted,
said of animals.
Brio. (Paint.) A picture is said to be
painted with brio or dash when it seems
to have been done without exertion, but
with spirit, and as it were at the first
attempt.
Bristled. (Her.) Said of a boar when
thehaironthebackoftheneckisof a
different tincture from the body.
Bristol Board. Bristol board is a
white board of a fine and satiny texture.
It is frequently used as a mount to water­
colour or pencil drawings. Bristol board
of extraordinary whiteness is also used
for pen­and­ink drawings, which have to
be reduced for purposes of reproduction
by one of the modern processes of en­
gravings.
Water­colour drawings and
miniatures which are to be very highly
finished are often executed on Bristol
board, its smooth surface being well
adapted for this method of work.
Broach. (Arch.) An old English term
for a spire.
Brocade. A silk stuff figured in gold
or silver with systems of ornament con­
sisting of foliage, scrolls, flowers, animals,
figures, &c.
Brocatel. A kind of Breccia marble,
differing considerably in colour.
The
brocatel of Boulogne is dark, that of
Spain resembles the lees of wine, that of
Moulins is bluish grey, and that of Siena
is yellow. The tone of these marbles is,
ART
DICTIONARY.

BRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
BRU
however, by no means uniform. They
are, on the contrary, sprinkled with a
variety of delicate shades. Andalusian
brocatel, for instance, is reddish in
colour marbled with yellow, grey, and
white.
Brocatelle. An imitation brocade,
lighter and less rich than the last. Gold
and silver do not enter into its composi­
tion, and silk is only used in the figures
worked on it.
Broché. Stuff ornamented in relief by
means of a special process of weaving.
Broken Colour. [Colour, Broken.]
Bronze. An alloy of copper, tin, and
zinc, combined in different proportions
according to the purpose to which the
bronzeistobeput;also awork of art
cast in bronze. A small quantity of lead
is added when the bronze is to be em­
ployed in the reproduction of works of
art. We frequently speak of fine bronzes,
antique bronzes, meaning thereby statues
or statuettes cast in bronze.
Antique
bronzes are works of art of the highest
value. Whatever be their form or di­
mensions they invariably give evidence
of extraordinary science and widely ex­
tended practical knowledge. After them
must be mentioned bronzes of the 12th
and 13th centuries, as well as those of
the Florentines, such as Donatello and
Ghiberti, which are absolute master­
pieces. In the time of Louis XIV. im­
mense vases, those in the garden at
Versailles for instance, were cast in
bronze, while the best examples of the
art during the last two centuries are
equestrian statuettes and Chinese and
Japanese bronzes, in which the arts of
founding and chiselling the metal have
reached their highest limit. To­day the
manufacture of ornamental bronzes is
one of the most flourishing of the decora­
tive arts.
Bronzing. An operation, the purpose
of which is to give objects an appearance
of bronze. There are two processes of
bronzing. The one is nothing more
than the application of certain chemi­
5
cal grounds. The other, which is chiefly
concerned with metal objects, consists
in the depositing of real bronze by
electrotyping. This process can be
repeated as often as necessary and
gives to the objects thus covered an
extraordinary hardness. A green or
coloured coating may be given to any
object according to the tone of the
bronze which it is desired to imitate.
Brooch. An ornament infinitely
varied in form and material, and always
provided with a long pin. It is used in
women's toilets to fasten shawls, cloaks,
collars, &c.
Brown. (Paint.) A colour of a red­
dish tone, somewhat warm and at the
same time somewhat sombre, generally
obtained from metallic oxides. Some
browns are obtained from coal and
belong to the series of aniline colours.
—, Red. (Paint.) A kind of brown
obtained by a different degree of calci­
nation from the same materials as the
ordinary brown pigments. In painting
in water­colour an opaque brown of a
brick­red tone is employed. When
mixed with other tints it is rapidly pre­
cipitated.
Brunswick Green. [Green, Bruns­
wick.]
Brush. (Paint.) Painting brushes are
made of the hair or bristles of animals,
57

BRU
ART
DICTIONARY.
BUL
securely fixed either in a quill or a
ferule of tin and fastened to a stick.
They are either flat or conical in shape,
and are used to lay on and spread the
colours
Brushwork. (Paint.)
When a picture is
painted with spirit and
without affectation, or
is freely and broadly
treated, its brushwork
is said to be vigorous.
Bucentaur. In clas­
sical mythology a bu­
centaur was a monster,
half ox, half man. This
name was given in later
times to the state galley
in which the Doge of
Venice and the Senate
went to sea during the
ceremony, the "Mar­
riage of the Adria­
tic. "
Buckle. (Her.) A buckle furnished
with a tongue is a charge in
heraldry. It is generally cir­
cular in form, and when it is
lozenge­shaped it should be
specified in the blazoning.
Buckler. (Arch.) An ornament used in
the decoration of
friezes and trophies.
It is sometimes cir­
cular in form and
sometimes lozenge­
shaped. Bucklers of
the latter shape are
often placed obliquely and bound up
with bundles of arms.
Bucrania. (Arch.) Ornaments in
the form of ox­sculls with their horns
wreathed in flowers, which
were employed to adorn
the frieze in the ancient
orders of
architecture.
Bucrania were generally
placed in the metopes or
intervals between the tri­
glyphs (q.v .) . Some have and some have
s»
not wreaths of flowers round the horns,
and their representation on ancient
temples suggested the victims offered in
sacrifice.
Buff. A clear yellow colour.
Buffet. A piece of furniture on which
dishes, plate, and glass are displayed.
The difference between a buffet and
dresser lies in the fact that the latter is
only fitted with shelves, while the former
has drawers and a cupboard enclosed by
doors capable of a good deal of decora­
tion.
Bugle-horn. (Her.) A figure in
blazonry in the shape
of a small hunting horn.
^^
Thus we say a " bugle­
VV
horn gules."
In blazon­
ing we should specify whether it is
" enguicM" i.e. whether it has a cord
attached to it or not.
Buhl. A kind of furniture which was
invented and manufactured by Charles
André Boule or Buhl (1642­1732). It was
richly inlaid with tortoise­shell, gold,
copper, &c, and was much in vogue at
the court of Louis XIV.
Building. (Arch.) A building is a
general term applied to any construc­
tion whether completed or not.
Bulge. A line or surface slightly con­
vex is said to bulge.

BUL
ART
DICTIONARY.
BUS
Bulla. A small ornament of gold
which was worn round
the neck of free­born
children at Rome. It
was laid aside when
the youth assumed
the toga virilis.
The
"bullae" of poor per­
sons were made of
leather. It was re­
garded as a charm and
as especially efficacious in keeping off
the evil eye.
Bull's-eye. (Arch.) A round or oval
window, placed either in the front of a
house or in a roof From the period of
the Renaissance, the 17th and 18th cen­
turies, many specimens of bull's­eye:,
have come down to us richly orna­
mented.
Bur. (Engrav.) A bur is a ridge of
metal on the edge of the lines of an
engraved plate, which is generally
removed by an instrument termed the
scraper (q.v .) . Some engravers, how­
ever, have taken advantage of the bur to
strengthen their shadows.
Burin. [Graver.]
Burnish. To burnish is to polish
gold or silver and give it a brilliant sur­
face by means of a notched agate or
bloodstone.
Burnished metal reflects,
and seen at a certain angle, its tone
seems darker than that of the dull metal,
almost black in fact ; hence the expres­
sion to burnish.
Burnisher. (Engrav.) A steel instru­
ment not having a very sharp edge
in the form of an elongated oval, used
by engravers to soften a harsh line or
remove it altogether.
A burnisher
worked by both hands is employed to
burnish a copper­plate before engrav­
ing it.
Burnishing. An operation by means
of which the roughnesses of a metal
plate are taken away and the whole
surface reduced to the same level.
When burnished the plate becomes an
excellent reflector.
Burnt Sienna. (Paint.) A fine
orange red pigment of a warm rich
tone, which is obtained by burning raw
sienna earth. It has the property of
dissolving at once in water, and by
means of it wonderfully clear tints may
be obtained at once.
It is used for
topographical drawings and sketches of
constructions and machines, as well as
for water­colours. It is also suitable
for oil­painting.
Burnt Umber. (Paint.) A russet­
brown pigment produced by burning
raw umber. It is semi­transparent, per­
manent, dries and mixes easily, but is
not much used.
Buskin. A high boot made of leather
and often elaborately ornamented, In
classic times it was worn by hunters,
horsemen, and tragic actors, and is
especially characteristic of some deities,
59

BUS
ART
DICTIONARY.
BYZ
such as Diana the Huntress, Bacchus,
J
and Mercury. Bus­
kins were also worn
in the Middle Ages,
and kings at their
coronation wore
them of cloth of gold
and other costly ma­
Bust. The upper
part of the human
body ; the represen­
tation, painted, drawn, engraved, or
modelled, of the head, shoulders, breast,
and arms cut off above the elbow. A por­
trait bust represents the head and upper
part of the body without the hands. A
sculptured bust is said to be antique in
style when the neck and upper part of the
breast are bare and cut off vertically. In
modern busts a part of the arms is
generally shown and the model is draped,
sometimes in a mantle which covers the
lower part of the breast. In a picture
we say that the bust of such and such a
figure is badly proportioned, or in a work
of sculpture that we do not feel the
bust under the drapery, referring in each
case to some fault in the proportion or
execution of this part of the body.
Bustle. (Paint ) A term signifying a
restlessness and want of harmoniousness
in the colouring of a picture. Sir Joshua
Reynolds contrasts the " quietness and
chastity of the Bolognese pencil with the
bustle and tumult that fills every part of
a Venetian picture."
Busy. (Paint.) Full of bustle (q v.) .
Buttery (Arch.) A room near the
hall and kitchen in monasteries and
mediaeval mansions from which beer
and wine were served out.
Buttress. (Arch ) A massive piece
of masonry which served as a support
and added to the resistance of the verti­
cal wall. Buttresses are universally
used in Gothic architecture. They were
indispensable in holding up the lofty
walls of churches. Originally they con­
sisted merely of a squared mass, the
60
surface of which was inclined to the
wall at a sharp angle so that the rain
might run off; they were afterwards
polygonal and decorated with pinnacles,
and in the 14th century terminated in
turrets.
Buttress, Flying. (Arch.) A pier which
stands at some distance from a wall sur­
mounted by a rampant arch, which con­
nects it with the wall. It is intended to
counteract the thrust from the vaulting.
It is found in Roman monuments, and was
introduced early into England. In the
north choir aisle of Canterbury are some
flying buttresses, which belong to the
transition period. In the 12th century
they were very simple, and were not
much decorated until the 15th century.
Byzantine Art. The art which owes
its origin to Byzantium.
It engrafted
Christian sentiment on reminiscences of

BYZ
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAD
Greek and Roman art. The Roman
arch was retained in Byzantine architec­
ture, but entablatures disappear, circu­
lar cupolas are erected, and the capitals
adorned with arabesques. The Byzan­
tine style exercised a powerful influence
on the art of the Middle Ages. Many
mosaics and paintings on a gold ground,
as well as ivory­carvings of Byzantine
origin, have come down to us, and give
us a high idea of this extraordinarily
rich and brilliant art, which imposed its
characteristic forms on the style of
many generations (328 A.D. to 1204 A D.) .
Byzantines. (Num.) Coins struck from
the time of Constantine to the fall of the
empire of the East.
c.
Cabinet. A piece of furniture fitted
with drawers, in which from the 16th
century to the present time coins and
curiosities of every kind have been
kept and classified. The term is also
applied to public or private collections
of works of art or curiosities, such as
pictures, engravings, coins, medals, &c.
Thus we speak of a cabinet of medals,
of prints, &c. In former times the term
was synonymous with collection.
The
inscriptions on certain prints of the last
century call attention to the fact that
such and such a subject came from the
cabinet of Mr. X., meaning that the
original, after which the print was en­
graved, was in Mr. X.'s collection.
Cabinet-picture. A picture of small
dimensions, and generally of high finish,
such as is found in private collections.
Cable - moulding. (Arch.) A round
moulding either projecting or sunk, con ­
sisting of wreathed striae (q.v .)i resem­
bling the strands of a rope. This mould­
ing was frequently employed in the de­
coration of Byzantine capitals. The cor­
nices of buildings of the same style also
afford many examples of it.
Caboched or Cabossed.
(Her.) Full­faced. This
term is used to indicate
that the head of the
animal is placed looking
at the spectator and that
the neck is concealed.
Cabochon. A French term applied
to precious stones set in gold but pre­
served in their primitive form, that is,
polished but not cut.
Cadmium, Red. (Paint.) A simple
pigment containing no base but cadmium.
It is of a bright orange­red colour and is
valuable on account of its permanence.
— , Yellow. (Paint ) A pigment pre­
pared from sulphide of cadmium. It is
a rich orange and is useful in painting
sunsets.
When mixed with Chinese
white it yields a brilliant series of tints.
It is permanent and not affected by the
atmosphere.
White lead is the only
pigment which seriously injures it.
Caduceus. The staff carried by Mer­
cury or Hermes. Around
it two serpents were
coiled, and it was winged
at the top. It was the
symbol of peace.
The
term is also applied to
the staff covered with vel­
vet and surmounted with
a fleur­de­lis, which the
king of arms and the
herald of arms carried in
grand ceremonies.
It denotes also a
herald's wand, which is a rod ot olive
wreathed in garlands.
Cadus. A name given to the large
jars of terra­cotta used in ancient times.
61

CM
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAL
Pieces of pottery, rather more tapering
in form, have also been
found bearing this name.
The cadus was generally
used to hold wine, but also
employed to contain oil,
dried fruit, &c.
Caelatura. The Latin term for raised
work in metal or chasing (q.v .).
Cage of a Building. (Arch.) The col­
lection of outside walls which define the
shape of a building.
Cairn. A heap of stones, often shaped
like a pyramid and raised over a grave.
The custom of building up cairns is of
very ancient date, but it now only prevails
in some districts of Ireland and Scotland.
Caissons. (Arch.) A French term
applied to the sunk panels in a ceiling.
[Coffers.]
Calantica. (Cost ) A head­dress in
the form of a net or bag and fastened
tightly round the head by a band. In
Egypt it was worn by both men and
women, but when introduced from the
East into Greece and Rome it was only
adopted by women.
Calathus. A basket in which women
in ancient times kept the
wool, which they were going
to spin. It was generally
made
of
wicker­work,
rarely of metal, and was
narrow at the base, gradu­
ally expanding towards
the top. Representations
of calathi are frequently found on vases
and other monuments of Greek art.
Calceus. (Cost.) The Roman term for
a shoe or boot. It was a complete pro­
tection for the foot and so differed from
the sandal. Different kinds of calcei
designated difference of
rank. The senators
ο
Rome, for instance, wore
one of a peculiar pattern,
while in the time of the
Empire calcei were fre­
quently made of costly material and de­
corated with gems.
Caliga. (Cost.) The shoe worn by the
rank and file of Roman soldiers. It was
heavy and shod with nails.
Caligraphy. The art of writing. The
greatest masterpieces or handwriting are
to be found in the manuscripts of the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and in
some rare collections of the 17th and
18th centuries. The people of the far
East have also produced some fine
specimens of caligraphy.
Caliver. An arquebus with a wide
bore. It was in use in England from the
time of Elizabeth until about the middle
of the 17th century.
Calix. A cup­shaped drinking vase in
use among the Greeks,
set on a stem and
**
generally furnished
with two small handles.
Callipers. A kind of compass, the
branches of which are twisted
and of unequal length. They
are used by sculptors to
check measurements. Their
points are curved in different
directions, so that it is possible to mea­
sure both inside and outside surfaces.
Callipyge. Literally aux belle fesses.
The name of a statue of Venus in the
Farnese Palace.
62

CAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAM
Calotte. The portion of a sphere, not
exceeding a hemisphere in
volume, cut off by an inter­
secting plane.
The term
also denotes vaults of this
form.
Calotype. A method of photography
invented by Mr. Fox Talbot. An iodide
of silver is formed on paper by succes­
sive coatings of iodide of potassium and
nitrate of silver. This is rendered sen­
sitive to the action of light by the appli­
cation of gallic acid and nitrate of silver,
and only a brief exposure is necessary to
obtain an image on the paper.
Calpis. (Pot.) A large earthenware
vessel used by the Greeks for drawing
water.
It somewhat resembled the
hydria (q.v.), and was furnished with
three handles, as in the cut.
Caltraps, Cheval-traps, or Galtraps.
projecting points, which were laid on
the ground in battle to wound the feet
of the enemy's horses. They are some­
times borne as a charge in heraldry.
Calvary. (Arch.) A cross of stone or
iron, generally richly
decorated and some­
times raised upon a
platform which is
reached by steps. Some
calvaries,
especially
those of Brittany, are
ambitious monuments
supported by arcades
and
surmounted by
numerous statues. The
term is also applied to
pictures
representing
the scenes of the pas­
sion.
Camaieu. (Paint.
Engrav.) A painting in a single colour in
imitation of a cameo. The effect of a
painting in camaieu is produced by diffe­
rence of tone, and objects are represented
light on a dark ground or vice versa, but
only one colour is employed, such as
red, blue, black, &c. Paintings in imita­
tion of bas­reliefs, i.e modelled with greys
of different values, whites, or blacks, are
called pa intings in camaieu. These latter
are also termed grisailles (q v.) . Engrav­
ings in camaieu are printed in colour, but
with ink of a uniform tint, the gradations
of tone being obtained by hatchings. The
term is applied as a term of contempt to
dull and monotonous paintings.
Camail. A name given to the chain­
Instruments of iron having four sharp I mail which was attached to the bascinet
6,

CAM
and covered a warrior's head and neck.
Etymologically the term means camel s
hair, and it was first applied to a garment
of soft wavy texture worn by priests, to
the shape of which the chain­mail bore
some resemblance.
Cambered. Curved, arched. A well­
cambered figure is a figure describing a
graceful curve.
Cameo. Gems cut in relief are called
carnei or cameos.
Great care was
shown by the ancients in choosing
stones, consisting of several variegated
strata.
Cameos vary considerably in
size, and as a rule the figures or ob­
jects represented stand out in white
on a sombre red ground ; sometimes the
white and red are reversed. The term
cameo is applied generally to all gems
cut in relief, while those hollowed out
or depressed are called intaglios.
Camera Lucida. A prism by means of
which the image of any object may be
thrown upon a sheet of paper.
It was
invented by Woollaston in 1804, and has
been brought to perfection since. It is
of great service to artists and others, as
by its aid natural objects, &c, can be
traced with great accuracy. The only
difficulty which it involves lies in the
fact that the draughtsman must at the
same time watch the image and follow
the point of his pencil.
Camera Obscura. An apparatus by
means of which a reduced tracing may
be made of natural objects. There are
two kinds of camerae obscurae.
The
one consists of a hut of wood her­
metically sealed. In the roof of this hut
CAM
is an opening across which a mirror is
placed to collect the rays of light and
throw them on a lens, so that an actual
image is thrown upon the white paper
in front of the artist. The outline can
then be drawn with a pencil. The other
kind of camera obscura is portable and
so more convenient. The optical appa­
ratus is placed upon a tripod, round
which curtains are drawn, so that the
artist is placed in darkness and is able
to catch the image thrown upon the
white paper in front of him.
Campanes. (Her.) Bells suspended to
any charges. (Sculpt.) This
word is also used by the
French to denote little bells
carved in wood as a motive
of ornamentation for bishops' thrones,
altar canopies, &c.
Campanile. A tower in which bells
are placed, built near
a church but not
actually attached to
it. Campaniles are
frequently met with
in Italy and else­
where. In England
they are rare ; there
is one at Evesham,
and formerly there
was one at Salisbury.
The term is also
applied to an open construction of timber
work surmounting a roof, in which as a
rule either a bell or a clock is placed.
64
ART
DICTIONARY.

CAM
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAN
Campanulated. (Arch.) A term ap­
plied to capitals or orna­
ments, the profile of which
suggests that of an inver­
ted bell.
Candelabrum. A candle­
stick or stand to support a lamp. Can­
delabra generally have several branches.
When placed on altars they are very
often richly ornamented, but many
dating from the Gothic period are per­
fectly simple.
The large candelabra
which are placed on the ground and only
hold one candle are often of huge dimen­
sions.
Some of modern workmanship
are no less than twelve feet in height.
They are infinite in shape and often
designed by the most renowned archi­
tects. Sometimes they support a lamp
hexagonal or circular in shape surmount­
ing an open­work crown. Their shaft is
frequently decorated with carefully exe­
cuted sculptures.
Finally, there are
candelabra still richer in design, con­
sisting of bronze or marble statues, which
are found in the vestibules of hotels or
palaces or at the foot of staircases. The
candelabra in use among the Romans
generally consisted of a column of a
considerable height, standing upon a
tripod, frequently fluted and sometimes
decorated with climbing animals, upon
which was placed the tray which held
the lamp. Representations of candelabra
are often found as ornaments on friezes.
The term is also applied to the column
representing a candelabrum, placed on a
pier or on a square tower surmounting
a cupola.
Canephorus. The basket-bearer;
a
name given to the Athe­
nian maidens who walked
in the processions of De­
meter and Athena, carry­
ing upon their heads fiat
baskets containing the
sacred cake, &c. They
are represented in the
Parthenon frieze.
In
architecture the term de­
notes a decorative statue holding a vase
or basket, sometimes employed as a
caryatid (q.v .). Those of the Villa Albani
at Rome are celebrated.
1 Cannets. (Her.) Ducks with­
ij»%
out feet or beaks, generally
l^w AW depicted in profile.
I Canon. This word signifies
Υ
Λ
«
an artistic rule or law based
upon observation.
It was applied in
ancient times to statues or monuments,
which were intended to serve as types
or embodiments of the principles of
art, and also to fix the length of the
finger, the height of the face, from
65

CAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAN
which might be determined the exact
proportions of the whole figure. The
most celebrated canon in ancient times
was that of Polycleitus, which he exem­
plified in his statue of the Doryphorus.
This was in turn superseded by the canon
of Lysippus.
Canopa. A name given to Egyptian
vases which contained the
viscera of the dead. As
inscriptions they bear
various formulae of bene­
diction.
On their lid a
human skull is sometimes
placed, sometimes the sym­
bolic head of a cynocephalus, a hawk, or
a jackal.
Canopy. A system of decoration be­
longing to the Gothic period. It consists
of a vaulting placed
above statues fixed |
against a wall, or 1
above niches made
to receive a statue.
Canopies of the
12th and 13th cen­
turies suggest on
a small scale the
features of build­ »
ings of the period. J
In the 13th cen­
tury they are surmounted by disengaged
arcades, flanked with pinnacles, bell­
turrets, and flying buttresses. In the
14th and 15th centuries canopies become
still more ornate.
—
In certain in­
stances
eques­
trian statues are
crowned with
canopies formed
of two pointed
arcades spread­
ing out over a
considerable area. Finally in the 16th
century canopies, still ornate, frequently
have the form of lanterns surrounded by
volutes and scrolls, and arranged in
stages receding as they mount, the whole
often terminating in a graceful statuette.
66
Canopies formed of drapery were often
employed to de­
corate the top of
the seats of dis­
tinguished peo­
ple.
In the
same
way the
word canopy is
applied to the
covering formed
of plumes and embroidered stuffs, which
was often carried over the heads of kings
and important personages In modern
Europe such canopies are only used in
Roman Catholic processions.
Canted. (Arch ) A term used by car­
penters to denote that the angles of a
square have been cut off. Thus an oriel
is said to be a canted window.
Cantharas. A Greek two­handled vase
or cup, sacred to Bacchus, varying in
shape and size. On Greek vases Bacchus
is frequently represented as holding it in
his h and.
Cantilever. (Arch.) A projecting
bracket employed to support balconies,
cornices, &c.
Canting Arms. (Her.) Armorial de­
vices which fall under the definition
of a rebus (q.v .) . They abound in early
heraldry.
Canton. (Her.) May be regarded as a
diminutive of the quarter
(q.v.), and is one of the
honourable ordinaries. It
is placed in a corner of
the shield, usually the dex­
ter chief, and occupies a
third of the chief, or a ninth
of the shield If placed on ti e other side
of the shield it is called a canton sinister.
Cantoned. A cross or saltire is said to
be cantoned when it is placed between
four charges, or groups of charges. The

CAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAP
term is also employed to denote a single
charge in the first quarter of the shield.
Canvas. (Paint ) A material upon
which pictures in oil­colour are painted.
The canvas is placed on a stretcher (q.v .),
from which it may be removed if neces­
sary. In the language of critics and
historians of art a canvas means a pic­
ture. Thus we speak of a canvas of
Raphael. Special names are given to
canvases of special dimensions, such as
kit-cat (q
ν
), and bishops' length (q.v.) .
Cap-à -pie. (Her.) Said of a knight
armed head to foot.
Caparison. Armour or richly embroi­
dered stuff with which horses were
covered in the Middle Ages at the Re­
naissance.
Capital. An ornamental letter of a
large size, beginning
the first word of a
chapter. In editions
de luxe capitals are
generally decorated
with scrolls and
figures.
In ancient
ΠΒϋιΤυΤίΠίΙ
ί
manuscripts
they
yFfifc*"^^
were often red or
Ά
illuminated in the
""'
most brilliant colours.
They sometimes en­
croached upon the
margin and even the text of a page.
Capital. (Arch.) An ornament consist­
ing of various projecting mouldings,
placed at the summit of a column, pillar,
or pilaster.
—, Angular. A capital placed at the
angle of a pilaster supporting an entab­
lature.
— , Byzantine. The capitals in the
early times of Byzantine Art were very
simple in form, and were sometimes
decorated with palm leaves, flowers and
wreaths. The capitals of the decadence,
on the other hand, were decorated with
purely geometrical systems of ornament,
consisting of combinations of straight
lines and curves. Finally some Byzantine
capitals present examples of volutes orna­
mented with rosettes. But as a rule the
sculptured ornament is in very low relief
and sometimes the abacus is bevelled.
Capital, Composite. A Corinthian
capital
with
highly developed
volutes, which
closely resemble
those of the
Ionic capital,
with this diff­
erence, however,
that the four
sides of the capi­
tal are absolutely symmetrical. There
are very varied types of this capital,
which was held in high esteem by the
architects of the Italian Renaissance.
—, Corinthian. Corinthian capitals
are the richest
of the pure
orders, their
characteristic
being rows
of acanthus
leaves placed
one upon the
other with vo­
lutes above
them at each
corner supporting the projecting abacus.
The latter is not
square but hollow­
ed#out, so as to de­
scribe a concave
curve. There is in
existence a great
variety of Corinth­
ian capitals, the
handiwork not
only of Greek and
6­7

CAP
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAP
Roman artists, but also of the architects
of the Renaissance and the present day,
as the Corinthian order is the one which
has been most frequently employed in
the decoration of modern buildings.
Generally speaking, Greek Corinthian
capitals are more decorative than Roman,
and at the same time exhibit a remark­
able amplitude of line.
Capital, Doric. The Greek Doric
ρ
*.t
..
•—r, capital, which is the
I.·· · ·'
«..• • ....
Ν
tn|!»
*•
i­
··
\<J simplest of the clas­
sical orders, consists
of an abacus, an echi­
nus, and annulets, just
above the neck of the shaft. In Roman
buildings the echinus is replaced by an
ovolo moulding, an ogee is added to the
abacus, a cymatium and fillet is some­
times substituted for the simple form
of the abacus while
the delicate annulets
which separate the
echinus from the
neck of the shaft are
changed to astragals.
These modifica­
tions render the Roman Doric capital far
less graceful than the Greek, which should
always be regarded as the true type.
The total height of the Doric capital
should be equal to the length of the
radius of the base of the column.
—> Egyptian. The principal forms of
capitals in the Egyptian
style are a simple cube
without mouldings, or a
splayed vase or bell. They
are decorated with systems
of ornament, sculptured
and painted in bright colours, represent­
ing lotus flowers or hieratic figures or car­
touches with hieroglyphic inscriptions.
— , Indian. The system of ornament
on Indian capitals is of extraordinary
richness and variety. They can, how­
ever, be reduced to three types, in which
groups of figures, animals, and flowers
and foliage predominate respectively.
The general outline is sometimes quite
simple; the most frequent principle of
68
the Indian capital being a flattened
sphere surmounting consoles, which
diminish the bearing of the lintel.
Capital, Ionic. This capital is character­
ised by spiral
volutes placed
underneath
the abacus.
The profile of
the Greek
Ionic capital
is far more delicate than that of the
Roman Ionic. The latter is overcharged
with details of or­
nament. The Re­
naissance as well
as the 17th and
18th centuries pro­
duced some fine
examples of the Ionic capital, especially
from the point of view of profusion of
sculptured orna­
ments.
Among
the theories of
the origin of vo­
lutes, attention
should be called
to that which compares them to the
folds of a cushion interposed between
the shaft of the column and the abacus,
a theory which is precisely justified
by the lateral appearance of the volutes.
— , Latin. The capitals of Christian
basilicae from the 8th to the 10th cen­
tury are generally only heavy, clumsy
imitations of ancient capitals, and are
often decorated with palm­leaves or
other ornaments care­
ni less in execution and
barbarous in design.
—, Moorish. Capi­
tals of the Moorish
or Arabian style are
generally cubic in
form and are con­
nected by rounded
curves with the cylin­
drical shaft of the
column. They are
ornamented with astragals and sur­

CAP
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAP
mounted by an abacus, while their sur­
face is decorated with systems of orna­
ment consisting of floral and geometrical
designs.
Capital, Neo­Greek. A capital of a
column or pilaster conceived in a style
of architecture of modern origin, which
consists chiefly in cutting off the mould­
ings sharp and decorating the flat surface
thus obtained with floral ornaments
thinly incised.
— , Persian. The point of support in
capitals of the Per­
=­­. T
.­
—_­­ ­­> __ g^an
style gene­
rally takes the
form of the heads
of horses, uni­
corns, or bulls ter­
minated in volutes
and surmounting
cylindrical and
fluted shafts.
— , Pointed. The capitals which sur­
mount the pillars
in buildings of the
Pointed style are
rather projecting
copings reaching to
the spring of the arch
and corresponding to
the projection of the
columns, than capi­
tals properly so­
called. In the 12th
century they consisted of rows of buds,
which developed by degrees into crockets
and reached their full expansion in the
14 th century. In the 14th century capi­
tals were of so little importance as to be
hardly distinguishable ; in the middle of
the 15th century the capital disappeared
altogether, the ribs of the arch being
carried on to the pillars without any
break in the con­
tinuity. The most
marked
charac­
teristic of the
capitals of the
Pointed style is
the execution of
the foliage, which
is never conven­
tional, but as close
a reproduction as possible of the object
chosen for representation, and in nearly
every case drawn from the flora of the
locality.
Capital, Renaissance. All the capitals
used at the period of the Renaissance
are borrowed from the ancient orders,
but with modifications of proportion and
detail which give them a special charac­
ter. They are as a rule more richly
decorated with sculptured ornaments
than their prototypes.
­, Romanesque. The Romanesque
capitals of the nth century are splayed
in form and sometimes surmounted by
a double abacus and embellished with
ornaments. In
the 12th century
capitals were
decorated with foliage and became more
graceful in profile.
Some capitals of
69

CAP
this period are simply corbels, others
are decorated with grotesque and sym­
bolic figures, generally surmounted with
twisted foliage or volutes.
Capital, Tuscan. This capital is no­
thing more than a Doric capital stripped
of a great deal of its grace. It consists
of an ovolo moulding, an abacus and an
astragal separating the capital from the
shaft of the column.
In spite of its
inelegance it has been frequently used
by some architects of the Renaissance.
Cap of Maintenance. (Her.) This is
sometimes worn above the helmet in
place of a wreath. It is made of crimson
velvet ornamented with ermine,
Capitol. (Arch.) The citadel and tem­
ple of Jupiter at Rome. Later the term
was applied to the principal temple in
the cities of the Roman Empire.
Cappah Brown. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from a manganese peat, called
cappah. It is a useful colour and almost
permanent, but is adversely affected by
a strong light. This danger may be
obviated by mixing the pigment with a
permanent colour, such as umber or
Chinese black.
Caprices. A set of drawings or engrav­
ings, of which the grotesque subject and
original composition belong rather to the
realm of fancy and imagination than that
of observation. The caprices of Goya
are collections of engravings represent­
ing phantasmagoric scenes and halluci­
nations.
Carat. A special weight which is the
traditional standard in goldsmiths' work
and jewellery, and is also employed as
the measure of pearls and diamonds.
The weight of a carat is twenty­four
grains. The term carat is also applied
to small diamonds.
Caravanserai. (Arch.) A building in­
tended in the East for the use of tra­
vellers. It is in the form of a quad­
rangle, enclosing an immense courtyard.
Carbine. A fire­arm which was intro­
duced into this country in the 16th cen­
tury. Whence it came is uncertain, but
CAR
in all probability we owe it to the Span­
iards. It had a wheel lock and a wide
bore.
Carbon Process. The fixing of photo­
graphic proofs by the carbon process,
although it does not render them abso­
lutely unalterable, makes them far more
durable than those obtained with silvered
paper, as the powdered carbon is fixed
by means of an adhesive substance. Its
unsatisfactory feature is that it gives to
the proof a heavy look and destroys the
transparency of the shadow.
Carbuncle. A precious stone, a variety
of red garnet of extraordinary brilliance.
Carcanet, (Cost.) A necklace of pearls
or other precious stones.
Carcass. (Arch). The skeleton, either
of wood or iron, of buildings in general.
Carchesium. A Greek drinking vessel
furnished with two handles which ex­
?o
ART
DICTIONARY.

CAR
tend from the rim to the bottom In
form it somewhat resembles the modern
loving­cup. The term was also applied
to a portion of a Greek ship, which cor­
responded to our top. From the car-
chesium the sails were managed and
in it sailors stood to keep a look­out. It
got its name from its supposed likeness
to the drinking­cup.
Cardboard. A light card consisting of
sheets of paper pasted together through­
out their surface.
Cards. Playing cards are of great im­
portance in the history of art. They are
first heard of in Europe in the 14th cen­
tury, and no doubt the first packs were
simply painted by hand. At least so
we may infer from the very high price
paid for the pack made by Jacquemin
Gringonneur for Charles VI. of France.
The oldest ones still in existence are
stencilled. Cards, however, are chiefly
interesting to us because they influenced
or even led to wood­engraving. At any
rate the earliest wood­cuts that have
come down to us are playing cards.
The packs in use at present are copies
of those made in the 16th century, and
are generally produced by means of
lithography.
Caricature. An extravagant represen­
tation, in which reality is so far exag­
gerated as to become ridiculous and
grotesque. It has been practised in all
times as a method of satire. Egyptian
and Greek caricatures have come down
to us, while at Pompeii many burlesque
travesties of ancient myths were dis­
covered. In modern times caricature
has been freely used as a political
weapon, and Englishmen have reason to
be proud of their long line of caricatur­
ists from Rowlandson to Furniss.
Caricaturist. An artist who draws or
models caricatures.
Carmine. (Paint ) A bright rose red
colour. In water­colour painting car­
mine, when ultramarine, Prussian blue,
or indigo is added to it, produces rich
violet tints.
A few drops of carmine
CAR
added to a solution of Indian ink gives it
a warm tone. Oil and varnish protect it,
and as a rule it is permanent, being only
adversely affected by a strong light.
Sometimes it is obtained from the cochi­
neal insect, sometimes from madder.
Carnation. (Paint.) Flesh tints (q.v.) .
Carol. (Arch.) A small room or closet,
in which one might sit and read. In
monasteries carols were set apart for the
monks to study or illuminate missals in.
The recesses formed by a bay window
are also termed carols.
Carpentum. A carriage with two
wheels and an awning over it. It held
two or three persons, and could be
shut in with the awning when desired.
As a rule it was drawn by two mules,
and it was chiefly used by Roman
ladies.
Carpet. A woven fabric used for cover­
ing the floors of chambers. In the East
carpets were employed by Oriental
nations for sitting or reclining upon, or
for kneeling on while in prayer. They
existed in very early times in the East,
in Egypt and Persia for instance, and
were imported into Spain by the Moors.
From Spain they reached Venice, and
then spread all over Europe.
The
manufacture of carpets was introduced
into France from Persia in the reign of
Henri Quatre, while the celebrated fac­
tory at Beauvais, still in existence, was
established by Colbert, the minister of
Louis XIV., in 1664. A carpet factory
71
ART
DICTIONARY.

CAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAR
was established at Mortlake by James I.,
but it was unsuccessful. However the
manufacture flourished later at Wilton,
Kidderminster, and elsewhere in England.
There are two methods of carpet­making
In the first, the materials of the pattern
are knitted into the warp. This is fol­
lowed in Persian, Turkey, and Indian
carpets. In the second the pattern is
woven up in the loom. The latter is fol­
lowed in Kidderminster, Brussels, and
Wilton carpets. The carpet in a room
which contains much furniture should
be dark in tone, as it then forms the
most efficient background for the furni­
ture.
Carrara Marble. A white marble of
extraordinary beauty and brilliance ob­
tained from the quarries of Carrara in
Italy, and used by sculptors.
Cartisane. A small piece of parch­
ment, which was worked into ancient
embroideries of silk, gold, or silver
thread in order to obtain relief.
Cartoons. (Paint.) A name given to the
studies made by artists before they under­
take the execution of a picture or fresco.
As frescoes (q.v.) have to be executed
on a fresh ground, which renders any
retouching impossible, fresco painters
are obliged to make full­sized designs
which have only to be traced upon the
ground. The paper used for this pur­
pose was called in Italian
cartone.
Thence it became the custom to denote
by the term cartoon all preparatory
sketches of artists. Thus the designs
executed by Raphael to be carried out
in tapestry, and now in the South
Kensington Museum, are known as car­
toons.
Cartouche. An ornament with an
empty space in its centre to receive
an inscription, cipher, or emblem. Car­
touches sometimes consist of mouldings,
but more generally
of scrolls trimmed
with garlands,
flowers,
and fo­
liage. In the Gothic period cartouches
assumed the form of bannerolles with
their ends rolled up.
The richest and most
beautiful
cartouches
date from the Renais­
sance. Those of the
17th and 18th centuries are generally
too exuberantly decorated, but they
always bear
evidence of a
fertile imagi­
nation.
The
name
car­
touche is also
given to the
^TZMWxwit'vr-v
ovals
'
bearing
$2$Ë^W^^ hieroglyphic
*.
fcc^flfc'.s
instructions,
which were
placed in the tombs of Egyptian kings.
Cartridge Paper. A strong paper with
a rough surface much used for drawing
upon. It received its name from the
fact that it was originally employed in
the manufacture of gun cartridges.
Carving. The art of cutting wood and
ivory into beautiful forms and shapes is
called carving. Among the ancients
rude figures of the gods were carved in
wood. In the earliest works of sculp­
tured stone, the influence which wood­
carving had on the artist may easily be
discerned. The art of carving ivory was
carried to perfection by the Greeks, and
was particularly employed in the produc­
tion of chryselephantine statues (q.v .).
Throughout the Gothic period wood­
carving was cultivated with great suc­
cess, and especially applied to the deco­
ration of churches with stalls, screens,
rood­lofts, and canopies. At the Renais­
sance the details of classical architecture
were introduced into furniture and carved
in wood. Numberless cabinets, chairs,
and tables are in existence, both of the
Gothic and the Renaissance period,
which testify to the skill of wood­carvers.
The most celebrated wood­carver of more
modern times is perhaps Grinling Gib­
bons, to whom we owe the stalls of St.
72

CAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
CAS
Paul's Cathedral and many other master­
pieces. In the present day wood­carving
like all other handicrafts has fallen into
decay.
Caryatides. (Arch.)
Figures of women
which serve as a sup­
port and take the
place in
classical
buildings of columns
or pilasters The car­
yatides of the Pandro­
seion at Athens re­
present female figures
holding baskets of
fruit on their heads.
[Atlantes.]
Casement. (Arch.)
A frame, generally of
wood, which encloses
the glazing of a win­
dow and opens on a
hinge.
Casino. (Arch.) A collection of build­
ings in watering­places and sea­side
resorts on the Continent, which is used
as a kind of club, and includes ball, con­
cert, and gambling rooms.
Casque. A term applied to the head­
piece which came into vogue in England
in the reign of Henry VIII. It was not
intended to be worn in warfare, and was
not provided with a visor. It was fre­
quently elaborately carved and often
copied in shape from the antique. In
the language of poetry casque is a
6
general term for all forms of head­
guards.
Casquet. A small coffer, either com­
posed of or decorated with precious
materials, such as sweet­scented woods,
chased metals, gold, silver, enamels,
gems, &c. In the Middle Ages and at
the time of the Renaissance casquets
were made of iron with open panels
covered with leather or variously
coloured stuffs.
Casquetel. A small casque or helmet
with no visor, but a projection in front.
It afforded but little protection, and was
worn chiefly for display.
Cassock. This name was given to
several very dissimilar articles of dress.
Originally it appears to have been a
loose kind of coat, and was in the
17th century worn by hackney­coach­
men and others. In the 18th century it
was an overcoat worn by the gentry.
At the same time, from the 17th cen­
tury until the time of George II., the
cassock was the distinctive dress of the
clergy, and during the performance of
the service was worn by Protestant
priests at least under the academical
gown. In the present age it only sur­
vives as an ecclesiastical vestment.
Cast. (Sculp.) To cast is to reproduce
a work of sculpture from a mould.
Plaster is the material generally used in
73

CAS
casting. Gelatine is also employed, and
is valuable on account of its elasticity.
The term is also applied to a work of
sculpture thus reproduced ; for in­
stance, we speak of " a cast of the Venus
of Milo." The process of plaster­casting
is as follows. When the clay model,
which is the first step in a sculptor's
work, is finished it is covered with wet
plaster of Paris laid on in several pieces ;
the mould thus formed being called a
piece-mould. The plaster of Paris is
then removed in pieces and fitted to­
gether, so as to form a complete mould
of the clay model. Water and plaster
mixed is then poured over the inside
of the mould, and when the mould is
removed there is left a hollow cast of
the figure. [Founding and Lost Wax
Process.]
Castle. (Arch.) A fortified feudal
dwelling, also the palace of the feudal
lord. The fortified castles of the nth
and 12th centuries had a donjon sur­
rounded by fosses. In the 13th century
the circuit of the walls was extended
and was flanked by towers, while an
air of luxury was imparted to the por­
tion occupied as a dwelling by the lord.
The castles of the 15th century were
built with princely magnificence but
were no longer fortresses ; those of the
Renaissance were palaces.
Catacombs. Underground burial
places.
It was in the catacombs at
Rome that the Christians took refuge to
celebrate their services.
Catacombs
also exist at Syracuse, Palermo, and
Agrigentum, and in Tuscany and Etruria.
The catacombs of Paris were originally
stone quarries, but they contain an im­
mense quantity of bones regularly piled
up, coming from different cemeteries,
such as those of the Innocents and of
St. Eustace, as well as from the burying
grounds which surrounded churches
which have now been destroyed. Finally,
in the catacombs of Paris the remains
of those who fell in August, 1788, in
April, 1789, and September, 1792, have
CAT
been placed. In the catacombs of
Rome have been found a large number
of paintings, which constitute the first
attempts of Christian Art. The artists
who painted them are absolutely un­
known to us. They are hieratic or
symbolic representations, the value of
which was not the actual sign itself, but
the thing symbolised. Such, for in­
stance, is the fish (
ι
χ
θ
ν
ς
), the sign of
Christ ; the anchor, the symbol of hope ;
the dove, the symbol of the soul, &c.
From an investigation of these signs we
arrive at a mysterious writing, depend­
ing entirely on initial letters.
Catafalque. A richly decorated stage
set up in churches, on which coffins are
placed during funeral ceremonies.
Catalogue. A list of works of art
classified either alphabetically or accord­
ing to schools. The term is generally
applied to a list of works in a public or
private collection, or such as have been
got together for the purposes of ex­
hibition or sale.
—
Raisonné. A catalogue which not
only gives a list of works of art, but
describes their subject and style, and
discusses them from an historical point
of view.
—, To. To draw up the catalogue of
a collection of works of art. To cata­
logue works of art as completely as
possible, it is not only necessary to
quote the title of each object, but to
give its dimensions and description, to
mention its author and province, to
make out its genealogy, and where
possible to reproduce in facsimile the
signature or mark which exists upon it.
Catenary Curve. The curve formed by
a flexible body of uniform thickness,
suspended by its extremities from two
points in the same horizontal line. This
curve inverted is frequently employed
in arches, &c.
Cathedral. (Arch.) A cathedral church
is a church in which the cathedra, or
bishop's throne, is placed. Any conse­
crated building, therefore, may be con­
fier
DICTIONARY.
74

CAT
ART
DICTIONARY.
CEC
verted into a cathedral at any time by
placing a bishop's throne within its
walls. Considering the important office
discharged by a cathedral it is natural
that buildings of beauty and dignity
should, where possible, be chosen as
cathedral churches. But it must not be
supposed that a cathedral need differ,
architecturally speaking, in any respect
from an ordinary parish church.
Catherine, St. According to the legend
St. Catherine was an Egyptian princess,
who suffered martyrdom at the hands of
the Emperor Maximin or Maxentius
because she would not renounce the
Christian faith. She is said to have
been very beautiful, as well as learned
in all the science and philosophy of the
heathen. The Emperor attempted on
one occasion to break her to pieces on
wheels armed with sharp spikes, but the
wheels were destroyed with fire from
heaven, and the spikes flew about and
killed three thousand people.
Mrs.
Jameson holds that the legend of St.
Catherine is based upon the story of
Hypatia, who suffered martyrdom at
Alexandria, not at the hands of heathen
tyrants, but of Christian fanatics. St.
Catherine is represented over and over
again in art. Her attributes, besides
the wheel, which particularly belongs
to her, are a palm, a sword, a crown, and
a book. Her marriage with the Infant
Christ, symbolising the union of her soul
with Christ, was a favourite subject with
painters, especially during the 16th cen­
tury. Representations of it are in ex­
istence by Perugino, Correggio, Titian,
Vandyck, and others,
Cat's Eye. A stone of a yellowish or
greenish hue, fur­
rowed with rays
of
a
brilliant
green.
Caul icoli.
(Arch.)
Stalks
which spring from
between the folds
of the acanthus leaves in the Corinthian
capital and curl round the volutes which
support the abacus.
Causia. (Cost.)
A broad ­ brimmed
hat worn by Roman
fishermen and adopt­
ed by them from the
Macedonians, who in­
vented it. Represen­
tations of it are found
on vases and other
works of art.
Cavaedium. (Arch.) The hollow or
open part of a Roman house. The
Romans in early times built their houses
in the form of a small quadrangle, thus
leaving an empty space in the middle,
and it is this empty space which was
called the cavaedium.
Cavetto. (Arch.)
A concave moulding,
which generally has
a quarter of a circle
as its profile. It is
principally a cornice
moulding.
Cavo­relievo. (Sculp.) A method of
carving in relief,
in which the
highest part is on
a level with the
surface
of the
stone, and the
lowest part is de­
pressed consider­
ably below it·
This method of
sculpture was
chiefly practised
by the Egyptians, and our cut represents
an Egyptian work.
Cecilia, St., was a Roman who lived
in the reign of Alexander Severus. She
was educated in the Christian faith by
her parents, and being gifted with a
genius for music she composed and
sang hymns, and is said to have in­
vented the organ. She suffered martyr­
dom in Rome soon after her husband
and his brother had been put to death
75

CEI
ART
DICTIONARY.
CEN
for professing the Christian faith. The
executioner sent to put her to death
trembled so that he failed to carry out
his purpose, and having wounded her
left her to die. In early representations
of St. Cecilia the saint appears simply
holding a palm­branch; after the 15th
century she is generally painted with her
musical instruments, and from that time
she is regarded almost exclusively as
the patroness of music.
Ceiling. (Arch.) The ceiling is the
covering of a roof or floor, which hides
its timbers from the room below.
It
may be of timber or plaster.
It is
generally of the latter in the present
day. The timber ceilings of the Middle
Ages, especially those in churches, were
often richly gilded and brilliant with
colour. The use of piaster in ceilings
came in with the revival of the classical
style about the time of James I.
Celadon. (Pot.) This term was origin­
ally applied only to the sea­green colour
upon old Oriental porcelain. Pieces of
this colour ,are extremely rare and of
great antiquity. The term is now
applied to all porcelain in which the
colour is mixed with the glaze and
burnt in at the first firing.
Celebe. (Gk.
κ
ε
λ
έ
β
η
.) The name of cer­
tain Greek vases, elegant in
form, with two handles and
a foot. Some are quite plain
while others have their sur­
face richly decorated.
Cella. (Arch.) The sanctuary in
ancient temples.
Our
illustration represents
the plan of an ancient
temple, and the part
enclosed within black
lines is the cella.
A
magazine or store room
on the ground­floor of a Roman house.
A name given to the separate chambers
variously heated in ancient baths.
Celt. The term celt is applied to
hatchets, adzes, and chisels of stone,
which were once used as implements in
76
nearly every part of the world. It was
long held that the instruments called
celts were so termed because they were
made by the Celtic nations. But this
derivation has been given up, and it is
now generally recognised that the word
is only an anglicised form of the Latin
celtis, a chisel. The period at which
they were used is so remote that for
centuries a superstition has been in
existence that celts were not fashioned
by human hands, but were in reality
thunderbolts, and fell from heaven. In
every part of the world they have been
held in reverence as of supernatural
origin, and called thunderbolts or light­
ning stones. Medical virtues have been
ascribed to them. In some countries
they are said to keep off the cattle­
plague, in others to purify wells.
They are generally made of flint, but
sometimes of quartz, porphyry, jasper,
and other stones. In length they vary
from two to sixteen inches. They be­
long to what is called the Neolithic age,
which carries us back to a time when the
use of bronze and iron was unknown.
They, as well as the moulds in which
they were made, have been found in
large numbers in every part of the globe.
Cement. (Arch.) A mixture of lime
and some hard substance, thoroughly
crushed, or of sand, puzzolana, and lime.
It is used to bind solid bodies to­
gether.
— , Roman. (Arch.) A cement obtained
from the crushing of special stones.
On being soaked in water it forms a
soft paste, which rapidly hardens in the
air.
Cenaculo. [Last Supper.]
Cendal. A silk stuff, of which banners
and rich vestments were made in the Mid­
dle Ages.
Cenotaph. A monument raised to the
memory of a dead person, whose mortal
remains are elsewhere.
Censer. A metal vessel for burning
incense. Over the cup where the incense
burns is an ornamental open­work cover,

CEN
ART
DICTIONARY.
CER
and the whole is supported by chains
attached to the
cup. In the
Gothic period
censers
were
AWIML·
decorated with
mullioned open­
ings. In the
17th and 18th
centuries the
covers
were
often dome­
shaped, and the
cups were ornamented with statuettes
standing at the points where the chains
were attached.
Centaur. (Myth.) A fabulous being,
half man, half horse, often introduced
by Egyptians, Etruscans, Greeks, and
Romans into their bas­reliefs, and form­
ing the subject of numerous works of art.
The artists of the Renaissance and
modern times have also given us repre­
sentations of this mythological figure, the
human torso placed upon the body of a
horse affording an opportunity for gran­
deur of line. Centaurs are sometimes re­
presented on Greek vases with their fore
feet human. The female centaur was
a later invention and is more rarely
represented in works of art.
Centre. In geometry the centre is
a point within the cir­
cumference of a circle,
all lines drawn from
which to the circumfer­
ence are equal. The
term is also applied to
the central point in a picture and to the
spot in a painting where the effect of
light is concentrated. Thus we speak of a
luminous centre, or of a composition the
centre of which is not distinctly marked.
Centre. A temporary structure of wood
upon which arches
are built. For small
arches centres con­
sist simply of pieces
of wood cut to the
curve of the arch and supported under
it by props. For longer arches, such
as tunnels, the centres are composed
of several upright curved frames or
ribs, joined together by narrow battens
nailed across them horizontally and
called laggings ; the whole being sup­
ported by struts resting either on the
ground, or, if the arch is high, on corbels
introduced into the side walls. Between
the top of each strut and the rib which
it supports is placed a pair of small
wedges of wood, which can be easily
withdrawn. By this device it is possible
to ease the centre before the masonry is
quite set. The two wedges are driven
slightly outwards, thus allowing the rib
to sink a little. This causes the whole
of the arch to settle slightly and uni­
formly and to take its bearing, the mor­
tar being compressed in the joints.
When the mortar has completely set,
the centres are removed together.
Ceramic. The ceramic art is the art
of manufacturing objects of all sorts in
every kind of clay, and of decorating
them by means of painting or modelling
or both. The difference in the quality
of clay and the variety of decorative
processes have given rise to a variety of
products. Under the general name of
ceramics we include (1) bricks, tiles,
terra­cotta, and common pottery ; (2)
faïences ; (3) stone-ware ; (4) porcelain.
The ceramic art occupies in conse-
quence a very important place among
the decorative arts.
It is allied to
architecture on the one hand, and to
painting and sculpture on the other.
[Pottery.]
77

CER
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHA
Ceramography. The historical and
technical study of the ceramic art.
Cerberus. The three­headed dog
which guarded the entrance to Hades.
He fawned on those who entered, but
showed his teeth to those who went out.
Representations of him are found on
painted vases.
Ceres. [Demeter.]
Cerography. Painting on wax.
Ceroplastic. The art of modelling in
wax. This art was practised by the
ancients and by artists of the Renais­
sance, whose wax figures were often
coloured and heightened in effect with
gold tints. Among the finest specimens
of ceroplastic are Michael Angelo's
studies, which are to be seen in the
South Kensington Museum. The art
was cultivated until the end of the 18th
century, and Benoξt's portrait of Louis
XIV. is a justly celebrated masterpiece.
In spite of occasional attempts to revive
it in our own century it has practically
died out from an artistic point of view.
It is now principally used for scientific
purposes, such as the construction of
anatomical figures, many of which are
to be seen in museums of anatomy.
Modern waxwork exhibitions have no
connection whatever with art.
Cerostrotum. A method of encaustic
painting on ivory, in which furrows were
cut in the ivory with a heated cestrum or
etching needle, and then filled up with
wax. This is the explanation generally
given of the process, but the whole sub­
ject is shrouded in obscurity.
Cerulean. (Paint.) Azure­tinted, of
a fine transparent blue colour.
Ceruse. (Paint.) Pure carbonate of
lead, out of which the pigment ceruse or
white lead is manufactured.
Cervelas. Red marble veined with
white.
Cestus. The cestus was the boxing­
glove of the Romans. It consisted of a
thong of leather wound round and round
the hand and wrist. Sometimes the
leather was studded with iron bosses,
which rendered the cestus a dangerous
weapon. Representations
of boxers armed with the c
cestus are very common J
in Roman art.
Chair. The chair of to­
day is generally a seat with
a back and no arms. The
chairs used in the 13th cen­
tury, on the contrary, had
arms and no back, and
were placed against the
wall with pieces of richly
wrought tapestry behind them. In the
15th, 16th, and 17th centuries high­
backed chairs be­
came fashionable ;
these gave way in
the 18th century to
chairs with oval
backs. Iron chairs
with trellis­work
seats are the in­
vention of our own
period, and have
superseded rustic
seats of wood or
stone. For the
furniture of our houses we have produced
no new form of chair, but have been con­
tent to imitate with some measure of
success the style of former times.
— , Curule. A seat inlaid with ivory,
granted as a privilege to consuls, prae­
tors, and curule aediles at Rome. The
curule chair had bent legs in the shape
of the letter X, and was made to fold up.
— , Sedan. A vehicle much used in the
17th and 18th centuries, consisting of a
glass body containing a seat, and carried
by two men by means of straps and two
long poles. Sedan chairs were frequently
ornamented with paintings and sculptured
reliefs picked out with gold, and many of
them are masterpieces of decorative art.
Chair­rail. The rail which runs round a
room at a height of three or four feet from
the floor and prevents the backs of the
chairs from injuring the wall decorations.
Chalcedony. A milky white agate,
78

CHA
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHA
striped or veined with different colours,
used by engravers of precious stones.
Chalcography. (Engrav.) The art of
engraving on copper.
Chalcotype. (Engrav.) A process of
engraving in relief on copper, invented
by the German Heims in 1851.
Chalet. (Arch.) A rustic house with bal­
conies and galleries of carved wood, built
in imitation of Swiss houses of planks
and trunks of trees and covered with a
roof which projects over the façade.
Chalice. A sacramental vessel used
at holy mass for the con­
secration of the wine. It
is a deep cup mounted
on a stem, and of all reli­
gious vessels is the one
which has given the most
opportunity to the imagi­
nation of decorative
artists.
Some chalices
are
ornamented
with
precious stones and enamels.
Chalk. (Paint.) A white calcareous
substance, which is used in distemper
painting. Chalk in the shape of a crayon
is also used to draw the outlines of a
composition on a canvas.
Chamber. (Arch.) A room or apart­
ment in a house, generally a room in
which a bed is placed.
Chambers. (Arch.) A term applied to
a set of rooms, which can be used either
as offices or as a residence for bachelors.
For instance, the set of rooms in the Inns
of Court are invariably called chambers.
Chambranle. (Arch.) A slightly pro­
jecting casing, either plain or consisting
of a collection of mouldings. It fol­
lows the outline of
a real or pretended
rectangular opening,
such as a door, win­
dow, &c.
Chamfer. (Arch.)
A small surface in a
wall, formed by flat­
tening a right angle
so as to get rid of a sharp corner, which
would be easily broken or damaged. A
right angle is thus replaced by two ob­
tuse angles.
Chamfron. A
piece of armour
generally of steel
used to protect the
head of a war­
horse from the
ears to the nose.
Though appa­
rently known to
the Persians and
Greeks in ancient
times the cham­
fron did not ap­
pear in modern
Europe until the
15th century.
Champagne. (Her.) A French term
used to describe a charge
which occupies the lower
third portion of the shield.
This charge is hardly
known in English heraldry,
but is frequently employed
in German coats­of­arms.
Champ-levé. A process of enamelling
in which furrows are cut in the metal
plate in accordance with the design
adopted, and the enamel colours in­
serted in these furrows. The colours
are thus separated from one another by
a thin band of metal with a sharp edge,
and cannot mix in the firing.
Chancel. (Arch.) The chancel in a
catholic church is that part of the choir
near the altar where the deacons or sub­
deacons stand to assist the officiating
priest. It is generally shut off by a rail.
Channel. (Arch.) The groove in cop­
ings or volutes,
and, generally
speaking, any
surface obtained
by cutting out the
body of the
moulding. Some channels deeply hol­
lowed out are bordered by a projecting
fillet.
79

CHA
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHA
Chantry Chapel. A small chapel built
over the grave of one who had left a
chantry or endowment for the chanting
of masses for his soul. The practice of
bequeathing money for the building of
a chantry chapel was frequent before the
Reformation, and many of these chan­
tries are to be seen in our abbey churches.
There are several at St. Albans.
Chape. A tip or case of metal fixed
on the scabbard of a sword or dagger
to strengthen it. In the 13th and 14th
centuries chapes were quite plain, but
those which belong to the 16th century
are often elaborately decorated.
Chapel. (Arch.) A religious building
of small size, either isolated or annexed
to, and so forming part of, a church.
When, however, they belong to palaces,
mansions, colleges, &c, buildings of
whatever size are termed chapels. These
chapels are of course often of large
dimensions and exquisite architecture.
Such is the Sistine Chapel belonging to
the Vatican, which contains Michael
Angelo's " Last Judgment," and such are
the chapels which form part of the
colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
Chapels annexed to a church are rare in
Byzantine architecture. They appear in
Romanesque churches under the name
of apsidal chapels, and as time goes on
increase in number and extent. In the
12th century chapels which appear square
outside have often a polygonal interior.
In the 13th century chapels of large
dimensions, and dedicated to the Virgin,
were frequently built on to the end of
a church. These were termed Lady
Chapels. Some churches have chapels
attached to them not only round the
choir but round the side aisles.
—
of the Dead. (Arch.) A chapel
built in the Middle Ages in the midst of
a burying place or cemetery. It was
frequently nothing but a simple canopy
of stone supported by columns and
sheltering an altar.
— , Sepulchral. (Arch) A chapel
annexed to a church or subterranean
crypt (q.v .) in which the dead were
buried.
Chapelle­de­fer. An iron hat used
by knights in the
Middle Ages as a
protection for the
head. Its pecu­
liarity was its
brim,
which,
though narrow in
the 13th century,
grewg radually
broader.
The
crown was at first
flat, then it fol­
lowed the shape of the head, and finally
assumed a conical form.
When the
bascinet (q.v.) was introduced, knights
abandoned the chapelle­de­fer.
Chaperon. (Her.) A French heraldic
term signifying a hood, such
as knights used to wear
under their helmets.
In
ta England the term is con­
fined to little shields bear­
ing death's­head and other devices that
used to be placed on the foreheads of
horses at ceremonious funerals.
Chapiter. (Arch.) An old term for
the capital of a column.
aplet. (Arch.) A moulding decorated
with pearls or small rosettes threaded
together.
Chapter­house. The meeting place of
the canons of a cathedral church.
Character. By this word we denote
both the originality of a work of art and
its general effect. When we say that a
landscape has character we mean that it
has fine outlines. A work of art lacks
character when it is trivial or common­
place and fails to impress the spectator.
Charcoal. Charcoal either manu­
factured into crayons or in its rough
state is used for drawing purposes. It
is prepared by burning wood, especially
80

CHA
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHA
box and willow, in a close furnace. The
term is also applied to drawings executed
in this medium. Thus we speak of a
charcoal drawing.
Charge. (Her.) Any heraldic figure re­
presented in a coat of arms. [Ordinary.]
Charge. A French term applied to a
composition, or more often a portrait, in
which individual peculiarities are accen­
tuated so as to become grotesque. The
charges of Callot are celebrated. [Cari­
cature] .
Charged. (Her.) A shield carrying
some figure is said to be charged, and in
the same way a figure may be charged
by superposing some other figure upon it.
Chariot. An ancient carriage mounted
on two wheels and entered from behind.
The chariot, in the allegorical art of to­
day, has a triumphal signification.
Charities. [Graces.]
Charm. [Amulet.]
Charnel­house. (Arch.) A gallery or
covered place annexed to a cemetery,
where the bones of the dead were placed
in the Middle Ages.
Charon. In Greek mythology the ferry­
man appointed by the gods to take the
souls of the departed across the river
Styx. Repiesentations of him are to be
seen on Greek vases and stelae.
Charter­house. (Arch.) A special
building or hall where charters, titles,
and other manuscripts of historic interest
and great value are kept.
Chasing. The art of embossing metal
and then cutting or chasing it with a
graver. The art of chasing was much
practised by the ancients, and the names
of several Greek artists who practised
this branch with success have come
down to us. One of these named Mys
was famous for having made a chariot
and horses which a fly could cover with
its wings. The art of chasing was of
importance in the creation of those
masterpieces of art, the chryselephan­
tine statues, the gold portion being
elaborately chased. In the great period
of Italian art many gold and silver
vessels were exquisitely chased. The
great master of the art in this period
was Benvenuto Cellini. There are some
indications at the present time that this
long neglected art is coming once more
into favour.
Chasuble. An
ecclesiastical
vestment worn by
all grades of the
Roman Catholic
clergy. It is very
simple in form,
being a circular
piece of cloth
with a hole in the
middle, through
which the head
is thrust. It is
put on last and
covers all the
other vestments.
In early times it
was the same
length before as
behind, but in
the nth century
the front was considerably shorter than
the back. Soon afterwards, however, it
81

CHE
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHI
regained its symmetrical form, and un­
derwent no further change. It was fre­
quently richly ornamented. The modern
chasuble does not conform in any re­
spect to the true model. Our second
cut is from Rubens' picture of Ignatius
Loyola.
Cheeky. (Her.) A term used to de­
|τ ­η
~| scribe a shield divided into
[j04 small squares. There are
generally six
rows
of
squares, and if there are
less the fact should be
specified in describing the
shield.
Chef d'oeuvre. [Masterpiece.]
Cheiron. In Greek mythology Cheiron
is the kindly centaur to whom Achilles
and Jason owed their education.
He
possessed nothing in common with the
centaurs except his shape, and was
skilled in all the
sciences and arts.
Cheniscus. An
ornament in the
shape of a goose's
head which was
affixed sometimes
to the prow, some­
times to the stern
of ancient vessels­
It is very often
met with in re­
presentations of
ships on classical
monuments. One
istobeseenon
Trajan's column.
Cherub. The head of an angel emerg­
ing from two wings em­
ployed as a painted or
sculptured ornament. In
the 17th and 18th cen­
tuiies these figures were frequently em­
ployed, and sometimes they are found
on monuments of colossal proportions.
Chesnut. A dark red brown colour.
Chest. A piece of furniture which
serves the double purpose of a large
coffer in which to store linen and of a
bench to sit upon. It was the most im­
portant item in the household furniture
of the Middle Ages. In early times it
was simple in form
and only decorated
by ornamental
iron­work. In the
14th and 15th cen­
turies its panels were richly carved and
it was raised upon legs.
Chevet. [Apse.]
Chevron. (Her.) The chevron is formed
by two bands one­fifth or one­
third the width of the shield,
issuing respectively from the
dexter and sinister bases of
the shield and conjoined at
r
<3" the centre or rather above
it. The point of the chevron should not
touch the top of the shield as in the cut.
The term chevron is also applied to a
very simple decoration of a geometric
pattern consisting of a series of lines in­
clined to one another at a certain angle.
It is the most ancient ornament and is
found in prehistoric and savage drawings.
Chevronel. (Hér.) A diminutive of
the chevron.
Chevronny. (Her.) Used to describe
a shield divided by a number of lines or
strips in the form of chevrons.
Chiaroscuro. (Paint.) The art of dis­
tributing light and shade in a picture,
and especially of enveloping the figures
or other parts of the scene represented
in transparent half­tints or shadows very
fine in tone. Rembrandt above all ex­
celled in the rendering of the effects of
chiaroscuro. The term is also applied,
but very rarely, to drawings in camaieu
(q.v .) In former times a drawing or
82

CHI
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHI
picture in chiaroscuro meant a drawing
executed in monochrome, and depend­
ing for its effect entirely on the contrast
of light and dark tints.
Chic. A word of wide application very
often used in artistic slang, and generally
indicating either skilful execution or an
effect far removed from the conventional
or commonplace.
Chicory. The water­colour painters of
1830 gave this name to a colour of a
reddish yellow tone, not sold in the shops,
which they obtained by evaporating what
was left after four consecutive hours' boil­
ing of a packet of common chicory burnt
and diluted in a quart of water.
The
colour thus obtained was bituminous in
tone, like sepia, and closely resembled
the pigments employed in the style of
oil­painting then in vogue.
Chief. (Her.) The chief is an ordinary
which occupies the upper
third portion of a shield,
and is considered the most
honourable of ordinaries.
It has one diminutive called
the fillet, which is one­fourth
of the size of the chief.
When any charge is placed in the upper­
most part of the shield it is said to be in
chief.
Chilled. (Paint.) The varnish on a
picture is said to have chilled when it
becomes dim and cloudy. This defect is
generally caused by moisture.
Chimaera. A fabulous monster, de­
scribed in Homer as having the head of
a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of
a dragon. Fantastic animals with the
head of a bird, the winged body of a lion,
or the figure of a man, and various other
chimerical combinations were employed
in the Middle Ages as subjects for decora­
tion either painted or sculptured. The
chimaeras of the Renaissance were em­
ployed as caryatids or supports in pieces
of furniture, &c. Fine examples are also
found on the frames of mirrors or borders
of tapestry, placed in the midst of foliage
and terminated in fantastic scrolls.
Chimney­back. (Arch ) The plate of
metal placed at the bottom of a fire­place.
The space between the hearth and the
joints.
Chimney­hood. (Arch.) A mantel­
piece in the shape of
a pyramid. The chim­
neys of the Middle
Ages present many
examples of hoods
richly decorated with
arcadesand sculptured
ornaments. The chim­
ney­hoods of the period of the Renais­
sance are vertical, but are even more
extravagantly ornamented.
Chimney­piece. (Arch.) The chimney­
piece was once
an
important
element in the
decoration of a
room. To­day it
is generally set
into the wall or
concealed in its
thickness, and
consists of no­
thing more than
a marble frame,
sometimes richly
carved and surmounted by panels em­
bellished with mirrors and paintings.
The chimney­pieces of the Middle Ages
were, on the contrary, monuments of art.
Above the shelf, which was supported by
a chambranle of large enough dimensions
io allow a man to walk under it with ease,
83

CHI
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHI
appeared the funnel or flue, pyramidal
in shape and decorated with bas­reliefs,
arcades, and a thousand other deli­
^SS/-
cately sculptured ornaments, sometimes
painted or heightened in effect with
gilding. The chimney­pieces of the 12th
and 13th centuries were very simple and
strong in outline. In the 15th and 16th
they were extraordinarily rich In the
17th and 18th centuries they were deco­
rated with pilasters and scrolls, while the
funnel was replaced by vertical panels.
China. Pottery made of a transparent
paste and originally brought to Europe
from China.
Chinese Paper. A fine yellow­tinted
paper, manufactured from bamboo fibre,
used for taking proofs of engravings. It
is generally called India paper (q.v .)
Chinese White. (Paint ) A white
pigment prepared from oxide of zinc.
It is not thoroughly satisfactory in oil­
painting, but is the best white for use
in water­colour. It is permanent under
all circumstances.
Chin­piece. (Engrav.) A piece of linen
or cardboard, somewhat resembling a
gag, worn on the mouth by wood en­
gravers. The object of it is to pre­
vent the breath from spoiling the
drawing ink. Lithographers also employ
84
chin­pieces, for breath speedily con­
denses on the sui face of the stone,
dilutes the ink or crayon, and seriously
interferes with the work.
Chippendale. A name applied igno­
rantly to almost all the furniture pro­
duced in England in the last century.
Thomas Chippendale, who has given
his name to so many chairs and tables
to which he never put his hand, was a
native of Worcestershire and a cabinet­
maker.
His designs are somewhat
heavy and clumsy and are generally
imitated with a leaning towards the
classical style from the French. Chip­
pendale furniture should be distinguished
from the slender and graceful produc­
tions of Sherraton.
Chisel. (Sculp.) An instrument of iron
or steel with a sharp be­
velled edge, used as a
cutting tool by sculptors.
It may be either straight
or bent. The word is
also applied to the
sculptor's art: thus we
say that a sculptor has
a delicate chisel when his work is
executed with fine feeling. The chisel
and the brush are used absolutely to in­
dicate the arts of sculpture and painting.
A cutting tool with a handle of wood
and a bevelled point is also called a
chisel.
Chiton. (Cost.) The chiton was the
garment worn next the skin by both men
and women in Greece. It consisted of
an oblong piece of cloth which was closed
on one side, only a hole being left for the
arm to be put through. On the other
side it was open, though sometimes the
ends below the thigh were stitched to

CHL
ART
DICTIONARY.
CHO
gether, and the upper ends were fastened
together by a clasp. Round the waist it
was fastened by a girdle, over which,
when the chiton was long, it was drawn
up so as to fall in graceful folds.
Chlamys. (Cost.) The chlamys was an
oblong piece of cloth thrown over the left
shoulder, and fastened by a brooch on
the right. The ends were kept in their
place by small weights attached to them.
It was worn by the youth of Athens
when they attained the age of an ephebus,
and was the distinctive dress of traveller
and soldier.
Choir. (Arch.) The part of a church
reserved for the clergy. In Latin
churches the choir was at the crossing.
At the end of the 12th century the choir
was extended and was placed in front of
the sanctuary below the apse of the
church. In the 13th and 14th centuries
the choir was closed by a wood roof and
surrounded by a cloister. Within this
cloister were placed the stalls, while
outside it was decorated with arcades
sometimes containing painted and gilded
bas­reliefs.
Chopine. A wooden clog or stilt worn
under the foot. The fashion of wearing
chopines came from Italy to England, and
prevailed in the 15th and 16th century.
In Venice the custom of wearing them
was universal, but they never became
popular in England. Shakespeare men­
tions the chopine in Hamlet, act ii. sc . 2 :
" Your ladyship is nearer heaven than
when I saw you last by the altitude of a
chopine."
Choragic Monu­
ment. (Arch) A
choragic monumen c
was a small monu­
ment erected to
hold the tripod
which was awarded
to the choragus who
furnished the suc­
cessful chorus in
the theatrical re­
presentations at
Athens.
It was
sometimes merely a pillar, at others a
85

CHO
ART DIC
small temple. The best specimen of a
choragic monument is that of Lysicrates
which stood in the Street of the Tripods
at Athens. It consists of a small rotunda
upon a square base, and has six fluted
Corinthian columns bearing a frieze
representing the transformation of the
Tyrrhenian pirates into dolphins.
Choragium. A room where the cos­
tumes and properties were kept in an
ancient theatre.
Chord. A straight line which joins the
extremities of an arc of a circle.
Chrism. The monogram of Christ
painted or engraved on religious monu­
ments. This monogram consists of a
X and a P interwoven, the first letters of
the word XPI2T02. This monogram is
often complicated by the insertion of the
letters A and
Ω
in the lateral angles of
the X. In the fifth century the
Ρ
dis­
appeared, at the same time the three
letters i.H .s. began to be substituted for
XP.
Chrismatory. A vessel used in the
Roman Catholic Church to contain the
consecrated oil, which was termed
chrism.
Christ. The crucifix and image of
Christ on the cross. Thus we speak of
the Christ of Vandyke, of Rembrandt,
meaning well­known pictures by cele­
brated artists.
Christina, St. Christina is a purely
legendary saint, and the legend concern­
ing her has been rejected by the Catholic
Church. She is said to have been the
daughter of a Roman patrician named
Urbanus. She was early converted to
the Christian faith and adopted the name
Christina.
She incurred her father's
displeasure, says the legend, by breaking
up his idols of gold and silver, and distri­
buting them among the poor. He ordered
her to be thrown into the lake of Bolsena
with a mill­stone round her neck, but
the mill­stone proved a support to her,
and she was not drowned. She is said
to have at last won the crown of martyr­
dom, being shot to death by the arrows
86
CHR
of Roman soldiers. Her proper attribute
is the mill­stone, but she is sometimes
represented bearing arrows and the
crown of martyrdom
Christopher, St. According to the
legend St. Christopher was a Canaan­
itish giant named Offero, whose desire it
was to serve the most powerful king in
the world. A hermit urged him to serve
Christ by dwelling on the banks of a tur­
bid stream and helping wayfarers to cross
it. At length one night he heard a child's
voice calling to him, " Christopher, carry
me over this night. "
He raised the in­
fant on his shoulders, but soon found
his burden growing heavier and heavier,
and at last tottered beneath the weight.
When finally he reached the opposite
bank he found that he had borne Christ,
and henceforth was called Christopher.
He suffered martyrdom at Samos, and
is represented in art with the infant
Christ on his shoulders.
Chromatics. That portion of optics
which treats of the diffusion, the decom­
position and recomposition of light, the
rays of the spectrum, the theory of
colours, and the particular properties of
coloured rays. The term is also applied
to the method of employing and arrang­
ing colours in painting.
Chrome Green. (Paint) A pigment
obtained from oxide of chromium. It is
of a dark green colour and of great per­
manence.
— , Yellow. (Paint ) A pigment ob­
tained from chromate of lead. The
lead is too much acted upon by oils for
the colour to be permanent. In tint
with white it becomes a grey.
Chromolithography. The process of
lithographic printing in several colours.
The drawing is executed in portions on
as many different stones as there are
colours required, then by means of suc­
cessive printings, in the course of which
the colours are superposed the one on
the other and combine, reproduction's of
oil­paintings, water­colours, and minia­
tures may be obtained. It is in its
TIONARY.

CHR
ART
DICTIONARY.
CIB
application to the last­named that chro­
molithography has obtained its best
results.
Chromotype. The art of printing in
several colours by means of typographic
processes.
Chromotypography. A process of
printing in colour analogous to chromo­
lithography, with this difference that the
prints are struck off typographically, that
is from relief blocks.
Chryselephantine. A term applied to
works of sculpture executed in ivory,
gold, and other precious metals Chrys­
elephantine statues were much esteemed
in Greece. The Athene of the Parthenon
as well as the Zeus Olympius, both from
the hand of Pheidias, were chryselephan­
tine statues of colossal size. In modern
times the sculptor Simart, at the instance
of the Duke de Luynes, has attempted
to restore the Athena of the Parthenon,
and his work was exhibited at the Uni­
versal Exhibition of 1855.
Chrysographer. An illuminator who,
in the Middle Ages, traced in letters of
gold or silver initials, inscriptions to
miniatures, and sometimes whole manu­
scripts.
Chrysography. The art of tracing
characters by means of gold or silver
ink on parchment, which was sometimes
purple­tinted. Chrysography was much
pursued as an art up to the 10th century
In the nth and 12th centuries letters of
gold occur, with less frequency, but they
came into vogue again in the 14th, 15th,
and 16th centuries.
Chrysolite. A precious stone of a
yellow colour.
Chrysoprase. A green agate shaded
with yellow.
Church. A building consecrated for
Christian worship. Churches are gene­
rally cruciform, and are either in the
shape of a Greek cross, when the four
branches are equal, or of a Latin cross,
in which case the nave is longer than
either the chancel or transepts.
— , Collegiate. A church which pos­
sesses a chapter of canons, but is not the
seat of a bishopric. Such was the church
of St. Mary the Virgin at Manchester,
before it became a cathedral.
Church, Conventual. A church at­
tached to a convent.
— , Metropolitan. A church which is
the seat of an archbishop.
—, Bound. A church the ground plan
of which is circular. This is a very rare
form. The best known examples are the
Temple Church in London and St.
Saviour's at Cambridge.
Church Bells. (Her.) When church
bells are borne as an he­
raldic charge they are al­
ways represented in per­
spective and the clapper
should be visible below the
rim of the bell, while the
shank should be seen at the top. The
bell and the clapper need not be of the
same tincture ; thus, a church bell argent
with a clapper sable.
Ciborium. A sacred vase in the shape
of a covered chalice,
either gold or gilt in­
side, in which the
host was kept. The
term is also applied
to a baldachino
covering an altar, or
to the tabernacle of
the high altar.
In
some Christian basi­
licae the ciborium
was of gold or silver,
and was an elegant
structure generally supported by four
columns and with its openings veiled by
curtains of rich material. Other ciboria
«7

CIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
CIP
were made of marble or stone. Some
Romanesque churches retained the use
of the ciborium as late as the 13th cen­
tury, but it is unknown in pointed
churches.
Cincture. A term applied in furniture
to certain surfaces decorated with sys­
tems of ornament. Thus, for example,
the cincture of a table is the vertical
portion reaching beneath the horizontal
slab and forming a sort of frieze, sup­
ported by the feet.
Cincture of a Column. (Arch.) A
squared moulding or a fillet bound by an
apophyge (q.v.) placed at the summit
and foot of a column. The term is also
applied to the foliage ornament which
separates the fluted portion from the
plain in the truncated columns which
were used in the 17th and the 18th
centuries to decorate the high altar 'in
churches.
Cinerary Urn. An urn in which in an­
cient times the ashes of the dead were
placed. It was set up in a niche pre­
pared for it in a mausoleum, and was
sometimes of clay and sometimes of
stone or marble.
Cinnabar. Native sulphide of mercury
which forms a bright red pigment. It is
of great service to the painter, and by
mixing it with whites we obtain flesh
tints.
Under ordinary circumstances
it is permanent, but should not be
used on enamel, as when fired it is
decomposed by alkalies and alkaline
carbonates.
Cinquecento. Cinquecento literally
means 500, but it is used as an abbrevia­
tion for mille cinquecento, i.e . 1500, and
is applied as a general term to the art
of Italy in the 16th century. During the
brilliant period termed the cinquecento
the classical revival was at its height in
Italy, and classical art and classical
mythology exercised a powerful influ­
ence on Italian artists, among whom
we may mention Michael Angelo, Dona­
tello, and Benvenuto Cellini.
Cinquefoil. (1) (Her.) The cinquefoil
in heraldry is a conventional represen­
tation of a five­cusped leaf.
Cinquefoil. (2) (Arch ) An architectural
Adrian Bolswert, both artists of the
Netherlands.
As an instance of the
punning cipher we may mention the
crane with which Mr. Walter Crane in­
variably signs his works.
Cipolino. A kind of marble striped
with broad wavy lines of white and green.
Its foliaceous structure renders it dif­
ficult for the sculptor to handle, but as
it will take a fine polish it is much used
as a facing. Its name is derived from an
Italian word meaning a small onion,
the colour and form of its markings
suggesting the concentric circles of an
onion cut vertically.
Cippus. (Arch.) A
sepulchral column of
small dimensions ; a
pilaster with a me­
morial inscription ; a
pedestal
sometimes
circular, but generally
rectangular, orna­
mented with sculp­
tures. It either contained the ashes of
ornament consisting of five equal divi­
sions or lobes, frequently used in the
Gothic style, either as a pure ornament
or in ecclesiastical windows.
Cipher. A mark in the form of a
monogram or punning device placed by
artists as a signature upon their works.
We give two monograms, the one of
Christopher von Sichem, the other of

CIR
a dead man or marked the spot where
he was buried. The larger of our two
cuts represents a cippus in the British
Museum.
Circle. In geometry a plane figure,
enclosed within a curved line, called the
circumference, all points in which are
equidistant from a fixed point called the
centre. In Christian art the circle is the
emblem or symbol of heaven and eter­
nity, and no doubt it suggested many
forms of decoration to ecclesiastical
architects.
Circle of Stones. (Arch.) An ancient
monument formed of blocks of stone
placed in a circle.
Circular. That which has the form of
a circle or of a segment of a circle.
Circumscribe. To describe one geo­
metrical figure round another so that
there are points of contact between the
two figures.
Circus. (Arch.) A vast enclosure where
the Roman people witnessed chariot
races, games, and public spectacles.
The circus of the Romans was simple in
construction.
It was oblong in shape
and terminated at one end in a semi­
circle, in which the spectators took their
seats. At the end opposite the specta­
tors were the carceres or stalls for the
horses. Down the middle of the area
ran a low wall called the spina, round
which the racing chariots turned. The
spina was decorated with statues, altars,
and obelisks. Wherever the Romans
7
ART DICTIONARY.
CLA
went they established circuses, and
examples exist in England at Rich­
borough, Dorchester, and elsewhere. In
modern times the term is applied to a
circular building in which feats of horse­
manship and athleticism are displayed.
Cire­perdue. [Lost Wax.]
Cista. The mystic chest or cist, in
which the articles pertaining to the
mysteries of Demeter or Bacchus were
kept. The cista was in early times
made of wicker­work, but at a later
period was of bronze or even a costlier
material, and was artistically decorated.
The most celebrated cista known to us
is one that was found at Praeneste,
apparently of Roman workmanship, but
worthy of the traditions of the Greek
style. It is of bronze, and is surmounted
by two figures, one a bacchante, the
other a faun. Its outside is decorated
with a design, the subject of which is
the arrival of the Argonauts at Cyzicus.
Citadel* (Arch.) A castle or strong­
hold placed on a height to defend the
city near which it is built.
Cithara. A musical instrument of the
greatest antiquity, known to the Greeks,
but no doubt borrowed by them from
the East. It resembled the guitar in
shape, and was played by the finger or
struck by the plectrum. Our cut repre­
sents an Egyptian playing the cithara.
City. A town, and also the special
precinct or quarter of a town where the
cathedral is situated.
Claire­voire. [Clerestory.]
Clamp. (Arch.) A piece of wrought
iron which holds together and binds into
a stolid mass two walls or two pieces of
timber.
Clasp. The purpose of a clasp is to
89

CLA
securely fasten a closed book The
bindings of valuable
MSS are generally
ornamented with rich
clasps Some are de­
corated with figurines
executed with the
utmost care, others
with foliage or oti.er ornament
Classical. Classical in the strict sense
of the term is applied to the best period
of ancient Greek art, when such sculp­
tors as Pheidias and Polycletus, and such
architects as Ictinus, united in their
works respect for truth, observation of
nature, and worship of beautiful forms.
Although classical literature includes
the works of the Latin Augustan age,
the art of the Romans is only the art of
a period of decadence By analogy the
name is given to schools which take the
monuments of Greek art as their models,
deducing from them their canons and
inspiration, and sometimes even con­
fining themselves to a slavish reproduc­
tion of classical masterpieces without
making any attempt to grasp the princi­
ples underlying them. This unintelli­
gent imitation has at different times
given rise to violent reactions and has
provoked vigorous aesthetic discussions.
The term classical is also applied to such
masters as Raphael, whose work without
being the result of direct imitation of
Greek art, yet recalls it by the purity
and perfection of its design. And finally
modern work may be called classical, if
by common consent it takes a place
among the masterpieces of the world.
Classicism. A term applied to the
artistic tendency towards the classic
style.
Classico­Romantic. Said of works of
undecided style which exhibit at the
same time a classic and romantic spirit.
Claude Glass. A dark glass, in which
a landscape may be observed in reverse.
The effect produced in it is said to re­
semble a picture by Claude, and from
this it derives its name.
ART DICTIONARY.
CLE
Clay. A rich and compact earth, a
kind of clayey marl with an admixture
of iron, sand, and limestone, in which
sculptors execute their models
It
ought to be kept damp, as it is then
easy to mould and yet offers sufficient
resistance to the fingers. When they
leave their work sculptors wrap up their
clay models in soft moist linen cloths,
upon which they sprinkle water from
time to time from a particular kind of
syringe with a rose at the end like a
watering­can. Clay models if they are
left to dry in the open air shrink and
crack and speedily come to pieces.
Cleat. A small piece of wood nailed
on to the principal rafters of a roof in
order to support the purlins or horizon­
tal beams on which the common rafters
rest. It is a kind of hammer beam in
the shape of a wedge, and its purpose is
to prevent the beams which support the
rafters from slipping Our illustrations
show the cleat in section as well as in
perspective.
Cleave. To cut or divide diamonds
and crystals in parallel layers.
Clement, St. St. Clement was one of
the disciples of St. Paul and St. Peter,
and he is said to have been the Bishop
of Rome for many years He was ban­
ished by a prefect who governed Rome
in the Emperor Trajan's absence, but
even in his banishment he did not escape
from the malice of his enemies. He was
90

CLE
bound to an anchor and thrown into the
sea, but the water receded three miles,
and his followers found a small temple,
and within it the body of St. Clement
with an anchor round his neck. In art
St. Clement is represented with a tiara
and an anchor either round his neck or
at his side.
Clerestory. (Arch.) The row of win­
dows placed in the upper story of the
nave in Gothic churches. It rises clear
above the roof of the nave­aisles. The
term, however, was once applied gene­
rally to any row of windows in a wall or
building.
Cliché. A relief in metal obtained by
electrotyping, from which engravings
are printed. Cliché especially denotes
the stereotype casts taken of wood­
blocks, from which the cuts in books
and journals are now generally printed.
By this means not only can a far larger
number of impressions be struck off, but
the block itself can be easily multiplied.
The term is also applied to the photo­
graphic proofs on glass, which are called
negatives or positives, according as the
whites and blacks of the object repre­
sented are transposed or not.
Clipeus. The large round shield car­
ried by the Greeks and Romans. It was
ART DICTIONARY.
CLO
circular in form, was made either of
beaten bronze or of wicker­work strength­
ened with ox­hides.
Cliquart. (Arch.) A coarse limestone
used in the laying of foundations.
Cloisonné. Cloisonné
enamel
is
obtained by dividing a metal surface by
means of strips of wire welded on to the
metal plate. Thus hollows are formed,
in which the enamel in coloured powder
is deposited. Cloisonné enamels have
been manufactured since the 6th cen­
tury. The altar given by Justinian to
the church of St. Sophia was decorated
with cloisonne enamels. These enamels
were as a rule executed on plates of gold.
Cloisonné work of the highest merit
comes from China and Japan.
Cloister. A construction forming part
of a monastery or adjoining a church.
It is generally a covered gallery sur­
rounded by a pierced arcade, and en­
closing a garden or courtyard. Cloisters
were ranged round the
sides of a quadrangle.
The arches
which
looked into the quad­
rangle were some­
times glazed. The
cloisters
were
set
apart for recreation and study, and
carols or recesses exist in some cloisters,
in which the monks sat at work. A
lavatory, too, is frequently found in a
cloister, and is accounted for by the
fact that the cloister led to the refec­
tory.
Closet. (Her.) A diminutive of the
bar, which is itself a diminutive of the
yi

CLO
ART
DICTIONARY.
COF
fess. The closet should be half the width
of the bar.
Clothed. (Her ) A shield is said to be
clothed when a lozenge is
laid upon it in such a man­
ner as to cover the bulk
of the shield, leaving only
the four corners uncovered.
This device is not much
*
employed in English he­
raldry.
Clouded. A term applied to precious
stones when their translucency is
dimmed.
^
Club. (Her.) A charge in her­
^
Ά
aldry representing the weapon "
usually carried by Hercules.
Clubs are sometimes furnished
with spikes. Generally more than
one is represented on a shield.
Clymant. (Her.) Said of a goat
standing on its hind legs.
Coat, (i) (Paint.) A layer of colour
of a uniform tint passed once over the
surface of a canvas. A coat of paint is
said to be thin when the ground or
another coat can be seen underneath it.
Coat. (2) A coating of plaster in which
the­putty mould is wrapped after rebak­
ing in the operation of casting.
Coat Armour. A term applied to any
military garment upon which the
armorial bearings of the wearer were
embroidered.
Coating. (Paint.) A preparation with
which walls are covered before they are
painted in fresco.
It consists of a mix­
ture of chalk and sand or puzzolana
The walls must be painted while the
coating is fresh, and the surface which
is to be painted during the day should
be coated in the morning.
Coat of Arms. (Her.) A coat bearing
armorial insignia worn over the armour
by mediaeval warriors, so that they
might be distinguished by their soldiers.
The " Coat of Arms " as now understood
is a complete and distinctive heraldic
composition.
Cobalt­blue. (Paint.) A pigment com­
posed of alumina and phosphate of cobalt,
or of silicate of cobalt and potassium.
It is a bright blue pigment and is useful
in fresco and enamel as well as in oil
painting. It is permanent as a rule,
though it is adversely affected by light
and bad air.
Cobalt­green. (Paint.) A permanent
green pigment composed of zinc and
oxides of cobalt It is bright in tone, but
on the whole inferior to chrome greens.
Cob­wall. A wall built of straw, lime,
and earth is called a cob­wall. Cob­
walls are only found in the present day
in barns and outhouses of rude construc­
tion, but the houses of the Greeks and
Romans in their best period are said to
have been built on this rough plan.
Cochineal. (Paint.) A dried insect,
soluble in water, from which a brilliant
carmine lake is obtained.
Cock. The emblem of watchfulness,
placed from a very early date on the
summit of churches. It also symbolises
St. Peter in allusion to his denial of
Christ.
Cockatrice. A fabulous monster, half
cock and half dragon, somewhat resem­
bling a basilisk (q.v .) . In Christian sym­
bolic art it is the emblem of sin.
Coeur. (Her.) A term sometimes used
in heraldry to denote the heart or centre
of the shield.
Coffers. Compartments of which the
circumierence is enriched with mould­
ings and the
centre with a
sculptured
or­
nament. They
are used in the
decoration of
ceilings
and
vaults. Their purpose was originally
92

COG
ART
DICTIONARY.
COL
to fill the vacant spaces which exist
between the joists
of the ceilings;
they soon became,
however, mere de­
corations to sur­
faces, which when
bare did not har­
monise
suffi­
ciently with their ensemble. Many vaults
are decorated with coffers, and in
Renaissance times many wooden ceil­
ings were formed of hexagonal or oc­
tagonal coffers decorated with floral
ornaments or arabesques, with penden­
tives often richly sculptured attached to
their centre
Cognisance. (Her.) A cognisance or
badge is a device adopted by families as
a distinctive mark. It is not blazoned
on a shield, and it differs from a crest in
being complete by itself, needing neither
wreath or cap of maintenance to support
it. Among notable badges may be enu­
merated the ostrich feathers of the Prince
of Wales, the white and red roses of the
Yorkists and Lancastrians, and the broom
sprig of the Plantagenets.
Cognoscente. [Connoisseur.]
Coif. (Cos ) A head­dress fitting tightly
and originally tied under the chin. Worn
at first by hunters and knights, it gradu­
ally became distinctive of the ecclesias­
tical and legal professions, and in an
altered form finally became exclusively
a portion of the lawyer's costume.
Coilanaglyph. This barbarous and
harsh­sounding
word is sometimes
applied to works of sculpture cut in a
solid substance, in which the relief of
the figures is scarcely flush with the
plane surface surrounding them. This
is the case with many bas­reliefs, to
which the thickness of the stone forms
a border, projecting beyond the most
projecting of the figures.
[Cavo­Re­
lievo.]
Coin. (Arch.) A belting course placed
at the angle of construction.
Coinage. The manufacture of coins.
Among the many operations in the
making of coins the engraving of the dies
and the execution of the matrix and coin
are those which belong to the domain of
art.
Coins. Pieces of metal of different
value, struck with the image of the
sovereign authority, sometimes repre­
sented by an allegorical figure or group
of figures. Many coins, those of Greece
for instance, are of the utmost impor­
tance in the study of art. For not only
are they in themselves works of art of
the highest merit, but they often bear
upon them representations of well­
known statues, and so are of great
service in the illustration of the history
of art.
Cointise. A general term originally
applied to any scarf or other ornamental
garment quaintly cut and fashioned.
The wearing of cointises (from quinteux,
fanciful) prevailed during the 13th and
14th centuries.
The term especially
denotes the kerchiefs worn by knights on
the top of their helmets.
Coliseum. (Arch.) An amphitheatre
in ancient Rome of elliptic form and
colossal dimensions.
Collaboration. Participation in the
eon­ception or realisation of a work of
art. There is sometimes collaboration
between architects, or between archi­
tects and sculptors, especially in the
execution of a statue, a fountain, &c.
Artists who follow different industries
frequently collaborate in the execution
of one object, such as a piece of furni­
ture on which a sculptor, a cabinet­
maker, a painter on enamel, a chaser
and an upholsterer may be engaged.
In a case like this, however, the design
is generally due to one man alone, and
the collaborators would more properly
be called assistants or executants.
Collar. An ornament worn round the
neck, especially as the insignia of an
order of knighthood. The oldest order,
the knights of which are invested with a
collar, is the order of the Golden Fleece,
93

COL
ART
DICTIONARY.
COL
which was established by Philip the
Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1429. The
knights of the English order of the Gar­
ter, though an older body than the
knights of the Golden Fleece, did not
wear a collar until the reign of Henry
VIII. The knights of the following
English orders are invested with a collar :
the orders of the Bath, St. Michael and
St. George, and the Star of India.
Collar­beam. (Arch.) A horizontal
beam connecting a pair of rafters above,
their point of support.
Collared. (Her.) This term is applied
to an animal depicted on a shield with
a collar about its neck, or in the case of
an ape about its loins. The French
term is accolé (q.v ), which has also
another meaning.
Collarino. (Arch.) That part of the
capital in the Roman Doric and Tuscan
orders which is included between the
fillet below the ovolo and the astragal at
the top of the shaft. The collarino is
not found in the ancient orders, ex­
cept in a few buildings of the Ionic
style.
Collection. A term given to a number
of pictures, drawings, prints, and objects
of art or curiosities belonging to one
person, by whom they have as a rule
been got together. These are private col­
lections, but the name is also applied
to the treasures amassed by public bodies
and kept in public museums.
College (Arch). A building or collec­
tion of buildings established for the
education of youth. The colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge are among our
most interesting architectural monu­
ments. They usually consist of one or
more quadrangles, with buildings ranged
round them, in which the fellows and
students live, as well as a chapel, a
library, and a dining­hall
Collegiate Church. [Church, Col­
legiate.]
Collodion. A solution of gun­cotton in
ether, a thin coating of which was spread
on photographic glass plates before the
invention of plates prepared with gela­
tino­bromide
Cologne Earth. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from a bituminous earth re­
sembling sepia. It is chiefly used for
making sketches in which broad effects
are aimed at.
Colonnade. (Arch )
columns symmetrically
arranged in one or more
rows. The columns are
surmounted by an en­
tablature or a series of
arches according to the
style of the building ~~
The term colonnade is also applied to
porticos. This form of decoration was in
general use in ancient architecture, and
is also found in modern buildings of the
classic style. The west front of St.
Paul's, the work of Sir Christopher
Wren, may be mentioned as a good
example of a colonnade.
Colonnette. (Arch ) A column, the
diameter of which is very small in pro­
portion to its height. Colonnettes are
frequently used in buildings of the
Gothic style to support arcades, and
when clustered form piers.
Colossal. Monuments, statues, or
works of art are termed colossal when
they are of extraordinarily vast dimen­
sions.
Colossus. A statue of colossal dimen­
sions, such as were the Egyptian figures
of Osiris and the Sphinx. The statue of
Apollo erected at Rhodes was a colos­
sus. Such, too, is the enormous statue
of Independence executed but just now
by the French sculptor Bartholdi, and
set up at the entrance to New York
harbour in America.
Colour. (Paint.) Colour in a general
sense is the impression produced upon
the eye by coloured substances. In a
more special sense it is the effect pro­
duced by the arrangement of colours in
a picture. Thus we say, " The Venetians
have the genius of colour." Colour is not
only applied to drawings, in which objects
94

COL
ART DIC
are modelled by means of different tints,
but also to those in which the effect is pro­
duced only by means of contrasts of black
and white. An engraving or lithograph,
for instance, without any other tone but
black and white, may be more full of
colour than a painting, if it produces a
more brilliant effect than the latter.
Colour, Bronze. A colour of a greenish
or reddish tint.
—, Flame. A warm brilliant shade
of red.
—, Flesh. A colour of a pale red tint,
mixed with rose, white, yellow, and some­
times with bluish gr.ey in its shaded
portions.
— , General. A term applied to the
tonality (q.v .) of a whole picture.
— , Livid. A leaden tint, blue, violet,
or green, approaching to black.
—, Local. The colour which belongs
to a special object. The romantic
school extended this expression to mean
the accurate presentment of site, cos­
tumes, and accessories. When Decamps
represented for the first time the true
Turks of Asia Minor instead of the con­
ventional Turks with their garments
decorated with a sun, he gave us an
example of local colour.
— , Pearly. A colour of a very fine
and harmonious grey tone.
—, Shot. A colour which varies accord­
ding to the angle at which it is seen.
—, Wood. Wood colour is a yel­
lowish brown tint. When we say that a
figure is wood colour, we mean it is heavy
and false and disagreeable in tone.
Dark wood colour is frequently used in
industrial art to give to common white
woods the appearance of darker and
more valued woods.
Coloured. When certain
surfaces
either in a drawing or engraving are
covered with colour they are said to be
coloured. The engraved plates in scien­
tific works, for instance, are frequently
copied from models and coloured by
hand. This method of colouring is as a
rule unsatisfactory and has a tendency
COL
to fade. In fact it is now generally re­
placed by chromolithography (q.v .). In
cheap publications a process of colouring
has been invented which is nothing more
than mechanical, but it can only be
applied with satisfactory results to sur­
faces of considerable extent. It consists
in the employment of different patterns
cut out in linen like vignettes equal to
the number of the colours which are to
be applied. The operator, by means of
leading points, places the pattern on the
engraving which he desires to colour,
and passes a sponge impregnated with
the necessary colour over the whole
print, the colour only adhering to the
vacant space where the pattern has been
cut out. This operation is repeated as
many times as is necessary, either before
or after the drying is complete ; in the
former case an effect of blending can be
obtained. In spite of the careful ma­
nagement which is essential to this pro­
cess it is inexpensive.
Colouring. (Paint ) The general effect
produced by the colours employed in a
painting. When we say that the colour­
ing of a picture is violent, bold, sad, fine,
delicate, we refer to the sensation which
the colouring produces in us.
Colourist. (Paint.) A painter is termed
a colourist when he prefers to aim at
grand effects of colour, and to excel
in giving his works a mingled brilliance
and harmony. The painters of the
Venetian School are most celebrated as
colourists, and among them Titian and
Veronese must first be mentioned. After
them come Ribera and Velasquez of the
Spanish School, Rubens and Rembrandt
of the Flemish and Dutch Schools, and
Eugène Delacroix of the French School.
The modern English School has produced
several artists eminent in colour, the
Pre­Raphaelites being especially entitled
to mention.
Colours, Blended. The effect obtained
by the passing of one colour or tone to
another by means of imperceptibly gra­
duated shades or tints.
VIONARY.
95

COL
ART
DICTIONARY.
COL
Colours, Complementary. Colours
the combination of which produces white
light. According to the laws of physics
the complementary colour to green
is red, that to blue is orange, that to
purple is yellow, and vice versa.
In
practice the combination of complemen­
tary colours does not produce pure white
at all, but grey.
—, Heraldic. (Her.) Heraldic colours,
as distinguished from the heraldic metals
and furs, are five in number : azure or
blue, gules or red, sable or black, vert
or green, and purpure or purple. In
blazoning they are thus abbreviated:
az., gu., sa., vert, and purp.
— , Light. Colours which by the addi­
tion of white remain clear.
— , Primary. Primary colours, which
cannot be compounded by mixture of
other colours, are three in number, red,
yellow, and blue. They are also termed
— , Prismatic. A term applied to
the seven simple colours, purple, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red,
which result from the decomposition of
a ray of light by means of a prism.
— , Relative. (Paint.) Colours which
blend easily and produce harmonious
tones.
—, Secondary, are three in number.
Each of them is formed by the mixture
of two of the three primary colours :
thus, orange from red and yellow, green
from blue and yellow, purple from red
and blue.
—, Symbolic. In the works of early
Christian painters certain colours sym­
bolised or were exclusively associated
with certain persons or subjects. For
instance, white was the symbol of light,
purity, and faith, while black suggested
mourning, wickedness, and death. As
art freed itself from the trammels of
tradition this symbolism was soon for­
gotten or neglected.
— , Tertiary. Colours, variable in
number, which enter into the composi­
tion of another colour.
Colum. A strainer for wine in use
among the Greeks and Romans at an
early date. It was adopted by the
Christian Church for straining the sacra­
mental wine.
Columbaria. (Arch). The recesses in
ancient tombs in which the urns con­
taining the ashes of the dead were
placed. They got their name from their
supposed resemblance to dove­cots.
The term is also applied to holes left in
a wall for the insertion of timbers.
Column. (Arch.) A cylindrical support
placed vertically, consisting generally of
three parts : the base, the shaft or cylin­
drical portion, and the capital.
— , Attic. (Arch.) A column decorat­
ing an attic storey above the entabla­
ture.
— , Cantonned. (Arch.) An engaged
column placed at an angle to strengthen
a pillar and to support the spring of an
arch.
—, Composite. (Arch.) A column sur­
mounted by a composite capital.
— , Corinthian. (Arch.) A lofty column
with the proportions of the Corinthian
order. [Corinthian.]
—, Cylindrical. (Arch) A column of
constant diameter, the outline of which
is determined by parallel lines.
— , Diminished. (Arch.) A column
having the diameter at its
base greater than its dia­
meter at its capital. Doric
temples offer the finest
examples of diminished
columns. The diminished
column, which forms a
truncated cone, was en­
tirely abandoned in the
17th and 18th centuries and
replaced by the swelling column.
— , Doric. (Arch.) A lofty column with
the proportions of the Doric order.
[Doric]
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Column, Embedded. (Arch ) A column
partly lost in the vertical wall against
which it is placed.
It is called a half
column when half of
it is engaged and the
projecting portion is
a semicircle.
—, Engaged. [Column, Embedded.]
—, Flanked. (Arch.) A column sur­
rounded by pilasters.
—, Fluted. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is ornamented with
flutings.
—, Gnomonic. A column upon which
a dial plate is placed.
—, Gothic. (Arch ) The name given to
the clustered columns, forming a pier,
which are used in Gothic buildings.
—, Grouped. (Arch ) A group of at
least three columns placed upon a single
pedestal.
—,
Hermetic. (Arch.) A column
covered with hieroglyphics placed in the
most secret portion of an Egyptian tem­
ple.
—
in bands. (Arch.) A column formed
of drums placed one upon the other, the
height of which is less than the dia­
meter.
—
in trencheons. A column formed
of drums placed one upon the other,
the height of which is greater than the
diameter.
— , Ionic. A lofty column with the pro­
portions of the Ionic order.
— , Manubiary. A column the shaft
of which is decorated with trophies.
—, Menian. A column the capital of
which is surmounted by a gallery or
balcony.
— , Miliary. A column placed on Ro­
man roads at regular intervals of a thou­
sand paces.
—, Monumental. A column erected
in memory of a great person or event.
—, Nicked. A column set back in
a vertical wall in such a way that a clear
space is left between the wall and the
shaft of the column from base to capital.
Column, Oval. (Arch.) A flattened
column, the section of whose shaft is an
ellipse.
—, Paestian. A lofty column with
the proportions of the Doric columns of
the temple of Paestum.
—, Pastoral. A column the shaft of
which resembles the trunk of a tree.
—, Polygonal. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is polygonal.
—, R inged. (Arch.) A column deco­
rated with annulets in relief.
—, Rostral. (Arch.) A column with its
shaft decorated by the prows of galleys.
—, Rustic. (Arch.) A column the shaft
of which is decorated with projecting
rustic work.
—,
Serpentine. (Arch.) A column
formed of interlaced serpents.
— , Statuary. A column surmounted
by a statue.
—, Swelling. A column in the form
of a prolonged spindle. Its diameter is
the same at its base and capital, but in­
creases considerably towards its centre.
Sometimes the swelling is only observ­
able in one­third of the height of the
column.
—, Triumphal. A column erected in
memory of a great victory.
—, Tuscan. A lofty column with the
proportions of the Tuscan order.
—, Twin. (Arch.) A support consisting
of two columns of the same diameter,
placed side by side or welded together
from base to capital.
—, Twisted. (Arch.) A column the
shaft of which is made up
of several spirals. Accord­
ing to Vignole this column
should not consist of more
than six spirals. There are,
however, many examples
of the twisted columns,
the number of
whose
spirals exceed that laid
down by Vignole. The twisted column
is chiefly used in cabinet­making, the
decoration of furniture, &c.
Columna Bellica. A column of the
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COL
ART
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temple of Janus at Rome before which
proclamations of war were issued.
Columns. Clustered. (Arch.) A collec­
tion of columns in
juxtaposition or
welded together,
which form a pier
in Gothic architec­
ture. The plan of
some
clustered
columns
exhibits
complicated combinations of arcs of
circles and squares, which serve to
detach the columns from one another.
—, Coupled. (Arch.) Columns placed
two and two, side by side, no account
being taken of the rules by which the
intercolumnation is fixed. The pur­
pose of this arrangement is not only to
increase at certain points the actual
resistance of the supports, but to render
this resistance more evident. Some­
times the abacus (q.v .) , extends without
a break over the two capitals.
— , Doubled. Columns placed one be­
fore the other in the same plane at right
angles to a façade.
— , Median. Columns placed in the
centre of a portico, and separated from
one another by an intercolumniation
greater than the space between the
other columns in the same range.
Comet. (Her.) A star with
a fiery tail. The star may
have five or more points,
and the tail always streams
behind it in bend. A comet is
usually blazoned or, but may
be equally well blazoned
Proper.
Commission. A work of art is said to
be executed on commission, or is called
98
briefly a commission, when it is ordered
by a collector, a municipality, or by the
state, and has to conform to certain
conditions laid down in advance
Common­place. Said of works of art
in which the figures lack distinction
either in line or colour, or in the choice
of subject.
Common Wall. (Arch ) A wall which
serves to divide two adjoining proper­
ties, and half of which belongs to each
of the proprietors.
Compass. An instrument used to
measure dimensions or describe curves.
Compasses, generally of metal, consist
of two branches or legs, joined by a rivet
at the top, and terminating at their lower
end in a point. One of these points is
movable and can be replaced by a
drawing­pen or pencil­case . Large com­
passes of wood are used to trace diagrams.
Sculptors sometimes use large com­
passes of iron, the two branches of which
move on an arc of a circle, sometimes
compasses with unequal and crooked
branches which allow them to take the
measure of concave surfaces.
Compasses, Elliptic. Compasses the
purpose of which is to trace elliptic
curves.
—, Sector. Compasses con­
sisting of two branches con­
nected by a movable button,
each branch terminating in a
point.
—, Spherical. Compasses
with curved branches.
— , Trisection. Compasses
which are intended to divide angles
into three equal parts.

COM
Compasses with fixed points. Com­
passes both branches of which are
sharpened to a point and which only
serve to take the measurements of a
drawing.
Compass­roof. (Arch.) A roof which
extends the whole width of a building
from one wall to the other. It is used
in opposition to a lean­to roof, and is
especially applied to open timber­roofs.
[Span Roof.]
Competent. An amateur, collector,
critic, or expert is competent when special
studies added to natural taste have ren­
dered him capable of a sound judgment
and appreciation of works of art.
Complementary. Two colours are
said to be complementary to one another,
when their combination, according to the
laws of optics, produces white. Thus, red
is the complementary colour of green,
while blue has orange for its comple­
mentary colour, violet yellow, and re­
ciprocally.
Complex. A term applied to works of
art comprising several distinct elements,
the composition of which requires the
union of qualities generally very di­
verse.
Complicated. A term applied to works
of art or compositions which are con­
fused and embarrassed, or encumbered
with too great a mass of details or acces­
sories, and which aim at expressing too
subtle motives.
Compluvium. (Arch.) In a Roman
house the compluvium was the open
space in the roof of the atrium (q.v .),
through which the water fell into the
impluvium (q.v .) .
Compony, or Gobony. A term applied
to a border or other ordi­
nary divided into small
squares of alternate tinc­
tures. For example, the
accompanying cut would be
blazoned argent, a bend
sinister, compony gules and
sable.
Compose. To compose is to combine
CGN
the numerous elements of a work of art,
so that the subject is presented in a
manner which is easily intelligible, and
that the arrangement of the figures, the
disposition of the groups, the equili­
brium of the masses, and the light and
shade produce a general effect of grace­
ful lines and harmonious colouring,
which contribute to the unity of the
work.
Composite. (Arch.) An order of ancient
architecture, the character of which is
specially determined by the capital com­
posed of volutes and acanthus leaves,
and produced by the combination of the
Ionic and Corinthian capital.
Composition. (Arch.) The composition
of a statue or picture is good or bad in
proportion as the lines and groups are
happy in arrangement, the attitudes are
probable, and the scene free and un­
studied. A view of a town, for instance,
composes well when the succession of
buildings exhibits a graceful and pictur­
esque outline. A landscape is well com­
posed when the trees, the distances, and
the foreground represent masses well
weighted and pleasant to the eye.
Concentration of Effect. An arrange­
ment of light and shade by means of
which the artist attempts to draw atten­
tion to one particular spot in preference
to other portions of his picture, which
are intentionally neglected or sacri­
ficed.
Conception. The faculty of conceiving,
understanding, and creating a work of
art. We say, for instance, that the con­
ception of a picture is bold, happy, or
undeveloped, &c.
Conch. The shell used by the Tritons
on ancient paintings and reliefs ; hence
in decorative art an ornament resem­
bling the shell in shape.
Conduit. (Arch.) A small
aqueduct or pipe to drain
off water.
Cone. A solid figure for­
med by the rotation of a
right­angled triangle round one of its
ART
DICTIONARY.
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CON
ART
DICTIONARY.
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sides as axis. The term cone of light is
applied to the divergent rays of light
escaping from a very small circular
opening.
Confessional. (Arch.) A kind of en­
closed retreat devoted to confession, the
use of which does not go farther back
than the 15th century. In the 17th and
18th the confessional was an important
element in the interior decoration of
churches. There is no specimen of a
confessional left in England which be­
longs to the period before the Reforma­
tion, and therefore we are unable to say
what form it took in this country in early
times. In those parts of the Continent
where Catholicism reigns, confessionals
are as a rule unpretentious structures
of wood resembling sentry­boxes, and
fitted with a lattice. Some churches in
Belgium possess confessionals of wood
decorated by caryatides and covered
with sculptured canopies marvellously
rich in ornament.
Conical. That which has the form of
a cone.
Connoisseur. A term applied to a
man capable of giving a certain and
well­grounded judgment on one branch
or other of the fine arts.
Console. (1) A piece of furniture in the
shape of a table which is supported by
feet, colonnettes, balustrades, &c, ac­
cording to the epoch to which it belongs.
It generally occupies a fixed place
before a window or mirror. The con­
soles of the period of Louis XIV. and
Louis XV. are masterpieces of decora­
tive sculpture.
Console. (2) (Arch.) A projecting archi­
tectural motive, which supports still
further projecting mouldings, cornices,
balconies, &c. ; and is generally deco­
rated with volutes at each end, which
curve in different directions.
Console, Reversed. A console some­
times employed as a
,j
support, but more
often to fill a vacant
space between two
surfaces, one of
which retreats be­
hind the other, and
so to connect two
architectural mem­
bers.
The lower
portion of the con­
sole, which is placed
vertically, not hori­
zontally, is occupied by a scroll. The
reversed console is never found in clas­
sical buildings, but only in those belong­
ing to the period of decadence
Construction. The art of employing
materials in a building according to their
character and quality, so as to combine
solidity and convenience.
Contour. An outline or line which
defines a figure or other object, whether
drawn or sculptured.
Contourné (Her.) This term is used
to describe a charge which
is reversed on the shield,
that is to say, placed in a
position the opposite to its
usual one. Thus animals
should always face to the
dexter, so that the fish in the cut is con­
tourné.
Contrast. (Paint.) An intentional op­
position between several portions of a
picture, by reason of which each portion
has its proper value and their distinct
qualities are sufficiently evident.
Contrast of Colours. When two
strips of paper of the same colour but
of different intensity are placed side by
side that portion of the lightest strip
which touches the darkest strip appears
lighter than it really is, while the portion
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of the darkest strip which touches the
lightest strip appears darker than it is.
That is, the juxtaposition of colours
changes their effect.
Furthermore
each colour has a tendency to assume
the colour complementary to the colour
next to it. The discovery of this law of
the simultaneous contrast of colours is
due to M. Chevreul. There is one
remark to add : if two bodies contain
a common colour, the effect of their
juxtaposition is to weaken the intensity
of their common element. The laws of
optics which regulate this simultaneous
contrast of colours may be formulated
thus : istly. Every colour has a tendency
to tinge the colours near it with its com­
plementary colour. 2ndly. If two objects
contain the same colour, the effect of
their juxtaposition is to weaken the in­
tensity of their common element.
Contre­corbeau. (Arch.) A French
architectural term used in the architec­
ture of the 13th century, denoting a
medallion replaced between the corbels
supporting the springing of an arcade
and serving as a point
of support for two
small arches in­
scribed with the large
one.
Co­operator.
An
artist who assists in
the execution of a
I work of decorative
I art, but takes no part
in its creation.
Cop. (Arch.) [Mer­
lon.]
Cope. An eccle­
i siastical vestment
generally made of a
stiff and costly mate­
rial and ornamented
with embroideries or
jewels. It is semicir­
cular in form and has
a hood but no sleeves.
It was originally a
protection against in­
clement weather and was worn by offi­
ciating clergy at vespers, mass, celebra­
tion and consecration. It was fastened
by a clasp and adorned with apparels
(q v.) richly embroidered and even re­
splendent with jewels.
Coping. (Arch.) A term given to the
stones on the top of a wall, which protect
it from the weather. From the stress of
weather to which they were exposed,
ancient copings are extremely rare, and
few have come down to us earlier than
the Early English period. In buildings
belonging to the Gothic period, a coping
in the form of a small wall supporting a
roof is placed behind a balustrade which
runs along by a gutter, as is shown in the
cut.
Copper. A metal which has proved of
the greatest value in the arts. In the
first place it was used by the ancients in
the manufacture of shields, swords, vases,
&c. In modern times it has been of the
utmost service to engravers, and still
remains from an artistic point of view
the best metal both to work upon with
the burin and to print from. The oxides
of copper yield a number of fine pigments,
such as blue verditer and Brunswick
green.
Copper­plate. (Engrav.) A plate of
red copper, planed and polished, with
its edges bevelled and its corners slightly
rounded, upon which engravers execute
their work. The term is often applied
to the completed work ; thus we speak of
a " successful copper­plate" in referring
to the engraving itself.
Coptography. The art of cutting out
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ART
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pieces of card so that when brilliantly
lighted they throw shadows representing
figures and objects of all kinds on a
white surface.
Copy. A reproduction of a work of
art. If a painter copies his own picture,
it is dignified with the name of a re­
plica.
Copy, To. To make copies of pictures
or to imitate the works, subjects, and
manner of an artist.
Copyist. An artist who copies or re­
produces either for the purpose of per­
sonal study or with some other avowed
object the work of another artist.
Copyright, Artistic. Copyright is a
distinct and valuable property recognised
by law, and may be defined as the sole
and exclusive right of multiplying copies
of an original work after it has been pub­
lished. This right is by law vested in the
author of an original painting, drawing,
or photograph and his assigns for the
term of the natural life of the author,
and seven years after his death, provided
that on the first sale of such painting or
drawing or the negative of such photo­
graph the copyright was expressly re­
served to the vendor by agreement in
writing signed by the purchaser. A regis­
ter of proprietors of copyright in paint­
ings, drawings, and photographs is kept
at Stationers' Hall, and registration is
compulsory. In the case of sculpture,
the copyright, whether commissioned or
not, belongs to the8 author for fourteen
years, provided that before publication
he inscribes his name and date on every
model copy, or cast, or finished work If
at the end of fourteen years the proprie­
tor is still living, he may, unless he has
divested himself of the right, retain it for
a further period of fourteen years. A
registry of sculpture is kept at the Patent
Office, and every copy or cast pub­
lished after registration must be marked
"registered. "
The sculptor, however,
cannot protect himself against paint­
ings, drawings, engravings, or photo­
graphs.
Coquerelles. (Her.) A French heral­
dic term applied to a
bunch of three filberts
in their husks conjoined
together
Coquerelles
generally appear in
number on shields, for example, three
coquerelles gules.
Coquetries. A term applied to elegant
scenes, graceful figures, painted in a
bright and fresh tone.
"Coral. A calcareous product of the
sea of a fine red colour used in making
all kinds of ornaments. A fine clear
red, vivid and brilliant in tone.
Corbel. (Arch ) A projecting stone,
the purpose of which is to support a
cornice, the
springing of an
arch, or the
projection of a
gallery. The
corbels of the
ioth, nth, and
12th centuries
are decorated
with figures of men and animals, repre­
senting symbolic subjects. In the 13th
century
corbels
disappeared from
cornices,
and
were used only as
supports to balus­
trades, machiola­
tions (q v.) , the
springing
of
transverse ribs
(q.v.), or to serve
as the point of
support. There are numerous examples
of wooden corbels in the civil architec­
ture of the Middle Ages, and very often
these corbels are placed in the upper
part of the building, and uphold the pro­
jecting cornice.
Corbelling. (Arch ) Generally speak­
ing, a projecting construction supported
by the courses of a wall jutting out, one
above the other, or by beams or corbels
resting on a wall. The fronts of a great
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COR
ART
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COR
number of Gothic houses present exam­
ples of corbelling. Each story juts out
beyond the one below it, so that when
the streets are narrow and the gables
high the top stories of the houses ap­
proach so near to one another as to
almost touch The galleries, passages,
arcades, and towers of many Gothic
buildings are similarly designed, pro­
jecting beyond the sui face of the wall,
and resting upon corbels, consoles, or
decorated mouldings.
Cτrbel­table. (Arch.) A series of cor­
bels placed at regular intervals to support
a parapet or any continuous projection.
Corbie (Arch.) A Scotch term applied
to the steps in the roof of a gabled house.
Cordon. (Her.) This
term is used in French
heraldry to denote the
cord with tassels sus­
pended round the shield
of an ecclesiastic by way
of crest. It is supposed
to represent the girdle
worn by the religious orders.
Core. The interior of a mould em­
ployed in the founding of a statue. The
metal runs between the core and the
mould, and when the work is complete
the core is removed through an aperture
left for the purpose. [Founding.]
Corinthian. (Arch.) An antique order
of great richness, the character of which
is invariably determined by a capital
decorated by two rows of acanthus
leaves, between which small volutes are
inserted. [Capital, Corinthian.]
Corium. Body armour composed of
leather is called
corium. It is fre­
quently made to
imitate
scale
armour, as in
our cut, which
is from Trajan's
column. It was
worn by the
Romans, but its
use continued
far into the <
Middle Ages.
The Saxons wore it, and representations
of it are found in the Bayeux tapestry.
Corner (Arch.) Angle or sharp edge
of a block of stone or wood. The term
is also used to denote an angle formed by
two walls meeting
at right angles or
disposed cantwise.
The term corner
cupboard is ap­
plied to a piece
of furniture of triangular shape, which
is placed in an angle formed by the
meeting of two walls.
Corner of the Abacus. (Arch.) The
projection of the en­
tablature in capitals
of the Corinthian
order and in certain
Ionic capitals of the
Renaissance of the
17th and 18th cen­
turies, of which the
four surfaces are symmetrical.
Corner­post. (Arch) an architectural
member placed at the angle or corner of
a building.
Cornice. (Arch.) The upper part of
an entablature which projects beyond
the frieze. A large moulding, which
forms the coping of a façade or portion
of a façade, runs round an apartment
underneath the ceiling, or surmounts
a door, window, dresser, &c.
The
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COR
ART
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term is also applied in Gothic archi­
tecture to the high moulding, sometimes
decorated' with foliage, which extends
/,„//·· "11
along a façade at the height of a story or
the rise of a tower.
Cornice, Architrave. A cornice placed
immediately upon the architrave where
no frieze exists in the entablature.
—, Broken. A projecting cornice
which is interrupted by sculptured or­
naments, pilasters, &c.
—, Centred. A cornice which follows
the outline of a circular pediment or
describes a curve.
— , Chamfered. A cornice without a
moulding formed by a simple bevel on
the angle of projection.
—, Mutilated. A cornice which is
placed upright upon a corona (q.v.) .
—, Unbroken. A projecting cornice
which runs the whole
length of a façade,
and is not broken by
any sculptured orna­
ment or vertical ar­
chitectural member.
Cornucopia. An
ornament consisting
of a horn, in which
are flowers, fruits,
and other natural
objects. It symbolises peace and pros­
104
perity, and in classical art was asso­
ciated with those deities, which had
power over the natural world.
Corona. (Arch.) A slight projection in
a roof which serves
to protect part of a
building from the
running of water.
In old houses coro­
nale are often found
over each opening.
In classical archi­
tecture the term is
applied to the pro­
jecting moulding which forms a cornice.
The horizontal surface of a corona is
sometimes quite simple and sometimes
enriched by coffer­work, mutules, or cor­
bels.
The edge of the corona always
projects so that the water falls clear to
the ground and does not wear out the

COR
ART
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COU
outline of the corona. In ecclesiastical
decoration the term is applied to a
crown, hanging from the roof, in which
lighted tapers are placed at important
ceremonies.
Coronet. (Her.) A coronet is an orna­
mented fillet of gold worn above the coats
of arms of peers and peeresses. In a
duke's coronet, here shown, the circlet of
geld is chased and is surmounted by
eight strawberry leaves. The coronet
of a marquis has four strawberry leaves
separated by pearls. A viscount's coro­
net is a rim of gold surmounted by six­
teen pearls, while a baron's has only six
or four pearls, and is otherwise plain.
Coroplastae. Literally, " modellers of
dolls."
A name given by the Greeks to
the fashioners of small images in clay or
terra­cotta. The artists, for instance, to
whom we owe the Tanagra figures (q.v.)
were coroplastae.
Correct. A term which is principally
applied, as regards drawing, to purity
and exactness of form. A drawing may
be absolutely correct and yet devoid of
significance.
In the work of some
artists correctness is a negative quality.
Corridor. (Arch.) A long passage
running round a building, which leads
to the various rooms in the building;
sometimes it is closed on both sides,
sometimes on one only.
Corundum. A chemically pure alumina.
A precious stone, hard and transparent.
Cosmorama. An exhibition of pictures
representing views of different countries,
either in body­colour, water­colour, or
oil, and seen through a lens. The first
cosmorama was set up in Paris in 1808
by the Abbé Gazzera.
8
Cost. [See Cotice.]
Costume. This term denotes in a
general sense the clothing, arms, and
accessories belonging to the epoch or
place in which the artist has laid the
scene of his picture. Thus we say of an
artist that he " pays no attention to
costume," that he " carefully studies the
costume," that" his rendering of costume
is admirable. "
Cothurnus. (Cost.) A high boot worn
by the Romans, reaching to the middle
of the leg. It was particularly charac­
teristic of the tragic actor.
[Buskin.]
Cotice. (Her.) A diminutive bend.
The diminutives of the bend are the
bendlet or garter, which is half the
width of the bend, the cost or cotice,
which is half the bendlet. The riband
is sometimes half the cotice, sometimes
the same width, but does not extend to
the edge of the shield, its
ends being couped (q.v.) .
Cotised. (Her.) When an
ordinary, such as a fess or
a bend, is bordered on both
sides by a strip of a diffe­
rent tincture to itself, it is
said to be cotised. In the first of our
cuts, for instance, we have a bend sinister
gules cotised sable. But the
term is not necessarily con­
fined to the case of two
strips, but may also be used
to describe any border to
a charge. Thus the accom­
panying cut would be blazoned, Argent,
a bend gules cotised with trefoils sable.
Cotyliscus.
(Pot.) A
name given to a small
Greek vase with one
handle. It was used to
hold liquids, and in its
general shape resembled
an amphora. The latter,
however, was double­
handled, and considerably
larger than the cotyliscus.
Coulisse. A groove made
in the boards of a stage in which the
105

cou
ART
DICTIONARY.
COU
side scenes are moved along The term
is also applied to the side scenes them­
selves, which represent a palace, a cot­
age, a clump of trees, &c.
Counter ­ changed. (Her.) When a
shield bearing charges is
divided by a partition line,
so that part of the field is
a colour and part a metals
then the charges are
counter­changed ; that is to
say, their tinctures are reversed so that
metal may not fall on metal, nor colour
on colour.
Counter­draw. [Tracing.]
Counterfeit. A reproduction or frau­
dulent imitation of a print or any other
work of art.
Counterfeit, To. To counterfeit is to
reproduce, copy, or imitate a work of art
with intent to pass off the counterfeit as
the original
Counter­knocker. (Arch.) The plate
of metal on which a door­knocker strikes
Counter­mark. (Numis ) A sign en­
graved or struck upon a coin after the
coin itself has been struck.
Counter­part. The empty space in­
tended to receive the inlay in marquetry
work. The term is also applied to
scenes or figures, which in composition
or attitude resemble scenes or figures
already executed, but in the reverse
direction.
Counter­passant. (Her.) Said of two
beasts passing each other in opposite
directions.
Counter­pilaster. (Arch.) A pilaster
placed in front of another pilaster.
ι
ο
β
Counter­plate. (Engrav.) A second
plate on which certain parts of a print
are engraved which were left untouched
on the first plate
Counter­potent. (Her.) One of the
heraldic furs, in which the potents or
crutch heads are arranged head to head
as in counter­vair
Counter­profile. The outline of a
moulding
Counter­proof. (Engrav.) The proof
of an engraving reproducing the original
the reverse way. A counter­proof is
obtained by placing over the original
proof while it is still wet a sheet of blot­
ting paper, which takes up the ink, and
so produces a reversed impression We
also term any painting or engraving a
counter­ proof which is a reverse repro­
duction of the original.
Counter­vair. (Her.) One
of the heraldic furs.
It
differs from vair by having
its bells or cups all of the
same tincture, and placed
base to base and point to
point.
Couped. A charge is said to be coitped
when its ends are cut off so that they do
not reach to the edge of the shield The
term is also applied to a charge the
ends of which are cut off evenly, in
opposition to erased (q.v.) .
Couples. (Constr.) Rafters framed
together in pairs connected with a tie.
This method of framing is frequently
used in country houses in Scotland.
Course. (Arch ) A range of stones or
bricks of uniform size running continu­
ously in the wall ot
a building.
—,
Belting.
(Arch.) A pillar of
brick or stone, pro­
jecting little or not
at all, used for the
purpose of holding
a wall together. Belt­
ing courses are al­
ways toothed that they may the more

cou
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRA
solidly unite with the wall which is built
up round them.
Couteau de Chasse. The
knives in use in the 16th
and 17th centuries were
notable works of art.
Their hilt and sheath was
generally elaborately car­
ved. The sheath con­
tained besides the knife
itself several instruments,
such as a fork and bodkin,
which might be of service
to the hunter. These may
be observed in our cut,
which represents a cou­
teau de chasse from the
once famous Meyrick col­
lection.
Cover a Canvas, To.
(Paint ) To paint with
rapidity A term not al­
ways used in a good sense.
Many
artists, when they have settled upon
their design and are beginning to paint
their figures, often lightly cover their
canvas with some neutral tint, which
serves as a temporary ground and re­
lieves their eye from the chalky tone of
the canvas.
Coverchief. (Cost.) A complete cover­
ing for the head worn in the nth, 12th,
and 13th centuries by English women of
every class.
A pipe of earthenware
or iron in the shape of a
cone, placed on the top
of a chimney­pot to regu­
late the draught. Some­
times cowls are furnish­
ed with weathercocks,
which, by their rotatory movement, pre­
vent the wind blowing down the chimney.
Crack. A small slit or surface chink
which appears in vaults or on panels
painted in oil. In the latter case they
are caused by dampness and excess of
heat and cold, and increase in propor­
tion to the bad quality of the colours or
varnish employed.
Cowl. (Arch.)
Crackle. (Pot ) A kind of pottery the
enamelled surface of
which is covered with
a network of irregular
cracks. This method of JT^J^
1
^^
decoration was only at­ iT'Cfev''
tained with consider­
·£^> \
able difficulty. Speci­
mens
of Japanese
crackle are very highly
valued. The traité crackle, so called
because it resembles the scales of a
trout, bears the name of tsoni­yem. In
many pieces of Chinese manufacture the
crackle is filled in with a variety of
colours.
Cracowes. (Cost.) Shoes with long toes,
which generally
turned upwards,
and were often
fastened to' the
knee by chains.
They were first
worn in the 14th
century at Cra­
cow, in Poland,
from whence they
spread all over
Europe. It was
thought neces­
sary in England
to pass a law
limiting their
length. Our cut,
representing a
man wearing cra­
cowes, is from a manuscript in the British
Museum.
Cradle. [Rocker.]
Cramp. (Arch ) A piece of iron sunk
in masonry, which holds together two
blocks of stone placed either upon one
another or side by side.
107

CRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRE
Cramponné. (Her.) A charge is said
to be cramponné when it
terminates in a cramp.
Thus we speak of a potence
cramponné, a muscle cram­
ponné. It is cramponné
dexter or cramponné sin­
ister, according to the side
upon which the cramp is placed.
Crancelin. (Her.) A coronet extended
in bend. The word is of
German origin and signifies
a garland of flowers. It is
borne in the arms of Saxony,
and the Prince of Wales
quarters it in his shield.
Crater. An antique vase in the shape
of a truncated cone,
which stands upon a
hemispherical base
and is double handled.
It was used for mixing
wine and water. The
name crater is sometimes given to drink­
ing cups. In ancient times craters were
made of silver or bronze, and were very
large in size.
Crayon. Small cylinders of chalk or
some other material, which are used for
drawing purposes. Black crayons are
composed of chalk and blacklead, red
crayons of ochreous clay containing red
iron oxide, while white crayons are simple
sticks of chalk. A drawing executed in
black crayon is sometimes called a crayon
or chalk drawing. In lithography an oily
kind of crayon is used composed of a
mixture of soap, wax, tallow, and lamp­
black. It is non­resisting and is very
difficult to cut.
Craze. (Pot.) A term which denotes
the cracking of the glaze on a piece of
pottery, caused either by imperfect fusion
or by the too sudden removal of the
pottery from the kiln,
Credentia. A piece of furniture con­
sisting of several shelves one above the
other. The ecclesiastical credentias of
the Middle Ages were sometimes circu­
lar in form, and upon them were placed
108
the vessels used in the services of the
Church. At the time of the Renaissance
and in the 17th century they were lavishly
decorated with sculptured reliefs and
other ornaments, and made the recep­
tacle for gold and silver plate.
Cremnitz White. (Paint.) A white pig­
ment composed of pure white lead. It
is the brightest white used in oil paint­
ing, but has less body than flake white.
It is also termed Vienna white, as it is
manufactured in Vienna.
Crenellated. Embattled. [Battle­
ment.]
Crenelle. (Arch.) A term properly
applied only to the loopholes in a battle­

CRE
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRI
ment, but also used to signify the battle­
ment itself. The adjective crenellated
is used of a building which is furnished
with a battlement as a means of defence.
[Battlement.]
Créquier. (Her.) A French heraldic
term applied to a chan­
delier of seven branches,
sometimes borne as
a
charge. The word créquier
is an old French word for a
plum­tree, but it is now
only employed in the sense
just defined.
Crescent. (Her.) A common charge in
heraldry, and also a mark of difference
used to distinguish the second son. It is
said to be reversed when its horns are
turned to the bottom of the shield; in­
crescent when they look towards the
dexter side ; decrescent when they look
towards the sinister.
Crest. (Her.)
In heraldry the
term crest de­
notes any ad­
dition such as
a helmet or a
crown
placed
above
the
shield. In the
case of an ecclesiastic the crest is a
IF
IT
pastoral staff or else a cap. Both the
cuts here given represent ecclesiastical
crests.
Creste. (Arch.) A pierced leaden
ornament placed vertically on the ridge
of a roof. Many churches, as well as
buildings erected for civil purposes, in
the Middle Ages and the period of the
Renaissance have their roofs decorated
with crestes richly ornamented and some­
times gilded.
Crevasse. (Arch.) An irregular crack
in a wall running longitudinally.
Crimson Lake. (Paint.) A rich red
pigment consisting of the extract of the
coccus cacti insect, with oxide of iron as
a base. It is more useful in water­
colour than in oil­painting. It is not
very permanent, and disappears under a
strong light.
Criophorus.
The word
κ
ρ
ι
ο
φ
ό
ρ
ο
ς
means literally "one who carries a ram."
It was the name given by the people of
Tanagra to Hermes, who had saved them
from a plague by carrying a ram round
the walls. Examples of the criophorus
are found not only in Greek art, but
in Graeco­Roman and Christian art.
Hermes especially is thus represented.
Crispin and Crispianus, SS. Two
saints who left Rome with St. Denis to
preach the gospel in France.
During
their mission they worked at their trade
as shoemakers, and they are said to have
been supplied with leather by angels.
They are consequently the patron saints
of shoemakers, and representations of
them are frequently found in the shoe­
makers' guilds of France and Germany.
They were long very popular saints in
England. Their attributes are an awl
and the^palm.
109

CRI
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRO
Crispine. (Cost.) A head­dress ; the
mediaeval form of
the classical calan­
tica (q.v ). It was
fastened over the
head by a clasp, and
it is uncertain what
its exact form was.
By some writers it
is described as a
transparent veil, by others as a network
to confine the hair.
Critic. A writer who examines, dis­
cusses, and expresses a judgment upon
works of art.
Crock. (Pot.) A general term denoting
any vessel made of clay. From this
crockery is derived.
Crocket. (Arch.) A projecting orna­
ment, often employed in Gothic archi­
tecture. It terminates in a curve or roll
in the form of foliage or flowers. The
crockets of the 13th century have stalks
of considerable length, and decorate not
only roofs and gables but also cornices.
In the 14th century they underwent some
change, assuming more varied forms. In
the 15th century they became more florid
and ornate, and were only used to de­
corate gables and bell­turrets, never
cornices or horizontal mouldings.
Cromlech. A Celtic monument con­
sisting of a series of menhirs (q.v .) ar­
ranged in a circle, in the midst of which
stands a sun­stone (hyrmensul) or a
druidical sphere (feyra).
Cross. (1) A cylinder or octagonal
prism pierced by longitudinal
slits, which with the help of
stakes is used to trace straight
or perpendicular lines upon
the ground. The openings,
which are opposite to each
other, consist respectively
of a straight slit and of a
rectangle divided into two
parts by a thread of silk. The visual
ray passing through this slit, and the
thread of silk covering a stake placed
at some distance from it, are the
points which determine the position of a
straight line.
Cross. (2) (Arch.) In the days when
England was a Catholic country, crosses,
frequently of some architectural preten­
sions, were placed either in open spaces
in towns or villages or by the roadside.
Some few are still in existence, but the
majority are sadly defaced. The cross
of old St. Paul's was long celebrated, for
it was from this that sermons were
delivered. Crosses too were set up in
England in commemoration of a notable
event. For instance, the crosses named
after Queen Eleanor were erected at
every place at which her body rested
between Lincoln and London, whither
it was brought for interment. Market
crosses built for secular purposes are
still to be seen, at Salisbury and Glaston­
bury among other places.
Cross. (3) In Christian art the cross
is the symbol of the Passion of Jesus
Christ. In heraldry, the cross is an
ordinary produced by a vertical band
no

GR?
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRO
meeting a horizontal band near the fess
point, the four limbs thus
formed being of the same
width. When charged (q.v.)
the limbs of the cross may­
be one­third of the width
of the shield, otherwise one­
fifth. No ordinary is subject
to so many modifications of form as the
cross. Only the principal forms of the
cross are here given.
Gross, Anchored. So called because
the four extremities of it
resemble the flukes of an
anchor.
The cross an­
chored is much used in
coats of arms, its fre­
quency being due to the
practice of crusaders, who, on returning
from the Holy Land, in many cases
changed their arms and replaced figures
of animals by a cross.
— , Batons. A cross formed by the
interlacing of four batons,
placed slightly apart so
that the field of the es­
, cutcheon is visible be­
tween. The batons are
not necessarily all of the
same tincture.
— , Câblée. A cross made of thick
cords or cables interlaced.
—, Calvary. A Latin
cross set upon three steps.
—, Cercellée. A cross
the ends of which are divi­
ded and bent back on both
sides so as to form a crook.
— , Cléchée. A cross voided so that the
field of the escutcheon
is visible. The limbs
of this cross expand
' slightly from the centre
towards the extremi­
ties, which latter are
ornamented each with
three pearls.
— , Corded. A cross the limbs of which
are wound round with cord, yet so that
the cords do not hide the cross.
Cross, Couped. (Her.)
A cross is said to be
couped when the limbs
are cut off and do not
extend to the edge of the
shield.
—, Crosslet. In this
cross each of the limbs is crossed again
at a short distance from
the end. It is a very
common charge. It may
be described as four Greek
crosses joined together by
a square
— , Eguisce. (Her.) In this cross the
four extremities are pointed
by having the square corners
cut off. It differs from the
cross fitché, in which the
limb gradually tapers to a
fine point.
—, Fimbriated. A cross is said to be
fimbriated when it is surrounded com­
pletely by a narrow band or hem of a
different tincture to that of the cross or
to that of the,field.
— , Fitché. The lower limb of this
cross tapers to a point from the
centre downwards. The upper
limbs may have any of the com­
mon forms, thus, for example, a
cross­crosslet fitché. It is said
that the early Christians carried
fitched crosses in their pilgrim­
ages, so that they could readily fix them in
the ground and perform their devotions.
—, Flory. The limbs of
this cross are terminated
by fleurs­de­lis, and hence
it is somewhat called a
cross fleurdelisée. These
crosses are
frequently
found in Spanish coats of
arms.
—, Fourchée. This cross may best be
described as a cross moline (q.v .) with
the eight points cut off. It gets its name
from the resemblance of its limbs to the
forks or crutches (Fr. fourchette) on which
soldiers used to rest their muskets.
Ill

CRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRO
Cross, Greek. A plain cross with four
equal limbs. It is sometimes
represented inscribed in a
circle ; for example, the robes
of saints are often ornamented
with a border composed of
Greek crosses placed in circles. Most
of the Eastern churches are built in the
form of a Greek cross.
—, Gringolée. A cross the limbs of
which are terminated
each by two snakes'
heads turned outwards.
The term gringolée may
also be applied to sal­
tires or other charges
ornamented in this way.
— , Latin. In this cross the lower
limb is longer than the other
three. Nearly all Romanesque
and Gothic churches are built
on the model of this cross.
The nave takes the place of
the long lower limb, the choir
is the head of the cross, and
the transepts are the two arms.
—, Maltese. A cross with equal limbs
which widen from the centre
outwards.
The Knights of
Malta, as heirs of the Knights
Hospitallers of St. John of
Jerusalem, bore this cross as
the distinctive mark of their order. In
heraldry this cross is more frequently
represented with an indentation in the
middle of the broad end of each limb,
thus distinguishing it from the cross
pâtée, and earning for it the second name
of cross of eight points.
—, Moline. A cross the limbs of
which are terminated
by fers de moulin or
millrinds (q.v.) It is
not unlike the cross
anchored, but the ends
expand more, and some­
times the limbs are
pierced as in the cut.
—, Pâtée. Like the Maltese cross this
is composed of four equal limbs widen­
112
Some·
ing from the centre outwards.
times the sides of the
limbs are curved as in the
accompanying cut, some­
times straight as in the
Malta cross, but in either
case the limbs in the cross
patée are always terminated by a straight
line.
Cross, Patriarchal. This is a Greek
cross, the upper limb of which
is crossed again, so that a
double cross is formed. It
is also called the cross of
Lorraine, from the fact that
it was borne by the dukes
of that province.
—, Pommée. The limbs of this cross
are terminated by a single ball. It is
called by the French cross bourdonnée
from bourdon, a pilgrim's staff, which
was a long stick with its upper end
rounded off in the form of an apple
(pomme).
—, Potent. This cross has its four
limbs crossed again at the
ends, so that each is in the
form of the letter T. The
term potent, which is also
applied to an heraldic fur,
is an old English word for
crutch (cf. Fr. potence.) The word still
survives in Norfolk under the form of
pottent.
— , Processional. A cross
with or without the figure of
Christ upon it, generally of
metal, and carried at the end
of a shaft or handle. As its
name implies it is used in
the ceremonial processions of
the Roman Catholic Church.
Processional crosses are often
composed of precious metal
adorned with gems. In the
early days of the Church the
large processional crosses
were garlanded with flowers,
each arm supporting a flaming
torch, while swinging from the arms by

CRO
chains hung the letters A and
Ω
.
Many
fine examples of processional crosses are
still preserved, notably at St. Denis, near
Paris, where is to be seen a cross of the
12th century, of oak, covered with plates
of silver and copper gilt.
Cross, Roadside. On the continent of
Europe numerous roadside crosses, or
calvarys, are to be found at conspicuous
places, such as the meeting of four
cross roads, the entrance to a village, &c.
In England they were mostly destroyed
by the Puritan iconoclasts.
—, St. Andrew's. The cross of St
Andrew is in the form of the
letter X. In heraldry it is
more frequently described as
a saltire.
In woodwork a
cross of this shape formed
of two beams is constantly used to
strengthen a rectangular structure.
—, St. Anthony's. The cross of St.
Anthony is simply the letter T.
—, Tau. This is identical with the
cross of St. Anthony. It takes its name
from the Greek letter.
—, Trefled. A cross the limbs of
which are ornamented at
their
extremities with
three semicircles repre­
senting the trefoil. It is
sometimes called the cross
of St. Lazarus, and in
France the cross fleuronêe.
Cross­bow. A weapon introduced into
England in the nth century. It dis­
charged iron­shod arrows or burning
material to set fire to buildings. It was
a very deadly weapon especially in the
hands of the Venetians and Genoese.
[Arbalest.]
Cross­cut. To cut across the edges of
a piece of wood.
Crossette. (Arch.) The projection of
a key­stone which is carried on above
ART DICTIONARY.
CRO
the key­stone itself. The term is like­
wise applied to the projection of mould­
ings which surround a bay.
Cross­hatch, To. To draw lines cross­
ing other lines to obtain depth of shadow.
[Hatchings.]
Cross­hatching. Lines or hatchings
crossed by other hatchings.
Crossing. (Arch.) The part of a Gothic
church west of the choir where the nave
and transepts cut one another at right
angles.
Crotala. Castanets of wood used in
very ancient times, especially in the
mysterious worship of Cybele.
They
were also used by dancers to beat time
with.
Crown, (i) (Her.) A crown differs from
a coronet in being arched over, and being
generally more elaborate. The distin­
guishing feature of what is called the
imperial crown is the ball surmounted
by a cross as shown in one of the accom­
panying cuts. This feature is common to
all countries, but other details are subject
to variation. The other cut here given
represents what is sometimes called the
royal crown.
I We give a few examples of various
"3

CRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
CRU
kinds of crowns. The first cut represents
the simple crown of bay leaves, worn in
ancient Rome.
Cut 2 is the mural
crown, placed in ancient art upon the
head of Cybele.
Cut 3 is a radiated
crown.
Cut 4 represents the square
crown worn by the Saxon kings. Cut 5
is the crown of King Edgar (A.D . 966).
Cut 6 is the crown of William the Con­
queror. Cut 7 represents the imperial
crown of Germany, and cut 8 the crown
of Charlemagne.
The crown was the
symbol of martyrdom as well as of king­
ship.
Crown. (2) (Arch.) A term applied to
the highest point or vertex of an arch.
Crowning. (Arch.) A general word
denoting anything that terminates a
piece of architecture.
For instance,
cornices and pediments are crownings
Crozier. The sign of office of an abbot
or bishop, shaped like a crooked staff.
The croziers in use in the early days of
the church were of wood or ivory, and
generally in the form of the
Τ
or tau.
The croziers of the 13th century were of
greater length, were made of either gold
or silver, and were richly chased and
otherwise ornamented. In the three
following centuries they were siili richer
in design, but in the 17th century they
assumed the bent appearance which they
have ever since retained.
Crucifix. A representation of the pun­
ishment of Jesus Christ on the cross.
The term is specially applied to the
sculptured images which in Catholic
churches are placed upon the altar. Be­
fore the time of Constantine the plain
cross was used.
Cruciform. (Arch.) In the form of a
cross. A church is said to be cruciform
when the nave, choir, and presbytery
form a cross with the two transepts.
This is the ground plan of the majority
H4

CRU
ART
DICTIONARY.
of Gothic churches Churches of this
plan generally assume the form of the
Latin cross, but churches in the form
of a Greek cross are sometimes met
with.
Crude. (Paint.) a term applied to col­
ours which owing to their unskilful
distribution appear too violent and hard.
Cruets. The small vessels which con­
tain the wine and water
used in the celebration of
the sacrament. It is or­
dered by the Roman Catho­
lic Church that they should
be of glass or some trans­
parent substance, that the
officiating priest
might
easily distinguish between
the water and the wine This ordinance,
however, is not adhered to, and the cruets
are frequently made of metal.
The term commonly denotes the ves­
sels which hold condiments at table.
Crypt. (Arch.) A subterranean chapel
generally vaulted, serving as a place of
burial. Crypts were also built to keep
alive the memory of the first Christian
churches. In many English churches,
such as Ripon and Rochester Cathedrals,
the crypt is older than any portion of the
superstructure. Among the finest speci­
mens of the crypt in England may be
mentioned those of Canterbury and
Gloucester. In the 13th century crypts
were of a vast size, but in the 14th they
disappeared. They were, however, re­
introduced in the classical style, and a
large crypt lies beneath St. Paul's Cathe­
dral in London.
Cube. A regular solid body contained
CUP
by six equal squares at right angles to
one another. To find
the cubic content of a
wall is to calculate the
number of cubic yards
and feet which it con­
tains.
Cuir­bouilly. Leather prepared by
boiling, of which armour was made in
the 13th century. It was employed prin­
cipally for leg­guards and elbow­pieces.
Cul­de­Lampe. (Arch.) A French term
denoting an ornament employed in ceil­
ings or vaults. The effect of culs­de­lampe
was sometimes heightened by painting or
gilding. In the 13th century they gene­
rally took the form of foliage ; while in
the 14th and 15th centuries they were
frequently allegorical figures. In the
15th century they were used to support
arches, and were then richly decorated.
At the period of the Renaissance culs­de­
lampe uniformly consist of a circular
capital terminated by a sculptured orna­
ment.
Cul­de­Sac. An impassable alley. A
street which has only one outlet.
Cup. A large vase of no great depth,
with or without handles, mounted on
π
ς

CUP
a foot. Cups are principally made of
metal, but also
of crystal or por­
celain.
Those
given as prizes
in certain com­
petitions are
often works of art and are richly orna­
mented.
Cupboard. A piece of furniture which
in olden times served the purpose of a
sideboard. It frequently took the form
of a recess in the wall, fitted with shelves,
upon which plate, &c., was set out.
Cupid. The god of love, the son of
Aphrodite or Venus. Cupid (or Eros as
he was known to the Greeks) was a
favourite subject with ancient sculptors,
Praxiteles being especially famous for
his statues of the god of love. He is gene­
rally represented winged and holding a
bow and arrows. In works of decorative
art, belonging to all ages, cupids or amo­
rini are frequently found.
Cupola. (Arch.) A concave roof, gener­
ally circular in form. The term is applied
indifferently to the dome and its interior.
But for this there is no authority. Pro­
perly speaking the cupola is only the
interior vaulting, and it is frequently on
a different plane from the dome which
surrounds it outside. Between the two
a considerable vacant space sometimes
intervenes. The cupolas of St. Peter's
at Rome and of the church of St. Sophia
at Constantinople are built on this plan.
A cupola does not necessarily presup­
pose a dome, while the latter is often
found surmounting flat surfaces.
The
best example of a cupola in England is
to be seen at St. Paul's Cathedral.
Curator. A functionary charged with
u6
ART DICTIONARY.
CUS
the care of museums and of public col­
lections of works of art.
Curiosities are ancient, rare, precious,
or curious objects, which it is the delight
and passion of amateurs and collectors
to gather together. The term is a very
comprehensive one, and includes all
those objects in which the antiquary
takes an interest.
Curtain, (i) (Fort.) As a military term
this word denotes the parapet extending
between and uniting two towers. The
word is occasionally applied in a similar
sense in civil architecture to a façade
terminated by two turrets.
Curtain. (2) A term applied in the lan­
guage of theatrical decoration to a large
hanging which separates the stage from
the auditorium between the acts of a
drama. Upon its large surface a piece
of mock drapery is often painted. But
more ambitious designs are frequently
placed upon it, and the curtain of one
of the London theatres represents a
scene from the School for Scandal.
Curvilinear. Formed of curved lines.
Cushion. A square block of wood
with a slip of parchment running round
its edge, so as to form a kind of saucer.
It is used by goldsmiths to put gold leaf
in upon a ground of wadding. An
engraver's cushion is a flat cushion of

eus
ART
DICTIONARY.
CYP
leather filled with sand. Upon it the
line engraver rests
his plate.
It al­
lows the steel or
copper to be
easily moved
about or set at
any angle, and
forms a support with a certain springi­
ness while the work is going on.
Cusp. (Arch.) The point of intersection
of two similar curves having a common
tangent at that point, as, for example,
the points of a trefoil. In architecture
the end of the cusp is frequently carved
into foliage or other decorative patterns.
Cut. (Engrav.) The process of engrav­
ing a design upon wood for the purpose
of reproduction is called cutting. A
drawing printed from a wood­block is
termed a cut.
Cutlass. A thick heavy sword slightly
Curved and with only one edge. It was
originally called a coutle­axe or cuttle­
axe, and was introduced into England
about the 15th century.
Cyathus. A name given to a Greek
drinking cup, which had one handle, and
gives us an idea of resistance and power
was chiefly used to ladle out wine from
the crater (q.v .) or large vessel in which
the wine was mixed.
Cyclopean. A style of architecture
belonging to a very remote period. Its
characteristic feature is the employment
of enormous blocks of stone. Cyclopean
monuments are also called Pelasgic. By
analogy any gigantic masonry which
may be termed cyclopean.
Cylinder. A solid figure obtained by
the revolution of a rectangle
round one of its sides.
Stones of this shape which
serve as amulets or seals
are called cylinders. Thus
we speak of Assyrian or
Babylonian cylinders.
Cylindrical Vault. [Barrel Vault.]
Cylix. A name given to a Greek wine­
bowl of peculiar form. It was wide and
very shallow ; it was mounted on a foot,
and furnished with two small handles.
Its large and almost flat surface provided
an excellent opportunity for decoration.
Cyma. (Arch.) A moulding employed
in cornices and wainscotings. It is undu­
lating in outline, and consists of a hollow
and a round. When the upper part is
hollow it is called cyma recta, when it is
full or round it is called cyma reversa.
The cyma resembles the ogee (q.v.).
Cymatium. (Arch.) A term used in
classical architecture to signify any
moulding which caps a division of the
entablature and so separates it from the
next.
Cyprian, St., Bishop of Carthage,
suffered martyrdom at the hands of
117

DAB
ART
DICTIONARY.
DAG
Valerian The story of St. Cyprian is not
mere legend, but an authentic record of
fact. It has, however, suggested few
subjects to artists. In the few representa­
tions of St. Cyprian which exist, the
saint has the palm and mitre at his feet
or carries a book and the sword of mar­
tyrdom.
D.
Dabber. (Engr.) An instrument shaped
something like a pestle, consisting of a
mass of wool covered with leather and
having a wooden handle. It is used by
engravers for inking the surface of a
block or plate, and by etchers for putting
the etching ground on the copper.
Dado. (Arch.) A cube of stone forming
the principal part of a pedestal. A stone
cut in the form of a cube or of a truncated
pyramid placed on the ground to receive
vertical supports in iron or wood. This
term is also applied to the plinth space
which runs round the wall of a room to
the height of three or four feet from the
bottom. It should be decorated with
paper or distemper different in colour
and design from the paper­hanging which
covers the upper part of the wall.
Daedala. Ine most primitive works
of sculpture known in Greece were
called Daedala, and were said to be the
works of the &f;mi­mythical sculptor
Daedalus The majority of them were
rudely carved in wood, and generally
roughly decorated with colour. They
represented deities, and were held in
great honour. By the superstitious they
were believed to have fallen from the sky.
u8
Dag. A pistol which differed from the
ordinary pistol in having a butt like that
of a musket. Frequent mention is made
of dags in the literature of the i6th and
17th centuries.
Dagger. The earliest and most uni­
versal of offensive weapons. Under some
name or other it has existed in almost
every country, and examples are found
in it dating from the stone and bronze
periods. From the 14th century onward
knights invariably carried the dagger as
well as civilians, who wore it stuck in
their pouch. The three­edged dagger,
with which the coup de grâce was given,
was used in England and France from
the 13th century, and was known as a
miséricorde.
Daguerreotype. A picture produced
by a process invented between 1813 and
1829 by Neipce and Daguerre. In this
process the image in the camera obscura

DAI
ART
DICTIONARY.
DEB
is received on silver plates sensitised by
means of iodine fumes. The plates are
developed [Develop] in mercury fumes,
and fixed with hyposulphite of sodium.
By means of the daguerreotype the
positive is obtained directly, but it is
necessary to repeat the whole operation
for each picture required. In delicacy
this method is superior to photography,
but the glistening of the metal makes it
difficult to see the picture. The general
effect produced by a daguerreotype can
best be compared to the effect produced
by the reflector of partially illuminated
objects seen in a mirror.
Daοs. A lofty seat for one or more
persons. It was covered by a canopy,
from which it got its name. The term
has now been extended to include the
whole of the raised platform which is
usually found at the upper end of
ancient or collegiate halls.
Dalmatic. A garment worn by deacons
and sub­deaconé in the Roman Catholic
Church when assisting the officiating
priest. The garment, which is worn
above the alb, is sleeveless, but covers
the shoulder and the upper part of the
arms.
Damask. A stuff of wool or silk,
usually decorated with bold designs
covering the whole breadth of the cloth.
Damaskene. To apply decorative me­
tallic designs to a surface of iron or steel.
The design is first engraved on the steel
by means of acid, a glue is then applied,
and the whole is covered with sheets of
gold or silver foil. When the glue has
dried a sharp blade is passed over the
surface, and this removes the gold­leaf
except where it has sunk into the pattern.
Damaskening can also be done by dull­
ing metal surfaces so as to imitate the
watering of damask, by rendering a
steel surface blue except where a design
has been traced with the brush, or by
tracing designs in gold or silver on a
ground of blue steel.
Dance of Death, or Danse Macabre.
This subject was very popular with
painters and sculptors from the 4th to
the 16th century. It is frequently found
in bas­relief and decorative paintings,
as well as in the margins of printed
books. The most celebrated Dance of
Death was that painted in fresco at
Basle by Holbein.
The original has
long since been destroyed, but etchings
have survived, which give us an idea of
its design. A similar fresco ran round
the cloister of old St. Paul's.
Dancetté. (Her.) This is one of the
fancy lines employed in­
stead of straight line to
divide a shield. The dif­
ference between dancetté
and indented (q.v .)lies solely
in the size of the teeth, and
it is probable that the two
lines were originally identical.
Dart. [Egg and Dart.]
Daub. (Paint.) A careless and unequal
mixture of incongruous tones. Thus we
call a picture a frightful daub when it is
crude in colouring and discordant in
effect.
Deambulatory. (Arch.) An old name
for aisle (q.v .).
Debruised. (Her.) A term applied to
charges passing one above the other.
119

DEC
ART DIC
Decadence. Art is said to be in deca­
dence at a particular period when the
works produced at that period are not
equal to those of the time immediately
preceding. The expression is also ap­
plied, but often incorrectly, to certain
works designed and executed without
sufficient regard to the laws and tradi­
tions of classical art.
Decastyle. (Arch.) In Grecian archi­
tecture a temple was termed decastyle
when it had ten pillars in its façade.
Décentre. To remove the centre, or
temporary structure of wood upon which
arches are built, after the masonry has
consolidated. [Centre.]
Decimetre. The tenth part of a metre.
A metre is 39*37 inches, and consequently
a decimetre is 3­9 inches, or very nearly
equal to a hand.
Decorated Style. The culmination of
the Gothic style in England is generally
termed decorated. It was introduced in
the reign of Edward I. , a nd the crosses
raised in honour of Queen Eleanor are
among the earliest specimens of it. It
flourished throughout the reigns of
Edward II. and Edward III., and then
gave way to the Perpendicular style,
which marked the decline of Gothic
architecture. The windows in buildings
of this style are divided into lights by
mullions. The largest known decorated
windows have nine lights, as for instance
the east window in Carlisle Cathedral,
but in smaller churches two or three is
the usual number. The tracery in the
windows is either geometric, consisting
of circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, &c, or
flowing in wavy lines. Circular windows
are common and the arch generally
used in decorated buildings is equilateral.
The doorways of this style are chiefly
noticeable on account of their ornament
In form they differ but little from those of
the previous style. The pillars are often
diamond­shaped with shafts engaged, the
capitals generally plain or ornamented
with well­carved foliage. The ball­flower
ornament is almost peculiar to the de­
120
DED
corated style, while its mouldings con­
sist of rounds and hollows separated by
fillets.
Decoration. By the decoration of a
façade we mean the system of ornament
which is placed upon it. This may con­
sist of designs either sculptured in relief
or painted. One branch of the art of
decoration is the adornment of rooms
with tapestries, works of art, tropical
plants, &c. Under the term theatrical
decoration are included all the curtains,
painted scenes and furniture, which help
to give an air of reality and splendour
to a scene on the stage.
Decorative. A work of art is said to
be decorative when it is applied to the
decoration of a particular space, and
when it is designed with a view to the
shape and character of the space which
it fills. A painting may be said to be
decorative when, quite apart from the
subject it portrays, it produces upon
the spectator the impression of a piece
of decoration, either from the harmony
of its colouring or the beauty of its lines.
Decorative Art is that branch of art,
which is applied to the decoration of
objects of luxury or use, and to the
adornment of houses and other build­
ings. Thus the object of decorative art is
not the creation of a separate work, such
as a picture or statue, but the produc­
tion of sculptures, paintings, or fabrics
which are intended to fulfil a definite
purpose, and to decorate a room or
wall space.
Decorator. An artist who devotes
himself to decorative painting or sculp­
ture, and executes his work with due
regard to the space which it is intended
to occupy.
Dedicated. Works offered to distin­
guished persons or submitted to their
patronage by a written, printed, or en­
graved dedication are said to be dedicated
to them.
Dedication. An inscription engraved
on plates principally of the 17th and 18th
centuries. The inscription sometimes
TIONARY.

DEL
ART
DICTIONARY.
DEN
embodied armorial bearings, and de­
scribed the respect of the engraver for
the possessor of the picture or his
gratitude towards some person of high
rank.
Del. Abbreviation of the word deli­
neavit.
It follows the name of the
original author of a drawing which has
been reproduced by engraving or litho­
graphy.
Delft. (Pot.) Earthenware painted and
glazed is called delft, from the town
Delft, where it was first made. It is
generally of rude workmanship, and
more quaint than beautiful in colour
and design.
Delineation. The outline of a figure
or landscape.
Delta. A triangle surrounded by rays
and containing inscribed within it the
name of Jehovah in Hebrew charac­
ters.
Demeter. Demeter, the daughter of
Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess who
watched over agriculture and the produc­
tion of the fruits of the earth. When her
daughter Persephone was carried off by
Hades, she sought for her in every land,
conferring wherever she went the bless­
ings of agricultural prosperity. She was
especially revered in Attica, to an inhabi­
tant of which, Triptolemus by name, she
is said to have taught the use of the
plough. Her worship is in some measure
connected with the belief in a future
state, and the Eleusinian mysteries held
in her honour are said to have had an
ennobling effect on all those who were
admitted to them. Her name is gener­
ally mentioned with that of her daughter
Persephone (q.v .), the goddess of the
lower world, in whose charge was the
seed committed to the earth. Among
the known statues of Demeter, the finest
is that found at Cnidus and now in the
British Museum. The goddess is repre­
sented draped and with a veil, and there
is much religious dignity in the figure.
In representations of Demeter on vases,
allusion is generally made to her sojourn
in Attica and her teaching Triptolemus
the use of the plough.
Demi­brassards. Half armour for the
arm
[Brassards.]
Demi­column.
A column so built
against a vertical wall that only half
of the column is seen, the rest being
built into the wall. [Column.]
Demi­dolmen. When one of the verti­
cal supports of a dolmen are non­exis­
tent so that the table of the dolmen
rests with one end on the ground it
is called a demi­dolmen, or an imperfect
dolmen. When such dolmens were of
large dimensions they were employed
for the massacre of victims, who were
marched up the sloping surface and
precipitated from the top. [Dolmen.]
Demi­lion Rampant.
(Her.) A lion, of which the
upper half only is repre­
sented on a chief or fess,
the animal thus appear­
ing at the top of the
shield.
Demi­vol. (Her.) Used to describe
a single wing of a bird with
the features turned towards
the sinister side of the
shield. Several
shields
present three demi­vols on
the same surface.
Demolition. The destruction of an
edifice.
Denis, St. St. Denis of France is con­
founded in the legend with St. Dionysius.
This connection is not supported by his­
torical criticism, but in art they are
always represented as one. Dionysius
(or St. Denis as he was called when he
went to Paris) was a Grecian philosopher,
who was converted to Christianity by
St. Paul. He became bishop of Athens
121

DEN
ART
DICTIONARY.
DEV
and afterwards of Paris. While at Paris
he was persecuted and finally beheaded
by the Roman pro­consul
St. Denis or
Dionysius is represented in art as carry­
ing a head in his hand.
Dentels. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment, which breaks the horizontal
moulding of an entablature, and throws
shadows below the projection caused by
the cornice in the Ionic and Corinthian
orders. Dentels are formed by punching
out rectangular pieces from a large fillet
(q.v.) Their height is generally double
their breadth, and they are separated
from one another by a space half as
broad as the dentei itself.
Depict. [Paint.]
Depth. (Paint.) The distance mea­
sured from the bottom of a picture to the
horizon. We sometimes say of a land­
scape that it wants depth.
Derby China. The factory of porcelain
at Derby was established by Duesbury
in 1750. The china made at Derby in
the last century was of great beauty, and
the blue and gold pieces were especially
admirable. At one period china thimbles
formed an important part of the industry.
At the beginning of the present century
the Derby factory passed into other
hands, and was finally closed in 1848.
Descent from the Cross. A picture
representing Joseph of Arimathea and
the disciples of Christ lowering the body
from the cross.
Design. (Paint ) The preliminary
sketch of a picture. A collection of lines,
which serves as the base of a composition
and marks the more important points
in it. The plans prepared by an archi­
tect for a building, or by an engineer
122
for a machine, or by an artist for a paper
or stuff, are called the design for the
building, machine, &c. The art of de­
sign is the adaptation of forms to
spaces, objects, and materials.
The
business of the designer is to fill space
ι
or panels with designs which at once
fit the space in which they are placed
and are harmonious in themselves.
Designer. An artist who executes
decorative designs for industrial pur­
poses—wall­papers, carpets, &c, &c. — is
called a designer.
Desk. Desks sloped at various angles
are used for various purposes : (i) for
painting miniatures upon ivory ; (2) for
painting on porcelain ; (3) for retouching
photographs ; (4) for executing tracings.
Detached. (Arch.) Isolated, standing
by itself. A column
is said to be de­
tached when it
stands apart from
the building to which
it belongs. It may be connected with
the rest of the building either by a plinth
or an entablature. A house is said to
be detached when it does not join
another house on either side, but has
a free space all round it. In a painting
figures are said to be detached, when
they stand out naturally from the back­
ground.
Detail. This word is used to describe
the secondary or accessory parts in a
picture or a group. In certain kinds of
work, as in easel­pictures for example,
the detail should be carefully executed,
because the work will be subject to close
inspection. But in wall pictures on the
other hand an over­scrupulous execution
of the details would spoil the general
effect. In architecture the detail is
the smaller ornamental work. It is
executed from the architect's designs,
and from it the building gets much of
its character.
Develop. (Photo.) After the sensitive
plate has been exposed in the camera to
receive the image it is removed into a

DEV
ART
DICTIONARY.
DIA
partially darkened room, where it is sub­
ject to the action of certain chemical
reagents. By this means the image on
the plate is developed.
Device. An emblem or motto, which
was borne by mediaeval Knights upon
their shields and banners, and served to
distinguish them in battle or at tourna­
merits. It was from devices that ar­
morial bearings (q.v.) were in all pro­
bability derived. Our cut represents
the device on the shield of the Prince of
Condé.
Dexter. (Her.) The dex­
ter side of a shield is the
right­hand side of the
shield itself, and it is thus
opposite to the left hand
of a person facing the
shield.
Dextrochθre. (Her ) A French heraldic
term used to describe a charge repre­
senting a right arm, either draped or
bare.
Diaconicum. (Arch.) One of the lateral
absides of Christian basilicae in which
the treasure was kept. It was some­
times called secretarium.
Diadem. A circlet worn round the
heads of kings in ancient times. It was
of silk or wool and was tied at the back
with strings.
It was the emblem of
power, and among the deities of ancient
Greece Zeus and Hera are represented
as wearing it.
Diadumenos. This name is given to
statues which represent a youth binding
a wreath or diadem round his head. The
most celebrated work of art bearing this
name in ancient times was a statue by
Polycletus. A picture or statue repre­
senting a girl in a similar attitude is
termed a diadumene
Diagonal. The diagonal of a paral­
lelogram or of any four­sided figure is
the line joining two non­adjacent angles.
Diagonal Joining. (Arch.) A decora­
tion found in Gothic houses, which con­
sists of small beams, bricks, or tiles, set
obliquely and symmetrically with respect
to a vertical or horizontal axis.
123

DIA
ART DIC
Diagram. A geometrical drawing re­
presenting the outline of an object, or
some fact or series of facts. The dia­
gram of a vase, for instance, gives the
outline of the vase, as well as the outline
of all the objects which decorate its sur­
face. Diagrams are also used for scien­
tific purposes. Thus by means of curves
we can represent on paper the varying
rates of mortality in a country, and such
curves would form a diagram of mor­
tality.
Diagraph. An optical instrument by
means of which pictures and other ob­
jects can be traced on a scale propor­
tional to the distance of the diagraph
from the object. The instrument was
invented by the architect Cigosi in the
16th century and perfected by Gavard in
1830. The apparatus consists of a glass
to which is attached a contrivance for
holding a pencil. The operator looking
through the glass follows the lines of the
picture.
As he moves the glass the
pencil also moves and so reproduces
the picture.
Dial. The decorated disc of a clock,
upon which the hours
are marked. The cir­
cular form of the dial
suggested to artists
many ingenious me­
thods of ornamenta­
tion.
Dials vary in
style according to the
period to which they
belong, and many of
them are full of interest as works of art.
Diameter. The diameter of a circle or
of any central curve is a straight line
passing through the centre and termi­
nated at each end by the curve.
Diamond. A colourless gem of the
greatest brilliancy more highly esteemed
by the moderns than any other precious
stone. On account of its extraordinary
hardness it is of great service in some of
the industrial arts. A glazier's diamond
is a small tool for cutting glass. It con­
sists of a short handle, at one end of
124
DIA
which is fixed a speck of diamond.
When the diamond is drawn firmly
across a sheet of glass it makes a
scratch, and the glass can then be easily
broken along the line of the scratch. In
architecture and the decorative arts,
bricks, stones, and pieces of wood or
glass are said to be diamond­shaped
when they assume the form of the
rectangular figure known as the lozenge
(q.v ).
Diamond Dust. The powdered dust of
diamonds used for cutting and shaping
precious stones. The value of diamond
dust for this purpose was discovered by
Louis de Berquem in 1476.
Diamond Fret. (Arch.) An ornamental
moulding employed in Romanesque
architecture.
Diamond Powder. A powder used by
gem engravers.
When their cutting
tools are covered with a slight coating
of oil the diamond powder easily ad­
heres to them and prevents them from
blunting.
Diaper. A fine linen cloth manu­
factured at Ypres and decorated with
ornamental devices, such as geometric
patterns, scroll or lattice work, &c. From
this system of ornament diaper came to
be used to denote an architectural deco­
ration. This decoration consists of the
continued repetition of a small flower,
carved in low relief and sunk below the
level of the surface which it decorates.
The sculptured diaper pattern is exten­
sively used in buildings of the Early
TIONARY.

DIA
ART
DICTIONARY.
DIO
English and Decorated styles. In Per­
pendicular buildings it is painted not
sculptured, and mural paintings being
perishable few examples of the diaper
pattern belonging to the Perpendicular
period have come down to us. In he­
raldry a shield is said to be
diapered with a certain
colour when it is covered
with ornaments or ara­
ssques of that colour.
Sometimes the diaper takes
the form of garlands of
flowers. Examples are frequently found
in German coats of arms.
Diaphanograph. An instrument by
means of which an object can be drawn
by looking at it across a sheet of glass.
Also a photograph printed on glass, so
that when hung against the light it pre­
sents the appearance of a monochrome.
These photographs are generally pre­
pared by first printing from the usual
glass negative on a sheet of gelatine.
This is afterwards covered with a special
ink, and the greater or less depressions
of the gelatine produce when the gelatine
is pressed against a sheet of glass the
effects of light and shade.
Diaphragm. A thin sheet of metal
with a circular opening in it, which is
placed in a camera between the object
glass and the image so as to give more
clearness to the image by cutting off
oblique rays of light from the object.
Diastyle. (Arch.) A temple is called
diastyle when the distance between the
columns is equal to three times the dia­
meter of the column.
Didactic. A work of art, whether a
poem, a picture, or a sculptured group,
is said to be didactic when it is obvious
that the author intended to convey some
moral lesson by means of his work.
Die. (Numis.) A metal block cut in
intaglio from which a coin is struck.
Difference. (Her.) A difference or bri­
sure in heraldry is the mark by which
the various individuals who are entitled
to wear the same arms are distinguished
from one another. Thus the eldest son
wears his father's arms with the addition
of a charge called the label (q.v .), the
second son adds to his father's arms a
crescent ; the third, a mullet; the fourth,
a mascle, and so on. The best known
case of a difference or mark of cadency
is the baton which is superadded by a
bastard to the arms borne by his father.
The baton is a diminutive of the bend­
sinister, and is couped at its extremities
so that it does not extend to the edges
of the shield. It is not uncommon to
hear this mark of bastardy loosely de­
scribed as the "bar­sinister," a term
which is heraldically absurd, for a bar
being a horizontal belt right across the
shield cannot obviously be either sinister
or dexter. The special name for a differ­
ence which denotes dishonour of any sort
is abatement.
Diglyph. An ornament consisting of
two grooves, as the triglyph (q v.) does
of three. It is often met with on the
side faces of corbels.
Dimidiated. (Her.) A term applied to
a shield which is made up
of portions of two coats of
arms, so arranged that
each portion represents
one half of the coat of
arms to which it belongs.
Thus we say in blazon­
ing, "Dimidiated: first azure, second
gules."
Diminutive. (Her.) A diminutive of
an heraldic ordinary occupies the same
position on the shield as the ordinary
itself but is of smaller dimensions, and
has a name of its own. Thus the
diminutive of the chief is called the
fillet, and that of the pale is called the
pallet.
Dionysus. The son of Zeus and Semele,
called also Bacchus, was the god of the
vintage, and the mirth and jollity con­
nected with it. In Greek art he is some­
times represented as a child, carried
by Hermes, as in the famous statue
of Praxiteles. He often assumes the
125

DIO
ART
DICTIONARY.
DIP
form of a youthful deity crowned with
ivy or vine leaves and carrying a
thyrsus and cantharus, or drinking­
cup. Over his shoulder he wears the
skin of a stag, and he rides in a chariot
drawn by tigers or panthers. The In­
dian Bacchus is represented as bearded
and draped, with none of the jollity
which we are wont to associate with the
wine god.
Diorama. This is a method of produc­
ing pictorial effects invented by Da­
guerre and Bouton in 1822. A picture
which is not intended to be all seen at
one time is painted on a large cotton
sheet and additional figures and objects
are painted on the back of the sheet.
The spectator sits in a dark room at
some distance from the painted sheet,
which is illuminated from the front and
also when required from the back. The
lighting is so arranged that it can be
varied in direction and intensity and
colour at will, and thus different portions
of the canvas are successively brought
into view, and the same can be made to
assume the appearance of daylight, dusk,
or moonlight as required. By throwing
a light from behind on to the back of the
screen, the objects , there painted are
rendered visible to the spectators in
front, and thus new figures can be in­
troduced into the scene painted on
the front side.
Diota. An ancient two­handled
vase,
a
small am­
phora.
Its
body was
ovoidal in
shape and
was
sur­
mounted by
a narrow
neck.
Diplois.
(Cost.) The
at the waist and fell in picturesque folds.
It also denoted a kind of double cloak,
as in our cut.
Dipteral. A term used to describe
a temple surrounded by a double row of
columns.
Diptych. A painted or carved panel
name given by
the Greeks to the part of the chiton
which was drawn up over the girdle
126
folding in half by means of hinges. A
beautiful ivory diptych representing the
triumoh of Bacchus is to be seen in the

DIR
ART
DICTIONARY.
DIS
Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, where
it is used to protect a valuable manu­
script
Dirk. A term given to the dagger
(q
ν
) in Scotland.
Disciple. An artist who adopts the
general method of some noted master,
and is inspired by his teaching or ex­
ample, is often said to be the disciple
ot that master.
Discobolus. A quoit­player The disco­
bolus was a favourite subject with Greek
sculptors, and several admirable statues
of discoboli have come down to us. By
far the most celebrated is that of Myron,
who represented the athlete in the dis­
torted attitude assumed just before the
discus or quoit was thrown.
Discord. An inharmonious or incon­
gruous arrangement of colours is often
called a discord
Discus. A quoit. As used in Greece
the discus resembled a shield without a
handle. The quoit­thrower grasped it
in his hand, letting it rest in his palm
and fore arm. Some quoits are works
of art, representations of athletes and
athletic contests being engraved on
them.
Dish. (Pot ) A broad flat vessel, some­
times with a rim, sometimes without,
upon which food is brought on to the
table.
Disk. A flat circular sheet of metal or
any other substance.
Dismembered. (Her.)
to describe figures of
birds without claws or
legs.
A dismembered
eagle is frequently em­
ployed in German coats
of arms.
Disperse. To divide and spread over
the whole surface the interest of a work
of art. To place in different parts of
the canvas the lights of a picture. It is
a term of reproach, for when the interest
is dispersed the eye, attracted here and
there, is unable to concentrate itself on
any one point.
Displayed. (Her ) An eagle or other
bird is said to be displayed
when its wings are spread
and turned towards the
upper part of the shield.
In this case the feathers
of the wings have the ap­
pearance of rays.
Disposition. (Paint.) The arrange­
ment of the various parts of a work of
art The disposition of a picture is
eccentric when the drapery and acces­
sories are not naturally arranged.
Disproportion. The absence of correct
subordination of one part of a picture to
another
Distaff. The distaff of the ancients
was of very simple construction. It was
simply made out of a cane, which, when
split at the top, formed a kind of bas­
ket, in which the flax was placed. A
ring was then put round it so as to hold
127

DIS
ART
DICTIONARY.
DOL
the whole mass together. In represen­
tations of the Fates, who
spin the thread of life, a
distaff is always to be seen.
Modern Italians make dis­
taffs of the same material
and in the same manner to
the present day.
Distance. (Paint.) The
furthest point of sight in
a picture. The point of
distance is in perspective
the point where the visual
rays meet; the middle dis­
tance is the middle portion
of a picture between the
foreground and the ex­
treme distance.
Distemper. A method of colouring
surfaces.
In this method the colours
are prepared with a solution of water
and size, or for small surfaces of water
and gum. The method is mostly em­
ployed for colouring walls, and the dis­
temper then consists of whiting, water,
size, and the colour required.
Divergent. Rays of light, or straight
lines generally, are said to be divergent
when they proceed from a point and are
inclined at an angle to one another, so
that they separate further and further
from one another.
Dodecagon. A plane figure having
twelve sides.
Dodecahedron. A solid figure having
twelve faces.
Dodecastyle. (Arch.) In Grecian archi­
tecture a temple was termed dodecastyle
when it had twelve pillars in its façade.
Dog. The dog in classical as well as
in mediaeval art was the symbol of
fidelity. In classical times it was cus­
tomary to paint a dog with the inscrip­
tion cave canem at the threshold of
dwelling­houses. An example of this
device is to be seen at Pompeii. In
tombs in Christian churches a dog,
emblematic of conjugal fidelity, is fre­
quently to be seen at the feet of effigies
of married women.
128
Dog­tooth Ornament. [Tooth Orna­
ment ]
Dolabra. A cutting instrument used
for various purposes, just as the modern
axe or hatchet is. It was employed by
husbandmen for chopping wood, &c,
and in the columns of Trajan and
Antoninus soldiers are represented as
breaking through fortifications and
stockades with the dolabra.
Dolium. An earthenware vessel of al­
most spherical form used
by the Romans to hold
wine and other liquids.
These vessels were often
of very large dimensions,
sometimes large enough to contain a
man.
In India to the present day
earthenware vessels of this shape and of
various sizes are used everywhere to
carry and hold water. The vessel is
called a ghurra in India.
Dolmen. A Celtic monument con­
sisting of unhewn stones arranged in
parallel and vertical lines. Upon these
other stones are placed horizontally.
Some dolmens are divided into com­
partments and closed at one end.
Dolphin. A conventional figure of a
large­headed cetaceous mammal. Dol­

DOM
ART
DICTIONARY.
DOO
phins are especially used to decorate
fountains. They are also used in her­
aldry, and are then generally represented
in profile with their bodies bent into a
semicircle.
Dome. (Arch.) A roof formed by a
series of arches springing from consecu­
tive points on a circular or polygonal
plane base and crossing one another at
the summit. The
solid figure thus
formed may be
roughly described
as hemispherical,
and if, for ex­
ample, the plane
base were a true
circle, and the
arches true semi­
circles, the dome would then be a true
hemisphere
— , Polygonal. Domes are some­
times built with
a polygon as
their base. The
Louvre in Paris
presents several
examples of the
polygonal dome,
as well as of the
dome erected upon a square base
—, Surbased A dome, the surface of
which above the roof is less than a
hemisphere.
— , Surmounted or Stilted. A dome
which consists of a hemisphere standing
upon a solid rectangular figure. [Arch,
Stilted ]
Dominant. A term used to describe
the principal colour or tone in a picture.
Donjon. A strongly fortified building
placed either in the interior of a castle
or at one angle of the outer wall. Within
the donjon were preserved the archives
and treasure. In the case of siege, the
donjon was the last resort of the be­
sieged. In early times donjons were
constructed, according to the Norman
custom, on a square or rectangular plan.
In the nth century they assumed the
form of quatrefoils and afterwards were
cylindrical in shape. In the 12th cen­
tury particular attention was paid to
their fortifications and means of defence.
But after a time splendour rather than
strength was aimed at, and in the 14th
and 15th centuries donjons became
nothing more than magnificent dwelling­
houses.
Donor. In former times the donors of
pictures or windows to churches were
frequently portrayed kneeling before
the figure of the saint whose portrait they
had presented.
Door. (Arch ) An opening or bay, which
serves the purpose of entrance or exit.
Gothic churches are generally provided
with doors of great beauty, which vary
in style according to their period. In
Norman churches the archivolt is a semi­
circle and is supported by small columns.
At a later date vertical supports deco­
rated by niches placed one above the
other replaced these columns. The space
between the lintel and the arch was called
the tympanum (q.v.) . In Gothic build­
ings this tympanum was sometimes deco­
rated with bas­reliefs, often comprising
hundreds of small figures disposed irt
friezes one above the other. Sometime»
too tympana were occupied by a repre­
129

DOO
ART
DICTIONARY.
DOR
sentation of the genealogy of the Virgin
in the form of a tree, termed Jesse's tree.
Door, Folding. A door consisting of
two leaves, which
close one upon the
other. French win­
dows or doors open­
ing on to a balcony
are generally con­
structed upon this
plan.
The leaves
are sometimes carried up the whole
length of the bay, while sometimes the
upper part of the doorway is occupied by
a fixed sash.
Door­frame. The fixed frame to which
a door is hung.
A door­frame
consists of two
vertical posts
whose upper ex­
tremities are te­
noned in a head
or lintel, and
whose lower ex­
tremities are fitted into a side of hard
wood or stone.
The frame is
either built in
as the masonry
progresses, or
recesses are left
into which it is
afterwards fit­
ted. In cases
where the ver­
tical pieces pro­
ject they are termed responds.
Doorway, Egyptian. (Arch.) A door­
way in the form
of a trapesium.
Its jambs are
generally inclined
as in the cut, but
sometimes they
are
vertical.
Egyptian door­
.
ways are gene­
rally ornamented with sculptured or
painted hieroglyphics. A central orna­
ment in the form of a winged globe
sometimes surmounts them.
Doric. An order of ancient architecture
specially characterised by sobriety of
ornament. In Greece this order com­
bines both strength and elegance, but
Roman Doric is rather heavy. In Doric
buildings the columns have no base. To­
wards the middle they show a swelling
or entasis.
Their capital is of extreme
simplicity. [Capital, Doiic] The frieze
was not continuous but was made up of
alternate triglyphs (q.v.) and metopes
(q.v .) . The elements of the Doric order
undoubtedly came from the East. It
appeared in all the Dorian cities about
the 7th century B.c ., a nd its prevailing
characteristics are those of severity and
power.
Dormer. A term denoting the upper
story in the roof of a house.
—
ΰ fronton triangulaire. In build­
ings of stone this form
of dormer was frequently
employed. Of this kind
were many large dor­
mers belonging both to
the Gothic and classical
style. In the latter style
their summit was fre­
quently richly decorated.
— , Bull's Eye. A dorme* with a circu­
130

DOR
ART
DICTIONARY.
DOR
lar opening. Dormers of this kind are
generally connected to a base of consider­
able size by ornamental scrolls, as in the
cut.
Dormer, Decorated. The tympanum
of a decorated dormer
is ornamented with
sculptures, and its
summit is cut into
, arcades or termina­
ted with pinnacles.
This form of dormer
is frequently to be
seen in buildings of
the 15th and 16th
centuries. In the triangular space above
the window coats of arms or bas­reliefs
are frequently carved.
— , Flemish. A dormer constructed
in stone or brick
masonry, surmount­
ed by a pediment à
redans.
These re­
dans vary in num­
ber according to the
height of the pedi­
ment.
— , Gabled. A dormer placed at the
upper part of a roof and terminated by
a gable.
—, Rampant. A dormer without a
pediment set in the
middle of the roof.
It is sloped, but at
a different angle to
the inclination of the
roof. The term is
also applied to a
dormer when its sill
and lintel are not
placed horizontally.
Dormer, Square. A dormer with
horizontal
roof.
Architecturally this
dormer is quite un­ ^^
ambitious. It is
generally seen in
private dwellings or country houses.
— , Surbased. A dormer the roof of
which is in the
form of a segment
of a circle.
Zinc
dormers of modern
construction gene­
rally assume this
ΞΞ
Ι
form.
They are
sometimes so or­
namented as to break the lines of the
concentric mouldings.
—, Window. (Arch.) A vertical win­
dow projecting from the slope of the
roof. In the 15th and 16th centuries
dormer windows played a great part in
the decoration of façades. Above the
great tiled roofs of this period gigantic
dormer windows of carved stone sur­
rounded with bell­turrets and balus­
trades were built.
Dormitory. (Arch ) A sleeping apart­
ment, especially the sleeping­room in
monasteries and other religious houses.
Dorothea, St., virgin and martyr, was
born at Caesarea in Cappadocia She was
put to death by Fabricius, the Roman
governor of the province. On her way
to execution she was taunted by a youth
of the city named Theophilus, who
131

DOR
ART
DICTIONARY.
DRA
mockingly asked her to send him of the
fruits and flowers of the garden to which
she said she was going. At the place of
execution she was met by an angel,
whom she sent with flowers and fruits to
Theophilus. The latter was at once
converted by this miracle and soon after
suffered martyrdom himself. St. Doro­
thea's attributes are fruits in a basket
and bunches of roses. She is more often
represented by German and Flemish
artists than by Italian.
Dorsal. A piece of embroidered ma­
terial or a piece of tapestry hung against
the wall behind a seat or to cover the
back of a chair. The practice of employ­
ing drapery in this way was frequent in
the Middle Ages, and in the time of the
Renaissance. In some churches the
stalls are ornamented with carving in
imitation of dorsals.
Dosser. A term applied like dorsal to
hangings of tapestry placed at the east
end of a church or against the walls of a
hall. The name is derived from the fact
that the hangings were placed at the
back of the officiating clergy or behind
the chairs in a hall. The covering at the
back of a seat is also called a dosser.
Double­handed Swords. These huge
weapons were used in the 15th and 16th
centuries in warfare, and were retained
in public ceremonies until a later date
They were of great length, and wielded
with both hands.
Dove. In Christian art the dove is the
symbol of the Holy Ghost, as well as the
emblem of love, innocence, purity, and
peace. A pyx in the form of a dove was
often hung above the altar of a church,
and such a one is shown in our cut.
Dovetail. A method of joining em­
ployed both in wood and stone work. A
tenon, shaped like a dove's tail, fits into
a notch similar to it in shape and size.
Dovetails form a weak joint in carpentry,
as wood shrinks more across the grain
than along it.
Dowel. (Arch.) A dowel is a slightly
tapering pin of iron fixed in a stone so
as to fit into a hole made in a stone oppo­
site to it. The joint thus formed is called
a dowel­joint.
Dragon. A mythical animal with lion's
claws, eagle's wings, and a serpent's tail.
In Byzantine monuments a dragon is
often used to symbolise some public
132

DRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
DRA
calamity. Owing to its fictitious cha­
racter the dragon is peculiarly adaptable
to the imagination of the artist, and
hence is a favourite subject for works of
art. Chinese and Japanese artists, are
especially fond of the dragon, and have
produced some wonderful works in which
the dragon is the central idea.
Dragon's Blood. A resin of a dark
blood­red colour, obtained from an
Indian tree, and used for colouring var­
nishes.
Dramatic. In painting, this word is
used to characterise a scene expressing
lively action or keen emotion.
Drape. To arrange the drapery on the
model or on a lay­figure; and also to
paint or model drapery.
Draped. Covered with drapery.
Drapery. Material or clothing of such
—s,
fulness as to
hang in folds.
In
ancient
statues part of
the body was
always left un­
covered, and the
drapery over the
rest modelled
from very fine
and
flexible
stuffs
hung
close to the
body in tiny
folds.
In the
12th century artists adopted a uniform
practice of making stiff and regular folds
symmetrically placed. The draperies of
the 13th and 14th centuries hang almost
straight down, meeting the feet at a right
angle. Later, in the 15th century, a good
deal of mannerism was introduced, but at
the same time the lines of the body are
followed more truly. The fulness of
drapery was very much increased in the
16th century, and in the 17th and 18th
centuries it was much relied upon for
producing artistic effects.
Thus the
drapery is frequently torn or flying about,
and by strong shades accentuates the
outline of the figure. In the present
century our universally inartistic dress
compels sculptors as a rule to seek their
types of drapery in the fuller robes of
preceding generations.
Drapery, Mock. A method of painting
walls to represent dra­
pery hanging in ver­
tical and regular folds.
These draperies gene­
rally appear as though
they were fixed to the
wall by round­headed
nails.
Though they
are generally model­
led with great care,
they are sometimes painted quite flat,
and their folds only indicated by a
simple line.
Draught­board Moulding. (Arch.) A
method of decorating
the surface of walls
adopted in the Roman­
esque period. It con­
sists of black and white
materials alternated, or else of project­
ing courses of stone intersecting at right
angles so as to form squares, and by
throwing shadows to break the monotony
of the surface. The term draught­board
is also used of pavements where tiles of
different colours alternate.
Drawing. A method of representing
objects by lines made with pen or pencil.
In geometrical or architectural drawing
rulers and compasses are employed to
aid the hand ; while in freehand draw­
ing only pen or pencil may be used.
— , Architectural. A drawing which
portrays building either in elevation or
section by geometrical processes.
—
Board. A flat board, upon which
drawing paper is strained The paper
is moistened and secured to the board
round its under edge by paste or glue.
It becomes flat, when dry, and can be
removed from the board by cutting in­
side the paste line.
—, Freehand. A drawing done without
the aid of ruler or compass.
m

DRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
DRU
Drawing from Nature. A drawing
made from the living model, from a
landscape, or from natural objects.
—
from the Cast. A drawing made
from a plaster cast, either of a bas­relief
or a sculpture in the round.
—
from the Flat. A drawing copied
from a subject drawn, lithographed or
engraved.
—, Machine A term applied to out­
line or washed drawing, representing
machines, pieces of mechanism, &c.
—
Pin. A short sharp­pointed steel
pin with a large head. It is used for
fixing sheets of paper upon drawing­
boards, &c.
Dresden China. The first hard­paste
porcelain made in Europe
was produced at Dresden by
Bottcher This celebrated
chemist succeeded in mak­
ing white porcelain in 1710.
A factory was then established at Meis­
sen, and Bôttcher was appointed direc­
tor. This factory is still in existence,
but the pieces which are sent out from
it have little artistic merit. The pic­
turesque figures which were modelled
under Kundler's management (1731—63)
are of great value
Dresser. A piece of furniture standing
or fixed against a
wall. It consists
generally of two front
legs and an upright
back, carrying shelves on which are
arranged and displayed the service of
plate.
About the 16th century side­
boards or buffets began to take the
place of dressers, and the dresser was
relegated to the kitchen.
Dressings. (Arch.) A term applied to
any kind of moulding, projecting beyond
a door, window, or any other opening,
and so forming a frame.
Drill. A steel tool to which a rotary
motion is imparted by means of a bow.
This tool is employed by sculptors to
perforate holes in blocks of marble with
a view to removing the superfluous por­
tions of the block. [Bow­drill.]
Dripstone. (Arch.) . A moulding over
the heads of doorways and windows in
Gothic architecture. It corresponds to
the corona (q.v .) of the classical style. It
got its name from an idea that it was in­
tended for the rain to drip off, but that
this idea is mistaken is shown by the
fact that the moulding is used inside as
well as outside a building.
Drops. (Arch.) Small cylinders at­
tached by their upper end to a flat hori­
zontal surface in a vertical position.
They are found under the architrave
in the Doric order [GuttseJ.
Druidic. A term applied to the monu­
ments raised by the Druids or British
J
34

DRY
ART
DICTIONARY.
ÊAG
priests. Under the head of Druidic re­
mains, which are Celtic in origin, come
dolmens, cromlechs, &c, which are de­
scribed under their proper headings
Dryad. A nymph of the woods fre­
quently represented in works of ancient
art.
Dryness A quality attributed to
paintings, in which the outlines are hard
and formal, the modelling stiff, and the
colour harsh and inharmonious.
Dry Point. (Engrav.) A sharp steel
needle with which an engraver draws
directly upon a copper plate. In pro­
portion to the pressure used, the dry
point sinks more or less deeply into the
metal. It does not, however, cut the
plate, but as it were makes a furrow and
throws up slight projections on each side.
The rough edges thus caused are removed
by the scraper (q.v.) if it is desired to
give a grey tone to the print. If, on the
other hand, the engraver aims at obtain­
ing velvety blacks, the rough edges are
not scraped away. When the plate is
inked they naturally print black. A
limited number of proofs only can be
struck off in this case, as the process
of wiping soon destroys the rough edges
The dry point is used to give to a plate
which has already been bitten a delicacy
of tone, which it would be impossible to
obtain by mere biting. It is thus of
value in retouching a plate, and it was
for this purpose that Rembrandt em­
ployed it. In more recent times artists
have executed works of considerable
size—portraits as a rule—exclusively in
dry point. The beauty of these prints
depends to a great extent on the skill of
the printer.
Duck. (Her.) This bird sometimes
appears on a shield as a com­
mon charge, but is usually
shown without feet or beak,
and in this case should be
properly called a cannet.
Dungeon. (Arch.) The term dungeon
has come to mean a place of close con­
finement, because in the vault oelow that
part of the mediaeval castle called the
donjon (q.v .) prisoners were shut up.
It is of course the same word as donjon,
and originally conveyed no idea of im­
prisonment.
E.
Eagle. In ancient art the eagle is the
attribute of Zeus, and it is often figured
on medals and coins carrying the thun­
derbolt of the King of Olympus. It also
symbolises victory, authority, and power,
and in Christian art is the attribute of
St. John, who indeed is often represented
under the form of an eagle. The form
of eagle most frequently employed in
heraldry is the eagle displayed. The
wings are shown open, and turn upwards
towards the top of the shield. In the
eagle displayed the feet are also set apart,
but if the eagle is blazoned an eagle with
wings displayed, this implies that the bird
is perched. Another less common form
of eagle is the eagle with wings abaisé ;
this differs from the eagle displayed only
in having the feathers drooping down­
wards as shown in the right­hand cut.
T35

EAG
ART
DICTIONARY.
EAS
Eaglet. (Her.) A small eagle. In her­
aldry it is always re­
K M + ^Ê^m/Sx presented
displayed,
^tf iSiPy'
an<
^g
enerau
y its beak
YS?*
"r
and claws are of a
*
Λ
different tincture to
the rest of the body.
Early English. (Arch.) A term applied
to the first period of Gothic architecture,
as it was developed in England. It took
the place of the Norman style towards the
end of the 12th century, and flourished
for about a century, giving way in its
turn to the Decorated style (q.v.) . The
following are its main features.
Its
windows are generally long and narrow,
of that form which is called lancet (q.v.) .
They sometimes occur singly, sometimes
in groups of twos, threes, and fives.
Round windows, and also trefoils and
quatrefoils, are found in Early English
buildings, especially over a group of
lancets. Arches are generally lancet or
equilateral, while small trefoils and
cinquefoils are common. The doorways
are always pointed and deeply recessed.
The piers generally consist of small
circular pillars ranged round a larger
one.
The ornaments characteristic of
the Early English style are few in num­
ber; foliage is r,arely used, the tooth
ornament (q.v.) being the most common.
The mouldings are generally plain
rounds, separated by very deeply cut
hollows. The most complete example
of the style, which is also called First
Pointed, is Salisbury Cathedral.
Earrings. Ornaments have been worn
in the ear from
the very earliest
times.
Among
Eastern
nations
VII men as well as
women
thus
adorned themselves.
In Greece and
Rome, however, the fashion was only
adopted by women.
Earrings were
worn by the Saxons, but their use
seems to have died out about the 10th
century. They reappear in the 14th
136
century, and were quite common in
Elizabeth's reign, the Queen herself
wearing pearls in her ears. They were
most popular in the 17th century, for
at that period not only were they
universally worn by women, but men
placed either rings or pieces of silk in
their ears.
At different periods they
have assumed an infinite variety of
shapes and have generally been of a
precious metal and set with jewels.
Our illustrations represent the one an
Egyptian, and the other a Syracusan
earring.
Ears. Small protuberances on a
pitcher or other earthenware vessel,
which serve the purpose of handles.
Easel. (Paint.) A stand upon which a
picture is placed
while in course of
execution.
The
simple easel con­
sists of two laths
connected together
top and bottom by
cross­pieces,
and
thus presents the
appearance of a
triangle with a nar­
row base. Another
piece of wood is
placed behind, and
this forms a tripod. By means of a
screw this piece may be extended be­
hind, and so alter the inclination of the
easel. A small tablet which can be
moved up and down at will is attached
to the two uprights, and it is this which
supports the picture. This form of
easel has been in use for centuries, as
our cut of an artist at work, taken from
an illuminated Romance of the Rose of
the 15th century, will show. Nowadays,
another kind of easel is generally used.
This consists of a vertical construction
resting solidly on two cross­pieces at
right angles to a third piece. The cross­
pieces are furnished with casters, and
the easel can thus be easily shifted from
one corner of the studio to the other.

EAS
ART DIC
On this framework a tablet on which the
picture rests moves vertically by means
of an endless screw. This tablet can be
raised or lowered at will by a simple
crank. The name sketching ­ easel is
given to the light easels, which fold up
so as to occupy as little room as possible,
and can easily be carried about by the
artist. Sculptors make use of an easel
in modelling bas­reliefs. In form they
resemble the simpler form of painter's
easel which we have described. They
differ from this, however, in being more
10
NONARY.
ECH
solid and massive, as they have to sup­
port heavy weights.
Easel­picture. (Paint.) A picture of
small dimensions and generally so mi­
nutely and delicately executed, that it
may be placed close to the eye of the
spectator.
Easing. (Arch ) When an arch is built
upon a centre (q.v .) it is always neces­
sary to provide for easing the centre, i e.
for lowering it, so that the support may
gradually be withdrawn from the arch.
This easing is performed by the partial
removal of two wedges placed between
the strut and rib. The operation of easing
is described more fully under Centre.
Eau­forte. This term, borrowed from
the French, is frequently used as a syno­
nym for etching (q.v.) or print produced
by a chemical process. A metal plate is
covered with wax, and the drawing is then
made on the wax with a needle. The
whole plate is then submerged in a solu­
tion of nitric acid and water, which eats
into the plate wherever the wax has been
removed. With the plate thus obtained
prints can be struck in the ordinary way.
Eaves. The lower edges of the slopes
of a roof, which rest upon the walls or
project over them.
Eaves­course. (Arch.) A moulding
running round a building and carrying
the eaves.
Ebony. A wood found in the forests of
Asia and in the islands of Ceylon and
Madagascar. The sap­wood, which is of
purest white, forms a striking contrast to
the heart, which is quite black. It is this
latter part of the tree which is most used,
the black, hard, heavy wood forming an
excellent material for artistic furniture,
for picture frames, and for door panels.
The word ebony is also frequently used
as an adjective to denote
the deep black character­
istic of the wood.
Echinus. (Arch.) A pro­
jecting moulding placed
under the abacus of the
Doric capital. It is delicately convex
137

ECL
ART
DICTIONARY.
EGY
in outline, describing a slightly swelling
curve. The echinus in many buildings
is decorated with the egg and dart
moulding (q.v .) .
Eclectic. This word is used to describe
a taste in art which is not confined to
one particular style or one particular
period, but which is able to admire the
masterpieces of every school and of every
time.
Ecorché. À flayed figure. A statue or
picture representing a body from which
the skin has been removed in order
better to display the muscles and veins
Michael Angelo produced two écorchés
of great excellence, while the écorché of
a man in repose by Houdon, and of a
gladiator by Salveyre are very justly
celebrated. There is also a fine écorché
of a horse modelled by Géricault.
Ectypography. (Engrav.) A method
of etching the reverse of the ordinary
process, in which the lines intended to
print dark are not bitten in but left in
relief, while the lights are bitten in.
Ectypum. A cast in relief obtained
from a hollow mould. Ancient inscrip­
tions as well as coins and medals are
reproduced by this method.
Edifice. A general term applied to a
house or building of any kind.
Effect. The impression produced in a
picture by the arrangement of light and
shade.
Effigy. The head or bust of a person
138
represented on a coin or medal; a
sculptured figure on a sepulchral stone.
In a more general sense effigy denotes
any portrait of a person, especially one
which is more literal than artistic.
Efflorescence. This term is used to
describe extravagant and fanciful orna­
mentation, or the over­development of
any style.
Effrayé. (Her.) A term
applied to a bare­backed
horse reared up on its hind
legs, or salient. This atti­
tude is supposed to suggest
fright.
Egg and Dart. A decorative moulding
consisting of a pointed
arrow separating two
eggs.
Sometimes
these darts are slightly
ornamented, but in
Λ
* every case a sharp out­
line and straight edge
are necessary to make the moulding
effective. The moulding is also called
egg and anchor or egg and tongue.
Egg­shell. A kind of porcelain which
was once manufactured in China. Its
characteristic is its extraordinary thin­
ness. On account of its frangibility, as
well as the difficulty which attended its
manufacture—for it was ground thin on
a wheel—it is very rarely met with, and
consequently highly prized. The ear­
liest specimens of it were of pure
white ; the later were decorated with
blue flowers.
Egyptian Architecture. The archi­
tecture of the Egyptians takes us back
to the very remote past. The domestic
buildings of Egypt were of the most
primitive description.
The poorer
classes had to be content with what
w
r
ere nothing more than huts made of
bricks with no windows or means of
lighting. The more ambitious houses
were built round a courtyard and some­
what resembled the Roman atrium (q.v )
in form. The religious buildings of the
Egyptians were on a very large scale.

EGY
ART
DICTIONARY.
ELI
Among them were the pyramids, which
date from the 4th dynasty. Egyptian
temples have some resemblance in style
to the Doric temples of Greece. The
mouldings which ornament them' are
very simple, and more often painted than
carved.
Egyptian Brown. (Paint.) A rich
brown pigment composed of white pitch,
myrrh, and animal matter. In spite of
its brilliance and transparency it can­
not be recommended, as it is not per­
manent.
Elbow. (Arch.) A name given to the
arms of stalls in
churches.
Per­
sons seated on
the misericordiae
could rest their
arms ' upon the
elbows. The sur­
face of the elbow
was sometimes
quite flat, some­
times broken by
a border. It was
supported either
by a colonnette or clusters of foliage.
In many cases it consisted of a group of
figurines.
Electrotype. A method of obtaining
a reproduction of a bas­relief or en­
graved plate by placing a mould of it in
a bath, in which, by means of electricity,
a thick coating of metal is deposited on
the mould. The mould is then removed
and there remains a reproduction in
metal of the bas­relief or plate. This
process is of great service in art, but
perhaps its widest application is in the
art of engraving. Wood­cuts are seldom
printed from now, electrotypes of them
being generally employed. The result
of this is that a far larger number of im­
pressions may be obtained than for­
merly, and the wood­block may be
indefinitely repeated. At the same time
it cannot be denied that the practice of
electrotyping has detracted very much
from the beauty of wood­engraving.
Electrum An alloy of gold and silver
which was used instead of gold by the
Greeks and Romans in making coins.
In colour it resembled amber, to which
substance the term electrum was origin­
ally applied.
Elephant Paper. A term applied to
drawing paper of a large size, its dimen­
sions being twenty­eight inches by twenty­
two. The dimensions of double elephant
paper for printing purposes are forty by
twenty­seven. Drawing boards of similar
dimensions are also termed elephant and
double elephant.
Elgin Marbles. At the beginning of
the present century Lord Elgin carried
off from Athens a very important collec­
tion of works of sculpture. It included
nearly all the monumental decorations
of the Parthenon which had escaped
destruction. In addition to the splendid
fragments of the pedimental figures and
many metopes, Lord Elgin brought to
England more than two hundred feet of
the beautiful frieze which ran round the
cella of the temple of Athene. To this
collection the name Elgin Marbles was
given, and their value, as giving us an
idea of the magnificent achievement of
the great sculptors in the golden age of
Greek art, cannot be over­estimated.
The question whether Lord Elgin was
justified in spoiling Athens cannot here
be discussed.
Elizabethan. The style of architec­
ture which prevailed in England in the
reign of Elizabeth and for some years
after her death has been called Eliza­
bethan. It was Gothic in some of its
main features, but the influence of t«ie
classical Renaissance is clearly discern­
ible in it. It may therefore be said to
be a sort of transition between the two
great styles. The finest specimens of
Elizabethan architecture are great coun­
try mansions, such as Knowle, Hatfield,
and Penshurst.
Elizabethan Ware. A name incor­
rectly given to a kind of earthenware,
of the decoration which was said to
139

ELL
ART
DICTIONARY.
EMB
have been copied from the chasings upon
the silver plate of Queen Elizabeth's
time.
Ellipse. A plane curve traced out by a
point which moves so
that the sum of its dis­
tances from two fixed
points is constant.
Each of these fixed
points is called a focus
of the ellipse. An ellipse may also be
defined as the section of a right circular
cone made by a plane inclined to the
axis of the cone at an angle greater than
the cone's semi­vertical angle.
Ellipsograph. An instrument for trac­
ing ellipses. It consists of two grooved
rods fixed at right angles and a movable
rod sliding between them so that one end
of it glides in each groove. A pencil is
attached to the movable rod, and as
this rod passes from one extreme position
to the other extreme position, the pencil
traces out the quadrant of an ellipse.
If the pencil is attached in the middle of
the movable rod, the curve traced out
will be the quadrant of a circle.
Ellipsoid. A solid figure such that its
section through each principal plane is
an ellipse.
Eloy, St. The son of obscure parents,
was born at Charetas.
He was em­
ployed by Clotaire II. first as gqldsmith
and afterwards in various positions of
trust. He was consecrated Bishop of
Noyon in the reign of Clovis II. He
was famous as much for the holiness of
his life as for his skill as a worker in
metal. Many are the legends that have
gathered round his name.
On one
occasion he was shoeing a horse which
was possessed by a devil. St. Eloy cut his
leg off, put on the shoe, and then replaced
the leg by making the sign of a cross.
When plagued by Satan himself, the
saint is said to have seized the evil one
by the nose. These two incidents of his
life are generally treated in pictures of
St. Eloy, who is usually represented
with an anvil, on which a horse's leg lies
140
beside him.
There are numerous
statues and pictures of him in existence,
one being the work of Botticelli.
Elzevir. The Elzevir family, who have
given their name to a particular class of
books, were printers and booksellers in
Liège from 1540 to 1712. The books
known as Elzevirs are small volumes
of great beauty and rarity.
Embattled. (Her.) This term, bor­
rowed from the battlements
of a castle, is applied to one
of the dividing lines of the
shield. Thus the accom­
panying cuts represent re­
spectively a chief embattled
and a fess embattled When
the projections are shown on both sides
of the ordinary so that a projection on
one side is opposite a space on the other,
the ordinary is said to be embattled
counter­embattled.
Embellishment. The decoration or
ornament applied to anything ; also the
act of ornamenting or decorating.
Emblem. A symbolic figure or attri­
bute serving to characterise allegorical
figures.
It differs from a symbol or
attribute in that it conceals a moral or
historical allegory. Emblems were very
common throughout the Middle Ages,
and were frequently introduced into
church decoration.
Many books of
emblems were printed during the 16th
century, in which types of virtues and
vices were taken from the animal king­
dom. The most celebrated were those
by Alciati, Paradin, and Sambuco.
Embossing. The art of working
patterns in relief on metal by means of
a punch. It is an expensive process, and
is only used at the present day in the
production of delicate and costly objects.

EMB
ART
DICTIONARY.
ΕΝ
Α
There are in existence mechanical pro­
cesses for embossing metal, wood, and
even paper, but they scarcely belong to
the domain of art.
Embowed. (Her.) When a charge on
a shield is bent or curved
it is blazoned
embowed.
The term is now usually
applied to living charges
such as a fish, especially a
dolphin; or to the human
arm, which is frequently represented in
this position. It may however be em­
ployed for any other charge as a/ess or
bend.
Embrasure. An aperture in a wall.
In modern times the apertures required
in walls are chiefly those for doors and
windows. But the term embrasure is
better known in connection with the
apertures in the walls of a mediaeval
castle, from whence projectiles were
thrown at an attacking enemy. These
embrasures had splayed sides widening
outwards so as to give a wide range of
fire to a musketeer standing on the inner
side of the narrow slit forming the
embrasure.
Embroidery. A decoration in needle­
work, executed by hand on a stuff already
woven. The work is sometimes in relief,
sometimes open.
Embroideries are
known to us of silk, gold, and precious
stones, of every kind of thread in fact,
and of every colour. The art of embroi­
dery has been practised in all ages and
by all nations. Hebrew and Egyptian
women were well skilled in it. Aaron's
coat and girdle, the latter of "fine
turned linen, and blue, and purple, and
scarlet, of needlework," is mentioned in
Exodus. The Greeks especially excelled
in embroidery. Homer mentions both
Helen and Penelope as engaged in
needlework. The web of the latter is
universally famous. Coming to rather a
later period we read of the vestments of
the priesthood of the Anglo­Saxon
Church being richly embroidered. The
so­called
Β
ay eux Tapestry (q.v.) is re­
puted to have been the work of Queen
Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror.
The value of the embroideries in exist­
ence in England at the Reformation
can scarcely be estimated. At that
most disastrous period in the history of
art, hundreds of pieces were wantonly
destroyed. Embroidery is but little
cultivated now, and belongs rather to
industry than to art. The speedier
methods of machinery have driven the
delicate handwork of former times out
of the field. Fragments of ancient em­
broidery, however, are still highly prized
and regarded as among the most curious
relics of the art of the past.
Emerald. A precious stone, semi­
transparent, and of a greenish tint.
Emerald Green. (Paint.) A vivid green
pigment prepared from arseniate of cop­
per.
In spite of its permanence, it
should be used with caution as it con­
tains arsenic.
Emery. A fine powder of granular
adamantine spar. It is used for cutting
down and polishing glass work, and for
polishing fine­grained stone. Sheets of
paper covered with emery powder, and
known as emery paper, are used for
giving a smooth surface to woodwork,
and also used by draughtsmen and
engravers for sharpening their pencils
and steel points.
Emmanche. (Her.) An heraldic term
applied to the angular divi­
sion of the shield, whether
placed on the dexter or
sinister side. It is a figure ,
which is very rarely em­
ployed.
Enamel. A semi­opaque vitrified ma­
terial, which is melted and applied to
various metals, such as gold, silver, and
copper. It is capable of receiving dif­
ferent colours by the introduction of
various oxides.
Thus oxide of tin
colours enamel white, oxide of cobalt
blue, and copper green.
The term
enamel is also applied to the opaque
glaze on pottery.
141

ΕΝ
Α
Enamel, Basse­taille. A process of
enamelling on precious metals, which
consists in chasing the metal plate and
then covering it with powdered enamel
of slightly different shades.
— , Brown. (Pot.) Brown enamel is
composed of minium and manganese
mixed up with brick­dust.
—,
Champlevé. Enamel deposited
in the cavities of a metal plate, hol­
lowed out to receive it. This method
of
enamelling
succeeded
cloisonne
enamelling in the 13th century, as it
required less labour and skill. In
German enamels of this class the
colours green and yellow predominate,
while lapis lazuli is the prevailing tint
in the enamels of Limoges.
[Cham­
plevé.]
— , Cloisonné. [Cloisonné.]
— , Goldsmith's. Enamel deposited
on a plate incised with a cutting tool,
generally a graver.
— , Painter's. Paintings on plaques of
metal, usually of small dimensions.
—, Relief. An enamel resulting from
fusion, the irregular surface of which
has either been left unpolished or so
worn by friction as to be quite rough.
—, W hite. (Pot.) White enamel or
white glazing is composed of the oxides
of tin and lead mixed with sand con­
taining quartz, and with sea salt and
soda.
Painters work on a ground of
white enamel, which they leave un­
touched to obtain their lights.
Enamels, French. These enamels, con ­
sisting mainly of brooches and buckles,
date from the 4th to the 8th centuries.
A few specimens are to be found in the
Louvre. There are also some enamelled
jewels of the 9th and 10th centuries.
—,
Fusible. Used as a ground­work
in the manufacture of porcelain.
It
contains a large proportion of oxide of
lead.
—, Limoges. The special character­
istic of early Limoges enamels is that
they have a dominant tone of blue
lapis lazuli, accompanied with sea­green
NONARY.
ΕΝ
Α
and with pink for flesh tints. Hair is
represented by means of incisions made
with the graving tool and filled with red
enamel. Such is the character of Li­
moges enamels before the year 1151.
At the end of the nth and in the 12th
century, flesh is tinted and the metal is
gilt. At the end of the 12th century
the figures are partly enamelled and
partly left in relief and flesh is tinted
white. In the next century the outline
of the figures is left in relief and the
details are sunk. Both in this cen­
tury and in the 14th century enamels
are coloured uniformly, the tint being
either a greenish blue, or a blue and yel­
low, or an azure. These are the prevail­
ing characteristics of Limoges enamels,
but up to the 15th century it is difficult
to assign a precise date to a particular
specimen because workmen were con­
stantly influenced by the desire to
imitate older work.
—, Niello. Sheets of metal engraved
with sunk lines, which are filled with
black enamel.
—, Painted, belong to the begin­
ning of the 16th century. A coat of
dark enamel is first laid on the metal,
then a coat of white enamel through
which the black undercoat appears as a
grey. The design is traced on this white
coating, masses being indicated by
hatchings. All the white enamel beyond
the outline of the figures is removed,
leaving the black beneath. The vessel
is then baked and the design becomes
fixed.
— , Translucent, are small enamels
on gold or silver.
The tabernacle
of Orvieto is said to be the finest ex­
ample of a translucent enamel. At
Cologne is preserved a crosier of the
14th century ornamented with trans­
lucent enamels The same ornamenta­
tion was applied by Benvenuto Cellini to
his gold work Only six colours are
found in translucent enamels, blue,
green, grey, tan­colour, purple, and black.
White and yellow are excluded because
ART DIC:
142

ΕΝ
Α
ART DIC
they can only be obtained by means of
stannic acid, which is opaque.
Enamellers. The artists to whom we
owe the most celebrated enamels in the
world are Elbertus of Cologne and Jean
Bartholus in the 13th century ; Ugolino
da Siena, Franucci and Andrea d'Ardilo
in the 14th century ; Pierre Verrier in
the 15th ; Jean and Hardan Penicaud,
Maso Finiguerra, and Joseph Limosin in
the 17th; Dinglinger, Rode, and Bouillet
in the 18th ; and Augustin, de Courcy
and Claudius Popelin in the 19th.
Enameller's Needle. Painters in en­
amel spread their tint by means of pointed
needles, and also use a flat needle shaped
like a spatula to deposit the masses of
colour on the place where they want it.
The pieces of boxwood with which they
efface irregularities in their work are
also called needles.
Encarpa. (Arch.) A festoon of fruit or
flowers, frequently used to decorate
friezes and other flat spaces.
Encaustic. A method of painting used
by the ancients especially in architec­
tural decoration and in the painting of
statues. [Polychromy.] It consists in
employing colours mixed in melted wax
which is kept hot during the whole pro­
cess of the painting. The term encaustic
is also sometimes applied to a prepara­
tion laid on marble or plaster to protect
it from moisture.
Encaustic Tiles. The floors of many
mediaeval churches in England are deco­
rated with encaustic tiles, some of which
are of exquisite beauty of design. Their
manufacture was very simple. Square
blocks of red clay were stamped with a
NONARY.
ENC
print cut in relief. The hollows thus
produced, which were not very deep,
were filled up with a white clay. The
whole was then glazed and fired. The
encaustic tiles which are preserved
present an extraordinary variety of de­
signs. Some represent foliage, geomet­
rical patterns, heraldic devices, and even
human heads or figures. Many are
found bearing quaint inscriptions in
English or Latin. Of the two cuts we
give here, the former represents an
encaustic tile in a church at Malvern, as
the latter a portion of an ornamental
border from the Chapter House at West­
minster.
Enceinte. (Fort.) The continuous wall
with its towers and gateways surrounding
Hi

ENC
ART
DICTIONARY.
END
a city or fortified piare is called the
enceinte.
Enclavé. (Her.) This term is used
when one part of a shield
is as it were keyed into
another by a square project­
ing piece. This method of
dividing a shield is found
mainly in German coats of
arms.
Encoignure. A small table, triangular
in shape, which is made to fit in to the
angle formed by two walls in the corner
of a room.
Encomboma. (Cost.) A garment fas­
which is seen in front. It served the
purpose of an apron and was worn by
slaves and others to keep the tunic clean.
It also formed part of the costume of the
comic actor. Our cut, which represents
a girl wearing an encomboma, playing
the pipes, is from a bas­relief.
End­ornament. (Arch.) An ornament
tened round the waist by a large bow,
144
sometimes plain,
sometimes richly
decorated, which
terminates a pin­
nacle, pediment,
or spire.
End­
ornaments may
be spherical or pointed, and often con­
sist of bunches of foliage.
Endromis. (Cost.) A heavy, warm kind
of garment, which athletes loosely wrapt
round their bodies after becoming heated

ENE
ART
DICTIONARY.
ENG
in the gymnasium. It therefore served
the same purpose as the modern gar­
ment called a " sweater."
Representa­
tions of athletes clothed in the endromis
are of frequent occurrence in classical
art.
Energetic. An epithet applied to a
work painted with vigour, or to a drawing
with a firm, solid, and strongly accentu­
ated outline.
Engineer's Cartridge. A drawing
paper of a certain size, its dimensions
being thirty inches by twenty­two.
Englanté. (Her.) In blazon­
ing a shield, this term would
be used to describe a twig of
oak bearing acorns of a dif­
ferent tincture to that of the
leaves.
Engobe. (Pot.) A white paste applied
to the surface of some kinds of pottery ;
an earthy substance used in the decora­
tion of coloured pottery. Artificial
engobe is formed of colourless earths
mixed with metallic oxides, while natu­
ral engobe is a natural mixture of earthy
matter with colouring oxides.
Engouled. (Her.) Said of a charge
which is being swallowed by
some animal ; thus the cut
represents a bend argent
engouled by two lions'
heads. The word is also
applied from the other point
of view to a person or animal pierced by
a weapon through the mouth.
Engrailed. (Her.) A dividing line in a
shield is said to be en­
grailed when it is broken
up into a series of small
projecting teeth having a
cusp­like form.
It thus
differs from an indented line
(q.v .), where the sides of the
teeth are straight.
Engraver. An artist who cuts designs
on wood blocks or ploughs them out on
a copper plate with the graver, or in
fact executes any of the processes which
come under the term engraving.
Engraving. The art of engraving may
be defined as the art of representing
objects by incised lines on wood, metal,
or stone. In the broad sense of the
term engraving has been practised by all
nations and in all ages. Many hundreds
of years, however, passed before the
method of multiplying copies by printing
from one original plate was discovered.
It is to this multiplication of copies that
the term engraving is now generally ap­
plied, though indeed it is no essential part
of engraving. Engraving as it is under­
stood to­day dates only from the 15th
century, in the early part of which the
first rude wood­blocks were produced.
The more important methods of en­
graving will be found described under
their separate titles [Wood­cutting,
Line­engraving, Etching, Stipple, Mez­
zotint, Lithography, &c.]. The term
engraving is also applied to the art of
cutting designs upon or chasing metal
plates, such as sepulchral brasses, as
well as to the art of cutting precious
stones, either in cameo or intaglio. The
print struck off from a wood block
or engraved plate is called an engrav­
ing.
—, Colour. In colour engraving seve­
ral plates are employed to produce one
proof. Each of the plates prints a
different colour, and by their super­
position intermediate tones are pro­
duced. The plates are engraved as in
mezzotint (q v.), and the great difficulty
is to observe the guiding points, so that
in the successive printings the colours
are applied exactly in the place which
they ought to occupy, without over­run ­
ning the outlines.
—, Crayon. A method of engraving
popular during the last century, by
means of which exact fac­similes of
crayon drawings were produced. A
varnished copper plate was used as in
etching, but instead of working with an
ordinary needle the engraver used a
toothed needle, a roulette, and several
other tools, which enabled him to imitate
145

ENG
ART DIC
exactly the broad strokes of the crayon
or chalk. The earliest specimens of this
kind of engraving were produced by
François and Demarteau in France.
The latter's reproductions of the draw­
ings of Boucher and his school are justly
celebrated.
Engraving en taille d'épargne. A
term applied to that process of engraving,
in which the part intended to be repro­
duced in the print is left in relief, while
the rest is cut away. To this class of
engraving wood­cutting belongs.
—
en taille douce. In this method
of engraving the lines which are to be
reproduced in the print are hollowed
out or depressed beneath the surface of
the plate. That is, it is the reverse of
engraving en taille d'épargne.
Line­
engraving and etching are. among the
examples of engraving en taille douce.
—
in Camaieu. A method of engraving
practised in the 16th century, the object
of which was to imitate sepia drawings.
As it was necessary to reproduce several
distinct tones of brown as well as white,
several wood blocks were used and ap­
plied to the paper one after another, a
separate block being used to print each
tone. Engravings in camaieu are some­
times printed all in one colour, and the
differences of tone are obtained by hatch­
ings.
—
in the Dot Manner. One of the
earliest methods of engraving on metal.
Instead of drawing lines on the metal or
scraping it away, the engraver simply
covered those parts of his plate which
he wished to print light with small dots
or holes. Two engravings in this manner
dating from the year 1406 have been
recently discovered.
Enneapylae. (Arch.) A fortified enclo­
sure surrounding the Acropolis at Athens.
It was so called because it had nine gates.
Enrich. To enrich is to decorate, to
adorn with various and sumptuous or­
naments. Thus we say that a book is
enriched with cuts when it is illustrated
with vignettes.
I
146
ENT
Enrockment. (Arch.) A base formed
of enormous rocks or massive blocks of
stone immersed in water, and serving as
the foundation of a fountain or as the
piles of a bridge.
Ensemble. A term applied to the
whole group of figures or all the objects
in a landscape, which unite to make up
a picture or artistic composition.
Ensign. A military standard, consist­
ing of an unright staff surmounted by
a device, peculiar to the nation or mon­
arch to whom the ensign belongs. The
standard of Rome, for instance, generally
bore an eagle upon it, as will be seen in
two of our cuts. Another cut represents
a Roman standard subsequent to the
time of Constantine, and instead of the
traditional eagle an emblem of Christ is
attached to it.
Entablature.
\
^j^r (Arch.) A horizon ­
•
consists in the
%ίΕ ^
Λ
Γ
ancient orders of
an architrave, a
frieze, and a cornice. It is supported by
TIONARY.

ENT
ART
DICTIONARY.
EPI
columns, and its height varies from four
to five times the diameter of the shaft of
the column of the order to which it
belongs. When several ancient orders
are placed one above the other, the
entablature of the intermediate orders
has no cornice. This is reserved for the
top story of the building. In modern
buildings columns and pilasters are
generally surmounted by an entablature,
the height of which varies according to
the space at the disposal of the architect,
due regard being kept of course to har­
mony of proportion. Sometimes too a
false entablature is placed at the sum­
mit of a façade, although there are no
pilasters to justify its existence. Entab­
latures surmounted by projecting cor­
nices are sometimes mere opportunities
for decoration, and are taken advantage
of to hide the slope of a roof, gutters, &c.
The mouldings which cap pieces of fur­
niture are' also termed entablatures.
Entasis. (Arch.) The swelling in the
,|t
middle of a shaft of a
t
column. It is one of the
characteristics of the
Doric order, in which the
swelling of the columns
gives an effect of light­
ness to a structure which
otherwise might appear
1
ι
too heavy.
Enté. (Her.) This is a French term
applied to parts of the shield which are
fitted into one another by means of
curved indentations which may take
various forms. The first cut here given
would be described as enté en rond, or
indented round ; the second enté en pointe;
and the third enté-onde.
Entre-coupe. (Arch.) The vacant space
between two vaults which spring from
the same point.
Çntre-deux. A French term applied
to a piece of furniture, often richly deco­
rated, in the shape of a console or small
cupboard, which stands against a panel
between two doors or other openings.
Entre-sol. (Arch.) An intermediate
story in a house, in which the rooms
are of a low pitch. It is generally situ­
ated between the ground floor and the
first floor, but sometimes it is found
between some other two floors.
Epaulets. Shoulder­pieces of metal,
which were introduced about the 14th
century to serve as a protection to the
upper part of the arm. With this the
epaulet worn by officers has nothing to
do. The latter, which is a kind of
shoulder knot, was first worn in the
latter half of the 18th century by men of
fashion.
Epaulment. (Arch.) A wall built to
uphold earth.
Epi. (Arch.) An ornament of glazed
earth or lead surmounting pointed roofs
Epis of earthenware were employed from
the 13th to the 14th century, at which
time they were replaced by épis of
enamelled faïence.
The finest speci­
mens of this class consist of a small
square pedestal, sometimes decorated
with human masks. Above this pedestal
is placed a fir cone, a basket of flowers,
foliage of varied hue, or a bird poised on
a small globe. Leaden épis are either
cast or beaten with a hammer.
To­
H7

EPI
ART
DICTIONARY.
ERE
wards the end of the 15th century excel­
lent results were
obtained by com­
bining these two
kinds of epis. The
Renaissance pro­
duced some admi­
rable
specimens,
consisting of capi­
tals decorated with
foliage and sur­
mounted by vases
of graceful form.
In the 17th century
they assumed the
form of colon­
'"Λ * nettes, vases, or
chimaeras. Some are made to­day in
lead and after the best designs, but for
the sake of economy zinc is too often
used instead of lead, and this material
robs them of all chance of durability.
Epichysis. (Pot.) A jug from which
wine was poured into a
cup. It was a form of the
Greek oenochoe (q.v .),
and had a lip, through
which the liquid ran, and
a light delicately­shaped
handle.
In our cut an
epichysis is represented
with a drinking­cup
placed over its mouth.
Epigraph. An inscription placed upon
a building to preserve the memory of its
construction.
Episode. A scene or group of figures
represented in some part of a picture,
bearing little relation to the principal
subject The term is also applied to
subjects which represent one particular
incident in a long chain of events. Thus
we speak of a picture representing an
" Episode in the Crimean War."
Epistyle. (Arch.) An architrave or
horizontal beam placed on the capitals of
columns, so as to hold them together and
to act as a support to the upper part of a
building.
Epitaph. (Arch.) A tablet of marble,
148
stone, or metal upon which a funeral in­
scription is engraved. The term is also
applied to the inscription itself.
Équerre. (Her.) French heralds use
this term to describe a
small square piece cut out
of the corner of a shield
by means of an elbow of
a different tincture. This
device is common in Ger­
man coats of arms. The term escarre
is also sometimes used.
Equestrian. A term applied to statues
which represent a personage mounted
upon a horse. There were many cele­
brated equestrian statues executed by
Greek and Roman sculptors. Lysippus,
for instance, was the author of equestrian
statues of Alexander and his generals.
In modern times too the equestrian
statue has been a favourite form of
portraiture.
Equilibrium. A term applied to a
figure in its natural and stable position
and also to the arrangement of a compo­
sition, in which the groups, masses, and
blacks and whites are well distributed
and balanced.
Equipollé. (Her.) A French heraldic
term used to describe a
shield divided into nine
small squares so as to form
a chequer board. The usual
arrangement is to have the
four corner squares and the
centre one of the same tinc­
ture, and the remaining four of some
other tincture.
Erased. (Her.) Used to describe a
head or limb torn off roughly
so as to leave a ragged edge.
It is opposed to couped, which
means cut off clean.
Erechtheon. (Arch.) One of the build­
ings at Athens due to the genius of
Pheidias and his contemporaries.
It
stood on the north side of the Acropolis,
and was dedicated tp Erechtheus.
Above all it was celebrated for the
caryatides (q.v.) which supported the

ERM
ART
DICTIONARY.
ESS
entablature in that portion of it called
the Pandroseum.
Ermine, (i) (Her.) This is
one of the heraldic furs. It
consists of a white ground
decorated with black spots,
IJL ÏIor
ώ
technical language a
VlX^A^X­y field argent, powdered with
*
spots sable.
Ermine. (2) (Cost.) The winter skin of
a species of pole cat, which is white with
black spots. It was valued very highly in
the Middle Ages, and in the 13th century
it was enacted that only royal personages
and those of the nobility who had more
than ;£i,ooo a year should wear it.
Ermines. (Her.) This fur, called in
French contre­hermine, is the opposite
of Ermine, the field being black and the
spots white.
Erminois. (Her.) In this fur the field
is gold and the spots sable. Its reverse
is peau (q.v.).
Eros. [Cupid.]
Escallop. (Her.) A shell which is often
found in coats of arms and is
a very honourable bearing.
It was assumed by the pil­
grims on their return from the
Holy Land, and the two kinds of escallops
shown on shields are dignified by the
names of saints. The one with ears is
called the escallop of St. James, and the
one without ears the escallop of St.
Michael. The escallop was particularly
the emblem of St. James, and represen­
tations of it are frequently to be met
with in churches dedicated to this saint.
Escarpment. An abrupt, precipitous
slope. [Scarp.]
Esclatté. (Her.) This
term is employed when the
dividing line in a shield, in­
stead of being straight, is
rough and jagged as if it
had been violently broken.
Esconison. (Arch.) A triangular
space formed by two straight lines and
curve, often found in a window jamb
or arch. It is enclosed by the curve
of an arch or rose window and the two
sides of the rect­
angle, in which the
curve, be it circle or
ellipse, is inscribed.
Esconisons
are |\
sometimes deco­
rated with foliage
and other orna­
ments, at other times the triangular
spaces are filled
with decorative
paintings repre­
senting allegori­
cal figures. In
buildings of the
Gothic style we
find pierced es­
conisons in the
angles of round windows.
Escutcheon. A cartouche or tablet
upon
which
coats of arms
are emblazoned
or
inscriptions
and ornaments
set forth. The
name
is also
given to metal
plates which as­
sume this form, such as those used for
key­holes upon doors.
Espagnolette. (Arch.) A French term
denoting an arrange­
ment for closing a
window, which con­
sists of a rod of iron
with a hook at each
end. It is moved by a
handle from the in­
side of a room. When
the window is closed
these hooks are held
fast in staples, and
when, by turning the
handle, the window is opened, the hooks
are released from the staples.
Essorant. (Her.) A French term ap­
plied to a bird standing on the ground
and holding its wings up so as to dry
149

EST
ART
DICTIONARY.
ΕΤ
Η
itself. The cut repre­
sents a goose, collared and
crowned, essorant.
Estete. (Her.) A term
used in heraldry to de­
note animals represented
without heads. For ex­
ample, the cut repre­
sents an eagle estete sable.
Instances of headless
animals are frequently
found in Polish and Sile­
sian coats of arms.
Estimate. A detailed description of
any work or undertaking, including a
minute account of the expense neces­
sary to construct a building or execute a
work.
Estrade. (Arch.) A raised portion of
the floor of a room, on which a bed or
seat may be placed.
Etalon. (Arch.) The tracing of the
plan of a building on the very spot where
it is to be constructed and on the exact
scale on which it is to be built.
Etching. (Engrav.) The word etching
is derived from the Dutch word etsen,
to eat, and denotes a process of engrav­
ing in which the incised lines are
obtained not laboriously by working with
the graver but by the action of acid.
The plate to be etched upon is covered
with an etching ground (q.v.), great care
being taken to lay this ground equally
all over the plate. The drawing or pic­
ture to be reproduced is then traced
with an etching needle, which removes
the ground wherever it is applied, and
so exposes the plate. The plate is then
put in acid and the exposed parts are
bitten in. The acid used is diluted nitric
acid. If a plate is to be re­bitten it is
covered with a ground once more, but
this time the ground is only passed lightly
over the plate with a roller (q.v .), so as to
cover the portions upon which the ground
was formerly, but to leave the lines ex­
posed. The ground is then removed
altogether, and the plate may at once be
inked and impressions struck from it.
Etching Ball. The etching­ground
when formed into a com­
pact mass and enclosed
in a piece of silk is called
an etching­ball. It is in
this form that it is laid
upon the plate. It is generally spherical
in form as in the cut, but sometimes the
ground is obtained in small sticks, re­
sembling sticks of Indian ink.
—
Ground. The ground used in
etching is the substance which covers
the plate and resists the action of the
acid. One ground frequently used is
composed of white wax, gum mastic,
and bitumen. It is formed into balls
and enclosed in a piece of silk; it is
then laid on the plate and made level
with a dabber (q.v.) . When the ground
is to be laid, the plate must be heated
to a proper temperature, so that the
substance composing the ground may
melt through the silk. Another
method of laying the ground is to
mix it with oil of lavender and lay
it directly with a roller.
—
Needle. The sharp­pointed
instrument which etchers use for
drawing upon the copper plate. It
is not intended to cut into the
plate itself, but only to scrape away
the ground and so expose it to the
action of the acid.
Etchings. The impressions
struck off on to paper from an
etched plate. The early impres­
sions or proof­etchings are printed
on Japanese paper (q.v .), and are
often very costly.
Ethnographic. A term applied
to all that relates to our knowledge
of various races from the point of
view of their distinctive characteristics.
τ
5
θ

ETO
ART
DICTIONARY.
EVA
Hence artistic works which reproduce
the types of foreign races are termed
ethnographic. Scenes of the East and
Algeria, such as those of Decamps and
Gerôme, may be called ethnographic
paintings.
Etoile. (Her.) A synonym for star.
The heraldic star consists of five rays
issuing from a centre.
Etruscan Vases. The first painted
Greek vases which were
brought to light in mo­
dern times were dis­
covered in Etruria
about the end of the
17th century. The
learned men of that
time at once concluded
that they were the work of Etruscan
potters, and they were long known as
Etruscan vases.
This appellation was
proved to be erroneous by Winckel­
mann and others, and has now been
discarded. The majority of the so­
called Etruscan vases were indeed of
Greek workmanship, and were imported
into Italy in very early times. At the
same time many vases were dug up in
Italy which had no doubt been made in
Etruria in imitation of the productions of
the Greek potters.
Etui. A case of gold or silver, richly
chased, which was worn by ladies at
their girdles in the 16th and 17th cen­
turies. It was the forerunner of the
modern chatelaine.
Eurythmia. In architecture eurythmia
refers to beauty of proportion, in paint­
ing and sculpture to grace of composition
and to the harmonious balancing of the
lines in a figure or of the groups in a
large composition.
Eustace, St. A legendary saint, fre­
quently represented in Christian art.
He was a Roman soldier, and before he
assumed the name of Eustace, which he
did on his conversion, he was called
Placidus. Like St. Hubert (q.v.) he
became a Christian on seeing a white
stag with a cross between its horns. He
endured many tribulations, losing for a
while his wife and children, and finally
being burnt alive in a brazen bull, but
he remained steadfast in the faith. In
pictures he appears in the costume of a
Roman soldier and holds a palm branch ;
near him stands the white stag to which
he owed his conversion.
Eustyle. (Arch.) A eustyle temple is
one in which the intercolumniation or
distance between the columns surround­
ing it is equal to two and a quarter
diameters of the column measured near
the base.
Evangelists, The Four. The earliest
representations of the four evangelists
are purely symbolic. They are figured
as four scrolls or books in the angles of
a Greek cross, then as four rivers flowing
from a rock, upon which stands a lamb,
the symbol of Christ. They then appear
as the four beasts mentioned in Ezekiel
as supporting the throne—a cherub, a
lion, a bull, and eagle. They were next
represented as monsters, half men and
half beasts, holding books or scrolls.
St. Matthew alone had a human face,
the others had the head and feet of a
lion, bull, and eagle respectively. For
their individual attributes, see under
their separate headings.
!5i

EWE
ART DIC:
Ewer. (Pot.) A vase of graceful shape,
with a handle and gullet
and mounted on a foot.
The purpose to which the
ewer was originally put was
to contain water at table.
Benvenuto Cellini produced
ewers which were master­
pieces of art, and one, in
which is represented the
combat between the Cen­
taurs and Lapiths, is par­
ticularly celebrated. In modern times
ewers have been made of gold and silver
and even more precious materials, while
gems have been lavishly employed in
their decoration. The ewer is above all
a decorative vase, and lends itself ad­
mirably to richness both of material
and design.
Excavation. Excavation denotes the
hollowing out of the ground to make
space for foundations, which precedes
the construction of every building. The
term is also applied to the digging up
and bringing to light of long­hidden and
forgotten works of art. It is to the work
of industrious excavators that almost all
our knowledge of the monuments of
ancient art is due. Of the great results
of which scientific excavation is capable,
the best evidence is afforded by the im­
portant discoveries made in the plain of
Olympia by the German Government.
This enterprise was undertaken with a
full knowledge of what might be found
there, and the expectations of the savants
who carried it out were accurately ful­
filled.
Excudit. We often find upon prints
an inscription such as the following:
Marc Antonio sculfisit, Antonio Sala­
manca excudit. This means that the im­
pression before us was printed from a
plate engraved by Marc Antonio and
published by Antonio Salamanca. The
part played by the publisher was of some
importance, for he frequently retouched
the plates which he issued.
Execution. The technical part of an
152
EXE
art, including skill of hand and profound
knowledge of technique. A badly com­
posed picture may show immense skill
in execution. The qualities of execution
differ absolutely from those of composi­
tion, and many artists who have never
displayed any fertility in the choice of
subjects or knowledge of composition are
sometimes in the very front rank as far
as execution is concerned. Mr. Ruskin's
definition of execution is " the right
mechanical use of the means of art to
produce a given end."
Exedra. (Arch.) A semicircular bench,
resembling in form those on which the
philosophers and rhetoricians sat in
ancient times. In Christian basilicae
an exedra is placed on each side of the
episcopal throne in the centre of the
apse and raised some steps above the
general level of the floor. Some authors
term these exedrae subsellyx.
It was
upon them that the priests took their
seats at official meetings.
Exercise. A model given to a pupil
to copy to familiarise him with certain
difficulties. A composition on a given
subject set for the purpose of accus­
toming students to compose pictures and
arrange groups.
Exergue. The space on the field of
a coin or medal
outside the mam
design, upon
which an in­
scription, de­
vice, or date is
inscribed. The
term is also ap­
plied to the in­
scription itself.
Some medals have a different exergue
NONARY.

EXH
ART DIC
on each face. Sometimes there are two
exergues on the same face of a medal
or coin, arranged symmetrically with
regard to its diameter.
Exhibition. A temporary collection of
works of art got together sometimes for
the purpose of sale, sometimes for the
illustration of the work of some parti­
cular artist or period. The first public
exhibition of English art was held in
April, 1760, since which year an exhibition
has been held annually. From the time
of the establishment of the Royal Aca­
demy in 1768 this exhibition has been
under the auspices of that body. During
the last ten years many exhibitions have
been established in rivalry with those
held by the Academy.
Exomis. (Cost.) A short sleeveless
tunic, which left the right arm and
shoulder quite free and unimpeded. It
was worn by both Greeks and Romans,
especially by those who were engaged
in active physical toil.
Expert. A term applied to those who
are, or believe themselves to be, connois­
seurs in works of art and make a profes­
11
EXV
sion of their real or supposed knowledge.
The catalogues of public auction sales
afford us proofs of the frequent ignorance
of experts even of modern pictures. In
certain legal cases, experts generally
chosen from the body of artists of repute,
are called upon to give evidence.
Expression. A figure is said to have
expression when in its interpretation
the character of the subject is well
represented. It is in the treatment of
the face and especially of the eye that
artists display their power of setting
forth expression.
Exterior. The outside of a building,
as opposed to the interior or inside.
Extrados. (Arch) The upper convex
surface of a vault or arch ; the curve
formed by the upper side of the voussoirs
(q.v.).
Extradossed. (Arch.) A term applied
to arches, the extrados of which is formed
of stones regularly squared and not left
in their natural condition.
Extremities. A term used in artistic
language for the arms and legs and more
especially for the hands and feet of the
human figure. Thus we speak of " ex­
tremities badly drawn," or of " extremi­
ties painted with consummate knowledge
and skill."
Ex­voto. A tablet of marble bearing
an inscription, or an inscription upon
the walls of a religious edifice setting
forth the accomplishment of a vow, or
intended to keep green the memory of
some favour obtained. In Catholic coun­
tries, in chapels in the neighbourhood of
the sea, we often find pictures of ships in
distress with the Virgin appearing
through the clouds. The connections of
!53
TIONARY.

EYE
ART
DICTIONARY.
FAE
these rude paintings with art is, how­
ever, very slight.
Eye. (Arch.) A term used to denote
the centre of an Ionic capital, as well as
the circular opening in the summit of a
dome and the small circle in the centre
of a rose window. From within the eye
of a volute, following the sides and
diagonals of a square inscribed within a
circle we can determine with a compass
the contour of a volute, as is shown in our
second cut. In symbolic art the eye has
always been the emblem of watchfulness
and so of the divine power. Among the
Egyptians Osiris was typified by an eye,
and in early Christian art the eye stands
for the Providence which sees all things.
Eye­shade. A piece of green card
which engravers wear on their foreheads.
It projects like a visor, shields the eyes
from the rays of light, and so renders the
sight more distinct.
F.
Faηade. (Arch.) The outside surface
of a building ; especially the principal
front, which is the most exposed to view
and is more richly decorated than the
rest of the edifice. The chief entrance
to a building is generally to be found in
the façade.
— , Composite. A façade ornamented
with entablatures of different orders.
The west front of St. Paul's is an exam­
ple of a composite façade.
Face. (Paint.) The front part of the
head from the forehead to the chin. Ex­
pression and individuality are to be
looked for in the face, and the impor­
tance attached to the proper represen­
tation of the face in portrait­painting
may be gauged by the fact that in the
i6thand 17th centuries portrait­painters
were called face­painters. In architec­
ture a flat moulding or a broad smooth
surface is termed a face. Thus we speak
of the face of an architrave.
Face­painter. An old term which
was applied in the 15th and 16th cen­
turies to a portrait painter, the accurate
representation of the features being
regarded then as the end of and aim of
portrait­painting.
Facet. A small smooth surface, espe­
cially that surface between the angles of
diamonds or crystals which is sometimes
natural, sometimes obtained artificially
by cutting.
Facing. (Arch.) When a rough wall of
brick or stone is covered with a thin
coat of a better material, such as marble
or plaster, this outer coating is called a
facing.
Facsimile. An exact reproduction,
obtained sometimes by artistic means,
but more often by purely mechanical
processes, such as photography, helio­
gravure, &c. In the last century fac­
similes of the drawings of the old masters
were produced by means of line engrav­
ing. In these facsimiles not only the
touch of the artist but even the tone of
old paper was reproduced. To­day the
processes of engraving which depend
upon photography have rendered easy
the production of extraordinarily accu­
rate facsimiles. The term is also ap
plied to reproductions of hand­writing,
signatures, marks, and monograms, with
which books are sometimes illustrated.
Faded. A term applied to colours
which have lost their freshness or
brilliance.
Some shades of colours
when faded produce an excellent effect.
Faenza Ware. A name given to
majolica from, the little town near
Bologna where majolica was once made.
Faience. (Pot.) Just as faenza became
154

FAI
ART
DICTIONARY.
FAN
in Italy the general name for majolica,
so faïence, said by some to be derived
from faenza, became in France a gene­
ral name for a kind of pottery com­
posed of glazed or enamelled earth. The
secret of making it was known in very
early times to the Chinese, Arabians,
Persians, and Assyrians. There are some
very fine specimens of Moorish faïence
dating from the 12th and 13th centuries
at the Alhambra at Grenada. But many
pieces are known of far greater antiquity
than this. In the museum at Sèvres, for
instance, there are examples dating
from the 9th century. In a convent
at Leipzig, built in 1207, were found
some enamelled bricks, while the tomb
of one of the Dukes of Silesia, who died
in 1290, consists entirely of enamelled
terra­cotta. The potteries of Nurem­
berg are celebrated. In the 15th century
German potters imported faïence to
Delft, and in 1650 there were in existence
no less than fifty factories of faïence in
England, France, Sweden, and Denmark.
Their prosperity, however^ declined in
the 18th century, but a revival of the
art has taken place in our own days.
—, Common. A faience generally po­
rous, of a red or yellow tint, with an
opaque white or varnish coloured glaze.
—, Fine. A faience consisting of silica,
alumina, and sometimes lime. Its paste
is porous, white, absorbent, and opaque,
and its glaze is transparent and has
protoxide of lead as its base.
—
of Henri II. A very rare faïence
of the Renaissance period, composed of
plastic, clay, and flint, or quartz ground
very fine. Lead enters in the composi­
tion of its glaze. There are only fifty­
six specimens of it in existence, twenty­
eight in France, twenty­six in England,
and a solitary one in Russia. All these
pieces were found either in the Vendée
or Touraine. They are cups, ewers, &c,
emblazoned with the arms of Francis I.,
Diana of Poicters, and Henri II. They
were manufactured at Oiron by the
potters F. Charpentier and Jean Ber­
nard, from about the year 1525 to the
end of the reign of Henri II.
Failli (Her.) This term is used by
French heralds to denote a
failure or break in an or­
dinary. It is specially ap­
plied to a chevron divided
into several pieces as
shown in the accompanyr
ing cut.
Falchion. A sword of uncertain form
used in the Middle Ages.
In all
probability it resembled the German
sabre, and was used as being lighter than
the broadsword.
Falcon. (Her ) The bird of prey used
by sovereigns and nobles for
hawking is a irequent charge
in heraldry. It is sometimes
represented on a perch. In
some coats of arms the falcon
wears a mantle embroidered
with fleur­de­lis attached to its neck by
a ribbon. In symbolic art the falcon is
the emblem of royalty or nobility, for
the sport of hawking was restricted by
law to kings and nobles.
False. (Arch.) A term applied to pre­
tended mouldings or openings, produced
either in relief or by means of painting,
which decorate a façade or contribute to
its symmetry.
Fan. Fans were known to the Greeks
as well as to Eastern nations, and repre­
sentations of them
occur in monu­
ments of classic
art. Our first cut
represents Cupid
fanning his mother,
and is taken from
an ancient sculp­
ture.
During the
Middle Ages fans do not seem to have
been used in Europe, but they reap­
peared about the fifteenth century. The
fans made to fold up, which are generally
used in the present day, were introduced
in the 17th century. The artistic por­
tion of them generally consists of a
*5S

PAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
FAT
painting, drawing, or engraving on parch­
ment, vellum, or silk. The majority of
fans, it is true, are vulgar in design, and
owe their commercial value simply to
their mounting. Some few, however,
are thought worthy to be placed in col­
lections and kept under glass without
ever being mounted at all. Many modern
artists have made designs for fans of
the highest merit. Perhaps the finest
specimens have been produced by the
Japanese, who excel in this branch of
decorative art.
Fancy. A work of pure imagination
may be said to be full of fancy. The
word is also used in a bad sense. Thus
we may term a work not sufficiently
studied from nature but painted out of
the artist's head a " mere fancy."
Fanfreluche. A French term denot­
ing brilliant and excessive ornaments.
In some of Boucher's portraits of ladies,
for instance, the fanfreluches
are ren­
dered with much skill.
Fantastic. A work is said to be fan­
tastic when it is fanciful and extravagant,
displaying curious effects of light and
representing supernatural scenes, phan­
toms, and apparitions.
Fan­tracery. (Arch.) This term is
applied to a kind of vaulting found in
late Perpendicular buildings.
All the
ribs, of which the vaulting is composed,
rise from the springing of the vault and
diverge as they go upwards, so as to
produce the effect of a fan spread out.
The best examples of fan­tracery are to
be seen in Henry VH.'s Chapel, West­
minster, and King's College Chapel,
Cambridge.
Farnese Bull. A celebrated sculp­
tured group, the work of Apollonius and
ι
Tauriscus, sculptors of the school of !
156
Tralles.
Fragments of it were dis­
covered in Rome in the 16th century,
and it was restored with more courage
than knowledge by Giovan­Battista della
Porta. As it exists now only the torsos
of the two male figures and a portion of
the female figure are original. The
group represented the punishment
inflicted on Dirce by Zethus and
Amphion, in consequence of Dirce's
treatment of their mother Antiope.
Farthingale. A kind of cage worn by
women in the 16th century under their
dress. It was not at all unlike the hoop
or crinoline, and served the same purpose
of spreading out the dress, till it had the
appearance of a bell.
Fasces. A bundle of twigs or rods,
with an axe in their midst, which was
in ancient times carried before Roman
magistrates. Soon after the expulsion
of the kings, however, the axe was
removed, and was only carried in front
of a dictator or a quaestor in time of
active service. Our cut represents the
fasces with the axe.
Fascia. (Arch.) A flat moulding, like a
fillet, used in classical architecture. In
architraves of the Ionic or Corinthian
orders two or even three fasciae are
found, each one receding from the one
above it.
Fates, The. Three sisters, the daugh­
ters of Night, who spun the thread of
human life. They were named Clotho,
Lachesis, and Atropus, and it is said
that Clotho put the wool on the spindle,
Lachesis spun it, while Atropus cut it.

FAU
ART
DICTIONARY.
FER
The Fates are frequently represented in
art, mediaeval as well as classical, as
three maidens of sober aspect. The
marvellous group in the eastern pedi­
ment of the Parthenon, now among the
Elgin marbles, is held by some critics to
represent the Fates.
Faun. The fauns were silvan deities
frequently represented in Greek and
Graeco­Roman art. They should more
properly be called Satyrs. In ancient
times a faun from the hand of Praxiteles
was particularly famous. In art fauns
generally assume the form of youths,
with shaggy hair and horns sprouted
from their forehead. There is a well­
known statue of a laughing faun in the
British Museum dating from the Graeco­
Roman period.
Feathering. (Arch.) A series of foils
or small arcs with cusps between them,
which decorates the inner surface of a
Gothic arch. Feathering is also termed
foliation. [Foils.]
Feeling. The feeling of a picture
may be defined as that quality by which
expression is given to the emotions
actuating the painter in the conception
and execution of his design.
This
"feeling" is only possible in the work
of a painter who has attained a perfect
mastery over his material ; for where the
technique is imperfect, expression of
emotion or feeling is out of the question.
Félicitas, St. A Roman widow who
suffered martyrdom in the time of
Marcus Aurelius. Her seven sons were
put to death before her eyes because
they would not renounce the Christian
faith, and she herself was afterwards
cruelly slain, according to one account,
by being put in a cauldron of boiling oil.
She is represented in art as amply
draped and holding a palm branch.
Sometimes she appears standing in a
cauldron, as in Raphael's " Martyrdom
of St. Félicitas," which is the most
celebrated rendering of this subject. The
date of her martyrdom was November
23rd, A.D. 173.
Feminalia. Short breeches worn by the
Romans, which fitted closely and reached
to the knee, resembling our knicker­
bockers.
They did not come into
general use in Rome until after the toga
had gone out of fashion, and then they
were principally worn by soldiers on
service in cold climates.
Fenestella. (Arch.) In ecclesiastical
architecture the fenestella is the niche
in which the piscina (q.v.) is placed.
Fenestration. The general arrange­
ment of windows in a building.
Feretory. A shrine resembling a
small coffin in form, in which the relics
*57

FES
ART
DICTIONARY.
FIG
of saints were carried in ecclesiastical
processions.
The feretory was fre­
quently richly decorated with chasing
and enamel, if of metal, and with carv­
ings in relief, if of wood or ivory. Our
cut, representing four monks bearing a
feretory, is take from a MS. by Matthew
Paris.
Fess. (Her.) The fess is one of the
principal ordinaries in heraldry. It
crosses the shield horizontally and occu­
pies one third of its width. The bar is
a diminutive of the fess, occupying only
one­fifth of the shield. The closet or
barrulet are diminutives of the bar.
Fess­point. (Her.) The centre point
in a shield.
Festoon. (Arch.) An architectural
ornament of great beauty and variety.
It generally consists of foliage, flowers,
or branches intertwined or bound to­
gether. It is peculiarly appropriate for
the adornment of friezes. In the pointed
style of architecture festoons consist of
a series of lobes or indents. Festoons
were employed with excellent effect by
the architects of the Renaissance style.
A representation of a festoon will be
found under the heading Encarpa.
Fibula. A kind of 'brooch or clasp.
Ancient fibulae, as well as
those of the Middle Ages,
were made of gold, silver,
or ivory, and sometimes
ornamented with precious
stones and chased with
care. In museums and
art collections many an­
cient fibulae of beautiful
workmanship are to be
seen. In ancient times the term fibula
was applied to
girdle­clasps,
which very closely
resemble
the
buckles which are
used to­day for the same purpose, and
were provided with a movable tongue.
[Brooch.]
Ficelles. A slang term applied in
158
Paris to the thousand and one tricks
of the artist's trade—to the painter's
happy thoughts, due sometimes to
chance, sometimes to patient research.
At first sight, for instance, the fore­
ground of a picture may appear to be
executed by impossible methods. A
closer inspection shows us that, thanks
toa" ficelle," it is quite simply painted.
It is a " ficelle " again when a sculptor
sprinkles a mixture of acidulated water
on the folds of his draperies, and by
means of this colour accentuates the
relief. Nor are "ficelles" unknown in
the engraver's art. The highest form of
art, it is true, knows not " ficelles," but
it cannot be denied that these dodges
play an important part in the art of
modern times.
Fictile. (Pot.) The term fictile was
applied by the Romans to
pottery of every kind. Ar­
chitectural ornaments and
pottery of the highest ar­
tistic merit were known as
fictile, as well as the earthen­
ware pots and pans in every­
day use. The moulds and
stamps employed in the
potter's art were placed in
the same category. Of our
cuts the upper one repre­
sents a stamp used by the
ancient potter to make the
pattern which ran round the
neck of a vessel, and the
lower cut shows the pattern
thus produced. [Pottery and Vases.]
Field. (Her.) In heraldry the field of
a shield is the groundwork or basis upon
which the different charges are laid.
The tincture of the field must always be
specified first in blazoning a shield.
Figure. A representation of a man,
woman, or animal, drawn, painted, or
sculptured. A life­size figure is a repre­
sentation of a man or woman of natural
size; a half­figure represents a person
as far as the waist only; a figure half
life­size represents a man or woman half

FIG
ART
DICTIONARY.
FIL
the ordinary height. An academy figure I
is a figure of which the dimensions are
those of the studies generally painted or
modelled in schools of art, i.e a little less
than half­life size. The following pro­
portions are generally observed in the
drawing of figures. They have been
arrived at from the observation of cen­
turies and the careful examination of
the human structure. The height of a
male figure ought to be eight times the
height of the head, of a female figure
seven times the height of the head, of
the figure of a child six times the height
of the head.
Figure, Colossal. A painted or I
sculptured figure, the proportions of j
which are far beyond life­size. A monu­ I
mental figure may be from eight to
eighteen feet high or more according j
to the space which it is to occupy in
a building or the size of the square in
which it is to stand. The largest figure
of this kind in the world is Bartholdi's
statue of Liberty, which measures up­
wards of 150 feet from the base to the
summit of the torch.
!
Figurine. A small figure or statuette,
generally in terra­cotta or some material
less durable than marble. Greek figur­
ines, though exquisitely graceful and
artistic, often lack the restraint observa­
ble in classical statues of larger dimen­
sions. This in reality adds to their
interest, for it shows us of what Greek
!
art was capable when not devoted to
civic or religious purposes.
The finest
figurines known to us are those found at
Tanagra. [Tanagra
figures.]
!
Filigree. Goldsmith's work consisting
of threads of metal intertwined and
soldered. The ornaments of the nth,
12th, and 13th centuries are decorated
with filigree of exquisite workmanship.
Filigree lent itself especially to the
representation of the crockets and fes­
toons which decorate those architectural
monuments in miniature, the mediaeval ;
reliquaries. [Reliquary.] Eastern na­
tions have always been famed for their \
skill in filigree. The Italians introduced
the art into Europe.
Fillet. (1) (Arch.) A square moulding
which is also termed a list or listel.
Fillets serve to separate convex or con­
cave mouldings, and their number and
proportions vary in the case of classical
buildings according to the order to
which they belong, in the case of Gothic
buildings according to their style or
period.
i Fillet. (2) (Her.) The fillet is the
j diminutive of the chief, and is generally
I represented as one­fourth the size of this
j ordinary.
I Fillet. (3) (Cost.) A band worn upon
j the head by the Greeks, both men and
j women, and tied at the back with a bow.
It was not, as was the case of the dia­
dem, a sign of distinction or dignity, but
simply a personal adornment.
Filomena, St. A purely legendary
saint, whose worship has become popular
in the present century in Italy. In 1802
a skeleton of a girl was discovered, the
sepulchre bearing a fragmentary in­
scription, which was elaborated by a
zealous priest into a memorial inscrip­
tion in honour of an imaginary saint
called Filomena. She was said to have
suffered martyrdom in the reign of
Diocletian or Maximian ; and though
there is absolutely no reason to believe
that such a person ever existed, she was
!59

FIM
ART DIC
at once honoured as a saint. There are,
as is naturally to be expected, few
artistic representations of St. Filomena,
but images of her are to be seen in
various Italian churches.
Fimbria. [Fringe.]
Fimbriated. (Her.) When a charge, as
for example a cross, is surrounded by a
narrow border of a different tincture to
itself, it is said to be fimbriated.
Fine­grinding. An operation by which
the materials used in certain arts, such
as potter's clay and painter's colours,
are reduced to a fine powder.
Finial. (Arch.) In all styles of archi­
tecture a finial denotes a sculptured
ornament, which represents a leaf or a
flower, and which is employed (especially
in Gothic buildings) as a termination to
gables, pinnacles, and canopies. Finials
first made their appearance in the 12th
century. At the beginning of the 13th
century their section is square, and they
consist of four bunches of leaves with
a bud above.
In the middle of the 13th
century they are composed of two rows
of leaves, and at the end of the century
they are still more elaborate. In the
160
FIR
14th century they are extraordinarily
bold in design, but in the 15th they
begin to lose their character. They are
stripped of their leaves, and finally in
the 16th century they are replaced by
a stem which springs from between the
crockets on the slope of a roof.
Finish. (Paint.) The term finish is
applied to the final touches in the exe­
cution of a picture. In a highly finished
picture no detail is carelessly carried
out. As a fine example of finish Gerard
Dow's "Water Doctor" may be quoted.
In pictures of small size finish is neces­
sary to success. In large pictures, on
the other hand, finish, if carried too far,
produces only an impression of dryness.
Fire. (Her.) A natural figure in
heraldry. It is represented on coats of
arms by a flame, a torch, a brand, or
burning coals. In early Christian art
fire is the attribute of many saints and
martyrs who suffered death at the stake.
Firebrick. (Constr.) An inflammable
brick which contains neither iron, or
oxide of iron. Firebricks are used in
the construction of
furnaces in which
^fï
porcelain,
faïence,
%i?
and
enamels
are
0&
Firedog. An and­
Ipill
iron (q.v.) of large
ifÊlÎmiS0^k
dimensions.
Fire­ (^SeT^^^^ ?i
dogs were often mag­
^P*""
\S^^^
nificent specimens of
ironwork. Those placed in halls and
TIONARY.

FIR
ART
DICTIONARY.
FLA
dwelling rooms were richly decorated,
while those placed in kitchens were
stronger and plainer in design, and gene­
rally terminated in a kind of tray, upon
which dishes were placed. In collections
there are still to be seen many exquisite
firedogs of wrought iron decorated with
coats of arms.
Firelock. A kind of firearm discharged
by means of flint and steel. It was in­
vented in the early part of the 17th cen­
tury.
Fireplace. In early times, in the 12th
century for instance, fireplaces were
deeply recessed and surmounted by a
chimney­hood (q.v.) In the Early Eng­
lish period the fireplace was very plain
and but little recessed. It was not until
the 15th century that much decoration
was lavished on fireplaces. At that time
the hearth was set far back, and it was
no longer necessary to use a hood.
Firing. The operation of fixing the
colour in glass or enamel, by submitting
the painted objects to the action of fire.
First Proof. (Engrav.) A proof printed
from a plate before the inscription and
author's name has been cut on it.
First State. (Engrav.) An engraving
is said to be a first state when it is struck
from a plate which has only been bitten
once and has not received its final
touches. The term is also applied to a
print, either finished or not, which
differs from the proof of the second
printing.
Fish. A curious symbol frequently
found on early Christian monuments
and tiles. It is the emblem of our Lord,
and the usual explanation of it is, that it
is taken from
Ι
Χ
Θ
Υ
2, the Greek for fish,
the letters of which are the initials of
the words
Ί
η
σ
ο
ΰ
ς
Χ
ρ
ι
σ
τ
ό
? ©eov
Υ
ί
ο
ς
%
ω
τ
η
ρ
,
i.e . Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the
Saviour. Another explanation is that it
contains a reference to the text, " I will
make you fishers of men," but the one
first stated is the more probable.
Fish­tail. (Engrav.) A term applied
to a broad flat brush, which is used to
lay the ground upon plates, which are to
be bitten by acid.
Fitché. (Her.) An heraldic term
which means tapering or pointed. For
instance, a cross fitché (q.v.) is a cross
the lower limb of which tapers down­
wards to a point.
Flabellum. A large circular fan formed
of peacock's feathers.
It was used as a brush
in Asia, in Roman
houses, and in the
churches of the East.
It was employed in
the Latin Church until
the 14th century, and
it is still retained in
certain ceremonies in
which the Pope takes part. [Fan.]
Flag. A stone used in the making of
pavements.
Flagellation. A term applied to pic­
tures or bas­reliefs representing the
scourging of Christ.
Flagon. A long­necked vessel with a
spout and a lid, used for holding liquids.
At the time of the Reformation the
flagon was ordered to be used instead
of the cruet in the services of the Church.
It has now been replaced by a vessel of
a different shape.
Flail. A weapon made on the model of
the agricultural implement of the same
name. It was made of wood, and its
arm was sheathed in iron and often
rendered more dangerous with spikes.
Flake White. (Paint.) A pigment
composed of oxidised carbonate of lead.
It owes its name to the fact that it is
sold in flakes or plates. It has a good
body, and under certain conditions is
permanent. Oil and varnish dissolve it,
and it is apt to turn grey in an impure
atmosphere, while it, in its turn, is
destructive to lakes and orange leads
when mixed with these pigments.
Flamboyant. (Arch.) A name given
to the French Gothic architecture of the
15th and 16th centuries, which corre­
sponded in point of time with the Per­
161

FLA
ART
DICTIONARY.
FLE
pendicular (q.v .) style in England. The
flamboyant style is characterised by
balustrades and traceries, resembling
flames in their contours.
Flammeum. (Cost.) A long thick veil
of a brilliant yellow or flame colour,
which was worn by Roman women on
their wedding day. During the cere­
mony it covered the head of the bride,
who was unveiled by her husband on
reaching home.
Flanches. (Her.) A flanch consists of
a segment of a circle cut out as it were
from the side or flank of the field.
Flanches are always "borne in pairs
and are reckoned as a
subordinacy
(q.v .) . They are rather rare in English
heraldry, but a good example is to be
found in the arms of Sir Bartle Frere :
Gules, between two flanches or, two
leopards' faces in pale or.
162
Flanks. (Arch.) The flanks of an arch
are those portions of an arch between
the spring­line and the vertex.
Flask. A vessel to contain liquids, used
in Italy and elsewhere. It is a kind of
flagon, long and narrow, and generally
of a graceful form. Flasks were carried
by pilgrims, and so we often find a flask
suspended to a pilgrim's staff in works
of art.
Flasques. (Her.) A diminutive of
flanches, a smaller piece being cut out
of the field of the shield.
Flemish Bond. (Arch.) That method
of laying bricks in a wall so that in each
course headers (q.v .) and stretchers
(q.v .) appear alternately.
Flemish White. [White Lead.]
Flesh­tints. (Paint.) A term applied
to those tints or colours observed in the
nude human body. The representation
of the nude is one of the most important
branches of painting, and therefore too
much stress can scarcely be laid upon
the study of flesh­tints.
The best
colours with which to represent flesh
are pink madder, brown madder (for the
darkest touches), Indian red (as a
shadow colour), Venetian red and ver­
milion for the carnations of flesh. In
painting flesh the colours should be laid
on thickly, as a good effect cannot be
obtained by thin layers of colour over a
large surface. The term " flesh­tints "
in a general sense denotes the power
displayed by a particular artist in the
rendering of the nude ; thus we speak
of the flesh­tints of Rubens, of Titian,
&c.
Fleur­de­lis. A flower which is found
in many coats of
arms as the symbol
of nobility or sove­
reignty. It is pre­
eminently the royal
insignia of France.
It assumes diffe­
rent forms at different epochs.
The
two most strongly marked types are
those of the reigns of St. Louis and
Louis XIV. The former was slender

FLE
ART
DICTIONARY.
FLO
and graceful in design ; the latter squat
and heavy. In early times the banner
of France was covered with fleur­de­lis,
as in our cut, but from the time of
Charles VI. it showed only three fleur­
de­lis on a blue ground. For many
centuries the fleur­de­lis were quartered
on the royal arms of England in asser­
tion of the claim of the English royal
family to the throne of France. They
were expunged from the shield by George
IV.
Fleur­de­lis flory. A fleur­de­lis
adorned with buds between the flowers
or enriched with foliage and scrolls, so
as to be transformed into
an elaborate floral decora­
tion Fleur­de­lis flory are
frequently found as a system
of ornament on hangings.
They are also worked into
the design of mosaic pavements.
Fleuron. (Arch.) A name given to the
small rose­like flower, surrounded by
leaves, which is em­
ployed as an ornament
in the classical style of
architecture. It is most
frequently found in the
centre of the abacus of
Corinthian capitals. It was the same
ornament as that generally known as
the honeysuckle pattern.
Flint­ware. (Pot) A kind of fine
faïence, which takes its name from the
flint which enters into its composition.
Floral. Floral ornament is the system
of ornament borrowed from the vegeta­
ble kingdom. The floral ornament of
the Greeks is almost confined to the
acanthus ; that of the Gothic style, how­
ever, is of considerable variety. At the
beginning of the 13th century the leaves
generally sculptured were those of the ivy,
vine, holly, marsh­mallow, and eglantine,
By the end of the 13th century the leaves
of the oak, wild plum, fig, and pear had
been added to those already mentioned.
In the 14th century the leaves of the
black hellebore, chrysanthemum, sage,
pomegranate, geranium and fern were
the favourites, while in the decorative art
of the 15th century we most often meet
with the thistle, thorn, and mugwort.
Flooring. (Arch.) An arrangement of
thin planks of wood placed upon
timbers called bridging joists. Floorings
receive different names according to the
arrangement of the planks and the
163

FLO
ART
DICTIONARY.
FLU
method of joining employed, such as
plain jointed,
rebated, fillistered, &c.
These technicalities, however, scarcely
belong to the domain of art. Some
floors are composed of marquetry, and
have different coloured woods inlaid in
them, which sometimes produce an ad­
mirable decorative effect.
Florentine Fresco. A method of
fresco­painting differing from the ordi­
nary method in that the lime may be
kept wet and fit for painting on for a
considerable time. By this means the
greatest difficulty of fresco­painting is
obviated. [Fresco.]
Florentine Mosaic. The inlaying of
tables and other small surfaces with pre­
cious stones, such as lapis lazuli and
chalcedony, is termed Florentine mosaic.
By this process very beautiful effects
may be obtained.
Florid. (Arch.) A term applied to the
Gothic architecture of the latest period
just before the Renaissance, when the
ornamentation was wonderfully exu­
berant, and crockets developed from
simple leaves into large bunches of
foliage.
Flourishes. Embellishments or scrolls
disposed round a system of ornament or
adding richness to a cartouche, vignette,
or initial letter.
Flower­painting. The representation
of flowers is the object of special and
exclusive study on the part of certain
artists.
Flowers have always been
prized in the Netherlands, and it is there
that the finest pictures of flowers have
been produced. The flower­paintings
of Daniel Seghers of Antwerp (1590—
1660), David de Heem, Van Huysum,
and J. B . Monnoyer are justly cele­
brated.
Flowers. In classical art flowers are
the attribute of Aphrodite and the
Hours ; in Christian art of many legen­
dary saints, such as St. Dorothea and
St. Elizabeth of Hungary.
Flowers of Sulphur. Flowers of sul­
phur are used by engravers to slightly
164
bite in an engraved plate. Sometimes a
mixture of flowers of sulphur and oil is
used. This affects the surface of the
plate and produces the impression of a
washed drawing, which varies in energy
according to the length of the exposure
of the plate to the biting in.
Flush. (Arch.) Two walls are said to
be flush when their facings are on the
same level. One surface is said to be
flush with another when they are on the
same level.
Flutings. (Arch.) Hollow mouldings
of uniform depth and equi­distant,
introduced in the shaft of a column or
the front of a pilaster.
—,
Cabled. Flutings of which the
indent is filled with a cable (q.v.) .
—, Decorated. Flutings in
which ornaments consisting
of flowers and foliage are in­
troduced. Buildings of the
12th century present many
examples of decorated flu­
tings, while on the columns
of porticos of the Renais­
sance style flutings are found
decorated with laurel leaves
and foliage of great richness.
—
en gaine. Flutings the edges of
which, instead of
being parallel, con­
verge towards
a
base narrower than
their summit. Flu­
tings of this cha­
racter are used to
decorate pedestals
in order to make
the light play on
their surface and
so to give them an
appearance
of
greater height.
— , Ribbed. Flutings which are sepa­
rated by listels (q.v.) .

FLU
ART
DICTIONARY.
FOL
Flutings, Sharp. Flutings the curves
of which terminate at their point of con­
tact in an acute angle.
—,
Twisted. Flutings encircling a
column in spirals.
—
with Astragals.
Flutings filled with flat
or convex
astragals
These astragals
are
sometimes simple,
sometimes cut in the
form of a cord or
cane, round which fo­
liage is turned in
spirals.
— , Zigzag. Flutings
drawn in a zigzag line.
Flux. A substance used in painting in
enamel. It consists of glass, as clear
and transparent as possible.
It is
spread over the plate which is to be
enamelled and serves as a ground,
importing to the plate a brilliant surface
and serving to fix the colours. During
the process of enamelling every colour
is mixed with a certain quantity of
flux.
The term is also applied to a
colourless enamel, employed by potters,
which is blended with colours and serves
as their vehicle.
Focus. (Photo.) To put an object in
focus is to make either it or the glass to
retire or advance until the image on the
glass is absolutely clear.
Foils. (Arch). The divisions or com­
partments of an
arch or spandril
formed by arcs of
circles in Moorish
and Gothic archi­
tecture.
Arabian
arches are divided
into foils, which
are always of an
uneven number. Sometimes in arches
inscribed in rectangular openings the
division and outline of the foils are
carried on to the
extrados of the
vault. In the
pointed
style
many examples of
windows are found
divided vertically
by ribs or mul­
lions, which cross
and interlace at
the spring of the arch, leaving foils
between them in the form of convex or
concave portions of arcs of circles, their
intersections being formed by projecting
I crockets often ornamented by foliage.
i Foil Arch. (Arch.) A foil arch is an
| arch made of our several smaller arches
| or foils.
Fold. A term applied to the angles
and broken masses formed by draperies
which fall loose. The proper treatment
of the folds of draperies is an important
part of the work of both sculptor and
painter.
Folding Doors. [Doors, Folding.]
Foldingstool, or Faldstool. A movable
chair or stool, which folds up in very
much the same manner as the modern
campstool. It was made of wood or
metal, and sometimes covered with
some rich material, such as silk. In
olden times bishops carried foldingstools
about with them, and used them if they
had to officiate in any but their own
church, and so an ecclesiastical signifi­
cance was attached to foldingstools, the
term sometimes even denoting the
cathedra or bishop's throne itself. Our
two cuts are taken from MSS. of the
Saxon period.
165

FOL
ART DIC
Foliage.
The reproduction and
arrangement of leaves, either real or
fantastic, is one of the most frequent
systems of ornament employed in archi­
tecture. In the ancient styles of archi­
tecture foliage is as a rule borrowed
from the flora of the country. Thus on
the monuments of Egypt we find the
palm­leaf and lotus, while on the build­
ings of Greece and Rome the leaves of
the acanthus, bay, and olive predominate.
In Romano­Byzantine monuments the
foliage is generally nothing more than a
barbarous and clumsy imitation of the
antique. The sculptors of the Gothic
period, however, took as their models
the plants which grew in the neighbour­
hood of the church they were decorating.
In the 12th century the foliage, though
of considerable variety, is still somewhat
fantastic.
In the 13th century it is
modelled from nature with conscientious
accuracy and arranged with consummate
grace. The leaves most generally used at
this period are those of the ivy, vine, oak,
strawberry­plant, apple­tree, chestnut,
fig­tree, parsley, marsh­mallow, liver­
wort, celery, chicory, cabbage, holly, and
thistle. At the Renaissance garlands of
flowers and fruit were employed for
decorating purposes as well as foliage.
In the 17th and 18th centuries garlands
of leaves, either of the oak or olive,
occur as ornaments and sometimes
FON
completely cover considerable portions
of a façade. The acanthus of classical
tradition, which was restored to favour
in the 16th century, is held in honour
by the architects of to­day. But at
the present time new forms are rarely
introduced. The reproduction of the
foliage of classical antiquity is more
popular than ever.
Foliated. (Arch ) Decorated with
foliations or featherings (q v.).
Foliation. (Arch ) A term applied to
the cusps or foils which separate the
small arcs within a larger arch or span­
dril in Gothic architecture. Trefoil or
cinquefoil arches afford us examples of
foliation.
Font, Baptismal. A basin in which
the holy water used in the ceremony of
baptism is kept. The fonts of the
Romano­Byzantine and Gothic periods
were of stone, copper, or lead. The
majority of them were covered with a
lid. In early times this lid was flat and
unornamented, as in our second cut,
which represents a font of Norman
TIONARY.
166

FOO
ART
DICTIONARY.
FOR
workmanship in Hunstanton Church.
At a later period, however, the lids were
elaborately carved and architectural in
design, representing spires, pinnacles,
&c. Among fonts which are interesting
from an artistic point of view we may
mention those in the cathedrals of
Hildesheim (13th century) and Stras­
bourg.
Foot. A term applied to the lower
part of a vase which serves as a support
and generally consists of a moulding
resting on a small square plinth.
Foot­board. (Arch.) The base of Gothic
stalls resembling a step raised some
height from the ground.
Footing. (Arch.) A continuous projec­
tion forming the
base of a wall.
The base of a
column is also
called a footing,
as is the base of
a pedestal
or
pil aster.
Foot­lights. (Arch ) Rows of gas jets
or lamps placed on a level with the
stage, which serve to throw a strong light
on the actors.
Foot­pace. (Arch.) A term which
denotes the da'is of a hall, or that part of
it in which the floor is raised above the
general level.
Foot­stall. (Arch.) A now obsolete
term for pedestal, to which word it bears
an etymological resemblance.
Forced. A painted or sculptured
figure is said to be forced when it
presents a distorted attitude or exag­
gerated movement, which the artist has
been unable to render efficiently.
Foreground. (Paint.) That portion of
a picture on which the objects nearest
to the spectator's eye are represented.
In a portrait the foreground is the space,
which is so rendered as to appear in
front of the figure. The objects de­
picted in the foreground, being those
most clearly seen, should be painted
with some care and minuteness.
Foreshortening. A method of draw­
ing or colouring
used to produce
a certain effect
in the represen­
tation of objects
and figures, the
perspective of
which makes
them appear
smaller to the
eye than they
really are. All
objects
which
project perpen­
dicularly to the plane of the picture
must be foreshortened. The arms of a
figure, for instance, are seen foreshort­
ened if they are extended directly towards
the spectator. Foreshortening is one of
the difficulties of draughtsmanship, and
many artists, such as Michael Angelo
and Rubens, have been properly cele­
brated for their skilful management of
it. Foreshortening, which is difficult to
comprehend or is disagreeable to the
eye should be rigorously avoided.
Sculptors, as well as painters, have fore­
shortening to reckon with, not only
in the execution of bas­reliefs, but in
the composition of any statue which is
intended to occupy a particular place.
In this case the sculptor has to take
into account the effect which his work
will have in the position which it is to
occupy.
Forge. To forge metals is to work
them by exposing them to the
action of the fire and by
striking them with a hammer.
There are in existence pieces of forged
iron, which take a high rank among
the masterpieces of decorative art.
[Bickern.]
Form. A term used in painting and
sculpture to denote the qualities of line
as opposed to colour. An artist who de­
votes himself especially to line may be
said to prefer form to colour.
Format. The dimensions of volumes.
167

FOR
ART
DICTIONARY.
FOU
Books are generally made of a certain
format, such as quarto, octavo, &c.
Formative Arts, The. The formative
arts are those arts, called by the Germans
die bildenden kunste, which deal with the
forms and materials of the external
world. They are three in number,
architecture, sculpture, and painting,
and are at the opposite pole from the
arts of music and poetry.
Formeret. (Arch.) An arch which
adheres to the wall in a groined compart­
ment. The term wall­rib is also applied
to it. An example of a formeret will be
found in the cut to transverse rib [Rib,
Transverse], where the arches marked
A A are formerets.
Fortification. (Arch.) Fortification
may be defined as the science of pro­
tecting any place against hostile attack.
The principles of construction enter
largely into it, but its connection with
art is of the slightest.
Fortress. (Arch.) A name given to
any artificially strengthened building
or to a building the natural strength of
which has been taken advantage of by
human ingenuity. The Tower of Lon­
don is an admirable example of a for­
tress.
Fortuna. A goddess worshipped by
the Greeks and Romans, and called by
the former Tyche. In art she is repre­
sented as a draped female figure, hold­
ing a horn of plenty in one hand and a
rudder in the other. Sometimes a ball
lies beside her, emblematic of the sudden
revolutions of fortune.
Forum. (Arch ) An open space in an­
cient Rome, in which the assemblies of
the people, elections, and other public
business took place. It occupied a piece
of ground between the Capitol and the
Palatine Hill. It was surrounded by
temples and filled with interesting monu­
ments. It has long been covered by the
strata of successive civilisations, but of
late years an extensive excavation has
been carried on on its site and many valu­
able monuments brought to light. The
168
term was extended in the time of the
Empire to public places in all towns
brought under the sway of Rome.
Foundations. A term which denotes
the trench dug
out to receive
the walls which
support a build­
ing from below
as well as the
subterranean
portion of the walls of an edifice. Foun­
dations vary according to the nature
of the soil on which they are con­
structed.
Founding. (Sculp.) The following is,
briefly stated, the method employed in
the founding of a statue. A pit is dug
in a dry place, and sometimes lined with
brick. A rude model of the work to be
cast in the foundry is then made. This,
which is called the core, only reprodu­
ces the attitude and outlines of the statue,
but is by no means an exact facsimile of
it. It is generally composed of a mixture
of plaster of Paris and brickdust, and is
raised on bars of iron, which serve to
support it. The core, when complete, is
covered with wax of the intended thick­
ness of the metal, which accurately re­
presented the statue and is obtained from
a piece­mould (q.v.), and finished by the
sculptor. The wax is then thickly coated
with a porous clay. When the clay is
dry the whole mass is baked, and during
this operation the outer coating of clay
which forms the mould is hardened, while
the wax melts and is allowed to run off
through tubes or vent­holes inserted for
this purpose. These holes also allow a
free passage to the air, which would other­
wise play havoc when the metal was
poured in. The molten metal is run in
through another hole left for the purpose,
and as soon as the mould is filled the
metal is allowed to cool slowly. The
clay coating which forms the mould is
then removed, and finally the core taken
out, a hole being left in the statue for
this purpose and soldered up afterwards.

FOU
ART
DICTIONARY.
FRA
The founding of the statue is then
complete.
Foundry. An establishment where the
operation of founding or casting statues
in bronze is carried on.
Fountain. (Arch.) A construction from
which an assemblage of jets of water
issues. In the Gothic period fountains
were constructed which resembled small
pyramidal buildings. At the time of the
Renaissance and in the centuries which
followed it fountains were placed in the
midst of a portico and were surmounted
by a frame­work or cartouche of large
dimensions. They sometimes consist
of a large flat cup of circular form or of
several such cups placed one above the
other. The Italians and French have
produced the finest specimens of foun­
tains, and in both Rome and Paris the
masterpieces of this kind of art are to
be seen. English people have as yet
produced nothing in this direction
worthy of note.
Foyer. (Arch.) A large saloon in a
theatre, which serves as a promenade
and place of meeting between the acts.
It is only lately that the foyer has be­
come a prominent feature in English
theatres.
Fraise. (Cost.) A large pleated col­
larette, such as was introduced into
France by Catherine de Médicis and
was worn until the reign of Louis XIII.
12
Fraises. (Her.) The heraldic name
for strawberry leaves.
Frame. (Arch.) A projecting border,
either square or circular, which sur­
rounds a plain panel or a painted or
sculptured mural decoration. The term
is especially applied to the ornamental
mouldings of wood, sometimes gilded,
sometimes painted, which surround pic­
tures, drawings, or engravings. Picture­
frames have varied con­
siderably at different
periods. In early times
they were carved out of
solid blocks of wood and
then belonged entirely
to the domain of art
Each frame was de­
signed to suit the pic­
ture which was to be placed in it, that it
might add to rather than detract from its
effect. But nowadays, when pictures or
prints form a part of the decoration of
every room, frames are manufactured by
the dozen, and nothing is required of
them but that they should fit the picture.
They are produced by purely mechanical
means, and generally consist of a flat
moulding of wood, to which flutings,
foliage, garlands, and other plastic
ornaments are applied. The whole is
then gilt or coloured by the ordinary
processes.
The rules of the Royal
Academy, which forbid any but gilt
frames to be hung on their walls, has
checked variety in the manufacture of
frames in England. However, a ten­
dency is now observable to employ
bronze, stamped leather, plush, and even
sacking in frame­making. The frames
169

FRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
PRE
which surround drawings and engravings
under glass generally consist of flat slips
of wood, a margin being left between the
frame and the print or drawing to
heighten its tone.
For water­colour
drawing a white mount is best, while
for drawings in monochrome a mount
of a bluish tint is to be preferred. In
this kind of framing there is considerable
scope for taste, which is particularly
shown in choosing a mount best suited
in colour and dimensions to set off the
drawing it surrounds.
Frame­wall. A wall which consists of
beams, arranged as
in the cut, with
the spaces between
filled with bricks,
plaster, or blocks
of terra­cotta. The
brick or plaster is
always of the same
thickness as the
frame­work made
by the beams.
Franηois Vase. One of the most
celebrated of the ancient Greek vases
which have come down to us. It is
archaic in style and dates from the sixth
century, being the work of the potter
Ergotimus. Its ground is red, and it is
decorated with black figures in zones.
Among the subjects represented are the
procession of the deities at the marriage
of Thetis and Peleus, the battle between
the Lapithse and Centaurs, several inci­
dents in the life of Achilles, &c.
Frankfurt Black. (Paint.) A bluish­
black pigment of great service in oil
painting, as it dries well and is perma­
nent. It is prepared from calcined vine
twigs or cocoa­nut shells.
Freestone. (Arch.) Stone which is
cut in square blocks and worked with a
chisel.
French Blue. (Paint.) An artificial
blue pigment chemically obtained. It
is injured by heat but is otherwise per­
manent.
French White. (Paint.) A pure white
170
pigment obtained from lead, possessing
the qualities, good and bad, of white
lead. On account of its destructive
influence on other pigments its use
cannot be recommended.
Fresco. A mural painting executed on
a fresh ground—in Italian al fresco—of
lime and gypsum. The brushes used
are long and pointed or square and flat,
but in either case have very long hairs.
The colours are diluted in earthenware
vessels. The colours, when applied to
the surface, lose their strength and
brightness, as they combine with the
lime ; in order therefore to double
or treble the value of the tints each
piece must be gone over two or three
times, but care must be taken to do this
immediately. The ground soon be­
comes unfit to paint on, and therefore
in fresco painting retouching is im­
possible. This is its chief difficulty.
On the other hand, as the colour com­
bines with the lime in the ground it is
of great durability. Fresco painting is
chiefly used for the decoration of walls
and ceilings. A good example of it is to
be seen at South Kensington Museum,
one room in which is decorated by two
designs illustrating the arts of War and
Peace and painted in fresco by Sir
Frederick Leighton. The arL was known
to the ancients, but not revived until
the 16th century, when it began to be
successfully practised by the Italians.
It should be remembered that the term
fresco refers exclusively to the process
by means of which this class of wall­
paintings are carried out, and must not
be applied loosely to any mural decora­
tion.
Fret. (Arch.) A flat or semicircular
moulding applied to a flat surface and
consisting of broken lines or interlace­

FRE
ART
DICTIONARY.
FRI
ments. The meander pattern, for in­
stance, is an example of the fret, as is
also the ornament known as the broken
batoon shown in our second cut. There
are also crenelated, triangular, and un­
dulating frets.
Fret. (Her ) A fret is a subordinary
formed by inter­
lacing two narrow
bands, crossing
one another in
saltire,
with a
mascle ; or to use
less technical
terms, it may be
described as a
thin St. Andrew's
cross interlaced with a hollow lozenge.
Fretty. (Her.) This is the name of a
varied field, formed by the
alternation and interlacing
of narrow bands crossing
the shield in directions of
the bend and of the bend­
sinister, as shown in the
accompanying cut.
Frieze. (Arch.) The part of the en­
tablature situated between the architrave
and cornice in
the ancient or­
ders.
In the
Doric order the
frieze is deco­
rated with me­
topes and triglyphs; in the Ionic and
Corinthian orders it is ornamented with
bas­reliefs forming a continuous design.
The finest example of an ancient frieze
in existence is the frieze of the Parthe­
non to be seen among the Elgin marbles
at the British Museum. The term frieze
is applied to the j
broad border which
sometimes runs
round a room between the top of the
wall paper and the cornice. By an an­
alogy frieze may also denote a drawing,
painting, or sculptured bas­relief, the
length of which is considerably greater
than its height.
Fringe. Fringes have been employed
to decorate the borders of garments and
cloths in every age and in every country.
They are frequently mentioned in the
Bible, and many representations of them
occur in Assyrian monuments.
The
Egyptians, too, added rich heavy fringes
to their garments, and we are told that
Julius Cassar wore them on the sleeves
of his tunic. They may be obtained by
leaving the threads of the warp in the
cloth after it is woven ; these threads
are then knotted and so prevent the
cloth from unravelling. On the other
hand the richest and costliest fringes
are made separately and sewn on to the
cloth which they adorn.
Frisquet. (Engrav ) A name given to
the piece of paper laid by wood­
engravers on that portion of the block
which they have not yet cut when they
take a proof of their work. A proof is
171

FRI
thus obtained of only those lines already
cut by the engraver.
Frithstool. (Arch.) The meaning of
this curious old term is the stool of
peace, and the chair denoted by it was
in ancient times the last resting­place
of those who sought sanctuary within
the walls of a sacred building. The
frithstool was made of stone and stood
close to the altar in minster churches. A
specimen is still to be seen at Beverley.
Frontal. The cloth, frequently of
embroidered silk, which was hung over
the front of an altar.
Frontispiece. A term applied to a
reproduction of a drawing or painting
obtained either by engraving or some
mechanical process, and placed as an
illustration facing the first page of a
book or magazine.
Fruit. (Her.) Fruits are occasionally
employed in heraldry as
charges.
Those of most frequent occurrence are
acorns, nuts, apples, and grapes.
Fruits. Representations of fruits com­
bined with foliage often appear as forms
of sculptured ornaments. [Garland.]
Fulham Pottery. In the 17th century
John Dwight established a manufactory
of porcelain and earthenware at Fulham.
He took out a patent for the manufacture
of porcelain, but not satisfied with his
progress he burned his moulds and
receipts and devoted himself to the
making of earthenware. Some interest­
ing figures and statuettes made at the
Fulham potteries are to be seen in the
British Museum.
Funeral Banquet. A funeral banquet
very often forms the subject of Greek
stelae or sculptured tomb­stones. The
dead man is represented as reclining on
a couch and receiving from his relatives
the food necessary, according to the
Greek idea of death, to support his life
in the tomb.
Funeral Chariot. A carriage of no
definite form, but built after the special
design of a painter or architect, on
which the body of a hero is carried to
Ί
Ο
Ν
Α
Β
Υ
.
FUR
his last resting­place. Such is the cha­
riot now in the crypt of St. Paul's upon
which the great Duke of Wellington
was borne to his last resting­place.
Funicular Ornament. (Arch.) A
round convex mould­
^^^^^^
β
^^^^
ing in the form of a <^^^^^^^^^S^
Fur. (Her.) Eight furs are employed
in heraldry: Ermine, Ermines; Ermi­
nois, Pean ; Vair, Counter­vair ; Potent,
Counter­potent. Descriptions of these
different furs will be found under the
name of each of them.
Furies. The daughters of earth and
darkness, whose duty it was to pursue
the guilty who had left their sins
unatoned. Their proper abode was in
Hades, but, as in the story of Orestes,
they were sometimes sent to persecute
the guilty on earth. In the Greek
tragedy which bears their name they
appear as women of hideous mien,
clothed in black, with snakes for hair.
The sculptor Calamis is said to have
fashioned some statues of the furies and
to have invested them with none of the
hideous features which were ascribed to
them by Aeschylus. In later times they
were regarded as maidens of a dignified
beauty.
Furnace, Enameller's. A furnace of
fire­proof earthenware covered with a
lid and placed on a tripod or solid block
three or four feet high. Into this fur­
nace the plates covered with powdered
enamel are placed, until they become of
a white heat.
ART DIC
172

FUR
ART
DICTIONARY.
GAB
Furniture. The furniture of a room
includes all that contributes to its deco­
ration. Considerations of expediency as
well as the varying taste and fashion
of the time assign to furniture a very
important place among the decorative
arts.
Furrings. (Arch.) A small piece of
wood placed on a roof
at the base of the raft­
ers and projecting
some distance : its
purpose is to carry
the rain water off from
the vertical wall.
Fusil. (Her.) The fusil is an elongated
form of the lozenge, and like the lozenge
is reckoned as a subordinary.
It is
usual for several fusils to be borne
together on a shield.
Fusilly. (Her.) This is the name given
to the varied field formed by covering
the surface of the shield with alternating
fusils.
Fylfot. A mystic cross of very an­
cient origin, which is said
to have been introduced into
Europe from India. It occurs
as a decoration in Celtic
pottery and also on early
monumental brasses.
G.
Gabardine. (Cost.) A cloak of uncer­
tain shape, in all probability reaching to
the feet and fastened round the waist by
a girdle. It was worn by shepherds, and
from the passage in Shakspere's Mer­
chant of Venice, " He spat upon my Jew­
ish gabardine," it has been thought to
have been the dress affected by the
Jews.
Gable. (Arch.) A kind of triangular
pediment, always very high in propor­
tion to its width, frequently employed
in Romanesque and Gothic architec­
ture. In buildings of the Romanesque
period gables serve to mask roofs and
then only present
a flat surface ter­
minated by a
cross. In Gothic
architect ure,
gables surmount­
ed by crockets
and
finials, not
only mask the
slope of a roof
but also termi­
nate the pointed
arches above door­
ways. Sometimes
several gables rise on different planes,
the one above the other, each one pro­
jecting beyond the one beneath it. This
method of decoration was particularly
adopted in domestic buildings of the
Gothic period. In modern times gables
are rarely seen. There is one peculiar
kind of gable, the sides of which, instead
of being straight lines, pre­
sent a series of projections,
which resemble the steps
of a staircase. These pro­
jections are called corbie­ j
steps (q.v.) in Scotland.
Many old houses in Belgium as well as
in Scotland are found with gables built
upon this plan.
Properly speaking a
gable only denotes the pediment we
have described, whereas a gable­end
denotes the gable and the whole wall
which it surmounts.
Gablet. (Arch.) A small gable used
in Gothic buildings to surmount a niche
in which a statue was placed, or to ter­
minate small pointed arches.
Gabriel, St. The angel who under­
173

GAD
ART
DICTIONARY.
took the duty of a messenger He it
was who announced the birth of Christ,
and it is in relation to his event that he
is generally represented in art. He
always appears as fully draped and
carries a sceptre or lily. Sometimes
he is in a kneeling posture, sometimes
he floats through the air, his arms folded
on his breast.
Gadlyngs. Small spikes placed upon
the knuckles of gauntlets in the four­
teenth century.. They were more for
ornament than use, but they suggest the
bosses of metal which made the '
ί
μ
α
ς
ο
ζ
ν
ς
, the boxing­glove of the Greeks, such
a formidable weapon.
Gaku. A Japanese term denoting a
picture stretched and held in a metal or
wooden frame. It is thus quite distinct
in character from the kakémono (q v.) .
Galea. A Latin term denoting any
kind of helmet. Of the two galeae en­
graved here, the one has a ridge and a
plume and somewhat resembles that
worn by centurions. The other, which
is smaller in size and less pretentious in
style, is of the pattern worn by the
ordinary Roman soldier.
GAL
Galeated. A word used of an ancient
statue of deity or hero when it wears
upon its head a galea or helmet.
Galgal. Celtic monuments which pre­
sent the appearance of artificial hillocks
of conical or pyramidal form.
Their
Latin name is tumulus (q.v .).
Galilee. (Arch.) The name Galilee
was given to a large porch or small
chapel placed at the entrance of a church.
It seems to have been the part of a
church which women were allowed to
enter. The following is said to be the
origin of the term.
A woman having
applied to see a monk, was told, " He
goeth before thee into Galilee, there
thou shalt see him," the western porch
at the same time being pointed out to
her. At Ely and Durham the Galilee is
at the west of the nave, and that at the
latter cathedral is perhaps the most
beautiful specimen of late or transitional
Norman in existence.
Gall. A bitter fluid secreted in the
gall­bladder of animals. Ox­gall after
being clarified is mixed with the pig­
ments used in water­colour painting and
makes them flow readily on the paper.
Ox­gall is also used to set or render
ineffaceable pencil and crayon drawings.
Gallery. (Arch.) A hall of large dimen­
sions, the length of which is always at
least twice its width. The term was
originally only applied to the long corri­
174

GAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
GAM
dors which united two portions of a
building. Such corridors in large houses
were often decorated with pictures, and
so any room in which pictures were
hung came to be termed a gallery.
Hence public buildings which are de­
voted entirely to the display of works
of art are called galleries. In theatrical
architecture the balconies which run
round the top of the auditorium are
called galleries. In Gothic architecture
the term gallery has a special significa­
tion. It denotes the division into stories
of the interior or exterior façade of a
church. These divisions are marked by
balustrades or arcades. Some Gothic
galleries are as wide as the aisles. In
the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries they
are sometimes nothing more than pas­
sages in the interior of the walls.
Gallery, Whispering. (Arch.) A
vaulted gallery which is so contrived
acoustically that the faintest whisper
can be heard from one end of it to the
other, being at the same time imper­
ceptible in the middle.
Galley. A long ship with a single
deck, propelled either with oars or sails.
The galley was the form of ship univer­
sally used in ancient times, and repre­
sentations of it are often found on bas­
reliefs, &c. The galley
survived in
Southern Europe until the eighteenth
century, but is obsolete now. It occurs
as a charge in heraldry under the name
lymphad.
Gallo ­ Roman. A term applied in
archaeology to objects belonging to that
period of history, during which the Gauls
were placed under the Roman yoke
Galoon. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment consisting of a row of pearls
iMiimimiiiHimiMinintmiiiHHimn.
OOOOOOOO
applied to a band, or of a band pierced
and covered with striae.
In either case,
as a rule, it projects but little.
Galvanography. Under the term
galvanography or galvanoplastie art are
included all those processes by which
statues, bas­reliefs, and engraved blocks
or plates may be exactly reproduced.
A hollow mould in wax is taken of the
object to be copied; the wax mould is
then placed in a bath, and an electric
current passing through it, a metal de­
posit is formed upon the wax. Thus
a facsimile is obtained, the thickness
and solidity of which are proportional
to the length of time the object is
permitted to remain in the bath. The
process of covering metal objects with
a thin coat of another metal is an im­
portant branch of galvanography.
It is thus that copper­plates, from
which an engraving is to be printed,
are covered with a film of steel.
On the art of engraving indeed
galvanography has exerted a most
powerful influence. [Electrotype.]
Gambeson. A tight­fitting body­
garment worn in the 13 th and 14th
century either
underneath
the hauberk
(q.v.) or without it.
It was of consider­
able thickness, be­
ing padded
and
quilted as shown
in our cut, which
is taken from a
picture by Mem­
ling.
Gamboge.
(Paint ) A solid resinous green pro­
175

GAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
GAR
duced from the tree known to botanists
as the Hebrddendron
cambgoides.
It
readily dissolves in water and forms a
beautiful gold yellow pigment. It is
very useful in water­colour, especially
in obtaining greens, which vary in tone
according as the gamboge is mixed with
Indian ink, Prussian blue, or indigo.
Mixed with carmine, gamboge yields an
orange green.
Ganymede.
In Greek
mythology
Ganymede was the son of King Tros and
Callirrhoë. He was carried off by Zeus
and appointed his cup­bearer in Olym­
pus.
He is generally represented in
works of art as a handsome youth,
while an eagle, the bird of Zeus, stands
at his side, as a symbol that he holds
office in Olympus.
In modern and
popular pictures it has become the
fashion to represent Ganymede as
carried off to Olympus by an eagle,
but this is a late development of the
myth, and is justified neither by the art
nor poetry of the ancients.
Garden. The proper arrangement
and disposition of gardens is closely
allied to architecture, and therefore a few
words must be said with regard to it
here.
One of two contrary methods
may be followed in this art. In the one
method rigid symmetry and dignified
regularity are aimed at. All inequalities
of surface are either rigorously levelled
or advantage is taken of them to form
terraces, while avenues, labyrinths, and
flower beds are formed of combinations
of straight lines and portions of circles.
Moreover trees are cut into artificial
shapes, such as cones, pyramids, or even
grotesque animal forms. This kind of
garden was popular in the 17th and 18th
centuries and many of its charac­
teristics may be observed at Hampton
Court Palace. In the other method of
garden architecture an attempt is made
to conceal design by giving a studied air
of naturalness to the whole, so that it
may resemble a landscape as much as
possible.
Gargoyle. (Arch ) A term applied to
the spouts placed at the base of roofs
in Gothic buildings for the purpose of
carrying the rain water far from the
walls. Gargoyles came into use about
the end of the 12th century. They
then consisted of two layers, one of
which formed the gutter or trench, the
other the lid. Even at this early period
they were decorated with ornaments
and grotesque sculptures. They most
frequently represented animals or fan­
tastic creatures, from the throat of which
the rain water was discharged. Some­
times they assumed the form of stooping
figures projecting beyond the roof and
holding a horn, from which the water
flowed out. In the 15th and 16th cen­
turies gargoyles were made of beaten
lead, and represented chimasras, sirens,
and other mythical animals, not only on
the façades of castles but even on gables
overlooking the street. Gargoyles are
primarily a necessity, but they serve a
distinct purpose from an artistic point
of view, for by their horizontal projec­
tion they add distinction to the great
vertical line of buildings.
Garland. (Arch.) A kind of architec­
tural ornament representing foliage,
flowers, and fruits
together with rib­ M^^te^^^S^ffll
generally appear
*·
in the form of a long cylindrical band,
17?

GAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
which is flexible and swells slightly in
the middle. They are sculptured on
certain projecting surfaces, placed round
the shafts of columns and employed in
decorating panels, pediments, &c.
Garnet. A gem generally of a red
colour, useful for decorative purposes,
but little esteemed on account of the
abundance in which it is found. It is of
little service to the gem engraver, as it
easily splinters.
Garret. (Arch.) The top story of a
house, generally formed within the roof.
It is thus of necessity low­pitched and
has a sloping ceiling.
—
Window. (Arch.) A window which
admits daylight
into a garret. It
fits into the roof
and moves up
and down, being
fixed on one side like a hinge.
Garter. (Cost.) A strap or tie, the
purpose of which is to hold up the stock­
ing. In Saxon and Norman times it was
fastened transversely across the leg and
was then called a " cross­garter."
That
this fashion was revived in Shakspere's
time we gather from Twelfth Night, in
which play it will be remembered
Malvolio wears " cross­garters."
Gene­
rally speaking, however, the garter was a
simple tie just below the knee, some­
times with a bow, sometimes without.
The celebrated " Order of the Garter "
was established by Edward III. in 1350.
Its badge is a garter and its motto
" Honi soit qui mal y pense."
Gateway. (Arch.) A covered opening,
large enough to admit carriages.
A
smaller opening through which foot
passengers may pass is generally found
by the side of it. In the Middle Ages
gateways were important structures, and
a house, called a gatehouse, is frequently
found above them. There the porter or
gate­keeper dwelt. In the 17th and 18th
centuries they were very lofty, their
height being often equal to two stories.
In this case the upper part which
GEL
formed the impost, was decorated with a
pediment, richly ornamented. Gateways
and gatehouses are still to be seen in
large numbers on the Continent, but
they are rarely found in England. St.
John's Gate in Clerkenwell, for so many
years the meeting place of the Urban
Club, is the best and most easily accessi­
ble example.
Gauntlets.
Gauntlets of leather,
sometimes covered with metal plates,
sometimes studded with nails called
gadlyngs (q.v.) , became a part of the
ornament of the knight towards the
end of the 13th century, and were worn
in some form or other, until armour
was finally relinquished in the 17th
century.
Gelatine. A colourless substance ex­
tracted from bones and membranous
tissues, insoluble in water but liquefying
under the action of heat. Gelatine plays
a most important part in the modern pro­
cesses, by means of which a photograph
is transformed to a plate or cliche, from
which engravings may be printed. Gela­
tine is also used by sculptors to obtain
a large number of proofs from the same
model or to obtain the imprint of a
bust, bas­relief, or other object. Gelatine
mouldings possess the advantage of
being easily detachable, on account of
the elasticity of the material.
Gelatino­bromide. (Phot.) A process
by means of which sensitive glass plates
may be prepared in advance and kept
in the dark for an indefinite period,
177

GEM
both before and after being exposed in
the camera.
Plates prepared by the
gelatino­bromide process are more sen­
sitive than collodion plates ; they are
more rapidly affected by the light, and,
more than this, they do not require, as
collodion plates do, to be developed im­
mediately in order to bring to light the
image obtained.
Gem. A generic term for all kinds of
precious stones. It is especially used in
the sense of an engraved gem.
Gem Engraving [Glyptics.]
Genealogical Tree. (Her ) This is a
conventional tree
carrying at the in­
tersection of its
branches shields on
which are blazoned
the arms of the
various members of
a family, starting
from the trunk and
working
upwards
with the branches.
Geneviθve, St. St. Geneviève was a
peasant girl who was born at Nanterre
in 421, and from her early childhood
dedicated herself to Christ. Many fabu­
lous stories are related of her.
Her
vigils were frequently disturbed by de­
mons, who extinguished the tapers which
she piously kept burning, and which
were immediately relit at her prayer.
When Attila, the Hun, lay siege to Paris,
Geneviève entreated the people not to
flee and so saved the city. Henceforth
she was held in great honour, and when
she died at an advanced age she was
buried by the side of Clovis and Clotilde.
She is most frequently represented as
the peasant girl of Nanterre, with her
flock of sheep round her, but sometimes
she appears as the patroness of Paris,
wearing a veil and holding a book and a
taper, while a demon with the bellows
looks impishly over her shoulder.
Re­
presentations of her are only found in
French art.
Genius. A kind of guardian angel or
TIONARY.
GEN
good spirit called a genius was supposed
by the Romans to be called into being
at the birth of every mortal. In artistic
representations the ge­
nius appears as a winged
boy wearing a chlamys.
Not only mortals but
places too had their
guardian angel. This
was called a genius loci,
and was represented by a serpent, as
in our cut.
Genouillθres. Knee­pieces of leather
or metal, first worn in the 13th cen­
tury. They formed a sort of connection
between the thigh­piece and the greave.
Genre­painting. Under this term may
be classed all those pictures, the subjects
of which are taken from real life, do­
mestic history, or the field of fanciful
anecdote, in opposition to grand histori­
cal and religious scenes. Genre always
implies a faithful imitation of nature
and the reproductions of actual types.
At the same time it does not exclude
either poetry or imagination.
Genre­
painting has been practised from the
very earliest times. The finest genre
pictures in existence are those painted
by the artists of Holland and the Nether­
lands. This branch of painting, however,
has been cultivated by artists of every
school, and British painters have shown
a distinct preference for it ever since
the time of Hogarth.
Genre­sculpture. Genre­sculpture is
far more rare than genre­painting.
Bronze and marble do not easily lend
themselves to the treatment of familiar
subjects. There are, it is true, some
specimens in existence of Greek sculp­
ture which may be said to belong to the
branch of art called genre. Such are the
group of boys playing the knuckle­bones
called the A stragalizontes [AstragolusJ,
and the figure of a boy holding a goose,
which we so often see in museums. But
for the most part works of genre­sculp­
ture are of small dimensions and in a
less durable material than marble or
ART DIC
178

GEO
ART
DICTIONARY.
bronze, such as terra­cotta. The genre­
sculpture of modern times is for the
most part vulgar and devoid of interest.
Geometrical Drawing. The science
of drawing geometrical figures with the
help of certain instruments, such as
compasses, squares, and protractors. A
course of geometrical drawing is a
preliminary step in the education of the
artist.
—
Tracery. (Arch.) A term applied
by Rickman to tracery belonging to the
decorated period, in which the figures
composing it—circles, trefoils, quatre­
foils, &c. —do not regularly join each
other but touch only at points. It is
opposed to flowing tracery (q.v.).
George, St. The story of St. George,
the patron saint of England, is purely
mythical. He is generally represented
on horseback bending over a dragon,
whom he has pierced with a sword.
Sometimes a maiden appears at his side
in accordance with the legend that he
rescued the daughter of the king of Egypt
from a dragon. It is thus the subject of
St. George is treated in a well­known
picture by Raphael. The banner of St.
George, a red cross on a silver ground,
is the banner of England.
Gesture. A term applied to the atti­
tude of a painted or sculptured figure,
to the pose of the body, or the set of the
GIL
limbs. When we say that the gesture
of a figure is bad, we mean that the
figure is clumsily drawn, that the limbs
are not properly proportioned, that the
prevailing lines are unpleasing to the
eye, or that the attitude does not
sufficiently suggest the action, which
the artist proposed to himself to repre­
sent.
Giallolino. (Paint.) A name given by
the Italians to what is generally known
as Naples yellow (q.v.) . It is an opaque
pigment of good body, and is composed
of antimony and oxide of lead.
Giants, The. In Greek mythology the
giants were a race of monsters who
sprang from the blood of Uranus.
They made war upon the gods for a
long time with success.
Athene and
Zeus were unable to destroy them until
they called in the aid of Heracles.
[Gigantomachia ]
Gigantomachia. The war of the gods
with the giants was a favourite subject
with Greek sculptors.
It was repre­
sented on many famous reliefs.
It
formed the subject of the metopes on
the eastern façade of the Parthenon, as
well as of the great frieze which deco­
rated the altar dedicated to Zeus at Per­
gamum.
Gilding. The art of applying gold
either in leaf or dust to surfaces of
metal, stone, or wood. The gold thus
applied is itself termed gilding. The art
is one of great antiquity, but it is only in
modern times that the method of apply­
ing a thin coating of gold has been dis­
covered.
— , Electro. In this process the objects
which are to be gilded are plunged into
spcially prepared baths of chloride of
gold and submitted to the action of an
electric current. A fine film of gold is
thus deposited upon the objects.
—, Glass. A process which consists
in applying to glass a layer of chloride
of platinum mixed with essence of
terebinth and plunging the object in a
gold bath after it has been fired.
179

GIL
Gilding, Matt. A process in which
gilt objects are dulled by means of mer­
cury, or have a similar aspect given to
them by means of acids or are covered
with a coating of silver and copper
before being plunged in the gold bath.
— , Japanner's. In this process the
pattern to be gilded is drawn upon a
flat surface and covered with glue or
some adhesive varnish. Powdered gold
dust is then sprinkled upon it.
— , Leaf. A process which consists in
covering the surface to be gilded with
glue or size, and then laying on thin
gold leaf.
— , Oil. In this process the objects to
be gilded are covered with a preparation
of thick oil before the gold colour is laid
on.
Then leaves of gold are applied
and finally a coating of varnish, which
preserves the gold from the action of
the air.
— , Water. In water gilding the gold
is reduced to a fluid state by solution in
mercury and then laid on.
Giles, St. St. Giles the hermit was by
birth an Athenian, but having discovered
in himself early in life the gift of
working miracles he left Greece and
became a hermit. He lived for many
years in a cave near Nξmes, and here
happened the event with which he is
always associated in art. One day the
King of France was out hunting, and the
stag, which he had wounded with an
arrow took refuge in the cave of St.
Giles. The King on tracking the stag
was astonished to find the wounded
animal crouching at the foot of the holy
man, and at once implored his forgive­
ness. St. Giles, then, is always repre­
sented as an aged hermit, with a stag
pierced by an arrow at his side. He is
a popular saint in England and Scot­
land.
Gillotage. Under the term gillotage,
which is derived from the name of its
inventor, Gillot, are included all those
processes which consist in producing
upon zinc by means of acids the relief
180
ART DICTIONARY.
GIR
of a drawing traced upon it in printer's
ink. A plate thus results, from which
proofs may be struck by the ordinary
processes of typography.
Gimp. A trimming of thread or silk
with large meshes. The word is used,
as is dentei, to denote a kind of orna­
ment employed in Gothic architecture.
Gipciere. (Cost.) A bag suspended
at the waist and worn as a purse by men
and women in the Middle Ages.
Its
etymological meaning is a game bag,
but it soon lost this signification, and
generally denotes, as we have said, a
purse or pouch.
Girandole. A chandelier with several
branches, sometimes constructed to re­
semble a bunch of flowers. It is used
to illuminate large halls.
Girder. (Arch.) A piece of timber or
iron placed horizontally either on a
continuous wall or on pillars set at a dis­
tance from one another, and serving as
the base of a roof, floor, &c. Girders, as
they often have to support considerable
weights, should not be left without sup­
port along their whole length.
Girouette. (Arch.) A movable sheet
of metal placed on
the summit of a
roof and fixed to a
vertical shank. It
indicates the direc­
tion of the wind. In
the Middle Ages
square girouettes
were only placed
on the castles of
knights banneret ;
simple knights had only the right to
set up a pointed girouette. There are
still in existence some curious girouettes
decorated with armorial bearings, such
as fleur­de­lis, &c.

GLA
ART
DICTIONARY.
GLA
Glacis of the Cornice. (Arch.) A
term denoting an
inclined surface
above a project­
ing moulding or
cornice.
The
object of it is to
prevent the rain
from staying
upon the projecting portion of a
building.
Gladiators. Among the Romans, men
called gladiators were trained to fight to
the death for the amusement of the pub­
lic assembled in the amphitheatre. These
displays were enormously popular under
the Empire, and it is not surprising that
they suggested subjects to many Roman
artists. We give here two cuts, each of
which represents a vanquished gladiator
appealing for mercy. The one is from
a Pompeian bas­relief, the other from a
vase. The well­known statue called the
"Dying Gladiator" has long since been
proved to be not a gladiator at all, but
the statue of a dying Gaul. It is the
work of a Pergamene artist, and belonged
to a group presented by King Attalus to
Athens and afterwards removed to Rome.
Gladius. The weapon of the ancients,
which corresponded to our sword, and
assumed various forms and shapes. It
had no guard, and the hand was only
protected by a cross bar. The sword of
the Greeks was leaf­shaped, that of the
Romans straight and only tapering at
the point. A specimen of each is here
represented.
Glaive. A broad­bladed sword fixed
on a long staff like a guisarine (q.v.) or
partisan (q.v .J . It was used through­
out the Middle Ages, and until the end
181

GLA
ART
DICTIONARY.
GLA
of the 15th century was the national
weapon of the Welsh.
Glass. A solid and transparent body
obtained by the fusion of siliceous sand
with certain alkaline earths or salts and
metallic oxides. Small vases and drink­
ing vessels were made out of this material
in the earliest times. The manufacture of
glass was understood by the Egyptians
nearly two thousand years before Christ.
It was practised by the Greeks and Ro­
mans, and many specimens of ancient
glass have been dug up in tombs. To
what a point of excellence glass­making
was carried by the ancients, the Portland
vase (q.v.), now in the British Museum,
will testify. In the Middle Ages the art
of glass­making seems to have been
neglected, and cups were then made of
horn or wood instead of glass. About
the 15th century, however, the art was
revived by the Venetians, who were long
without rivals in the making of glass.
Cups, bowls, and bottles of Venetian
manufacture are to­day of the greatest
value. The finest modern glass comes
from Venice or Germany.
—
Case. A small glass cupboard in
which works of art
are placed, either in
private
collections
or in exhibitions and
museums.
Glass
cases are sometimes
vertical and rise to a
considerable height,
shelves being placed
one above the other
so as to render it possible to exhibit a large
number of objects in one case. Some­
times they are horizontal, in the form of
a table covered with glass, and about
breast high.
—, Cut. A term applied to objects
made of glass, the facets of which are
cut on a grindstone.
— , Filigree. Glass vessels decorated
with fillets variously coloured and inter­
laced.
—
Painting. There are two prin­
182
cipal systems of glass­painting. The
more ancient is termed mosaic glass­
painting, in which every colour was on
a separate piece of glass, and the picto­
rial effect was produced by combining
variously coloured pieces. This method
disappeared from use about the 16th
century. The later system, which took
the place of mosaic glass­painting in the
16th century, may be termed the enamel
method. Colours are laid on to the glass
with a brush and fixed by the processes
ordinarily employed in enamel­painting.
This system of glass­painting has sur­
vived until modern times.
Glass Window.
Churches
Gothic style have in every
period been decorated with
windows, consisting of painted
glass, held together by strips
of lead and kept in their place
by bars of iron fixed to the
mullions of the windows. The
glass windows of the 12th cen­
tury had a ground of colourless
glass for the picture they represented,
and a border of coloured glass. In the
13th century glass windows were of a
brightness, which was positively dazzling.
In the 14th century the drawing was more
correct, and an attempt was made to
introduce picturesque effects, light and
shade, &c, into stained glass. In the
15th and 16th centuries, the tendency to
regard glass windows as pictures be­
came still more marked. Much of the
coloured glass which decorates the
churches and palaces of the 17th century
is of great splendour. Among the finest
specimens of the glass of this period are
the windows of Gouda in Holland and
Liège in Belgium, and in King's College
Chapel, Cambridge. In the 18th century
little fine­coloured glass was manufac­
tured, and the present century has been
able to do little more than make an in­
genious pastiche on the productions of
all preceding centuries.
Glaze. (Pot ) A vitreous coating, with
which pieces of pottery are covered, and

GLA
ART
DICTIONARY.
GOD
which renders them impermeable. In
addition to serving this useful end, the
glaze gives a brilliance to the pottery,
on which it is placed. The glaze may
be applied in several ways, either as
powder or in a volatile state; in any
case it is vitrified in the baking.
Glazing, (i.) (Arch.) The covering of
any surface, vertical
or horizontal, oblique
or curved, with panes
of glass. The pieces
of glass used for glaz­
ing in old houses were
dark green in colour,
and presented a wrin­
kled projecting disk
in their centre The panes of glass used
to­day are colourless.
Glazing. (2 ) In oil­painting glazing
consists in the application of a thin layer
of colour over a solid pigment. The thin
layer of colour is always darker than the
pigment over which it is laid. The tints
used in glazing are generally transparent,
but opaque pigments mixed with a large
proportion of colourless oil are sometimes
employed. By this means an effect of
transparency is produced, the tonality of
a picture is softened, and the modelling
is rendered more harmonious.
Globe. A sphere, a spherical body.
In heraldry the term is ap­
plied to a figure which repre­
sents the world in the form
of a ball. A golden globe
surmounted by a cross is re­
garded as part of the insignia
of royalty.
Glory. An allegorical figure, a woman
draped and winged, holding in her hand
a trumpet, a branch of laurel, or the tab­
lets of immortality. The rays of light
placed round the heads of saints. [Aure­
ole.] The term is also applied to rays of
gilded wood surrounding a triangle or
delta, in which the word God is inscribed
in Hebrew characters, and which deco­
rates the altar in some churches belong­
ing to the 17th and 18th centuries.
Glyph. (Arch.) Channels or flutings
which break level sur­
faces.
Such are the
channels which orna­
ment the frieze in Doric
temples. When there
are three glyphs or two
glyphs and two half­
glyphs this ornament is
termed a triglyph (q.v ), when there are
two glyphs a diglyph (q.v.) .
Glyptics. The art of cutting designs
upon precious stones, either incised or
in relief. The masterpieces of this art
were produced by the Greeks, and fine
specimens of gem­engraving are among
the most valuable relics of ancient art
that have come down to us. The art
was revived by the Italians of the 16th
century, but it can scarcely be said to be
practised with any measure of success
at the present time.
Glyptotheea. The gallery in which a
collection of works of sculpture is placed ;
also the collection itself. The most
celebrated collection which in modern
times goes by this name is the Glypto­
thek at Munich.
Gobelins. The great national factory
of tapestries established in Paris in the
reign of Louis XIV., and the tapestries
manufactured there.
Formerly both
high­warp and low­warp tapestries were
made at the Gobelins, but since 1825
the low­warp process has been almost
entirely abandoned. The reproductions
in tapestry which we owe to the Gobe­
lins have won for themselves a world­
wide celebrity. The productions of this
famous factory are distinguished by the
perfection of the process employed, the
beauty and finish of the work, and the
excellence of colouring. Every shade
and tone necessary for the interpretation
of picture or painted designs can be ac­
curately rendered in hanging or carpet.
Gobony. (Her.) [Compony.]
Godroon. A system of ornament in
form of oval mouldings or flutings in
relief, which is employed to decorate
183

GOF
ART
DICTIONARY.
GOT
the round body of a vase or any convex
surface. The name is also applied to
certain projecting ornaments which are
generally found in the decoration of
roofs.
Goffering. The impressing by means
of hot irons systems of ornament either
sunk or in relief upon stuff, leather,
paper, cardboard, &c.
Gold. A precious metal used in the
plastic and decorative arts. The costliest
ornaments and vessels have been made
of gold in all ages and in all nations ;
and gold has been especially used as
the material for ecclesiastical chalices
and decorations.
In symbolic art gold
signifies purity, dignity, and glory, and
in Christian paintings the nimbi on the
heads of saints are always represented
as of gold.
Gombron Ware. (Pot.) The first Ori­
ental ware brought to England in the
17th century was shipped at Gombron,
and hence was called Gombron or
Gombroon ware.
When the impor­
tation of pottery from Persia came to
an end on the opening up of communi­
cation between China and England, the
term Gombron ware disappeared from
use.
Gonfannon. A special kind of banner
or flag borne at the
head of a lance and
ending in one or more
points. Such banners
are now
frequently
carried in processions
of the Roman Catholic
church.
Goniometer. An instrument employed
to measure angles.
184
Gore. (Her.) This is an abatement or
difference sometimes borne on shields.
It consists of two curved pieces cut out
of the sinister side of the field so as to
form a cusp pointing towards the dexter.
Gorge. (Arch.) The upper part of a
column below the
echinus in the Do'
rie order.
The
term is also ap­
plied to a moulding
of concave outline
aswellastoakind
of ogee (q.v.) of
strongly­marked profile, which is em­
ployed in buildings of the Gothic style.
Gorget. A piece of armour used in
the 15th and 16th centuries to protect
the junction of the helmet and cuirass.
Gorgoneion. An ornament represent­
ing the head of a woman seen in full
face, with serpents coiled round it and
lips parted, which resembled the head of
Medusa which Pallas carried on her
shield. On account of its adaptability
for filling up a certain space on a wall or
shield it was very widely used for deco­
rative purposes.
Gothic. A term applied to mediaeval
paintings and sculptures, distinguished
by lank figures, the attitudes and move­
ments of which display a certain stiff­
ness. This deficiency, however, is fully
atoned for by an extraordinary skill in
execution and perfection of detail.
Works of sculpture belonging to the
Gothic period, being executed with the
place they were to occupy in view,
always fit into a moulding or niche,
without exceeding their proper limit.

GOT
ART DICTIONARY.
GOT
Under the term Gothic are included all
buildings of the pointed style which suc­
ceeded the Romanesque.
The most
beautiful and refined buildings of this
style belong to the 13th century. The
development and periods of the Gothic
style may be stated in a few words.
From the 4th to the nth century the
Latin style of architecture prevailed.
This was succeeded in the nth cen­
tury by what we call the Norman, but
which on the continent is termed the
Romanesque style. Out of this grew
Gothic architecture.
In the 13th cen­
tury the Early English or Lancet style
was cultivated ; of this the best ex­
ample is Salisbury Cathedral. This
was followed in the 14th century by
13
the Decorated style, which gave way in
the 15th and 16th centuries to the Per­
pendicular style, or Gothic of the De­
cadence.
These are the three main
periods of Gothic architecture.
The
names we have given them are those
generally adopted in England, but they
are by no means universal. The three
styles are sometimes termed Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, and the style which
we have called Perpendicular is fre­
quently known as Flamboyant. Gothic
mouldings and ornament vary according
to the style to which they belong, and
information on these points are to be
found under the headings Decorated,
Early English, &c. We give some cuts
of Gothic bases, belonging to the 10th,
12th, 13th, and 14th centuries respec­
tively.
The term Gothic is also applied to
characters of angular form, which were
in general use in the Middle Ages, and
are still retained in Germany. Mediae­
val manuscripts are executed in Gothic
characters of extraordinary beauty, and
their splendour is enhanced by initial
letters sometimes painted and sometimes
even worked in gold. Manuscripts are
generally executed in characters of a
graceful outline and absolute regularity.
•
8S

GOU
ART DIC
In legal documents and accounts, on
the other hand, a kind of cursive was
adopted which could be rapidly written.
Gothic characters differed in different
periods, those of the 16th century re­
sembling but little those of the 13th cen­
tury.
Gouache. (Paint.) A method of water­
colour painting, in which opaque colours,
diluted in a mixture of water, gum, and
honey are used. The effect of gouache
is an opacity of tone. In this method of
painting the white of the paper plays no
part. The paper is covered just as
thickly as the canvas is in oil­painting ;
the lights are laid on afterwards and
not left blank on the paper. The minia­
tures in mediaeval missals were painted
in gouache, and nowadays the method
is employed in the execution of fans and
hand­screens.
The disadvantage of
gouache is that it cracks and scales and
speedily loses its brilliance when ex­
posed to the air.
Gouge. A tool used by engravers of
precious stones to pierce holes and to
hollow out large surfaces. The term is
also applied to a kind of chisel hollowed
out in the form of a demi­cylinder, with a
very sharp bevelled edge. It is used by
NONARY.
GRA
three in number, were regarded by the
Greeks as the goddesses of beauty,
innocent jollity, and amusement. They
have been a favourite subject with the
painters and sculptors of all ages. They
are generally represented as youthful
maidens, dancing and singing, and
crowned with roses.
Sometimes they
are draped, sometimes they are quite
nude. Their attributes are the rose, the
myrtle, and dice.
Gradation. In decorative art grada­
tion consists in placing next to one
system of ornament another which most
closely resembles it both in form and
colour, following a certain ascending or
descending scale.
Gradine. (Sculp.) A toothed chisel
used by sculptors.
With the
gradine large pieces are removed
from the marble, or certain
parts, such as the beard and
hair, are modelled, the teeth
producing a series of ridges,
which serve as the basis of the
work.
Graduate. To divide in degree.
To split up into divisions, the measure
of which increase or decrease according
to a fixed proportion.
Graeco­Pelasgic. The earliest period
of Greek art is generally termed Graeco­
Pelasgic. It carries us back to an almost
mythical age. To it belong the colossal
structures known as Pelasgic walls,
which are composed of huge polygonal
blocks of stone fitted together with the
utmost regularity. An example of the
Graeco­Pelasgic style is to be found in
the walls of Mycenae ; in fact the famous
Lion Gate at Mycenae is its most
finished production.
The sculptured
bas­relief over this gate represents two
lions facing each other with a column
between them. The heads were of brass,
but are now lost. Much that Dr.
Schleimann excavated at Mycenae may
be termed Graeco­Pelasgic, and gives us
an excellent idea of the condition of art
at this remote period.
186
sculptors in wood. Gouges differ very
much in size and shape.
Grace Cup. (Pot.) A loving­cup handed
round the table in the Middle Ages after
grace was said. The name is said to
have originated in a device adopted by
Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore, in
the nth century, to prevent the Scot­
tish nobles leaving the table before
grace was said. To every man who
remained at the table a draught of wine
from a gold cup was given, and this cup
was henceforth called the Grace­cup.
Graces, The. The Graces, which were

GRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
GRA
Graeco­Roman. A term applied to
buildings constructed by the Romans in
accordance with the principles of the
Greek orders of architecture, with certain
modifications of detail.
Graffiti. Drawings executed by hand
and cut with a scraper in stone or plaster.
The term is only used in this sense in
archaeology. It also denotes a method
of decoration which consists of black
drawings on a white ground, or vice
versa, obtained by outlines accentuated
by hatchings. By this method pictures
or arabesques are executed in stucco,
and employed to decorate pilasters,
archivolts, or friezes.
Grain. (Paint ) A term applied to the
more or less wrinkled surface of a can­
vas, a panel, or a piece of board or paper.
Paper of fine or coarse grain is used in
water­colour according to the subject.
In engraving the grain is the effect pro­
duced by lines which cross one another.
Granite. A hard stone composed of
mica, quartz, and felspar. The Egyp­
tians executed colossal statues in red
granite. In Brittany calvaries are fre­
quently to be seen of grey granite.
Granite is used for sculptured monu­
ments and even for statues. For the
latter purpose it is totally unfitted.
Granitel. A term applied to a kind of
grey granite which the Romans em­
ployed in building, and also to marble
which presents the appearance of
granite
Granular. A canvas or panel used in
oil­painting is said to be granular when
it is covered with wrinkles or rough­
nesses.
Granulation. A kind of decoration
employed in jewellery, which consists in
covering the surface of gold leaf with
minute and almost invisible bosses of
gold. It is found in Etrusco­Greek
jewels, but hitherto modern artists have
failed to reproduce it.
Graphite. A very fine plumbago.
From the graphite of Siberia mixed with
sulphur of antimony and gum or size are
manufactured crayons in the form of
small cylinders, which are placed in a
shank of cedar, juniper, or cypress wood.
Graphometer. A mathematical instru­
ment used to mea­
sure angles or dis­
tances. It consists
of a semi­circle of
copper divided into
degrees and a fixed
and a movable ali­
dade, through which the operator can
observe all directions included within
the same horizontal plane.
Grating. A kind of fence formed of
bars of iron or
wood, some­
!/
iJ
l·^
times richly or­
j/ /r^ÉjQ
ϊ
φ
namented. In
7? ft/v~i<xJB Iri\
the 12th cen­
tury iron grat­
ings were most
elaborate. The
ornament con­
sisted chiefly of
foliage, the twigs of which were soldered
to the base and fastened to the uprights
with clasps. In
the 14th century
ornaments
cut
out of sheet iron
and twisted were
added to the fo­
liage.
At the
end of the 15th
century riveted
sheet iron was generally used and
gratings became of considerable im­
portance from a decorative point of
view, and were surmounted with orna­
ments of great splendour.
Graver. (Engrav ) A steel instrument
with a sharp point at one end. Some
gravers have a square, others a lozenge­
shaped, point. The furrows cut with the
187

GRE
ART DIC
square­pointed graver are broad and not
very deep, and they print grey, because
they do not take much of the ink. The
handle of the graver is cut off flat on one
side so that it can be held close tς the
copper­plate.
Greaves. Greaves, or armour for the
front of the legs, were worn both by the
ancients and in the Middle Ages. They
were generally made of metal, often
richly chased, or (in the Middle Ages
at least) of cuir­bouilli (q.v.) . Our
cut represents a fine specimen from
Pompeii.
Greek. A name given to a system of
ornament consisting of broken lines at
right angles to one another, describing
portions of squares or rectangles.
Greek Architecture. Of Greek archi­
tecture before the development of the
188
70NARY.
GRE
orders little is known. The three purely
Greek orders are the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian. The first named appeared
in the 7th century B.C., the second a
hundred years later, and the last in the
fifth century B.C . [Corinthian ; Doric ;
Ionic]
Green. Green is a colour formed by a
mixture of yellow and blue. Green pig­
ments are, generally speaking, oxides of
copper.
Malachite or mountain green
is a hydrated bicarbonate of copper.
Scheele's green is a cupric arsenite.
Sap green, or verde vessie, on the con­
trary, is obtained from the juice of buck­
thorn berries; but this is not a useful
pigment, being fugitive, and it is only
employed in water­colour.
—
Bice. A pigment composed of a
carbonate of copper mixed with oxide of
iron. It is generally permanent, being
only destroyed by acids.
— , Brunswick. (Paint.) A pigment
used in oil­painting, obtained from sul­
phate of copper, white oxide of arsenic,
potash, and acetous acid. Ordinary
Brunswick green is nothing more than a
mixture of chromate of lead and Prus­
sian blue, and is by no means perma­
nent.
—, Chrome. [Chrome Green.]
Grees. Steps rising gradually one
above the other. The term is generally
applied to stories, galleries, or construc­
tions of any kind which retreat one
behind the other.
Gregory, St. St. Gregory was born at
Rome in 540 ; in 590 he was made Pope,
and fourteen years later he died. He
is the last of the Popes who was canon­

GRE
ART DIG
ised. Artistic representations of him
are frequently met with. He appears
as a tall, dignified man, with little or no
beard ; he wears the tiara and carries
a crosier, and his attribute is the dove,
in allusion to the legend that the Holy
Ghost in the form of a dove inspired
him while he was writing his homilies.
Many legends have gathered round the
name of St. Gregory and have suggested
subjects to religious painters, but space
does not allow us to refer to them in
detail here.
Grθs Cérame. [Stoneware.]
Grey. A term applied to the shades
obtained by the mixture of white with
black or some other dark colour. Thus,
when we speak of a grey brown, a grey
blue, or a grey green we refer to greys
of a different tone, their dominant tint
being brown, blue, or green respectively.
Grey-beard. (Pot.) A term applied to
the brown stone pots, with a bearded
head or mask on the neck, which were
imported in large numbers from the Low
Countries to England during the 16th
and 17th centuries.
Griffe. (Arch.) A decorative leaf slightly
curled at the edges, which connects the
convex circular moulding at the base
of Romanesque columns and the clus­
tered columns of the Gothic style to the j
GRO
square pedestal beneath it Sometimes
the griffe starts from the torus (q.v ) and
fills the small triangle formed by the
angle of the plinth. This is the posi­
tion most frequently occupied by it.
In buildings belonging to the 13th cen­
tury we find griffes cut out of the solid
plinth and presenting no point of contact
with the torus.
Griffin. (Arch, and Her.) An imaginary
animal with the head and wings of an
eagle, and the body and feet of a lion.
In the heraldic griffin the front feet as
well as the head and wings are often
those of an eagle, only the back half
of the creature being in the form of a
lion.
Grillage. A grating of iron or wood,
with which openings may be closed with­
out shutting out the light.
Grisaille. (Paint.) A painting in imita­
tion of bas­reliefs, in which only black
and white and the greys obtained by
mixing them are employed.
Groin. (Arch.) A curved line formed
by the meeting of the surfaces of
two intersecting vaults or portions of
vaults.
Groined Vault. (Arch.) A vault formed
by the intersection of two demi­cylinders.
Two barrel vaults (q.v.) laced perpen­
dicularly to one another will form a
groined vault.
Grolier Scroll. A system of ornament
TIONARY.
189

GR?
ART
DICTIONARY.
GUB
consisting of curves and angles com­
bined. It obtained its name from the
Chevalier Grolier, who in the 15th cen­
tury adopted this scroll for the decoration
of the bindings of books.
Groove. (Arch.) A hollow cut length­
ways in a plank or block of stone and
intended to receive a projection of pre­
cisely the same dimensions.
Grotesques. Systems of ornament
painted, drawn, or sculptured, repre­
senting fantastic subjects or forming
arabesques, in which extravagant figures
and fanciful animals are interlaced.
Mediaeval sculptors executed grotesques
with extraordinary skill. The taste for
this method of decoration continued
during the period of the Renaissance.
There are in existence grotesque figures
designed by Leonardo da Vinci and
Raphael. In the 17th century Teniers
and Callot painted fantastic scenes in
which grotesque figures play an impor­
tant part.
Grotto. An artificial cavern made of
rocks and often adorned with statues.
Grottoes were much employed during
the 18th century in the decoration of
gardens.
Ground. In the language of art the
word ground has several significations.
Laying a ground in engraving is an
operation the object of which is to
cover with a uniform grain a plate of
metal, which is to be engraved in mezzo­
tint. To perform this operation a rocker
(q.v .) is employed, an instrument said
to have been invented by Abraham
Blooteling (1634­1695). The rocker is
run up and down over the plate, first in
one direction and then in the other.
A proof of the plate is then struck off,
that a judgment may be arrived at as to
the grain.
This, if the plate is to be a
success, should yield a velvety black,
uniform in tone in every part of the
plate. For the meaning of the term in
etching see Etching­ground. In paint­
ing, the ground is the first layer of
colour which is applied to the canvas
before the artist begins to paint his
picture.
Ground Floor. (Arch.) That part of
a house which is on a level with the
ground or is raised above it only by a
few steps.
Group. A collection of several figures
or objects forming one whole.
The
groups in a picture should present well­
balanced masses. In sculpture a group
is a collection of several figures, each of
which is necessary to the action of the
whole. The outline and arrangement of
such a group should present an har­
monious effect.
Grouping. A term applied to the
fashion in which figures are arranged
in a painting, drawing, or piece of sculp­
ture
Guard. The part of a sword, poniard,
or sabre the object of which is to cover
and protect the hand. It is richly
decorated with niello, damascene, sculp­
ture, or chasing in the more splendid
weapons of every age. The guards of
Japanese sabres are above all marvellous
examples of decorative invention. They
consist generally of iron or steel inlaid
with precious metals.
Gubbio Ware. (Pot) A factory of
majolica was established at Gubbio in
1498 by Giorgio Andreoli, of Pavia. The
pieces of this ware now extant are dis­
tinguished by vigorous modelling and
admirable colour. They are not com­
monly met with, and are of great value.
IQO

GUE
ART
DICTIONARY.
GUT
Giorgio carried on his work
for upwards of thirty years,
and pieces dated 1531 bear
his name.
Gueridon. A French
term applied to a decora­
tive stand, designed in
imitation of an ancient
candelabrum, used either
to hold flowers or as a
stand for a lamp.
Guilloche, Guillochis.
A system of ornament
formed
of
symmetrical
lines, undulating and crossed, yet parallel
to one another, as shown in the cut
given above.
Guisarme. A destructive weapon con­
sisting of a scythe and bill, which was
fixed on a long pole and was employed
by infantry against cavalry. It is of great
antiquity, a weapon closely resembling
it being spoken of in the 6th century,
while from the nth until the 16th cen­
tury it was in constant use.
Gules. (Her.) The heraldic name for
red. It is shown on a shield
by parallel vertical lines, as
in the accompanying cut, in
which the white half of the
shield represents argent or
silver. This shield would
be blazoned party per bend
gules and argent.
Gum Arabic. A gum obtained from
acacias in Africa and Australia. When
dissolved in water it yields a size, which
is a valuable vehicle in water­colour. A
little honey or white sugar­candy is
generally added to it, to prevent its
scaling when dry. A light coating of
gum arabic laid over water­colours pro­
duces the effect of a brilliant varnish,
but has the disadvantage of too often
scaling or cracking when the paint is
dry.
Gurgoyle. (Arch ) A term having the
same meaning as gargoyle and denoting
a spout or gutter, generally carved in a
grotesque form, which carries off rain
water from a roof. [Gargoyle.]
Gusset. (Her.) This name is sometimes
given to a nondescript
charge such as that shown
in the cut. From its mean­
ingless irregularity such a
charge would not be con­
sidered honourable, and
would be assigned as a
mark of abatement to a man who had
in some way disgraced himself.
191

GUT
ART
DICTIONARY.
GYR
Guttae. (Arch) An architectural or­
nament consisting of a
series of small trunca­
ted cones, placed under­
neath the corona of a
cornice or at the base
of the triglyphs in the Doric order.
Gutter. (Arch.) A reservoir at the
base of a roof which
receives
rain­water
and directs it to a
waste pipe. In ancient
buildings we find gut­
ters hollowed out of
blocks of marble or
stone. In some me­
diaeval churches the
gutter projects beyond the façade and is
surmounted by an arcade. From the
end of the 13th century gutters are pro­
vided with projecting gargoyles (q.v.).
and some carry off the
water in conduits made
in flying buttresses. In
ambitious buildings of
the 13th and 14th cen­
turies grooves, which
serve as gutters, are
sometimes cut in solid
blocks of stone. At a
later period gutters
were made of terra­
cotta or of wood covered
with lead or bronze. The surface of the
gutter is often enriched with ornament.
In some modern buildings there are
gutters of some pretensions, formed of
tubes, decorated with flutings,
rosettes, &c.
Gutts, or Gouttes. (Her.) This
is the heraldic name given to drops
of water or other liquid when re­
presented on a shield. The liquid of
which the drop is supposed to be com­
posed is suggested by the tincture of the
gouttes.
Thus gouttes 'de sang are bla­
zoned gules, gouttes de larmes azure.
Guze. (Her ) A small round disc or
roundel (q.v ) of sanguine or blood colour
is called by English heralds a guze.
Gymnasium. A collection of buildings
and porticoes in which the youth of
antiquity indulged in exercises and
games. The training of the physical
powers was a very important element in
Greek education, and the gymnasia of
Greece were very elaborate institutions,
including
colonnades, shady walks,
baths, &c. The influence of the gymna­
sium and the physical types developed
there upon art was considerable. [Ath­
letes.] The gymnasium of modern times
is generally a simple unpretentious build­
ing, in which physical exercises may be
practised. It possesses, it need scarcely
be said, none of the importance, civic or
artistic, which belonged to the gymnasia
of ancient times.
Gypsum. A sulphate of lime, the com­
monest form of which is plaster of Paris.
Owing to its plasticity it is useful in
taking casts of works of sculpture or
other objects. It has been used for this
purpose from the very earliest times
and in this connection is mentioned by
Pliny.
Gyron. (Her.) This subordinary is a de­
vice in the form of a right­
angled triangle cut off from
one corner of the shield—
the dexter chief—by lines
drawn bar­wise and band­
wise intersecting at the f ess­
point. A gyron is, however,
seldom borne alone, but the device is
utilised to form the varied
field called gyronny.
Gyronny. (Her.) This is
the name given to the
varied field found by an
alternation oigyrons.
The
usual number is eight, but
the number should always be specified
192

HAI
ART
DICTIONARY.
HAL
in blazoning. Thus the accompanying
cut would be blazoned Gyronny of eight
argent and gules.
H.
Hair­pencils. (Paint.) Hair­pencils
are generally made of the hairs of the
martin or badger. The hairs are mounted
in a quill if the pencil or brush is to be
used for painting in water­colour, and
inatubeoftinorcopperifitistobe
used in oil­painting.
Halbert, or Halbard. A weapon much
used in England during the
Tudor and early Stuart pe­
riod. It consisted of a long
wooden handle with an axe
and a spike at the end. It
was frequently ornamented
with gilding and perforated
in various shapes. Of the two
cuts given below one repre­
sents a halbert of the time of
Henry VII., the other a hal­
bert of the time of Henri II.
France. The halbert subsequently
became merely a weapon displayed by
royal body­guards.
Several of these
weapons may be seen in the armoury
at the Tower of London. The halbert
was introduced into France in the 15th
century by the Swiss and German mer­
cenaries. As a charge in heraldry it is
always represented in pale.
Half­binding. A description of book­
binding in which only the back and
corners of the book are covered by
leather, the sides being in paper or cloth.
Half­life size. This term is used to
describe figures in painting or sculpture
standing about two feet nine inches high,
or about half the height of a man of
average stature.
Half­primed. (Paint.) A term applied
to a canvas which is only covered with
a thin ground or priming (q.v .) .
Half­timbered. A term applied to the
houses built during
the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, the front
of which consisted
of a wooden frame,
filled in with white
plaster. The beams
were frequently
elaborately and
quaintly
carved,
and the plaster
which filled the frame was sometimes
moulded. Half­timbered houses are to
be found in many towns of England,
and are among the most picturesque
specimens of domestic architecture to
be found in our country. An admirable
example is afforded in London by Staple
Inn.
Half­tone. (Paint.) A tone intermedi­
ate between two sharply­marked tones
of different values.
Hall. (Arch ) A salon of large dimen­
sions, generally lighted by a glass roof,
which serves as a waiting­room or a place
of meeting for public or private bodies.
In palaces and castles the hall is a very
large saloon in which receptions take
place. In this case it is of the height
of several stories and richly decorated.
r
93

HAM
ART
DICTIONARY.
HAN
Hamades. (Her.) A French heraldic
term applied to a design
consisting of three barru­
lets, coufied, that is to say,
three diminutive bars which
are cut off short so as not
to reach to the edge of the
shield.
Hammer. A tool used in several
branches of art for striking or beating.
The hammer used by sculptors in marble
consists of a block of iron almost cubi­
cal in shape, mounted on a very short
handle. The surfaces of this hammer,
which is of considerable weight, soon get
worn into hollows by constantly striking
the chisel. The hollows thus formed are
sometimes filled up with melted lead,
are obtained which accentuate the
modelling of objects in metal. A small
hammer is used by engravers to beat out
the metal at those places where it has
been effaced, so as to keep the surface
perfectly horizontal. The plate is struck
·< with the point and not the head of the
hammer.
Hammer­beaxu. A transverse beam
which projects some distance from the
wall and serves as a support to a rafter.
The hammer­beam itself rests upon a
concave rib springing from the wall.
Hammer­beams are always constructed
in pairs, and their ends are often orna­
mented with grotesque heads and other
curious devices.
Hammer­work. A method of making
ornaments out of metal by striking it
when cold with a hammer. A plaque of
metal is cut into the shape required, and
the relief and modelling are beaten out
with a hammer. The term is applied
especially to silversmith's work, which
is beaten with a hammer, and the sur­
face of which is covered with innumer­
able facets resulting from the operation.
Hanap. A drinking cup of large size
which stands upon a foot.
Some hanaps have richly
chased lids, which are
masterpieces of decora­
tive art. In the Middle
Ages hanaps were made
of precious metals, as­
sumed various forms,
and were richly ornamented.
Hand. In the symbolism of early Chris­
tian art a hand in the attitude of bene­
diction frequently represents the Al­
mighty Father. Our cuts show a hand
in the act of benediction, as it was con­
194
which in its turn is replaced when it is
worn out. Chasers of metal use a
hammer with a large round head. It is
by gently striking the graver and moving
it after each blow that the flat spaces

HAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
HAR
ceived in the mystic symbolism of the
Latin and Greek Churches respectively.
Handle. The projection placed on the
neck or body of a
vase that it may the
more easily be taken
hold of. The handles
of decorative vases
are often of consider­
able size, and, in ad­
dition to their practi­,
cal object, they serve
the purpose of break­
ing the outline and of affording an
opportunity for decoration.
Handrail. (Arch.) A moulding of
wood or iron convex in outline, some­
times with a sharp edge slightly pro­
jecting, which is placed upon stair­rails
or balconies to form a support. Hand­
rails are made of variously­coloured
woods and are varnished and sometimes
inlaid.
Hand­screen. A small
provided with a handle.
Hand­screens generally
consist of a light frame
of wood or iron­thread,
on which is stretched a
piece of satin, decorated
with paintings in
gouache (q.v .). The
Japanese manufacture hand­screens in
large quantities, using for the purpose
bamboo canes, which they split and
stretch out in the shape of a fan and
then cover with drawings admirable in
colour and decorative in effect.
Hanging Committee. In the arrange­
ment of public exhibitions a committee
of artists, which goes by the name of the
" hanging committee," is charged with
the duty of hanging the pictures selected
on the wall space at their disposal. The
hanging committee at the Royal Aca­
demy consists of eight academicians—
six painters, one sculptor, and an archi­
tect. The latest elected academician
is always one of the committee as a
matter of course, and the others are
chosen from the council of the Academy
in turn. The duties of a hanging com­
mittee are extremely delicate, and it is
not surprising that complaints on the
part of disappointed artists are fre­
quently and loudly expressed.
Hangings. Strips of painted paper
or stuff placed side by side and so ar­
ranged as to cover the surface of a
wall. In the Middle Ages and up to the
17th century tapestries and strips of
leather were used as hangings.
Hard. This term, applied to a picture,
denotes stiffness of drawing and harsh­
ness of outline. Hardness is characteris­
tic of the earliest masters as well as of
modern painters who adhere slavishly to
the teaching of academies and draw with­
out feeling.
Harp. A musical instrument, which
was known in the most remote ages of
195

HAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
HAU
antiquity. It is the attribute of David
and St. Cecilia. Our first cut gives a
representation of an Egyptian harp, and
is taken from a painting in a tomb at
Thebes. The heraldic harp
generally follows closely in
design the ordinary musical
instrument of this name,
but sometimes it approxi­
mates to the lyre.
It is
often represented with two
heads at the extremities, one human,
the other of an animal, as in our second
cut. The arms of Ireland, which oc­
cupy the third quarter of the Royal
Arms, are azure, a harp or, stringed
argent.
Harpy. (Her.) A harpy is an imaginary
being having the head
and breasts of a wo­
man, and the wings,
body, legs, and claws
of a vulture or eagle.
A good illustration of
the employment of
harpies in heraldry is
to be seen in the arms
of the city of Nuremberg.
Hart. (Her.) A full­grown stag is by
heralds generally called a hart; the
female, shown without horns, is called a
hind. In Christian art the hart is the at­
tribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St.
Eustace.
Hat. (Her.) A cardinal's hat is a red
broad­brimmed hat with tassels hanging
from it on either side. In heraldry it is
black, and a difference is sometimes
made in the number of tassels.
Hatchet. (Her.) This is a not unfre­
quent charge in early heral­
dry. Hatchets of all shapes
are to be found in different
coats of arms, including both
battle­axes and axes for cut­
ting trees. When the handle
of the axe is shown, the
axe is said to be helved.
Hatchings. Lines either parallel or
crossed, by means of which the model­
ling of objects is indicated in engraving.
These lines according to their size and
closeness enable the engraver to suggest
tones, to render the effect of vibrating
lights, and to distinctly mark the form
and even the texture of each object.
For instance, it is by means of fine and
delicate hatchings that flesh is indicated,
while vigorous hatchings represent the
folds of drapery, &c. Sometimes the
employed as the crest to a shield as
shown in the cut. For archbishops and
bishops the hat is green and for abbots
small spaces between cross­hatchings
are stippled, in order to tone down the
too strongly marked whites and to
give depth to the modelling. In maps
and topographical plans hatchings re­
present the slope of mountains, and
they vary in number and length accord­
ing to the height and declivity of the
mountain. The length of the hatchings
is in inverse ratio to the suddenness of
the declivity, and represents the dis­
tance existing between two consecutive
curves.
Hauberk. A kind of cuirass or coat
of mail in use in the Middle Ages. It
had wide sleeves and reached to a little
196

HAU
ART
DICTIONARY.
HEI
below the knee as shown in our cut. It
0
is said to have been introduced about the
12th century.
Haunch, (i.) An anatomical term de­
noting that part of the os iliacum which
is articulated in the thigh bone, and
generally in popular language the ex­
terior projection of this bone.
Haunch. (2.) (Arch.) The haunch of an
arch is the part which lies between the
vertex of the arch and its springing.
Hauriant. (Her.) This term is used
to describe a fish depicted
upright on a shield, or, in
heraldic language, a fish in
pale with the head in chief.
The word is derived from
the supposition that the
fish assumes this attitude
when rising to the surface to draw in
air.
Hawk. (Her.) In coats of arms the
hawk is
represented
perched on both feet upon
a horizontal beam. It may
be with or without a hood,
but like the falcon it has
as a rule jesses or ties
attached to its feet.
Hawk Bell. (Her.) This is a little
bell of spherical form that
used to be attached to the
legs of hawks. In heraldry
these bells are sometimes
borne as separate charges on a shield,
but more often appear in connection
with the hawk, which is then blazoned a
hawk belled.
Head. The dimension or height of the
human head is employed as a measure in
painting and sculpture. Thus we speak
of a figure measuring seven heads and a
half, by which we mean its height is
equal to seven and a half times the
height of the face and skull together
measured vertically.
Header. A stone or brick so placed in
a wall that its longer side is in the thick­
ness of the wall. [Bonder.]
Heart. In Christian symbolism the
heart occupies an important place. It is
the symbol of the greatest of the three
Christian virtues, Charity ; the symbols
of Faith and Hope being the Cross and
Anchor respectively. It is the attribute
of St. Theresa and other saints. A figure
of a heart surmounted by a flame, and
known as the flaming heart, frequently
occurs in religious decorative art.
When the flaming heart is placed in the
hands of painted or sculptured figures
representing saints, it symbolises the
Love of God. In the sacred art of the
Jesuits the flaming heart is the image of
the heart of Jesus, who is often repre­
sented as parting his garments and
showing in the midst of his breast a
flaming heart. In architectural deco­
ration an ornament frequently occurs
which presents some resemblance to a
human heart. It consists of a com­
bination of four curves or portions of a
circle.
Heavy. This term is applied in paint­
ing to opaque tones, to over­accentuated
outlines, and to figures without elegance ;
in architecture, to proportions and de­
tails which lack grace and lightness.
Heighten. To heighten a colour is to
197

HEL
ART
DICTIONARY.
HEL
increase its intensity; to heighten the
tone of an engraving is to add to the
intensity of the blacks, and so to make
the whites stand out as strongly as pos­
sible.
Heliochrome. (Phot.) A process of co­
loured photography which has as yet been
but imperfectly developed. Its object is
to obtain, after taking the plate from the
camera, a cliché or proof exactly repro­
ducing the image formed on the polished
glass. Unfortunately the colours which
have hitherto been obtained have been
so fugitive that it has only been possible
to look at them under cover of luminous
rays. The heliochrome proofs which
we see to­day are nothing more than
photographs taken by the ordinary me­
thod and coloured by some ingenious
process.
Heliography. The art of obtaining
by means of light ordinary photographic
proofs. The term is especially applied
to a process of preparing steel plates by
photography, so that proofs may be
struck from them just as though the
plates had been engraved or etched in
the ordinary way.
Heliogravure. (Engr.) Heliographic
engraving. Among the most celebrated
processes of heliogravure that of Duj ar­
dui must fie mentioned. By this pro­
cess, with the aid of skilful touches,
facsimiles of drawings or engravings
may be obtained and transferred to
metal plates.
When the plates have
been subjected to aciérage, thousands
of proofs may be struck from them.
Helix. A curve described on the
„
.
surface of a cylinder by a
|ΓΤ
Λ
point revolving round the
11 llil
cylinder in an upward di­
Ιπ
Π
li'Ji
rection. This curve is ap­
|||LJj|fl
plied in the construction
Jjjj jj§8(^ of spiral staircases within
a circular or cylindrical
space. The term also denotes the vo­
lutes of Corinthian capitals.
Hellenistic. The term Hellenistic is
applied to that period of Greek art from
about the j ear 290 B.c . onwards, during
which the Macedonian kings were su­
preme and art nourished no longer in
Greece itself, but under the auspices of
Greek artists in Alexandria and the cities
of Asia Minor.
Helmet. A defensive covering for the
head, of leather or metal. It varied in
successive centuries in form, shape, and
size. Sometimes it was nothing more
than a sort of iron skull­cap [Chapelle­
de­Fer], at other times it had a high ridge
surmounted with plumes The crest or
badge of the wearer was frequently dis­
played above the helmet. In heraldic
devices this very important piece of
armour is of frequent occurrence.
It
may either be employed as an addition
to the shield or as a common charge.
In the latter case it is always represented
as an esquire's helmet, that is, as a
closed helmet, seen in profile.
When
employed as an addition to the shield,
helmets are placed over the coat of
! arms and take different forms and posi­
; tions according to the rank of the
1
wearers. The royal helmet is of bur­
nished gold and stands on the shield
l affronte, showing six bars to protect the
face. The helmet of princes and peers
of every degree is of silver, ornamented
with gold, while that of knights, esquires
and gentlemen is of polished steel. The
198

HEM
ART
DICTIONARY.
HER
helmet of dukes, earls, and marquises
ought to appear
in profile on a
shield and to have
ten protecting
bars.
From the
cuts which
are
given here a gene­
ral idea of the
various forms of the helmet may be
gathered. The helmet of an esquire or
gentleman has already been described.
It appears in profile with the visor down.
Knights and baronets have the same hel­
met with the visor up and without bars
An example of this is given in one of
the accompanying cuts, surmounted by
an imperial crown.
Hémicycle. (Arch.) A term applied to
a hall, chapel, or apse built upon a semi­
circular plan ; to a mural surface of this
form ; or to steps placed one above the
other in concentric circles.
Hemisphere. The half of a sphere.
Cupolas frequently as­
sume the form of a
hemisphere, at
the
summit of which a cir­
cular opening is sometimes to be seen
Hephaestus. In Greek mythology the
son of Hera and Zeus. He was de­
formed at his birth, and according to the
legend was hurled from Olympus by his
mother, for whom in revenge he made
a chair, which held her in its grasp till
he released her. He was the god of
fire and of the arts of the smith and
potter, which depended on fire. He was
besides the artificer of the gods and
fashioned the aegis of Zeus and the
armour of Achilles. In art Hephaestus
is represented as a bearded man, wearing
the chiton and pilos, the costume of an
artisan, and working an anvil. The
principal scenes in which he figures on
painted vases are the fastening of Pro­
metheus to the rock, the making of the
armour of Achilles, and the splitting
open of the head of Zeus at the birth
of Athene.
Heptagon. A polygon of seven sides.
Hera. In Greek mythology Hera is the
queen of the heavens and the consort of
Zeus ; the deity who personified the fer­
tilising properties of the atmosphere.
She was worshipped chiefly in ine spring,
and the peacock and cuckoo were sacred
to her. The earliest images set up in her
honour are said to have been simple
pillars with no resemblance to a human
form, and for many centuries this holy
tradition prevailed. In the gold and
ivory statue of Polycleitus she was seated
on a throne and held in one hand a
pomegranate, the symbol of marriage,
in the other a sceptre surmounted by a
cuckoo. She is generally represented
as veiled, and thus she appears on the
Parthenon frieze.
Heracles. The son of Zeus and
Alcmena.
He was regarded by the
Greeks as the personification of strength
and athleticism, and a statue of him was
set up in Gymnasia as an ideal to
which the athlete might attain. He is
generally represented in art with a club
and a lion­skin, and the incidents of his
life and the arduous labours which he
performed are favourite subjects with
vase painters.
Heraldic Art. The art of blazoning,
i e the art of explaining, describing, and
representing the armorial bearings of a
noble house or province by means of
special terms, conventional figures, and
in conformity with rules generally
adopted. This art took its rise about
the time of William the Conqueror, and
originated in the customs of the knights
of the Middle Ages adopting a distinc­
tive badge or colour when they were
engaged in jousts or warfare. After the
Crusades the knights who had distin­
199

HER
ART
DICTIONARY.
HEX
guished themselves by their prowess
adopted the badge which they had worn
during the war. Thus in the coat of
arms of the Russell family, as it was
before the Crusades (first cut), the chief
has no charge upon it, but after the
Crusades three escallops, the symbols
of pilgrimage, were emblazoned in the
chief. In the 14th and 15th centuries
the art of heraldry was finally developed
and formulated, and after this period it
began to decline.
Heraldic Beasts. [Beasts, Heraldic]
Hermse. A name given to a particular
kind of statue, which
consisted of a head
or
bust
carefully
modelled, set upon
a quadrangular pil­
lar, which as a rule
tapered towards the
base. Sometimes a
single, sometimes a
double head was set
on the pillar. The term is derived from
the fact that in early times the god
Hermes was frequently represented in
200
this guise, but in later times terminal
figures representing bearded gods or
even philosophers were called Hermae.
On account no doubt of the great
antiquity of this form of statue, the
Hermae were held in great honour, and
to desecrate them was regarded as a
serious crime. They were placed at the
corners of streets and served as land­
marks or boundaries. By the Romans
they were employed in the decoration of
gardens or as pillars to break the
monotony of balustrades or walls.
Hermathene. A terminal figure, con­
sisting of a pillar surmounted by the
head of Athene.
Hermes. In Greek mythology was
the son of Zeus and Maia, who, first
honoured as the god of the animal
kingdom, came to be regarded as the
protector of commerce.
He was the
messenger of the gods and watched over
the welfare of human travellers. Hence
it was that the pillars placed at cross
roads were surmounted by his head and
were called Hermae. His attributes are
a caduceus (q.v.) and a petasos (q.v .), or
winged cap, and he is represented as
wearing wings on his heels. In ancient
works of sculpture Hermes is repre­
sented as bearded and carrying a kid
on his shoulders and is then known as
Hermes Criophorus. [Criophorus.] In
works of the best period he appears some­
times as a youth, sometimes as a child.
Herring­bone. (Arch.) In some walls
the bricks
ο
stones
are
at <<r<<<
ranged in what is ^v^v
called a herring­bone pattern, i.e . the
courses are sloped alternately from left to
right and from right
to left.
Hexagon. A poly­
gonhavingsixsides.
Terra­cotta tiles are
frequently hexa­
gonal in form.
Mosaic pavements
are often composed of hexagonal tiles of

ONARY.
HIM
metopes of the Parthenon, some of
which are among the Elgin marbles at
the British Museum.
High­warp. That kind of tapestry in
which the warp is arranged vertically.
Technically speaking high­warp tapestry
is superior to low­warp (q.v.). The
tapestry manufactured at the Gobelins
is high­warp.
Himation. A garment worn by the
HEX
ART DICI
the same size, set simply one against the
other without the intervention of other
tiles of different shape or smaller size.
Hexahedron. A solid figure having
six sides. The cube and playing dice
are examples of the hexahedron.
Hexastyle. (Arch.) A temple is termed
hexastyle when it has six columns in its
façade.
Hieroglyphic. Painted or engraved
letters used among the Egyptians. They
consist of typical representations of
figures, animals, stars, plants, &c, and
form a distinct pictorial language. As
a general term hieroglyphic is used to
denote any kind of writing which bears
a symbolic meaning.
High Altar. (Arch.) The principal
altar in a church which contains more
than one altar is termed the high altar,
in contradistinction to the low or lesser
altars.
High­light. (Paint.) The high­light in
a picture is that spot which appears to
the eye to be of the greatest brilliance.
It is always a reflected light and is con­
sequently only found on such surfaces
as reflect and do not absorb the light.
A high­light, for instance, may be upon
a burnished metal plaque or in the eye,
but it is never seen upon dull, heavy
textures.
Highly­coloured. (Paint.) Over­
coloured ; painted in bright, crude
colours.
High­relief. (Sculp.) A piece of
sculpture executed upon the flat surface
of a block, from which it projects so far
as to resemble a sculpture in the round.
Sometimes indeed a high­relief has only
a few points of contact with the surface
of the block from which it is cut, and
for the rest is entirely detached. The
finest high­reliefs in existence are the
14
Greeks, consisting of a square mantle
20I

HIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
HON
which was thrown over the left shoulder
and fastened by a brooch, leaving the
right arm free. To wear the himation
with grace and ease was a mark of
gentle birth and refinement.
Hinge. Two pieces of metal, or mov­
^_ able wings, about a
SfSE^Q^Sr
common axis, which
t^^^^^^r
allows them to de­
^
Β8
»«8ί
&
*^
scribe
a
rotatory
movement. Our first cut represents a
sample of the commonest pattern.
Sometimes, however, hinges are more
decorative. On cupboards
­
and other pieces of furni­
Sic
ture belonging to the last P^HBJll
century they are found with I f®]|
their shank terminated by c
^JH
a small vase or button or
0 rBS|
even byamoreelaborate IcΊΗΒ
Ι
ornament. Our second cut
^^JsP*
1
gives an example of this.
Hip­knob. An end ornament or finial
placed on the point of a gable or on the
top of a hip.
Hippocentaur. A monster half horse,
half man. The hippocentaur does not
differ from the centaur (q.v.), and the
term is used in contradistinction to
ichthyocentaur, or fish­centaur.
Hippodrome. Among the Greeks a
circus of large dimensions and oblong
form, terminated at one end by a
circle arranged for chariot and horse
races. In some respects it resembled
the Roman circus (q.v .), a raised wall
being constructed down the middle,
round which the horses or chariots had
to turn.
Hippogriff. A fabulous animal ; a
winged monster, half horse and half
griffin.
Hippopod. A fabulous monster. The
figure of a man with the legs of a "horse
used in the composition of arabesques on
friezes.
Hip­roof. (Arch.) A roof the sides of
which slope in different directions and
meet at the ridge is called a hip­roof.
The external angle formed by the two
sides of the roof is termed the hip, and
the timbers in the hip are termed the
hip­rafters.
Historic Painting. The painting of
historic scenes, or scenes in which
historical personages are introduced.
The first historical painter was Poly­
gnotus, who decorated the Lesene at
Athens with scenes from the Trojan
War. In all probability, however, these
paintings were decorative and symbolic
rather than graphic, and if they were
now in existence they would scarcely
rank high as historic paintings. It is
in modern times that this branch of art
has been cultivated with the greatest
measure of success.
Honeysuckle Pattern. (Arch.) A
pattern frequently used in Greek de­
corative art and termed honeysuckle as
resembling the plant of that name.
Honourable. (Her.) This term is
applied to certain ordinaries to distin­
guish them from the sub­ordinaries and
from other charges.
There are nine
honourable ordinaries, the Chief, Pale,
Bend, Bend Sinister, Fess, Bar, Cross,
Saltire, Chevron.
202

HOO
ART
DICTIONARY.
Hood­moulding. A projecting mould­
ing carried over an arch or other open­
ing which serves the same purpose as
the dripstone (q.v.) .
Horizon. The horizon in perspective
is always situated at the height of the
eye of the observer, and is represented
by a straight line parallel to the line of
the earth.
Horizontal. A line or plane is said to
be horizontal when it is parallel to the
horizon.
Hors Concours. A term applied to
artists exhibiting in the Salon at Paris
who have received all the highest awards,
and so can only compete for the grandes
médailles d'honneur.
Horse­brey. (Her.) This is an instru­
ment
sometimes
used to compress
the nose of a res­
tive horse. It is jointed at the middle
and has pointed teeth. It occasionally
appears as an heraldic bearing, and is
then often described as a pair of breys
or barnacles.
Hospital. (Arch.) A collection of
buildings intended for the shelter and
cure of the sick.
Hotel. (Arch.) A building in which
travellers are housed and fed on payment
of money. Hotels are often, from an
architectural point of view, of great
splendour, and the decoration of their
interior frequently displays admirable
taste.
Hτtel de Ville. A building in which
the municipal authority has its seat.
Many hôtels de ville are distinguished
by the richness of their architecture.
The term is employed in France, Bel­
gium, and Holland.
Hourd. (Arch.) Timber galleries placed
on the summit of towers and parapets in
the fortified castles of the Middle Ages.
Some hourds were constructed of ma­
sonry and so were permanent, whereas
the timber hourds were movable. In the
hourds of the 13th century the timber­
work was at once solid and simple, and
HUB
rested on supports of stone. In the 14th
century hourds were in most countries
replaced by machicolations (q.v.) ; but
in Germany and Switzerland they re­
mained in use during the 15th and 16th
centuries. The term is French and has
no equivalent in English.
Hour­glass. A double glass, the two
swelling portions of which are connected
with a narrow tube, through which a
certain quantity of sand can run in a
certain time. The use of the hour­glass
to measure time was once universal.
Hour­glass Stand. An iron bracket
attached to pulpits, especially about the
time of the Commonwealth, in which
the hour­glass was placed. Hour­glass
stands are still to be seen in some Eng­
lish churches, and are often excellent
specimens of ironwork.
Hours, Book of. A prayer­book.
There are in existence books of hours in
manuscript, the illuminations of which
are masterpieces by Memling and Jean
Foucquet. Among the early printed
books of hours are some, the pages of
which are bordered with wood­cuts of
extraordinary delicacy. These are
keenly sought after by collectors, and
the most highly prized were printed by
Simon Vostre, Hardouin, Kerver, &c.
Housing. (Arch.) A small niche or
recess in a wall, in which a statue was
placed.
Hubert, St. A noble of Aquitaine, who
was converted by seeing a milk­white
stag with a crucifix between its horns,
when he was hunting on a holy day.
203

:TIONARY.
HYD
myth tells of the manner in which Her­
cules slew the hydra near Argos, in
Greece.
Hydria. (Pot.) An ancient vase of
HUE
ART DIC
For many years he was a hermit in the
Ardennes, and afterwards became Bishop
of Liège. He died in 727. Representa­
tions of him by Flemish and German
artists are not infrequent. The St.
Hubert engraved by Durer is perhaps
the best known. He generally appears
in episcopal vestments and carries a
hunting horn and book. The stag
always appears close to him or upon the
book.
Hue. Properly speaking the term hue
denotes a colour which results from the
mixture of a primary with a secondary
colour. It is, however, carelessly ap­
plied to any colour, and is very often
used where the term tint would be more
correct.
Humetty. (Her.) Another term for
couped. [Cross, Couped.]
Humorist. An artist who executes
grotesque scenes and fanciful sketches,
and who appeals to the sense of the
ridiculous in those who look at his pic­
tures.
Hunting­horn or Bugle. (Her.) This
is a very well­known
armorial bearing. The
horn itself takes the
form shown in the cut,
but it is generally represented with
strings attached and with a band round
the middle, and is then blazoned stringed
and garnished.
Hyaline. Transparent and diaphanous
like glass. Rock crystal, for instance, is
hyaline.
Hyalograph. An instrument by means
of which perspective can be mechanically
drawn.
Hyalography. The art of engraving
upon glass either with a diamond, emery,
or hydrofluoric acid. The term is also
applied to a mechanical process of draw­
ing by means of which objects are
reproduced as they are seen in perspec­
tive.
Hydra. (Her.) This is a fabulous
animal represented as a dragon with
seven heads.
A celebrated classical
204
The hydria when made of terra­cotta was
often of elegant form and covered with
variable form used to contain water.

HYD
ART
DICTIONARY.
ICO
ornament. It was generally provided
with three handles, two large and one
small one. Sometimes a small handle
was placed immediately underneath a
larger one, in order to add to its strength,
as is shown in our third cut. The term
hydria was sometimes applied to a water­
can of bronze or silver, resembling in
shape the modern water­pail, and pro­
vided with a semicircular handle reaching
from one side of it to the other. A hydria
of this kind is represented in our fourth
cut.
Hydroceramic. (Pot.) A term applied
to vases of porous earth, which allow
drops of liquid to form beads on their
surface and keep water cool by evapora­
tion.
Hydro­metalloplastic. A term
applied to all those processes of gilding,
silvering, and coppering which consist
in immersing objects in a bath until
they are covered with a metallic deposit
produced by chemical affinity.
Hypaethral. (Arch.) An uncovered
roofless building is said to be hypaethral,
which, literally translated, merely means
under the sky. Ancient temples were
frequently hypaethral, for by adopting
this form of building the difficulty of roof­
ing over a large structure was avoided
Hypaethrum. (Arch.) A term given to
the latticed window which surmounted
the grand entrance of some ancient
temples.
The hypaethrum not only
admitted air and light into the temple
but added considerable dignity to the
exterior effect of the door.
Hypocaustum. A subterranean fur­
nace with flues, which heated the
caldarium or hot bath of the Romans.
Hypogeum. (Arch.) A part of a build­
ing lying below the level of the ground.
It is particularly applied to the subter­
ranean chambers in which the ancients
placed their dead.
Hyposcenium. (Arch.) The orchestra
in ancient theatres.
Hypothenuse. The side of a right­
angled triangle opposite the right
angle.
Hypotrachelium. (Arch.) The upper
part of the shaft of a column, immediately
beneath the last moulding or neck of the
capital.
Hyrmensul. [Cromlech.]
I.
Icebreaker. A projecting angle placed
on the piers of a bridge, facing up
stream, to catch the blocks of ice
which flow down when the frost breaks
up.
Ichnographic. A term applied to a
drawing, sketch or plan executed by the
processes of ichnography.
Ichnography. The art of drawing by
means of compass and rule. The term
is also applied to the art of tracing plans
and figures.
Iconoclasts. Breakers of images. At
various periods in the history of art
Iconoclasts have wreaked their fury
upon images. The name was first given
to the Byzantine emperors of the 8th
century who destroyed the images of the
Christian Church. One of the greatest
Iconoclasts whose name is known to
history was Savonarola, who in two
years gave to the flame many hundred
masterpieces of Florentine art. Those
who carried out the Reformation in our
own country in the reign of Henry VIII.
well earned the title of Iconoclasts, for
they wantonly destroyed or carried off
the marvellous collections of works of
205

ICO
ART DIC
art which had grown up at the shrines of
the saints. Whatever escaped their fury
was reserved only for the Puritans, the
Iconoclasts of the 17th century. In this
age of tolerance and artistic apprecia­
tion the spirit of Iconoclasm is happily
almost extinct.
Iconographie. That which relates to
iconography.
Iconography. That science which in­
cludes the study and description of the
paintings, sculptures, and engravings of
antiquity and the Middle Ages, and
especially the knowledge of portraits,
images, busts, or statues. The icono­
graphy of a celebrated person is a
description of all existing portraits of
him.
Iconology. A knowledge of the attri­
butes of mythological personages ; a
study of emblematic figures, as well as the
interpretation and description of works
of art. Sacred iconology deals with the
attributes and artistic representation of
persons mentioned in the holy Scriptures,
the lives of the saints, &c.
Icosahedron. A solid figure presenting
twenty equal plane sides. The surface of
a regular icosahedron consists of twenty
equilateral triangles. A large number
of crystals are cut in the form of an
icosahedron.
Ideal. The Ideal in art is the supreme
or typical perfection, which only exists
in the imagination of the artist. The
ideal is individual. Each artist pursues
his search for the ideal in his own way.
But the ideal implies for the artist the
perfection of the type set before him,
whatever it may be. To attain the ideal
is to approach as closely as possible to
perfection, relying all the time upon the
study of nature and interpreting it in
an individual manner.
The ideal of
Michael Angelo is very different from
that of Rembrandt and Velasquez, yet
all three have left behind them master­
pieces of very strongly marked charaçtei.
The ideal of a human figure cannot re­
present literally one individual. It must
20?
riONARY.
ILL
be, as it were, an epitome of the good
points in many individuals. Lucian in
his description of Panthea gives us an
excellent illustration of what an ideal
figure should be. For he imagines this
paragon of beauty to combine all the
graces which the greatest sculptors of
Greece had expressed in their work. In
the familiar language of every day the
word ideal has a slightly different mean­
ing. Thus when we speak of a portrait
being ideal, we mean that the elements of
coarseness and commonplaceness which
may exist in the sitter's face are elimi­
nated.
Idealise. To render a scene ideal or
poetical; to interpret it with a refined
sentiment ; to give a figure a noble
attitude and outlines of the utmost
purity; to draw a portrait and at the
same time to ennoble the features of the
model.
Idealist. An artist whose works tes­
tify to his search after the ideal.
Ideography. A method of expressing
ideas by signs representing the objects
spoken of. Egyptian hieroglyphics are
a kind of ideographic writing.
Idol. A statue, often painted or gilded,
representing a deity. Some Indian idols
are works of art of extraordinary beauty
and admirable workmanship.
Illegitimacy. (Her.) The proper
brisure or difference (q.v .) charged upon
the arms of illegitimate children is the
baton which is a diminutive of the bend
sinister.
This mark of difference is
popularly but incorrectly known as the
bar sinister.
Illuminated. Adorned or decorated
with illuminations. Brightly coloured;
clothed in a brilliant and striking
colour.
Illumination. The art of illuminating,
i.e . of embellishing manuscripts with
drawings in body colours and gold.
The earliest illuminations were executed
in red lead, and later in cinnabar.
The art was practised from the 3rd
century until the 17th, and monks

ILL
ART
DICTIONARY.
IMA
were especially skilled in illumination.
Many specimens of illumination are still
in existence dating from the Middle
Ages, and some have been reproduced
by chromolithography.
Illuminator. An artist who executes
illuminations.
The most skilful illu­
minators flourished in the 15th, 16th,
and 17th centuries. There were also
illuminators among the Greeks and
Romans. A manuscript of Vergil dating
from the 4th century is preserved in the
Vatican. We are told that the manu­
scripts executed by the Byzantine il­
luminators were marvels of art. The
gospel of Charlemagne (8th century)
is to be seen at the Louvre. The art­of
the illuminator decayed in the 10th
century, but in the 13th it increased in
variety and richness. Among the most
celebrated illuminators we must mention
Jehan Foucquet (1416—1485), author of
"Les Heures d'Anne de Bretagne" and
later in the 17th century, Robert, who
executed in 1641 the garlands of flowers
which formed a border for a text written
by Jarry, entitled " Guirlande de Julie,"
presented by the Duke de Montausier to
Julie de Rambouillet.
Illustrate, To. To execute drawings
or engravings intended for the illustra­
tion of a book. To illustrate a volume
is to furnish representations of the
principal scenes in the work and at the
same time to execute designs for
borders, head­pieces, tail­pieces, and
initial letters.
Illustration. A term applied to the
coloured ornaments of ancient manu­
scripts as well as to the engravings
printed apart or the cuts inserted in the
text which embellish modern books, and
are suggested by the subject of the work
in which they are placed. From the
" Books of Hours," the " Nuremberg
Chronicle" (15th century), and the
" Dance of Death," down to the modern
editions de luxe, an immense number
of illustrated books have appeared.
Varying with the taste of each epoch,
illustrations have been executed on
copper, stone, or wood. In addition
to illustrations in black and white we
sometimes find illustrations executed
in colour by the processes of chromo­
lithography and chromotype. A decided
tendency may be observed in the illus­
trations of to­day to facsimile the sketch
or drawing of the artist by the various
mechanical processes based upon pho­
tography.
Illustrator. An artist who executes
drawings or vignettes intended to illus­
trate books or journals. From the time
of Holbein to the present time, the list
of talented illustrators would be a very
long one.
Very many of our great
artists, among whom we may mention
Fred. Walker, Millais, and Holl, first
won distinction in this popular branch of
art.
Image. A statuette or small repre­
sentation of a living
person. The classi­
cal nations made
images of their an­
cestors, which they
regarded with a kind
of reverential awe
and carried in solemn
processions, such as
funerals and triumphs. These images
held the same place in the estimation of
the ancients as is held to­day by genea­
logical trees, and many a Roman aristo­
crat was as proud of having a large array
of images in his house as Englishmen
often are of having ' ' come over with the
Conqueror."
Small images of various
materials, representing the Virgin or
some other holy person, and generally
placed in a small niche, are frequently
'found in the churches or even in the
homes of devout Catholics.
Image­maker. A term applied in the
Middle Ages to artists who carved and
illuminated images. The thousands of
statues which decorate Gothic churches
are the work of image­makers.
From
the 13th to the 16th century image­
207

IMA
ART
DICTIONARY.
makers generally followed their own
inspiration. We can therefore institute
no comparison between the mediaeval
image­makers and the decorative sculp­
tors of to­day. For the latter only work
to carry out a given design set them
by the architect or the chief of the
works. It is this independence of the
image­maker from control which ex­
plains the originality, the audacity even
of much of the decorative work of the
Gothic period. In the 16th and 17th
centuries there were indeed sculptors
but no image­makers, and after this
time the term is only applied to those
who make childish images or carry out
valueless designs. And so it has come
about that the word, which in the Middle
Ages designated a true artist, whose
works, in being naïve, were none the
less meritorious, is nowadays only used
in a bad sense.
Image­making. The art of making
images, which was practised with much
success in the Middle Ages, but which
did not until long after rank among the
arts. The term is especially applied to
the manufacture of painted or gilded
statuettes generally placed on small
brackets and covered with a canopy.
Sometimes images of this kind are
arranged in the form of a diptytch or
triptych. They generally represent
Christ, the Virgin, and the saints. In
the 14th and 15th centuries images were
made which opened and shut as re­
liquaries. In the 16th century figures
painted in enamel at Limoges and else­
where took the place of representations
of holy personages in relief.
Imaginary Beings. (Her.) There is a
whole class of heraldic
charges consisting of ima­
ginary beings, formed by
piecing together various
parts of different animals,
as for example a cock with
the head and feet of a goat. The most
common for heraldic purposes of these
imaginary beings are the dragon and the
208
IMP
griffin, but the wyvern and cockatrice are
often met with, and occasionally but
more rarely the classical centaur, ne­
reid, pegasus, and chimera.
Imagines ΰ Vestir. Wooden images of
the Virgin and the saints set up in Italian
churches. Their heads, feet, and hands
are finished with some care, while the
rest of them is only roughly blocked out
and covered with vestments of costly
material and richly embroidered. These
imagines present a curious parallel to
the rough images of deities which were
treasured in some Greek temples and
richly draped, as the image of Athene in
the Erectheum.
Imbricated. (Arch.) A term applied
to surfaces decorated with imbrications.
Imbrication. (Arch.) A method of
decoration con­
sisting of thin
plates placed one
upon the other,
either in the form
of fish­scales or
of small pointed jaggings, which partly
overlap, like the tiles on a roof.
Imitate, To. To copy ; to reproduce
by imitation ; to produce works in the
manner of a master or the style of a
school.
Imitation. Works of painting or
sculpture are said to be executed in
imitation when, although they are really
composed of a worthless material, they
pretend to be precious substances.
Thus we speak of an imitation of
marble, an imitation of bronze.
Imitative Arts. This term is applied
collectively to painting, sculpture, and
engraving to distinguish them from
architecture on the one hand and from
music and dancing on the other.
Impale. (Her.) To impale is to con­
join two coats of arms side by side on
one shield. This is frequently done in
the case of husband and wife, while a
bishop's coat of arms is often impaled
with that of his diocese.
Impasto. (Paint.) An abundant appli­

IMP
ART
DICTIONARY.
cation of very thick oil­colour to the
surface of a canvas.
The object of
impasto is to give relief, force, and
solidity to the objects represented. We
speak of vigorous impasto, solid impasto,
&c. It is to be noticed that impasto
always strengthens the luminous por­
tions of a picture. The shades ought to
be lightly treated, or there is a danger
of their losing their transparency. By
the use of special impastos, applied to
the canvas by particular processes, some
artists have succeeded in representing
rocky country, rugged walls, &c.
Imperial. (Arch.) A dome is said to
be imperial when its curves unite so as
to form an acute angle.
Impluvium. (Arch.) A square tank
or cistern sunk in the middle of the floor
of the atrium in a Roman house. The
rain­water which fell through the com­
pluvium (q.v.) was collected in the im­
pluvium.
Impost. (Arch.) Projecting stones
terminating a pillar upon which the
first voussoirs of an arch rest. A fixed
slab placed above a door or window and
forming part of the frame of a bay. The
term is also applied to the mouldings
which decorate an arch or bay.
Impression. (Engr.) A print struck
off from an engraved plate is called an
impression. Thus we speak of an early
impression, a brilliant impression, a
poor impression, &c. The term impres­
sion is applied in painting to a vivid
sketch which represents a scene in
nature as it impressed the artist who
drew it. [Impressionist.]
Impressionism. The doctrine affected
by impressionists (q.v .) .
Impressionist. The impressionist
INA
school is a contemporary school of paint­
ing, the adherents of which set them­
selves to render, not reality in its minute­
ness, but a rapid aspect of nature, re­
producing as nearly as possible the im­
pression made upon their own mind by
any particular scene. It is quite clear
that nature, looked at rapidly, especially
landscape, can be rendered by means
of a few vigorous and forcible touches,
and further, that the value of this general
and summary impression may be spoilt
by excessive toil in the elaboration of
details.
Among the sketches of im­
pressionists are to be found many
charming studies extraordinarily truthful
in tone ; but hitherto this school has not
been able to convince the public, whose
aesthetic education leads them to expect
something more in a picture than is
revealed to them in a rapid impression,
and to look with suspicion or contempt
on any drawing which does not exhibit
what they regard as " finish."
Imprint. A reproduction, either de­
pressed or in relief, obtained directly
from an object. The imprint of a medal
for instance is the hollow mould of this
medal. The imprint of an incised
tombstone or of an intaglio is on the
contrary in relief. It is obtained with
wax or plaster, sometimes with clay.
Improvisations.
A rapid sketch
drawn under the impulse of a sudden
idea. Many etchings may be called im­
provisations on copper, when they are
drawn with a free point and are boldly
bitten in.
Inalterable. A term applied to painted
decorations on porcelain, faïence, or
enamel, the colours of which, after being
passed through the fire, remain un­
affected by the action of the air. Photo­
graphic proofs are said to be inalterable
when they are struck off with the aid of
thick ink, which does not turn yellow or
fade.
In Antis. (Arch.) A temple in antis,
in the language of ancient architects,
was a temple the façade of which is
209

INC
ART
DICTIONARY.
INC
decorated by two columns of the same
thickness as the pilasters or prolon­
gations of the side walls of the cella
which support the roof of the temple.
[Antae.]
Incense­burner. A kind of metal vase
in which perfumes
are burnt on live
coals.
In India,
China, and Japan
the most beautiful
incense­burners
are made.
They
assume a multi­
tude of shapes.
Some of them are
in the form of
chimaeras, dragons,
and other fantastic animals, which ex­
hale odoriferous vapours through their
mouths, while others are simple vases,
pierced with openings arranged in geo­
metrical patterns.
Incise. To cut lines in metal or wood.
An engraver incises lines in the plate
upon which he works. One method of
decorating metal plates is to incise lines
upon them.
Incisura. A term used by the Roman
painters to denote the hatchings or lines
which were drawn with a brush upon
flat tints to deepen the tone.
Incisura
was chiefly employed in fresco­painting.
In modern oil­painting it has no place,
as the effect is now got by other means.
Incitega. A stand upon which am­
phorae and other jars rounded at the
bottom were placed. They were made
of various materials, earthenware, wood,
metal, &c. The one figured in our cut
bears a curious resemblance to the wicker­
stands now used to hold soda­water bot­
tles.
Incline, To. To set obliquely or at
an acute or obtuse angle.
Incrust, To. To decorate a surface
with incrustations ; to cut hollows in the
surface of a stone wall, for instance, and
let in slabs of marble ; to embellish pa­
nels of wood with ornaments of metal
or ivory in such a way that the in­
crustations do not project from the
plane of the surrounding surface. When
wood of one colour is let in upon
another it is said to be veneered (q.v.),
not incrusted.
Incrustation. A method of ornament
which consists in making incisions with
a graver upon a smooth surface, and
filling the hollows thus obtained with
a material different from that upon
which the incisions are made.
Thus
incrustations of marble are made upon
blocks of stone or marble of a differ­
ent colour, while panels of wood are
sometimes covered with incrustations
of copper, brass, or even of precious
metals.
Incunabula. A term applied to the
volumes printed before the first years
of the 16th century. Xylographie in­
cunabula were printed from engraved
blocks of wood, while typographic in­
cunabula were printed by means of
movable type.
Incuse. (Numis.) An incuse coin is a
coin which bears on its obverse the same
subject in relief as appears incuse on the
reverse. Such are the archaic coins of
Magna Graecia.
—
Square. The earliest Greek coins
were irregular pieces of metal shaped like
ingots. The convex surface bore an em­
blem, while on the reverse is nothing but
a square indentation called an incuse
square, the impression of the square
head which held the metal when it was
struck.

IND
ART
DICTIONARY.
Indelible. That which cannot be
effaced. Ordinary photographic proofs
undergo changes on exposure to the light,
get covered with spots, and end by dis­
appearing, but when a certain kind of
thick ink is used in their printing they
are indelible.
Indented. (Her.) This is one of the
ornamental forms taken by
the dividing lines of a
shield. The difference be­
tween indented and en­
grailed (q.v.) is this, that
in the former case each
little tooth is a triangle,
in the latter it is a cusp.
Index. An analytical or alphabetical
table of names, which is placed at the
end of artistic catalogues and other
works.
India Paper. A paper of a yellowish
colour manufactured in India and China
of vegetable fibre, of great value in taking
proofs of engravings.
It is an absorbent
paper, and receives a clear impression of
even the most delicate lines.
—
Rubber. An elastic gum of great
service in art, being used to efface pencil
lines traced upon paper. It is the sap of
a South American tree, and solidifies on
being exposed to the air. Its value was
only discovered in the last century, but
it is now universally used.
Indian Blue. [Indigo.]
—
Ink. [Ink, Indian.]
—
Lake. (Paint.) A red pigment ob­
tained from the resinous secretion of the
coccus ficus. It is a good colour, though
not so brilliant as madder lake, and is
fairly permanent.
—
Ochre. (Paint.) A useful red, com­
posed of sulphur, oxygen, and iron. It is
permanent and a pleasing colour.
—
Red. (Paint.) This pigment is a
red haematite which is found in the Per­
sian Gulf and also in the Forest of Dean
in Gloucestershire. It is of great use to
the painter, as it is a rich colour and
quite permanent. It has been used as a
pigment from ancient times.
INF
Indian Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
used by water­colour painters with much
effect, as it has greater body than gam­
boge, and is transparent. In water­
colour it is permanent even in a strong
light, but it speedily disappears in oil.
Indicate. When in a sketch a form is
suggested by an outline, but not drawn
with precision, that form is said to be
indicated. For instance, the contour of
a figure, the execution of which is not
completed, may be said to be indicated.
In a picture, all that is not finished is
indicated, that is to say, is expressed by
indefinite lines or vague tonalities, which,
did they occupy an important place in
the composition, would need to be treated
more seriously. We say that an artist
is content with indications when by
means of refined lines and simple and
true colours he indicates exactly and
without dryness that which he wishes to
represent. In primitive art another
method of indication is adopted. A part
suggests the whole ; thus a tree is em­
ployed to indicate a forest, a ship a fleet,
&c.
Indigo. (Paint.) A blue pigment used
in water­colour painting, which yields a
tone less close to green than Prussian
blue. Indigo is brighter than the latter,
and slightly tinged with violet. Under
ordinary conditions it is permanent, but
it is adversely affected by white lead
and impure atmosphere.
Individuality. A term which denotes
the originality of an artist and the per­
sonal character which he communicates
to his works. Thus we speak of a strongly
marked individuality, a scene the ren­
dering of which lacks individuality, and
so is commonplace.
Inescutcheon. (Her.) [Shield of Pre­
tence.]
Infringement. An infringement of the
law of artistic copyright (q.v ) is an imi­
tation or fraudulent reproduction of a
work of art the copyright of which is
reserved.
Infulae. A portion of the ecclesiastical
211

ING
ART
DICTIONARY.
INL
costume, consisting of small pendants
hanging from the
mitre and falling
over the shoulders
of the wearer. Our
cut is from a brass
of the 15th cen­
tury in East Hors­
ley Church.
Ingriste. A
French slang term
which denotes a
pupil of the school of Ingres.
It is
not to be found in dictionaries, but is
dignified by having been used by many
authors and critics of repute.
Initial. A letter which begins a
chapter. The initial letters of manu­
scripts were often enriched with paint­
ings, while some formed the subjects of
beautiful miniatures and small pictures
of wonderful perfection of workmanship.
In some printed works the initials form
exquisite vignettes composed with taste
and engraved with care. [Capital.]
Ink. A black liquid more or less
intense, which consists of a mixture of
gall­nut, sulphate of indigo, green cop­
peras, and gum arabic, used both for
writing and printing.
— , Coloured. Mixtures of powdered
colours and varnishes of various kinds,
used in typographic and lithographic
printing.
—, Indian. An ink consisting of a
mixture of lamp­black, gelatine, and
odoriferous substances.
The odour
peculiar to Indian ink arises from the
addition of camphor of Borneo and
powdered musk. Lamp­black is used
for the fine ink and burnt cork or grape­
skins for the commoner sort. Indian
ink is the most solid colour known to us.
It is the only true indelible ink, for it
has a base of carbon. It was once used
exclusively in architectural sketches,
which are now executed in water­colour.
The imitations of real Indian ink are
numerous. The dragons and chimeras,
accompanied with gilt characters on a
blue ground, are no longer a guarantee
of the authenticity of the manufacture
of the tablets, which are everywhere on
sale. Some Indian inks have a reddish
tone and present a brilliant effect when
they are used as thick as possible.
Others on the contrary are greyish in
tint and approach a purple blue, yielding
tones of much delicacy. The latter
tints remain dull on paper whatever be
their degree of intensity, and the inks
from which they are obtained are far
preferable to the inks yielding reddish
tones.
They are besides the nearest
approach to the ink made in China, as a
comparison of the tints they yield with
Chinese and Japanese paintings will
readily convince us. The Chinese have
always manufactured the best Indian
ink, which is sometimes termed Chinese
ink, and hitherto have successfully kept
the secret of their manufacture.
Ink, Lithographic. Ink composed of a
mixture of soap, tallow, and lamp­black,
diluted with pure water. It should be
used at once, as it rapidly thickens and
decomposes.
—, To. (Engrav.) To smear ink by
means of a pad over a copper­plate ;
to pass a roller impregnated with ink
over the surface of an engraving in relief
or over a lithographic stone upon which
a drawing has been executed with pen
and ink or lithographic crayon.
— , Vignette. A mixture of lamp­
black and oil containing resin in solution
used in printing vignettes engraved on
wood.
Inlaid Pavement. (Arch.) Pavement
which consists of variously coloured
tiles inlaid to form geometrical patterns.
Inlay. A term applied to the piece of
wood, metal, or ivory which is inserted
in panels of wood in the process of in­
laying.
212

INL
ART
DICTIONARY.
INT
Inlaying. A method of decorating
furniture, which consists in incising
patterns on the surface of wood and
filling the spaces thus formed with
pieces of variously coloured wood, ivory,
metal, &c.
Inscribe. To draw a geometrical figure
within another geometrical figure, so
that there are some points of contact
between them.
Inscription. (Arch.) Words engraved
on a tablet of marble or on a surface
reserved for the purpose on an entabla­
ture, indicating the purpose of a building,
perpetuating the memory of an event, or
fixing a date.
Instantaneous Photography. [Pho­
tography, Instantaneous.]
Instruments. A general term applied
to boxes of compasses, squares, rules,
&c, which are used by artists and archi­
tects, as well as to graphometers, levels,
&c, employed in surveying.
Intaglio. A precious stone, decorated
with figures, &c, depressed below the
surface. The stones used for seals are
instances of intaglios. The intaglio is
the reverse of the cameo (q.v.).
Intercolumniation. The space be­
tween two columns. The intercolumnia­
tion is measured from the axis of one
column to the axis of the next, and
varies in the different orders, the unit
of measurement, or module as it is
called, being half the diameter of the
column. The intercolumniation is less
in Doric buildings, where an effect of
strength and dignity is aimed at, than in
buildings of the Ionic or Corinthian style.
[Araeostyle ; Eustyle ; Pycnostyle.]
Interior. A term applied to genre
pictures (q.v.) representing the inside of
churches or palaces or more generally
scenes of cottage life. The term also
denotes those pictures in which per­
spective plays an all­important part,
such as Panini's Interior of St. Peter's
at Rome. The painters of the Dutch
and Flemish schools have particularly
excelled in the painting of interiors ;
and among the most celebrated of them
may be mentioned Van der Poel, Kalf,
Neef, and Van der Meer.
Inter­joist. (Arch.) The space
between two joists.
Interleave. To place leaves of white
paper between the pages of a volume, or
between the engravings in an album,
before having them sewn or bound.
Inter­modillion. (Arch.) A vacant
space between two modulions (q.v .) .
Interpretation. The manner in which
an artist renders or expresses nature
according to his personal sentiment ; for
nature can never be interpreted with
rigorous accuracy. Art is necessarily
and on all occasions an interpretation
of nature, but an interpretation which
aims at being happy rather than
literal.
Interpreted. A term used of the
manner in which a figure, subject, scene,
or group is executed, painted, or sculp­
tured. Thus we say of an artist that he
has interpreted a scene well, of a land­
scape or effect of light that it is badly
interpreted.
Intersection. The point common to
two lines which cut one another ; a line
common to two surfaces which meet one
another.
In architecture the term in­
tersection is particularly applied to that
part of a church where the nave and
transepts cut one another at right an­
gles. [Crossing.]
Interstice. An in­
terval of small dimen­
sions.
Inter­tie. (Arch.) A
piece of wood or iron
which holds together
crosswise two other
pieces of wood or iron.
Intrados. (Arch.)
The concave surface formed by the
213

INT
ART
DICTIONARY.
voussoirs of an arch from the springing
line to the keystones.
Intransigeant. A name given in Paris
to certain artists of the extreme impres­
sionist school, who under this title have
organised exhibitions of their own.
Invected. (Her.) This name is given
to one of the dividing or
partition lines on a shield.
It consists of a series of
curves terminating in cusps.
They may be small and nu­
merous, or few and large,
as here shown.
Invention. A term applied to the man­
ner in which an artist composes a scene
or imagines a subject. A picture, the
subject of which is feebly composed and
badly realised, is said to lack invention.
When we speak of a charming invention,
we mean an excellent idea, a scene which
is spirituelle and happily treated.
Iodine, Scarlet. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from iodide of mercury. It is
opaque and of good body, and is the
most brilliant of all the scarlets. It is,
however, useless to the painter, as it is
not permanent even under the most
favourable conditions. Other pigments
decompose it, and air and light speedily
destroy it. Under no circumstances can
its use be recommended.
Ionic. One of the ancient orders of
architecture. The
distinguishing fea­
ture of the style is
that its capital is
ornamented with
volutes. The Ionic
columns of Greece
and Asia Minor
possess unrivalled grace and delicacy of
outline ; the Roman Ionic style, how­
ever, is heavy and graceless. In the
17th and 18th centuries architects fre­
quently used columns of the Ionic style
in their façades. As a general rule, it
may be laid down that when Ionic pillars
are used to decorate a neo­classical
façade, it is in the sub­basement or
ISI
first story, and they are almost always
surmounted by a Corinthian entablature.
Iron Brown. (Paint.) A rich brown
pigment obtained from calcined Prussian
bhie. It possesses many advantages ; if
pure it is quite permanent, it dries well,
and is transparent
Iron­work. A general term which
includes all objects made of iron. In
the Middle Ages many fine examples
of artistic iron­work were produced. At
the period of the Renaissance, in the
17th and 18th centuries, the iron­work
produced was of great richness. Many
specimens belonging to these different
epochs are preserved in museums, and in
the iron gates and railings of many great
houses we may still see of what the old
workers in iron were capable.
The
iron gates and rail­
ings from Hampton
Court, now in the
South
Kensington
Museum, are master­
pieces of art. Bands
of iron fixed to doors
and windows, and
bars and bolts with which doors are
fastened, are often fine examples of iron­
work. The artistic iron­work of to­day,
though it has at its disposal many elabo­
rate mechanical processes, can do no­
thing more than imitate inefficiently the
masterpieces of previous centuries.
Iron Yellow. (Paint.) An iron ochre
bright in colour and transparent. It is
a useful pigment and is permanent.
Isabel. A colour intermediate between
white and yellow, in which yellow pre­
dominates.
Isinglass. Gelatine extracted from
the sturgeon, employed to size canvases
and in certain kinds of size­painting.
214

ISO
ART
DICTIONARY.
Isodomus. (Arch.) A term applied by
Greek architects to that style of masonry
in which the courses of brick or stone
were of equal height.
Isography. The art of reproducing or
making exact facsimiles of writings,
manuscripts, and autographs.
Isokeplialeia. A principle in Greek
sculpture, according to which the heads
of the figures in a bas­relief were the
same distance from the base of the
relief, whether they were riding, stand­
ing, or sitting.
Isolated. (Arch.) A building or portion
of a building is said
to be isolated when
it is wholly detached
from the main body
of the building. A
pillar set against a wall is said to be
isolated when it is not in the same plane
as the wall, with which it is only con­
nected by its base and capital.
Isometrical Perspective. [Perspec­
tive, Isometrical.]
Issuant. (Her.) This term is most
frequently applied to demi­lions, and
implies that the lion is issuing from the
bottom of a chief, so that only the upper
part of the lion is seen. The term naissant
(q.v.) has a slightly different meaning.
Italian Pink. (Paint.) A vegetable
yellow pigment, the best of which is
obtained from quercitron bark. It is
sometimes called yellow lake. It is
bright and transparent, but its use is
not to be recommended, as its perma­
nency cannot be guaranteed.
Italian Varnish. A varnish which
consists of white wax and linseed oil,
used in oil­painting for glazing (q.v .).
Italic. A term applied to the charac­
ters invented by Aldus Manutius, the
printer. Instead of being vertical, they
incline slightly to the right. Italic
characters inclined at the angle at which
we generally write are employed in mo­
dern books to attract the attention of the
reader, and discharge the function of
words written and underlined.
JAC
Ivory. An osseous substance, forming
the teeth and tusks of the elephant, out
of which works of art of all sorts are
made. When we speak of ivories we
generally mean objects carved in ivory.
The ancients executed statues of ivory
of immense size, and had discovered a
method of softening the material.
[Chryselephantine.] Byzantine ivories
consist entirely of bas­reliefs, diptychs,
reliquaries, crosiers, &c. In the Middle
Ages and as late as the 15th century
altar­pieces were carved in ivory, while
there are many crucifixes of ivory
belonging to the 16th and 17th centuries.
Ancient ivories of fine workmanship are
very highly prized by collectors. The
grotesque ivory carvings of the Japanese
are well known and of great value.
They generally take the form of netsukés,
or attachments for securing medicine
boxes or tobacco pouches under the
girdle.
Ivory Black. A pigment obtained
from calcined ivory, of great value to the
painter.
Ivy. A foliage of a particular kind
employed in garlands and other systems
of decoration. It is one of the attributes
of Bacchus, and garlands of ivy are
frequently employed in the decoration of
rustic buildings.
J·
Jack. (1.) (Arch.) A machine with
which weights may be lifted. It is also
used to hold up, with the aid of stays,
a portion of a building while the work of
restoration or consolidation is in pro­
gress.
Jack. (2.) A term applied to the leather
cups and bottles, sometimes rimmed
with silver, which were used as drinking
vessels in the 16th century.
Jackfield Pottery. (Pot.) A manu­
factory was established at Jackfield,
near Broseley, in 1713. Stoneware, both
215

JAC
black and white, was produced there.
The industry ceased at the beginning of
the present century, and specimens of
Jackfield ware are now hard to come by.
Jack­rafter. (Arch.) A short rafter
used in the construction of hip­roofs.
It is joined at the top with the hip­rafter
(q.v.), at the bottom with the wall plate.
Jade. A mineral varying in colour
from green to yellow and yellowish white.
It is a species of nephrite, and may be
described as a native silicate of calcium
and magnesium. It is found in China,
America, and some islands in the South
Pacific. By the Chinese it is held in
high estimation, and in spite of its tough­
ness carved into all sorts of forms. It is
never found in a natural state in Europe,
yet curiously enough jade celts (q.v .)
have been found in Switzerland and by
Schliemann at Hissarlik. Their presence
in these localities is difficult to explain.
Jamb. (Arch.) The vertical uprights
which frame an open­
ing, whether it be a
window or door. The
term is also applied
to the uprights which
support a chimney­
piece.
The jambs
of some mediaeval
chimney­pieces consist of clustered
colonettes.
Jambe. (Her.) This is the name usually
given by heralds to the leg or part of the
leg of an animal when shown alone on
the shield. If, how­
ever, the foot alone
appears, being cut or
torn off below the se­
cond joint, it is called
a paw (q.v .).
Jambs. Pieces of
armour which protect­
ed the leg. In the 14th
century they were com­
posed of cuir bouilly
(q.v.), but after the
15th century they were
always made of metal. They ceased to
216
ART
DICTIONARY.
JAN
be worn altogether in the reign of
James I.
James, St., the Greater. Of James
the Greater, the kinsman of Christ, we
know little, except that he followed our
Lord, and that after the crucifixion he
was put to death with the sword. In
art he is generally represented with the
attributes of a pilgrim, the staff, gourd,
and scallop shell. Sometimes he bears
a sword, the emblem of his decapita­
tion. In Spain, where he is particularly
revered, an extraordinary mass of
legends has gathered round his name.
In the year 939 he is said to have
appeared on a milk­white charger to
lead on the troops of King Ramirez to
achieve a brilliant victory over the
Moors. So strong was the belief in the
appearance of St. James on this occasion
that ever since " Santiago " has been
the battle­cry of the Spaniards, and in
the pictures of the Spanish school St.
James is commonly represented as
mounted on a white charger.
James, St., the Less. Like St. James
the Greater, St. James the Less was a
kinsman of Christ, whom he is said to
have closely resembled. He is said to
have been the first bishop of Jerusalem.
He suffered martyrdom by being thrown
down the steps of the temple and having
his brains beaten out with a fuller's
club. In art accordingly he is generally
represented as leaning upon a fuller's
club, and he is often to be recognised
on account of the striking resemblance
which his features bear to the accepted
features of Jesus.
Janus. A god much honoured by
the Romans, in whose estimation in­
deed he rivalled Jupiter himself. He
was particularly associated with the
beginning and ending of enterprises.
In art he is represented as Bifrons,
i.e . two­faced, and he generally holds
a key as a symbol of the opening and
closing of undertakings. The worship
of Janus was an ancient one at Rome,
and it was the custom to open his

JAP
ART
DICTIONARY.
temple in time of war and to close it
in time of peace.
Japanese Paper. Japanese paper,
which is used in expensive printing, is
made from the bark of the tree called by­
botanists morus papi/era sativa.
White
Japanese paper is the best and thickest.
It is used for printing proofs of etchings
and engravings upon. It is transparent
and of a satiny texture, and the velvet
tones which result from the deep biting­
in of a plate come out admirably upon
it. But it too quickly absorbs the
ink, and when it is to be printed upon
the plate must be more thoroughly
inked than when ordinary laid paper is
used.
Japanning. A process of painting and
varnishing, by means of which a smooth
and brilliant surface is given to such
articles as trays, boxes, &c.
It is
practised especially by the Japanese,
and is of service in decoration as it
dries very hard and is unaffected by
damp.
Japonaiseries. A French term which
includes all objects of art and curiosity
which come from Japan.
Jar. (Pot.) A full­bellied vase of glazed
earthenware, sometimes with
handles, sometimes without.
In ancient times earthenware
jars were, and in the East still
are, hung by their handles or
necks on long poles and thus
carried upon the shoulders.
Jardiniθre. A vase of porcelain or
metal, sometimes richly decorated, made
to hold plants or flowers.
Jasper. A species of hard and opaque
quartz, out of which decorative vases,
columns, and many other ornaments are
carved.
Jaune. [Yellow.]
Javelin. A short spear, used as a
missile. It has been employed by all
nations, both savage and civilised, and in
all ages, and wherever it is found it is of
the same general form. In the Middle
Ages it was a weapon of war, but
15
JES
gradually disappeared after the intro­
duction of firearms.
Its use now is
chiefly ceremonial.
Jazerine. A material used for armour
in the Middle Ages.
It consisted of
plates of steel fastened on canvas and
overlapping. Its great advantage was
its lightness.
Jerome, St. St. Jerome was one of the
Fathers of the Church, who died in 420
A.D . In order to quell his fervid spirit
he spent some time in absolute seclu­
sion in the wilderness. By some he is
regarded as one of the founders of mo­
nasticism, and he is represented in art
more frequently than almost any other
saint. He generally appears as an aged
man, with a cardinal's hat (though this
of course is an anachronism), and a lion
by his side. The lion no doubt origin­
ally symbolised the strong fiery spirit of
St. Jerome, and having been accepted as
a symbol a story was required to explain
it. This story, which resembles the old
fable of Androcles and the lion, ran that
one day St. Jerome was sitting in his
cell when a lion approached with a thorn
in his foot. This thorn St. Jerome
removed, and henceforth the lion was
his constant companion.
One of the
most celebrated representations of St.
Jerome is a print by Durer.
Jesse, Tree of. A tree representing
the genealogy of Christ as it is given in
the Gospel of St. Matthew. The various
personages who form links in the chain
of descent are placed on branches
stretching out from the tree.
At the
bottom Jesse is shown in a recumbent
position, and at the top the Virgin and
our Saviour in an aureole. Representa­
tions of the tree of Jesse are frequently
found, sculptured, painted, or embroid­
ered, in the ecclesiastical ornaments of
the Middle Ages. This is not to be
wondered at as the subject is pecu­
liarly adapted to decorative treatment.
Candlesticks also sometimes assumed
the form of a tree with branches, and
hence were called Jesses.
A very
217

JES
ART
DICTIONARY.
JOG
fine specimen of a Jesse window is |
to be seen at Dorchester in Oxfordshire
(1320).
Jesses. (Her.) These are the little
straps, generally of leather, by which
the bells worn by falcons and hawks
were attached to the birds' legs.
Jet. A species of lignite of a brilliant
black, of which all kinds of personal
ornaments are made. Artificial jet is
manufactured in large quantities out of
black glass.
Jettie, or Jutty. (Arch.) A portion of
a building which projects beyond the
rest. The best example of a jettie is to
be found in half­timbered houses (q.v .),
218
in which each storey projects beyond
η
the one below.
The effect of
* this in some Gothic houses is
J that where the streets are narrow
and the houses high the gable­
| ends almost touch across the
street.
Jewel. A term applied to gems
set in one or other of the precious
metals, and by a figure of speech
'
to objects of art admirable in
! execution and of considerable
worth.
Jeweller. An artisan, some­
times an artist, who sets precious
stones in gold or silver.
Jewellery. The art of mount­
ing precious stones in gold or
silver. The precious stones thus
mounted and their setting. Per­
sonal adornment being one of the
primary instincts of mankind, it
is not surprising that in all ages
and amongst all nations the
making of jewellery has been one
of the earliest manifestations of art. The
jewellery of the Assyrians and Egyptians
was of great beauty, while the jewels
found at Hissarlik by Schliemann and
at Cyprus by Cesnola were many of them
masterpieces of art. Throughout history
we find fine specimens of the jeweller's
art produced, following the style of each
epoch. The jewels of the Middle Ages
were simple but massive, but at the
Renaissance they became singularly
beautiful and elaborate.
The handi­
craft was introduced into England in all
probability after the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, when some foreign
goldsmiths settled in Clerkenwell. It
was first practised at Birmingham, its
present centre, about the middle of last
century. Manifold proce$ses enter into
the production of jewellery—gem­cutting
and engraving, enamelling, repoussé
work, chasing and casting. Of these
something is said under their separate
headings.
Joggle. (Constr.) In masonry any

JOH
ART
DICTIONARY.
JUD
joint is called a joggle, in which both the
stones which are to be fitted together are
indented. A joggle in masonry resembles
what in carpentry would be termed a
rebate (q v.).
John, St. In the earliest examples of
Christian art St. John with the other
evangelists was symbolised by a scroll,
or by a river flowing from a rock. [Evan­
gelists.] Somewhat later he was repre­
sented by an eagle.
Later on he
generally appears as a handsome beard­
less youth, with brown or golden hair.
An eagle stands by his side, and in his
hand he holds a chalice, from which a
serpent crawls, in allusion to his having
driven poison from a cup. Thus he is
represented by Raphael. As the exile
of Patmos and the writer of the Revela­
tions he is represented as an old and
bearded man writing upon a tablet.
He generally wears a blue or green tunic
and a red robe.
Joint. (Arch.) A small space left
between the stones or bricks of a wall or
other construction, which is filled with
mortar or cement, so as to bind the
masonry solidly together The thickness
of joints is determined, when the bricks
or stones are laid, by small blocks of
wood, which allow the mortar or cement
to be put in. The term
angle­joint is applied to
a joint formed by placing
side by side two pieces
of stone or wood, which are cut at a
certain angle and not square. There are
many other kinds of joints both in stone­
work and timber­work. Some of these
are to be found under their separate
headings, such as dovetail, mortise, &c.
Joist. (Arch.) A piece of timber
placed horizontally to support a plank.
In the Middle Ages and during the
period of the Renaissance the joists of
. litμgi
ceilings remained in view and were
sometimes carved. In some Gothic
buildings we find joists with the end
engaged in the wall roughly fashioned
into the head of some monster, while
the horizontal part is cut level, so that
nothing may lessen the solidity of the
joist, by seeming to take off from its
thickness.
Joist, Binding. Binding joists are so
contrived that an empty space is left
between them, through which a chim­
ney may pass. Their diameter is gene­
rally greater than that of an ordinary
joist.
Jube. (Arch.) A term applied to the
rood­loft (q.v .) or gallery of a church.
It is derived from the fact that the
words jube domine benedicere were
pronounced from the jube by the officiat­
ing priest before the reading of the
lessons in the Catholic service.
Judas Iscariot. Throughout the
219

JUG
Middle Ages the apostle who betrayed
Christ was regarded with execration, as
the type of infamy and brutality, and
countless legends were invented to
illustrate the infamy of his nature. He
is never represented alone in art, but
when he occurs in such scenes as the
last supper or the betrayal he is a
person with a scowling expression of
face. He never wears the aureole like
the other apostles, and he is habited in a
robe of yellow, which colour has in con­
sequence been regarded in some Catholic
countries with disgust.
Jug. (Pot.) An earthenware vessel of
simple form, with one handle and a
beak from which liquids are poured. It
is a noticeable fact that the jug has
retained a uniform shape in all countries
ART
DICTIONARY.
JUR
and all ages, this shape no doubt being
suggested by considerations of practical
convenience. The first three illustra­
tions we give represent Egyptian jugs,
which as far as their form is concerned
might be modern English. Of the other
two cuts the one is a metal jug of orien­
tal workmanship, the second an earthen­
ware jug of strong outline, such as is in
common use.
Julian, St. St. Julian is a legendary
saint, who is said to have lived in the
3rd century A.D . One day when he was
220
out hunting, a stag which he was follow­
ing prophesied that he would kill his
father and mother. This destiny, in
spite of his endeavour to avoid it, he
ultimately fufilled, and to do penance he
retired to the bank of a river and ferried
travellers across it. He is therefore
represented with a stag or as ferrying
wayfarers across a river.
He is the
patron saint of travellers.
Juno. [Hera.]
Jupiter. [Zeus.]
Jupon. A kind of surcoat worn by
knights in the Mid­
dle Ages, and reach­
ing down over the
hips. Sometimes it
was
embroidered
with the coat of
arms of the wearer,
sometimes it was
plain, but as a rule
it had an ornamen­
tal border round its
lower edge.
The
jupon of Edward the
Black Prince is still
to be seen hanging
over his tomb at
Canterbury.
Our
cut, which is from
a sepulchral brass
in Walton Church,
Hertfordshire, represents a knight wear
ing the jupon.
Jury. An artistic jury is a committee
of artists appointed to select from the
pictures sent in to an exhibition those
they think worthy to be hung. The jury
appointed every year in the Paris Sa­
lon is elected by the exhibitors them­
selves. But the elective principle has
not hitherto found favour in England.
One small society has adopted it,
it is true, but in the more important
English galleries the pictures are selec­
ted and hung not by a jury elected
by the exhibitors, but by a hanging
committee of older artists, who hold
office in rotation.

KAK
ART
DICTIONARY.
KHA
K.
Kakemono. A Japanese term denot­
ing a "hanging picture," provided at its
lower end with a roller on which it
may be rolled up. The picture itself is
surrounded with an ornamental border
designed in accordance with certain
decorative principles. The Japanese
ornament their houses with Kakemonos,
but never leave one permanently on the
wall, varying them with the season, for
they consider some appropriate to sum­
mer, others to winter.
Kaleidoscope. An apparatus invented
in 1817 by Sir David Brewster, which
consists of mirrors arranged in a tube.
In this tube movable fragments of
coloured glass, irregular in shape, are
placed, and from their chance combina­
tions, as reflected in the mirrors, sym­
metrical figures are obtained, which are
often used as patterns in industrial art,
especially in the manufacture of coloured
stuffs.
Kaoline. (Pot.) A silicate of alumin­
ium, produced from the decomposition of
felspar in the form of a white earthy
matter. From it a fine faience is manu­
factured, which bears the name of
porcelain. This plastic clay has been
known for countless centuries in China
and Japan, but its discovery in Europe
is due to the English potters of the
middle of the 18th century.
Keep. (Arch ) The principal tower in
a mediaeval castle, also termed Donjon
(q.v .)·
Keepsake. A name which was given
to a certain class of album or illustrated
volume which was published in England
in the early decades of the present
century. Thence it has been applied to
sentimental figures or female heads
possessing a charm and beauty tinged
with melancholy, such as were fre­
quently met with in the volumes known
as "keepsakes."
Kept down. (Paint.) A portion of a
picture is said to be kept down, when it
is painted in a lower tone than the rest,
so as not to divert the spectator's atten­
tion from the important part of the com­
position.
Key. In the Middle Ages keys were
designed with much care and taste, and
were frequently masterpieces of decora­
tive art. Many
VlYOlk
of them indeed
are such fine ex­
amples of metal­
work as to be
worth preserving
in museums.
Key­holes too of
copper or beaten
iron were often
noticeable from an artistic point of view,
being richly ornamented. In ancient art
the key was the symbol of Janus, and in
Christian art St. Peter is always repre­
sented with two keys, which are also
borne by religious houses under the pat­
ronage of St. Peter, and are the insignia
of the papacy.
Keystone. (Arch.) The central stone
of an arch. It is inserted last and
serves to hold together or consolidate
the arch. It is sometimes ornamented
in buildings of the Renaissance school,
and in vaulted ceilings is frequently
termed a boss.
Khâsi. A term applied to a method
of mural decoration in vogue in India
and Persia. It consists in covering the
walls with glazed and painted tiles or
with blocks of mortar, which are formed
of several pieces of mortar of different
221

KHM
ART
DICTIONARY.
KNO
colours, cut into shapes and pieced to­
gether, so as to form decorative designs.
Khmer. A name given to the archi­
tectural monuments of ancient Cam­
bodia, which in their profusion of
decoration and their striking originality
have an obvious connection with Hindoo
art.
Kiln. (Pot.) A cylindrical oven, placed
vertically, in which faience and porce­
lli'IBdh^
a
*
n are
baked. Piec
es
^PF^Pf^Pr
ο
ί
Sreat vame are
baked
'Mr IpB IB
separately in cases of
II IIB !•
terra
­c otta, called seg­
W^llrollκr 8
ars
'
soasto
^
e
is
°l
ate
^
^^fir^PipÎ' from one another.
In
baking china three processes are neces­
sary : the first that of firing, which
changes the clay into biscuit ; the second
that of glazing ; the third that of fixing
the colours. Great care must be exer­
cised that the pieces of china are not
exposed to too great heat. The degree
of heat which any piece can stand
depends on the colours employed in its
decoration, some colours volatilising at
a lower temperature than others.
King­post. (Arch.) A vertical piece of
timber placed in the middle of a truss
(q.v.), resting at its lower end on the
cross­beam, so as to support the ridge,
where the principal rafters meet. King­
posts may be seen in gable­ends as well
as in open­timber roofs.
Kiosque. (Arch.j An ornamental
pavilion placed
in a picturesque
4
situation. A
3?
small
circular
^^y^^w^
or polygonal
DIW^^HB
construction
Φ
τ
Γ
1ϊ¥
surmounted by
JJL
>liflt
a small dome,
ΞSSèi iSSM
such as the pa­
^S^tfe^ξ
vilions fre- Jtijljjjjjpr'
t3ga&Ξ&^
quently met
*
with in Turkey.
Kit­cat. A term denoting a canvas of
a particular size, used for painting por­
traits not quite three­quarter length. A
222
series of portraits of the members of the
Kit­cat Club were painted by Kneller of
this size to fit the walls of Tonson's villa
at Barn Elms, and canvases and por­
traits of these dimensions have been
called Kit­cat ever since. The Kit­cat
Club was an association of politicians
and litterateurs who favoured the Pro­
testant succession, and was established
in 1703. Its meetings took place at the
"Cat and the Fiddle," in Fleet Street,
kept by Christopher Kit, from whom it
took its name.
Knee­rafter. (Constr.) A rafter the
lower end of which is bent or curved, so
that it may fit in more securely with the
wall below it.
Knocker. (Arch.) A piece of metal
fixed on to the door. Ancient knockers
vary considerably, according to the
period to which they belong. In the
Gothic period they frequently represent
a fantastic animal. After the Renais­
sance they were very elaborate both in
design and execution. In the 17th and
18th centuries a purely decorative form
of knocker became universal, whereas in
the previous century knockers had re­
presented capricious, and
fantastic,
scenes, in which the figures of both men
and animals were treated with extra­
ordinary skill.
Several
celebrated
artists have at various epochs produced
knockers, which are to­day considered
as works of art and treasured in
museums.
Knot, or Knob. (Arch.) A term
applied to any architectural ornament
which is round in shape, whether it

KNO
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAC
consist of foliage, flowers or even a
sculptured head. [Cul­de­Lampe.]
Knotted. (Her ) This epithet is
applied in heraldry to rough
branches or trunks of trees
shown on shields, For ex­
ample, the cut would be
blazoned gules, a knotted
staff in bend argent.
Kylin. An animal somewhat resem­
bling a dragon and covered with scales,
frequently depicted on or forming the
subject of pieces of Chinese porcelain.
It is of good omen.
Labarum. A Roman standard bearing
upon it the
sacred
seal
of
Christ.
[Chrism ] Be­
fore the time
of Constantine
the labarum
was decorated
with an eagle, but after the conversion
of that emperor the chrism was adopted.
The labarum, which was the banner car­
ried in war before the Roman emperors,
was purple in colour, bordered with gold
and ornamented with a fringe and
precious stones.
Label. (Her.) This is a mark of
difference or cadency borne by an eldest
son to distinguish his arms from those
of his father.
It
JQgn^pnQ^
consists of a bar "*"**
Λ,
with three pendants or points, and is
placed across the shield in chief. On
the death of the father the son of course
removes the label from his arms. The
arms borne by the present Prince of
Wales as heir to the throne are : the Arms
of England differenced with a Label of
three points argent ; over all, on a shield
of pretence, Saxony.
Labyrinth. (Arch.) An Egyptian
palace, consisting of a number of build­
ings and courtyards surrounded by
walls, so arranged as to be impenetrable
and to mislead the uninitiated who
ventured within.
Subterranean laby­
rinths were used by the early Christians
as places of worship on account of their
safety. A garden labyrinth consists of
winding walks, bordered on each side
with a close hedge, all of which com­
municate with the centre, but go off in
different directions, so that it is not
easy to keep the correct path.
A system of decoration called laby­
rinth, consisting of variously coloured
marbles forming inter­crossed lines at
right angles to one another, is some­
times used in the pavements of French '
cathedrals. The labyrinth on the pave­
ment at Chartres is particularly famous.
Lac. A very solid varnish, frequently
employed in China and Japan for the de­
coration of furniture and other objects.
It is a resin obtained from certain trees,
the A ngia simensis and Thus vernix, and
is applied in a liquid state and in several
layers to the trays, boxes, or furniture
which are to be lacquered. [Lacquer.]
Lace. An open­work textile fabric,
consisting of very fine meshes, which
are arranged in systems of ornament.
The ancient lace of Malines and Alençon
as well as Venetian and English point­
lace is much sought after, and may be
classed among artistic objects of the
greatest value and rarity.
Lacerna. A loose garment worn by
223

LAC
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAC
the Romans over the toga. It was open
in front and fastened under the neck by
a brooch. It fell behind in ample folds
and had a hood, which could be used to
conceal the face.
It was probably
borrowed from the Gauls, and only came
into use in the later days of the
Republic. In the period of the Empire
it was a common garment both for civil
and military personages.
Lachrymatory. A name given to
certain vases, elongated in form and of
small dimensions, used by the Romans
to hold the sweet­smelling oils with
which they perfumed the funeral pyre.
Their name was given to them because
it was erroneously thought that they
were intended to hold tears.
Lacinia. A term applied to the
excrescences in the neck or throat of
a she­goat. In the works of Roman
sculptors fauns are frequently repre­
sented with lacinia and the pointed ears
of a goat, as in the cut engraved here.
La conicum. A semicircular chamber
in the baths of the Greeks and Romans,
which was heated by flues, and resem­
bled a modern Turkish bath.
Lacquer. A coloured and opaque
varnish applied to the smooth surface
of boxes, articles of furniture, &c. It is
so called because its base is a resinous
substance called lac. Lacquer work of
the highest excellence has been pro­
duced in China and Japan, some pieces
of relief­lacquer taking many years to
finish. The process of lacquering is as
follows. The wood to be lacquered is
planed smooth and then covered with
a mixture of powdered red sandstone
and ox­gall. This coating is dried and
polished and then covered with a layer
of lacquer. The lacquer is dried slowly
in a damp­room and then polished with
slate. A second coating of lacquer is
then laid on and the drying process
repeated, and so on with the third and
fourth coating. A piece of lacquer work
always has more than three coatings,
and some are known to have received
eighteen. When a perfectly hard and
polished surface is obtained, the lacquer
is painted and finally mounted.
—, Aventurine. Aventurine lacquer­
work is of a reddish brown colour and is
spangled all over with particles of gold,
which glitter the more the nearer they
are to the surface. It is used for large
cabinets &c.
— , Black. This is the lacquer most
commonly in use, and is seen in pieces
of furniture as well as in small boxes of
exquisite workmanship. Its value of
course depends on the number of its
coatings and the polish imparted to its
surface.
—
on Gold Ground. The most costly
lacquer work is on a gold ground. Pieces
of this class are always small and gene­
rally in high relief. The effect is some­
224

LAC
ART DIC
times added to by projecting bosses of
gold and silver.
Lacquer, Red. Red lacquer is peculiar
to Japan and is now very rarely met with.
It was never applied to any but small
objects, such as cups.
Lacunar. (Arch.) A term denoting a
ceiling and also the sunk panels or com­
partments of a ceiling.
Lacustrine Dwellings. [Lake Dwell­
ings.]
Lady Chapel. (Arch.) A chapel dedi­
cated to the Virgin Mary, called by
Roman Catholics " Our Lady."
Lady
chapels were generally placed at the
extreme east end of churches, and were
in fact a prolongation of the chancel or
choir.
They were sometimes termed
' ' retrochoirs. ' ' It was in the 12th century
that the majority of lady chapels were
built, at that period the Virgin being
held in especial honour. We have said
that the lady chapel was generally
placed at the east end of church or
cathedral. But this was not the invari­
able custom.
For instance, the lady
chapel at Ely is a separate chapel placed
at the north­east corner of the north
transept, while at Durham the " Galilee"
(q.v .), or western porch, is the lady
chapel.
Lagena. (Pot.) An ancient vase in
which wine was kept. Vases
bearing this name are gene­
rally of a slightly elongated
spherical form.
Sometimes
they have a swelling belly and
a short neck, and stand upon a foot.
Laggings. A term applied to narrow
battens joining centres (q.v .) horizon­
tally, the centres being constructed
underneath long arches such as tunnels.
[Centre.]
Lake. (Paint.) A term applied to
certain pigments which consist of vege­
table or animal matters with a base of
alumina or oxide of iron, such as car­
mine lake, yellow lake, &c.
— , Carmine. A lake obtained from
the cochineal insect. It is generally
LAM
permanent, as it contains less base and
more colouring matter than most lakes.
It is, however, affected by white lead
and strong light. In water­colour it
yields tones of less value than pure
carmine.
In oil painting it possesses
great power, and is easily laid on.
Lake, Mineral. A violet colour which
enters into the composition of a pink
used in colouring porcelain.
— , Venetian. A red pigment obtained
from a mixture of alumina and a
solution of gelatine and alum, in a
decoction of a Brazilian wood.
— , Yellow. A pigment obtained from
the decoction of berries with a base of
alumina. It is not a very useful colour,
as it does not dry easily, and under
certain circumstances changes to orange
or red.
Lake Dwellings.
Dwellings
con­
structed not on dry land but on piles
driven into the bottom of lakes or
creeks seem to have been universal
among savage races. The custom of
living at some distance from the shore»
no doubt adopted in the first instance
for purposes of safety, still prevails in
the creeks of the Amazon and Orinoco,
in New Guinea, and in Central Africa.
Herodotus describes the Paeonians as
dwellers in cities built on lakes. The
Celtic races in mediaeval times had their
lake cities, and even as late as the 16th
century Irish chieftains are known to
have taken refuge in fortresses built on
lochs. Dr. Keller has established the
fact that in prehistoric times lake dwell­
ings existed in all the shallow lakes
of Switzerland. Those who inhabited
these curious huts knew the use of
bronze or iron, but had not altogether
discarded implements of stone ; they
practised spinning and weaving, made
canoes and fished. They were acquainted
with agriculture, and lived in the secu­
rity which comes of social organisation.
Lamb. In very early times Christ was
represented in art as a lamb, in allusion
to many texts in the Old and New Testa­
FIONARY.
22
­5

LAM
ART
ments.
This representation was of
course symbolic, and it varied consider­
realistic representation of Jesus Christ,
Sometimes the lamb appears on an
eminence from which four rivers flow­
[Evangelists.] A passage in the Apoca­
lypse, which speaks of the lamb with
seven horns and seven eyes, has sug­
"IONARY.
LAM
gested the curious symbol of Christ
given in our first cut. In a Latin relief
of the 4th century engraved here, we see
the lamb raising Lazarus from the dead.
The Agnus Dei, or Lamb of God, is
represented with a nimbus on his head
and holding a staff surmounted by a
Greek cross.
Lambeth Ware. (Pot,) Lambeth was
one of the earliest sites of the manu­
factories of stoneware and Delft in
England. As early as 1640 some Dutch
potters settled in the village of Lam­
beth and became famous for their glazed
pottery and tiles.
The manufactory
flourished until the end of the 18th cen­
tury, when the rise of the Staffordshire
potteries killed the Lambeth industry.
However, it soon revived, and is still in
existence.
Lamboys. A skirt, consisting of hoops
of steel, worn by warriors in the reigns
of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. It be­
longed rather to German armour than
English and was never in great vogue
in this country. A fine example of the
lamboys is to be seen in the suit of
armour given to Henry VIII. by the
Emperor Maximilian, and now in the
Tower of London.
Lambrequin. A French term which
is primarily applied to the point of a
226

LAM
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAN
label or the mantling of a helmet. In
architecture, however, and decorative
art it bears several other meanings.
For instance, it denotes the broad
borders of stuff trimmed with fringes
and tassels, which are employed either
to hide the joining of draperies or as a
mere ornament. In the 17th and 18th
centuries lambrequins, cut in the solid
stone, are frequently found on the bases
of pilasters. The name is also given to
points of lead­work placed on each side
of the ridge of a roof. For the heraldic
sense of the word, see Mantling.
Lamp. In ancient times the lamp
generally assumed the form
of a flat vessel of terra­cotta
or metal, with a small handle.
It was filled with oil, and
had several small apertures,
in which wicks were placed.
Such were the ancient lamps
of simplest form. Some, however, were
marvellously beautiful works of art, and
were richly ornamented with chasings
or figures in relief. The modern lamp
is sometimes of bronze, sometimes of
marble or stone An attempt is always
made to give it an elegant shape, and it
may be decorated with chains and other
ornaments. It stands upon a foot and
supports a vessel, which contains the
oil, or it is suspended by chains from
the ceiling. In Christian art the lamp
is the sign of watchfulness and piety,
and particularly symbolises the wise
virgins of the parable.
Lampblack A black pigment obtained
from burning turpentine, resins, or
resinous woods.
It is a solid but
somewhat heavy colour, and on this
account should only be used in small
quantities.
It is permanent, but dries
slowly.
Lance. (1.) A weapon borne
^
in all ages and by soldiers
of all nations.
Among the
Greeks and Romans the lance
was sometimes placed in a
rest and sometimes thrown
as a javelin.
In the latter
case it was provided with a
strap to give it a rotatory
motion. In the Middle Ages
the lance was pre­eminently
the weapon of the knights of
chivalry, and it was used both
in jousts and in war. It con­
sisted of a shaft about fourteen
feet long, tipped with a
spear­head, and a handle
protected by a small
round plate.
Lance. (2.)
(Her.) A charge
representing
the lance used in jousts
and tournaments.
On
coats of arms it is some­
times shown with a pen­
non, sometimes without. Several lances
227

LAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAN
are generally blazoned, and they may be
in pile, en saltire, accosted, <&c. In the
hand of Pallas the lance signifies strength
and foresight. In Christian art it is
the symbol of St. Matthew and of St.
Thomas, as well as of many lesser and
later saints.
Lance. (3.) (Arch.) As a system of
ornament the lance is widely
used. It most frequently
forms the head of the iron
bars, which make up a rail­
ing. The finest specimens of
lances are to be found in the
iron work of the 17th and
18th centuries.
Lanceolate.
Any
orna­
ment, architectural or other­
wise, which is shaped like a lance, is
termed lanceolate.
Lance­rest. A contrivance of iron
fixed on the breastplate to support the
lance. In early times it was nothing
more than a hook, but by the 16th
century it had been elaborated into
the queue­shaped rest seen in our cut.
Lancet. (Arch.) A long
narrow
pointed arch used
in the architecture
of the 13th and
14th centuries. It
is particularly
characteristic of
what is called the
Early English style (q.v.) . The lancet
arch consists of two arcs of circles the
centres of which are at a great distance
from one another. The Early English
style is sometimes termed the Lancet
style.
Landscape. (Paint.) A picture repre­
senting a view of natural scenery, in
which the interpretation of nature is the
predominant feature, and in which
figures of men or animals are only
introduced as accessories, to give a tone
of reality to the scene or to furnish a
scale of dimensions.
—, Historic. A landscape, the subject
of which is not copied exactly from
nature, but is composed in accordance
with the taste of the artist. Into
historic landscapes, ruined temples,
statues, and vases are frequently intro­
duced as well as figures, which give the
scene an air of fable or ancient history.
To this class belong the majority of
Claude's landscape as well as several of
Turner's.
—
Painter. An artist who devotes
himself to the interpretation of nature.
Among the great land­
scape painters of the
world we may mention
Ruysdael, Hobbema,
Rembrandt, Poussin, and
Claude, and belonging to
a later date, Constable
and Turner of the English
school, and Corot, Rous­
seau, Daubigny, and Cour­
bet of the French school.
Langue­de­bœuf. A
weapon the broad blade
of which was supposed to
resemble an ox's tongue.
It was fixed in a long staff
and was carried by body­
guards. It was rather a
sign of dignity than an
implement of war.
Langued. (Her.) This
term is used to blazon the
tongue of an animal when
this member is shown pro­
jecting and is of a different
tincture to the rest of the animal's head.
228

LAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAO
Lantern. (Arch.) A lantern is a small
cage, consisting of a metal frame filled
in with panes of glass, which protect
from currents of air the flame burning
within them.
Many of the
y
lanterns of forged iron belong­
ing to the 17th and 18th cen­
turies are masterpieces of de­
corative art. As an architec­
tural ornament a lantern is a
kind of finial, in the form of
a glass dome, a pierced cam­
panile, or a belvedere rising
above the top of a building.
The term is also applied to
the interior of Gothic towers,
at the intersection of the nave
and transepts, when the tower
is not concealed by a vault.
The upper portion of Gothic
spires which are pierced by
windows on all sides are called lanterns.
The spire of Rouen Cathedral, for in­
stance, is surmounted by a lantern.
There is yet another sense in which
the term lantern is used. It denotes
the small towers which surmount a
staircase or serve as an end ornament
to a massive buttress. Such lanterns
are generally met with in buildings of
the Renaissance style.
Lanterne des Morts. A small build­
ing generally in the form of a hollow
column, terminated by a pierced turret.
Lanternes des Morts were generally
shrines in honour of the dead, or served
as landmarks to point the way to
religious houses. In the 14th century
they ceased to assume the form of
solitary columns, and were replaced by
chapels, in which a lamp was always
burning.
Laocoon. In Greek mythology Laocoon
was a Trojan priest of Apollo, who when
the famous wooden horse was received
within the walls of Troy, warned his
countrymen not to accept the gift of the
Greeks. It being the will of the gods
that Troy should be taken, serpents
were sent to devour Laocoon and his
two sons while they were sacrificing.
The judgment of heaven on the presump­
tion of Laocoon was the subject of a
celebrated group, sculptured by Atheno­
dorus, Agesandrus, and Polydorus, three
artists of the Rhodian school. It was
discovered in 1506 in Rome, and was
perhaps first estimated at its proper
value by Winckelmann. It is now at the
Vatican.
In the realistic expression of
physical anguish it reaches the utmost
limit attainable by sculpture.
Lessing
made the Laocoon group the text for
his famous essay on the limits of
sculpture and painting.
Laordose. This curious term, which
is in all probability a corruption of La
Reredos, is applied in the Durham manu­
script to the altar­screen. [Reredos.]
229

LAP
ART
DICTIONARY.
LAT
Lapidary. An artisan who cuts and
engraves precious stones, or who places
them in a setting of gold or silver. In
another sense an inscription engraved
upon a stone may be termed a lapidary
inscription ; hence the concise and
solemn style of memorial inscriptions
engraved on public monuments has
been termed the lapidary style.
Lapis­lazuli. An opaque blue stone,
veined with white, used in the decora­
tive arts, especially in the adornment of
some kinds of expensive furniture.
Lapithae. The Lapithae were a
mythical race of Thessaly, the most
celebrated among them being Ixion and
Peirithous.
Ixion, for presuming to
harbour a passion for the goddess Hera,
was punished by being bound to an ever­
revolving wheel. The most famous
incident in the life of Peirithous was his
marriage with Deidamia. His kinsmen,
the Centaurs, were invited to the
marriage feast, and after the banquet
attempted to carry off the bride. Then
followed the battle between the Lapithae
and Centaurs, which was one of the
favourite subjects of Greek sculpture.
We find it represented on the metopes
of the Parthenon, the frieze of the
Theseum at Athens, and on the
western pediment of the temple of Zeus
at Olympia. It also forms the subject
of countless Greek vases.
Lararium. A shrine or chapel in
which the Romans placed images of the
Lares and Penates, or household gods.
Lares. In the religion of Rome Lares
were guardian angels supposed to be
the spirits of deceased persons, one of
which protected every Roman house.
AnimageofaLar,intheformof a
youth crowned with laurel, and holding
a horn of plenty and sometimes a patera,
was reverently kept in the lararium (q v.),
where sacrifices were offered in its
honour.
Large. (Paint ) A term used of the
free, ample treatment of a subject in
painting, in opposition to paltry, timid, |
thin. Thus we say of an artist that he
has a large touch ; of draperies, that
they are largely treated.
Larmier. [Corona ]
Larvae. As the Lares (q.v.) were
supposed to be the souls of the good
departed, so the Larvae in the religious
system of the Romans were regarded as
the spirits of those whose crimes on
earth had entitled them to no rest after
death. They were invested with no
material form and so are not repre­
sented in art.
Last Judgment, The. The subject of
Christ come to judge the world was
frequently treated by Italian painters.
For some reason or other it was never
attempted in early Christian art Among
the most celebrated representations of
the Last Judgment we may mention
those of Luca Signorelli at Orvieto and
Michael Angelo's great design in the
Sistine Chapel.
Last Supper, The. The Last Supper,
or Christ supping with his apostles the
evening before the passion, is a favourite
subject with artists of all schools, and is
constantly represented in frescoes, pic­
tures, and bas­reliefs. The Last Supper
by Leonardo da Vinci is perhaps the most
celebrated work with this incident for
its subject. In the majority of pictures
representing the Last Supper Christ
wears a nimbus, as do all the apostles
except Judas, who is never represented
nimbed
Latch, (i.) (Arch.) A small shank of
metal on a door, which by its own weight
falls into a socket placed on the door­
post to receive it, and forms an efficient
means of keeping a door closed.
Latch. (2.) A name given to the cross­
bow (q v.) in the 16th century.
Lateral. (Arch.) A term applied to
anything situated on the side of a build­
ing ; thus we speak of lateral openings—
meaning openings on the side of a
principal opening—lateral chapels, &c
Lath. (Arch.) Long thin slips of oak or
fir used in roofs, wainscoting, &c.
230

LAT
ART DR
Latten. A metal resembling brass,
which was much used in the Middle
Ages for making monumental brasses,
crosses, candlesticks, &c Its exact
composition is uncertain and the ancient
authorities are contradictory. Modern
latten resembles the orichalcum of the
ancients, being a mixture of copper and
calamine.
Lattice. (Arch.) An open space, crossed
by thin slips of wood or bars of metal,
meeting each other diagonally.
Laurel. (Arch.) Foliage of a certain
kind arranged in garlands and frequently
used as a decorative motive. In heraldry
the laurel is represented
ΐ
4
λ
ί
ftR as a snru
fr
w
*th i°
n
s
iwf WKWII Pomte
d leaves and a
WpH^dllf
smooth trunk
without
VAIÌÌÌIIÌ knots. The laurel is the
ilMIifillw
s
ymt)0l of success, victory,
(f|y|f/ji\ji and triumph. In classical
*\jj.'
I'ji art the laurel was sacred
to Apollo, and the victors
in the Pythian games were crowned with
laurel. It is figured as an emblem of
peace on Christian sarcophagi. In deco­
rative panels bunches of laurel are often
represented, the leaves of which are
dark green and the flowers of a beautiful
rose tint.
Laurence. St. St. Laurence was
deacon to Sixtus II., Bishop of Rome,
and was by him appointed keeper of
the treasures of the Church. Sixtus
having been persecuted and put to
death by the prefect of Rome, Laurence
was arrested and suffered martyrdom by
being roasted alive on a kind of gridiron.
Representations of St. Laurence are
frequently met with in art. He is
represented as a youth in the dress of a
deacon, carrying the palm of martyrdom.
The attribute by which he is most easily
recognisable is the gridiron, but some­
times instead of this he bears a censer
or the treasures of the Church in a
bowl.
Lavabo, or Lavatory. (Arch.) A
special room in mediaeval buildings in
riONARY.
LAY
which piscinae and small reservoirs
were arranged under richly ornamented
arcades. In religious houses the monks
washed their hands in the lavatories
before and after dinner, and they were
therefore situated near the refectory.
The lavabo in some abbeys consists of
a basin placed round a central column
which supports the springing of the
vault.
Lavatorium. (Arch.) A kind of lavabo
consisting of a large basin, in which the
bodies of the religious dead were washed
before burial.
Lay­figure. An artificial figure, the
frame of which is of wood or metal. Its
joints are articulated by means of
spherical pieces set side by side, so that
its limbs are movable. There are lay
figures of animals, principally horses, as
well as of men. In size they vary from
life­size to a few inches in height. They
may best be described as articulated
dolls, constructed in accordance with
231

LAY
ART
DICTIONARY.
LEA
the laws of anatomy and bearing the
structure of the human skeleton. The
articulated joints allow them to assume
every attitude. The lay­figure is chiefly
used for hanging draperies upon, for
thus the artist is enabled to study the
folds at greater leisure than he could
from the living model. At the same
time it is dangerous to copy too slavishly
the attitudes of the lay­figure, for its
outlines must always be harder and
cruder than those of the living model.
Lay the Ground, To (Engrav.) To
cover a copper plate with a grain or
file­like ground by the use of the cradle
«or rocker (q.v .). This instrument is
held firmly in the hand and then rocked
to and fro, by which process an indented
furrow is made across the plate. This
is repeated until the plate is covered
with parallel paths or ways and a grain
of the proper texture is obtained.
Lazurline, or Lazurstein. A brilliant
blue pigment obtained from lapis lazuli,
generally known as ultramarine (q.v.).
Lead. A heavy malleable metal which
has been employed for a variety of archi­
tectural and artistic purposes. It has
been especially used in roofing buildings
and in making épis (q.v.) and girouettes
(q.v.). Statues intended to serve as
garden decorations have been success­
fully cast in it. Some pigments, such
as white lead and chrome yellow, have
lead as a base. They are, however, of
little service to the painter, for not only
do they easily tarnish themselves, but
they adversely affect other pigments
with which they come in contact.
Leading. (Arch.) Thin strips of lead
inclosing small panes of glass. The
232
most simple leading assumes the lozenge
pattern.
Sometimes leadings present
patterns consisting of complicated poly­
gonal combinations.
Lead­pencils. Ordinary lead pencils,
used for drawing or jotting down hasty
sketches, consist of a small rod of plum­
bago enclosed within a piece of cedar­
wood. They are cut sharp with a knife,
and the lead may have a fine point put to
it by rubbing it on emery paper. Lead
pencils of a very fine grain are made
from the graphite of Siberia.
Lead­plate. A thin plate of lead is
often placed in the joints of a wall or at
the base of statues set on pedestals, in
order to fill up the inequalities of the
stone and so to render the adherence
and therefore the stability more com­
plete.
Leaf. (1.) (Arch.) The leaves of a table
are the separate pieces of
timber of which its sur­
face is composed. A
table may be increased
or decreased in length by
the addition or removal
of a leaf. The rectangular
piece of timber which forms a door is
termed a leaf. The leaves of a folding
door are the two portions which meet
together when the door is closed.
Leaf. (2.) A system of ornament re­
presenting a leaf,
IMffViSlliP'
1
!'
treate
d sometimes
ÎijWinll //TroÎ! realistically, some ­
times in a conven­
tional spirit. It
may be applied to
a moulding and re­
peated along its whole length, or may
decorate the bell of a capital. Decora­
tive leaves sometimes project consider­
ably from the ground upon which they
are worked, sometimes they are only
sketched in outline. [Foliage.]
—, Acanthus. The leaf of the acan­
thus is constantly used in decorative
sculpture. It is generally represented
turned back, so as to form a kind of

LEA
ART
DICTIONARY.
LEA
volute, and it is especially characteristic
of the Corinthian and Composite orders
of architecture. [Acanthus.]
Leaf, Angle. A leaf placed at the angle
formed by two
mouldings,
such
as the angle of a
ceiling
cornice
The centre nerve
of the leaf gene­
rally coincides
with the angle of the moulding, and the
two portions of the leaf are arranged
symmetrically one on each face of the
moulding.
—, Cabbage. This leaf was employed
as an architectural ornament in the 15th
and 16th centuries. The crockets which
decorate gable­ends are often formed of
cabbage leaves, in the execution of which
with the chisel the artists of the Middle
Ages displayed extraordinary skill.
—, Fi g. The leaf usually employed
to cover the nudity of statues. Where
this has to be done it is far better that the
sculptor should do it himself with flying
draperies or other accessories, if indeed
he can do it without making his purpose
painfully evident. The use of the fig­
leaf is in all cases a clumsy expedient,
dictated by a spirit of ignorant prudery.
— , Laurel. An ornament consisting
of the leaves of the laurel, generally
arranged three together.
—
of a Fan. A piece of paper, parch­
ment, or satin,
cut in the form
of two portions
of concentric
circles
and
bounded by
two radii. Upon the leaves of fans
water­colour drawings or gouaches are
often executed.
—
of an En­
|||i\' tablature. A term
applied to rows of
leaves which de­
corate an entabla­
ture or separate two mouldings.
In
16
Gothic architecture their tips curve over
so as to form crockets, as in our cut.
Leaf, Olive. An ornament consisting
of the leaves of the olive­tree, usually
arranged in bunches of five leaves.
— , Parsley. Small thin leaves, which,
like the acanthus leaf, enter into the
decoration of the Corinthian capital.
— , Thistle. An ornament sometimes
found on capitals of the 15th century.
— , Water. A leaf of undulating form
and unbroken border, which is employed
to decorate mouldings or surfaces of a
considerable size. It is also frequently
employed in iron­work, especially to en­
KlAUAl^^
rich the front of balconies, in which case,
however, leaves of a more strongly
marked outline are used to relieve the
dryness of the usual spirals and scrolls.
Leaning­place. (Arch.) The portion
of a wall included be­
tween the ground and
the window­sill, together
with the sill which sur­
mounts it. In buildings
of the Gothic style lean­
ing­places are called alleges (q.v .).
Lean­to. (Arch.) A shed or roof with
ο1
*
a single slope fixed to the wall of a
building by its upper edge. The term
2
33

LEA
ART
DICTIONARY.
LEC
is also applied to buildings which have
a roof arranged on this plan.
Leather. The skins of animals tanned
and hardened have been used exten­
sively for decorative purposes In the
Middle Ages a specially prepared leather
under the name
of
cuir­bouilly
(q.v.) was used in
making portions
of armour, cas­
kets, &c.
This
was stamped when in a soft state and
richly ornamented. In the 16th century
leather was used as hangings for rooms.
These hangings were stamped with or­
nament and their beauty enhanced by
gold and silver leaf. Leather cut and
twisted into volutes was used from the
16th century onwards as a frame for
cartouches, &c. Stamping is not the
only process by which leather is orna­
mented. Figures in relief were some­
times chased upon it, and pieces of
leather thus decorated are often very
beautiful and costly.
— , Cordova. Strips of leather orna­
mented with figures cut in low relief
and either painted or gilt. In modern
times many imitations of Cordova leather
are produced by stamping, and used, as
were the genuine materials, as hangings
or chair­covers .
Lebes. A large vessel of swelling form
either to catch the water which was
poured from a jug over the feet and
hands after meals, or as a caldron, in
which to boil meat. The cuts we give
here represent specimens of the lebes
used for the latter purpose.
Lectern. A portion of church furni­
ture placed in the choir and forming a
single or double reading­desk. It gene­
generally made of bronze. It was used
rally revolves on a pivot and very fre­
quently assumes the form of an eagle
with outspread wings. The gospel was
234

LEC
ART
DICTIONARY.
LES
originally chaunted from the lectern and
the books of the clergy
were placed upon it. Now
only the lessons are read
from the lectern and no­
thing but the Bible rests
upon it. There are many
beautiful lecterns in exis­
tence of sculptured wood,
while others are made of stone, marble,
beaten iron, or copper.
Lecythus. (Pot.) A Greek vase in the
form of a cylin­
drical cruet, with
a narrow neck and
a lip which wid­
ens out consider­
ably. From this
lip a handle
reaches to the
body of the vase.
The lecythus was
intended to con­
tain oils or per­
fumes.
Athenian
lecythi were often
of exquisite beauty
of workmanship,
and were adorned
with painted
figures of great beauty.
Leeds. (Pot.) The first potteries were
established at Leeds in the 18th century.
Dresden china was accepted as a model,
and perforated or reticulated pieces
were made in considerable numbers.
Leeds china was of a dullish white, and
was distinguished by its glaze, one of
the ingredients in which was arsenic.
Artistic pottery has long ceased to be
made at Leeds.
Legend. The title or explanation of a
picture or engraving ; the inscription on
a coin or medal. The term also denotes
the inscriptions placed in certain parts
of pictures or frescoes.
Lemniscus. A fillet worn by the
Greeks.
It consisted of ribbons of
various colours, and was suspended to
crowns at the back of the head or, as
I was more usually the case, attached to
wreaths or fillets.
Lemon Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
composed of chromic acid and barium.
It is said to be entirely permanent and
unaffected by damp, foul air, light, or
admixture with white lead and other
dangerous pigments.
Leonard, St. St. Leonard, who died
in 559, was a native of France, and until
he retired to live the life of a hermit was
in high favour at the French court. He
devoted himself to ministering to
prisoners and captives, and hence has
always been regarded as the patron
saint of prisoners. He is generally
represented with chains hanging round
his waist, and wears the tunic of the
Benedictines. The principal events of
his life are set forth in mosaic in St.
Mark's, at Venice.
Leopard. (Her.) In heraldry the
leopard is always repre­
sented walking, and with
his head turned so as to be
full face towards the spec­
tator ; in other words a
leopard is always passant
guardant. Hence it is sup­
posed that in early heraldry the term
leopard was merely used as an abbre­
viation for lion passant guardant,
and
that it did not imply a distinct animal ;
at any rate we find that the arms of
England were formerly always blazoned
gules, three leopards or.
Lesene. (Arch.) A building among the
Greeks consisting of covered courts with
porticoes. The walls were generally
covered with paintings, often by the
greatest artists, as was the case at
2
35

LET
ART
DICTIONARY.
LIE
Delphi, where the lesche was decorated
with pictures representing the sacking
of Troy and the visit of Odysseus to the
Shades by the great Polygnotus himself.
Letter, Before. [Proof before letter.]
Letter, Ornamental. A decorated or
illuminated letter. Ornamental letters,
most frequently used as initials to chap­
ters, are often painted in mediaeval
manuscripts. In printed books orna­
mental letters are used, and are either
drawn and engraved on wood or repro­
duced by some chemical process. These
afford great scope to the talent of the
artist. In their simplest form they are
only initials of a large size surrounded
by ornaments.
The more elaborate
among them, however, are vignettes, in
which the letter is ingeniously woven out
of the attributes or figures in the design.
Lettered. [Proof, lettered.]
Level. A right­angled triangle of wood
or iron, two sides of
which are accurately ad­
justed. A plummet is
suspended from the apex
of the triangle, and if the
ine which is to be verified is perfectly
horizontal, the thread ought to divide the
cross­bar which forms the hypotenuse of
the triangle into two equal parts. The
level is used by workmen of every class
—mas o ns, carpenters, and
cabinet­
makers. It is the symbol of equality,
and is thus figured in emblematic tro­
phies.
— , Spirit. A level consisting of a tube
filled with spirit and
slightly curved. A
bubble of air is left
in it, which occupies
the exact centre of the tube when the
level is placed on a perfectly horizontal
surface.
—, Water. A
^ tube of iron the ex­
tremities of which
arebentsoastobe
at right angles to
the main body of the tube. A small
glass bottle filled with coloured water is
placed at each end. A line drawn from
the eye of the observer over the surface
of the water in the bottles, serves to de­
termine a horizontal line.
Library. (Arch.) A term applied to a
room in which books are arranged in
shelves, or to a public building which
serves the purpose of a storehouse for
books and provides accommodation for
readers.
Lichaven. A dolmen which has only
two supporting
stones. The name
of trilith is also
given to these dol­
mens because they
are formed of three
stones, two being
placed vertically
and buried in the ground, the third
forming a table and being placed hori­
zontally.
Lich­gate. (Arch.) This term, which
is derived from the Anglo­Saxon lie, a
body, denotes a shed or roof placed over
a churchyard gate. The bearers of a
coffin sometimes deposited it here on
their way to the interment. It is also
called corpse­gate.
Licked up. (Paint.) In studio slang,
a picture is said to be licked up when it
is precisely and minutely painted, and
when the artist has set himself to conceal
the marks of the brush as well as the
effect of the colour freshly laid on. In
fact, the surface of a picture thus licked
up is actually polished with a flat brush.
The term is only used in a bad sense ; at
the same time licked­up pictures con­
stantly delude the public by their ap­
parent finish.
Lierne. (Arch.) A Heme in a vaulted
compartment is the rib
running along the apex
of the vault from boss to
boss. Liernes are found
in pointed vaults, and
were used principally
about the middle of the 15th century.
236

LIF
ART DICI
Life­size. A term applied to any work
of imitative art which represents its
subject in its actual dimensions.
Light. (Paint.) The quality which is
possessed by the most luminous part of
a picture, drawing, or engraving in con­
tradistinction to those parts which are
relatively obscure and so said to be in
shade (q.v.). The term is also applied
to the way in which the luminous por­
tions of a picture are rendered. Thus
we say of a picture that it lacks light or
that its light is well distributed. Light
also denotes the way in which pictures
themselves should be lighted in a studio
or exhibition gallery, so as to appear to
best advantage. Thus we may describe
a picture as being in a good or bad light.
As a general rule a top light is best for
pictures, as this produces the smallest
number of reflections on the surface of
the canvas. For seeing sculpture, the
angle formed with the horizon by the
luminous rays ought not to be more
than forty­five degrees.
—, Red. (Paint.) A pigment produced
from sulphate of iron or from yellow
oxides of iron burnt. It is permanent
but should not be mixed with colours,
which are adversely affected by iron.
—,
Secondary. (Paint.) A term
applied to a glimmer of light which is
only accessory in the lighting of a
painted scene. Thus if in a moonlit
pasture a shepherd is seen advancing
lantern in hand, this lantern, which
throws a light over a part of the canvas,
bears the name of a secondary light, as
opposed to the rays of the moon,
which is the principal light of the pic­
ture.
Lighthouse. (Arch.) A tower, turret,
or other lofty construction, built upon
the sea­coast or on the bank of a large
river, and carrying a powerful lamp at
the top, which serves as a guide to
sailors. At the entrance of the harbours
constructed by the Romans a lighthouse
was generally built in imitation of the
great lighthouse of Alexandria.
This
LIM
resembled a huge funeral pyre, and
consisted of several
A
truncated pyramids
jB
placed in retreat one
Jjj$
above the other. Colos­
JJBL
sal figures have some­
φ
3
Ε
times taken the place of
jIJ
a lighthouse. Such was
J4a
the famous Colossus of
I||
Rhodes, and such is the
Ι
Μ
great statue of Indefien­
H'l "*%
dence, executed by Bar­
ΐΪΓ|
tholdi, which stands at
/Ώ
Λ
the entrance to New
r
^^S3MM^k
York Harbour. In such
**^
cases as these a lantern or beacon must
surmount the figure.
Lights, (i.) (Paint.) The lights in a
picture are those parts where the light
falls with the most brilliance. A strong
effect is obtained by making those parts
to which it is desired to give promi­
nence the lights of the picture.
Lights. (2.) (Arch.) The architectural
term for thé divisions of a window be­
tween the mullions. Thus a window
may consist of three, five, seven, or
more lights.
Lily. The symbol of purity and inno­
cence. In representations of the Annun­
ciation (q.v.) it is always to be seen,
either in the hand of the angel Gabriel
or placed in a vase.
Limbus. A border worn on the gar­
ments of both men and women among
the Greeks and in a less degree the
Romans.
It assumed a variety of
patterns, many of which resembled
architectural mouldings.
Représenta­
it?^ £7.
*37

LIM
ART DU
tions of the limbus are frequently found
on Greek vases, from which our cuts
have been taken.
Limestone. A hard finely­grained
stone used in building.
Limoges Enamels.
[Enamels,
Limoges.]
—
Faοence. The manufactory of fai­
ence at Limoges was founded in the year
1773 by Massié. Early pieces of this
ware are rarely met with and are con­
sequently very valuable.
After passing
through many hands the manufacture
languished, until in the present cen­
tury it received fresh impetus from
American enterprise.
Line. (1.) (Paint.) The great ambition
that he is on the line, or that he is hung
above it. It is the privilege of Acade­
micians to have a certain number of
pictures on the line every year.
Line (2.) The contour of a figure. Thus
we speak of a figure which possesses
great purity of line. If we say of an
artist that he has sacrificed line to
colour, we mean that he has allowed his
colour to predominate over his design.
—, Dotted. A line formed of a series
of round points or small strokes regu­
larly spaced, which are used on a plan
to indicate axes, invisible lines, or direc­
tions.
— , Horizontal. The line of intersec­
tion between a horizontal and a vertical
plane.
In perspective the term is
applied to all lines parallel to the
horizon.
—
Engraving. That branch of engrav­
ing in which the design to be copied is
reproduced on copper by incised lines
The process is as follows. The drawing
to be reproduced is traced and trans­
TIONARY.
LIN
ferred to a copper plate ; it is then cut
in with a sharp tool called the dry­point.
The lines thus slightly cut in are empha­
sised with the graver (q.v .), and when the
work of the graver is finished the plate
may be printed from.
The resources
at the disposal of the line engraver are
few.
He has only lines of different
lengths and at different distances from
one another, aided by dots and cross­
hatching, with which to reproduce the
tones and values of his original. Many
line engravers to lessen their work
have used etching (q.v.), not only to
get the first sketch of the original on
their plate, but also in the later stages
of their work. The labour involved in
the process is very considerable, and it
is not surprising that in modern times
the art has considerably declined.
Samuel Cousins, the last great line
engraver of England, is recently dead,
and has scarcely left any one to take his
place.
—
of Beauty. A term applied, in
accordance with a certain artistic theory,
to a graceful, curved, or undulating Ime
— s om etimes quite mannered—outside
which, it is said, there is no line really
beautiful and worthy of admiration.
Hogarth was the first to formulate the
theory of the serpentine line or line of
beauty, which he did in two large vo­
lumes. He placed his line of beauty on
a palette underneath his own portrait
and it is here engraved.
—
of Level. The line which determines
the horizontal position of two points' at
some distance from one another.
238

LIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
LIO
Line of Shadow. The line which in a
lighted body separates the luminous part
from the part in shadow.
—
of Slope The line which deter­
mines the difference in level between
two points.
— , Plumb A line perpendicular to the
surface of smooth water. This line indi­
cates the direction of the plummet.
Lineal. That which relates to the lines
of a drawing or painting. Thus we
speak of the lineal harmony of a paint­
ing.
Linear. A term applied to plans exe­
cuted by means of regular lines, geo­
metrical curves, and to drawings made
with the rule and compass.
Linen Scroll. A decorative pattern
_
found in panels of
carved wood and
so called from its
resemblance to a
linen napkin fold­
ed up. It is cha­
racteristic of the
ornamental wood­
work of the 15th
"""
and 16th centuries.
Linstock. A pike with two branches
which terminated in a snake's head, as
is shown in the cut. It was carried by
cannoniers in the 16th century, and a
lighted fuse being placed in one of the
branches, it enabled him to fire the
cannon and at the same time to have a
weapon with which he could defend
himself.
Lintel. (Arch.) The horizontal beam,
sometimes plain, sometimes ornamental,
which unites the
uprights of a dooi
or window. The
lintel may be of
timber, iron, or
stone.
In the
latter case, if it is a monolith, it is gene­
rally of little width. More often, how­
•i&*'
ever, it is composed of stones, narrowed
towards their base, which form a secure
plat­band. Lintels
J1L·*.
w
of iron can hardly
be treated in a de­
corative spirit, yet
they have the ad­
vantage of render­
ing a very wide bearing possible.
Lion. (Her.) The lion is the most
common of heraldic charges, having
been always highly esteemed by heralds.
The several positions in which lions are
represented are each denoted by special
words of French origin, to which it is
customary, however, to give an Anglicised
pronunciation.
Lions are said to be
armed when their claws are of a differ­
ent tincture, langued when their tongue
shows, and disarmed when they have
neither claws nor tongue. Unless other­
wise specified, lions, like other heraldic
charges, are always represented look­
ing towards the
dexter side of the
shield.
—
Couchant. The
lion couchant is re­
presented as lying
down, its front paws
stretched out straight on the ground and
its head raised up.
239

LIO
ART
DICTIONARY.
LIT
Lion Dormant. A
lion dormant is re­
presented in heraldry
as lying down in an
attitude of sleep, with
its head laid upon its
front paws.
—
Passant. A lion in this
attitude is shewn walking
with the right fore paw
raised, as represented in
the accompanying cut.
— Passant Gardant. In
this position the lion differs
from the lion passant in that his head is
turned towards the spectator instead of
being seen in profile. An illustration of
this is given under the word Leopard
(q.v.) The arms of England are : Gules,
three lions passant gardant in pale or.
—
Passant Regardant. Here the lion
resembles the lion passant except that
he is looking backwards towards his
tail, that is to the sinister side of the
shield.
—
Rampant. In this well­known posi­
tion the lion is reared up
on his hind legs, with his
weight on the left ; the two
fore legs are elevated, the
right above the left. The
arms of Scotland are : Or,
within a tressure fleury
counter­fleury, a lion rampant gules.
—
Salient. The lion salient is reared
up as the lion ram­
but with this
difference, that both
the hind paws and
the fore paws are
placed together as they
would be for a leap.
—
Sejant. A lion sejant is repre­
sented sitting down
on the haunches with
its fore legs firmly
planted on the ground
and looking" toward
the dexter side of the
shield.
Lion, Statant. A
lion in this position is
shown in profile, his feet
planted firmly on the
ground and his face
turned towards the spec­
tator.
Lioncel. (Her.) A lioncel is a lion's
whelp. In heraldry a
lion is represented
alone on a shield, but
lioncels appear two to­
gether. Our cut repre­
sents two lioncels ad­
dorsed.
L­iron. (Arch.) A
bent piece of metal
used to strengthen
angles formed by
pieces of wood or iron
placed perpendicularly
to one another.
Listel. (Arch.) A plane moulding,
semi­rectangular in profile, which sepa­
rates a concave or convex moulding.
[Fillet.] The term is also applied to
that part of the shaft of a column
which occupies the interval between the
flutings.
Lithochrome. A process the object
of which is to produce imitations of
pictures.
To attain this end litho­
graphic proofs are struck off on paper
rendered transparent by thick varnish ;
oil­colour is then applied in thick coat­
ings to the wrong side of these proofs,
which are finally sized down upon
canvas and varnished in the ordinary
way.
Lithochromography. A term applied
to colour­printing on stone.
It is gene­
rally called chromolithography (q.v .) .
Lithochrysography. The art of
printing in gold and colour on stone.
Lithocolla. A cement by means of
which lapidaries fix down the gems
which they are cutting to the grindstone.
Lithoglyph. An engraved gem.
Lithoglyphy. The art of engraving
upon precious stones.
240

LIT
ART
DICTIONARY.
LIT
Lithograph. A print struck off from a
lithographic stone.
Lithographic Stone. The stone used
by lithographers comes for the most part
from Solenhofen in Bavaria and from
various places on the Danube. It is of
a yellowish grey colour, and it is essen­
tial that it should have a uniform sur­
face and be entirely free from veins and
spots.
Lithography. A branch of the art of
engraving in which the drawing to be
reproduced is traced upon a stone in
an oily ink or crayon. The stone is
damped, and the printer's ink only ad­
heres to those portions of the stone
where the design is drawn. Prints are
then struck off in the usual manner.
The process was invented in 1796 by a
German named Senefelder. In the pre­
sent day it must chiefly be regarded as a
branch of industrial art, for it is used
principally in the production of cheap
illustrations. But it has been adopted by
many brilliant artists.
The French
draughtsmen, Prudhon, Géricault, Dela­
croix, Vernet, and Gavarni, all executed
lithographs, which can really be regarded
as proofs of orignal drawings. Unfortu­
nately only a limited number of copies can
be printed from the stone without destroy­
ing the delicacy of the drawing. Some
engravings have been executed on stone
in the ordinary way, i.e . the graver
has been employed to incise lines on
stone. This process, however, cannot
be recommended, as it entails considera­
ble labour and is inferior in its results
to ordinary line engraving.
Lithophany. A process by means of
which designs are modelling on plaques
of porcelain or biscuit, which are trans­
parent, and when held up to the light
display lights and shades.
Difference
of tone is obtained by increasing or de­
creasing the thickness of the porcelain
or biscuit. The porcelain is cast in
moulds which are produced mechani­
cally or by hand, and the whole skill
of the artist in making these moulds
consists in properly graduating the
thickness of the plaque. The thick por­
tions give the blacks, while the whites,
which are also transparent, are yielded
by the thin portions.
Lithophotography. A process of litho­
graphic printing in which the drawing
on the stone is not executed by the
artist himself, but is obtained from a
photographic cliché, which leaves a
proof upon the stone similar to a proof
taken on sensitised paper.
Lithophoto­
graphic proofs have the appearance of
photographs, and sometimes are a little
blurred, but they have the advantage
of being permanent if they are printed
in a certain kind of ink.
Lithostereotype. A chemical process
of engraving upon stone, invented by
Tissier in 1841, which also goes by the
barbarous name of Tissierography. It
consists in hollowing out by means of
azotic acid those portions of the stone
which are not covered with ink or
crayon. The part in relief then stands
out just like printer's type. The cliché
thus obtained can be printed from by
the ordinary typographic process.
Lithostrotum. A mosaic pavement,
composed of small pieces of coloured
marble.
Lithotypography. A process by which
facsimiles of printed pages are traced
upon stone either by moistening the
pages of the old volume with a special
chemical compound and pressing it upon
the stone or by tracing proofs freshly
struck from printers' types. The stone
is then eaten with acid as in the litho­
stereotype process and printed from.
The advantage of lithotypography is that
by it old printed books can be exactly
facsimiled.
Little Masters. A term applied to a
group of artists who executed small
designs either on wood or copper for
illustrative and other purposes. They
flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries,
and included Jost Amman, Aldegrever,
Hans Schatifling, Baldung Griin, Hans
241

LIT
ART
DICTIONARY.
LOO
Sebald Beham, Burgmair, and Altdorfer
The majority of them worked under
Dtirer's influence, and their prints,
though small in size, are admirable in
execution.
Litre. (Arch.) A French term which
denotes the band which ran round some
churches of the Middle Ages and Re­
naissance period, upon which the coats
of arms of the pious founders were
painted. It is also applied to the large
ornamental bands painted upon the flat
surface of a wall, and especially to the
vertical bands which separate panels
Lituus. The ancient counterpart of
the bishop's crosier.
It
was a twisted wand carried
by augurs, and was used
for purposes of divination.
VH When represented in works
""*' Tj °f
art
it is generally in the
form of a spiral.
Liverpool In the 17th and 18th cen­
turies Liverpool was an important centre
of the ceramic art. Many potteries were
established there, in the majority of
which Delft ware was taken as a model.
Loaded (Paint.) A canvas is said to
be loaded when the paint is laid thickly
upon it. By loading a canvas in certain
parts strong shadows may be obtained,
which add to the effect of the picture.
[Impasto.]
Lobe. [Foils ]
Local Colour. [Colour, Local ]
Lock. A contrivance for making fast
a door.
It consists of a metal bolt
turned by a key. The works of the
lock are generally hidden in the thick­
ness of the wall and only a plate shows,
which is frequently ornamented.
Locker. [Credential
Loft. (Arch ) A term applied to a
garret or small room in the roof of a
building or to a gallery in a church or
hall, such as a rood­loft, a music­loft, &c
Loge. (Arch.) A French term which
denotes in thea­
trical architec­
ture what is
called in English
a box—a small
room closed on
three sides and
open only in the
direction of the
stage.
Loggia. (Arch.) A gallery or portico
projecting from a
building and some­
times decorated with
paintings. The term
is also applied to the
paintings themselves.
Thus we speak of the
loggias of Raphael at
the Vatican.
Lombard Style.
(Arch.) A term applied by some writers
to the Romanesque style of architecture,
from the fact that many examples of it
are to be seen in the north of Italy.
Longinus, St. The name given in the
legends of the early Church, upon no
authority, to the centurion who pierced
the side of our Lord and who spoke the
words, "Truly this man is the Son of
God."
He is frequently represented in
pictures of the crucifixion wearing the
dress of a Roman soldier and carrying
a spear in his hand.
Loophole. (Arch.) A long
narrow opening in the walls
of fortified castles, through
which archers discharged
their arrows. When they
were cruciform, so that mis­
siles could be discharged
from them in every direc­
tion, they were called ballis­
traria (q.v .).
242

LOS
ART
DICTIONARY.
LOW
Lost Wax Process. A process of
bronze founding in which the core is
covered with an accurate representation
of the object to be cast in wax, the wax
being of the intended thickness of the
metal. The wax is then coated with a
porous clay and the whole mass is put
in a pit and baked. During the process
of baking the wax melts and runs off
through apertures left for the purpose.
The space left after the wax is melted
is occupied by the metal. This, the
oldest method of bronze founding, is pro­
bably the best, and in the present day it
is being pretty generally adopted. In
the method, which for some time has
been in vogue, the core was made of
the exact size of the object to be cast
and afterwards pared down, so as to
leave space for the metal to run in be­
tween the core and the mould. [Foun­
ding.]
Lottinoplastic. A method of moulding
invented in 1833 by the littérateur and tra­
veller, Lottin de Laval. It consists in tak­
ing an impression of an object by means
of damp sheets of paper placed one over
the other upon the object and succes­
sively plugged with a brush. When the
sheets of paper have acquired the con­
sistency of cardboard they can be with­
drawn, and when they are dry may be
rolled up. Lottinoplastic is of service in
the reproduction of statues of bas­reliefs,
and it has the great advantage, for tra­
vellers at least, of furnishing moulds easy
to carry and of trifling weight.
Lotus. The leaves and flowers of the
lotus plant are frequently employed for
decorative purposes in the buildings of
India and Egypt, and are considered
as the symbol of fecundity and life.
The open flower of the lotus, as well as
the buds and the leaves shaped like a
bell, have frequently been reproduced
by the Egyptians. In fact the greater
number of Egyptian capitals are in the
form of a lotus­flower with the upper
part cut off, swelling at the base and
contracted towards the top, or of a calix,
the circumference of which is decorated
with convex lobes representing the petals
of the lotus.
Louvre. (1.) A name given to the
palace of the Louvre in Paris, and more
especially to the collection of works of
art made in the reign of Francis I. and
considerably increased by Louis XIV.
and Napoleon I. The galleries of the
Louvre include collections of pictures,
drawings, objects of art belonging to the
Middle Age and Renaissance, ancient
and modern sculpture, as well as ex­
amples of Assyrian, Egyptian, and
Etruscan art. To these we must add
the print­room and the galleries, in
which special bequests of pictures and
other artistic objects are placed.
Louvre. (2.) (Arch.) A small lantern
or turret placed on the roof of halls in
ancient houses, in order to carry away
the smoke which rose from the open
hearth.
Louvre or Luffer Boarding. [Abat­
son.]
Lovers' Knots. (Her.) A cord inter­
twined and terminated in a knot at each
end.
Lowestoft Ware. From a fine clay
found near Lowestoft some
excellent
pottery has been made. The manufac­
ture dates from the middle of the 18th
century. The earliest pieces were blue
and white, the later were generally de­
corated with variously­coloured floral
designs of great excellence.
243

LOW
ART
DICTIONARY.
LUK
Low­relief. An expression synonom­
ous with bas­relief, denoting sculptured
ornaments which have but a slight pro­
jection. [Bas­relief.]
Low­side Window. (Arch.) A small
window which is frequently to be seen
at the west end of the chancel in Gothic
churches. It was low down in the wall
near the ground and had no glass in
it, being closed either with bars or
shutters.
It is said to have served
some ecclesiastical purpose in the time
before the Reformation, but if it did
so this purpose has long been for­
gotten.
Low­warp. A process of weaving
tapestries in wool or silk, in which the
warp is horizontal, the warp being ver­
tical only in high­warp tapestries. The
principal advantage in the process con­
sists in the relative speed in the work
and consequently in its cheapness com­
pared with the high­warp process. On the
other hand, low­warp is inferior to high­
warp tapestry from the point of view of
style. But this inferiority does not strike
the untrained eye, and it is only by minute
details that it is possible to distinguish
the two methods of manufacture. The
low­warp process is exclusively em­
ployed at Beauvais and Aubusson,
while the high­warp has always been
regarded as the privileged process of the
Gobelins.
Lozenge, (i.) A geometri­
cal figure having four equal
sides. Its opposite angles are
equal, two being obtuse and
two acute.
Lozenge. (2.) (Arch.) A name given
to certain sculptured mouldings which
—«Hiiim^i^cmn^wnwflfttowoiv^' W "
consist of lozenges placed side by side.
Lozenge mouldings are most frequently
met with in the Romanesque style. The
term is also applied to plates of metal
cut out in lozenge patterns, which cover
the roofs of spires, domes, cupolas, &c.
Lozenge. (3.) (Her.) The lozenge is a
diamond­shaped quadrilateral figure,
and is one of the heraldic
subordinaries.
It must be
distinguished from the fusil,
which is much more taper­
ing in form, and also from
the mascle and rustre, which
are always pierced. When
^
the whole field of an escutcheon is
covered with lozenges, as in the cut, it
is said to be lozengy.
Lucarne. [Arch.] A window which
projects vertically from the
slope of a roof. It assumes
different forms, which are
described under the varie­
ties of Dormer (q.v.).
Lucia, St. A Syracusan
saint who suffered martyr­
;
dom in A.D . 303. She determined at
an early age to dedicate herself to the
Lord, and suffered terrible persecution
at the hands of the Roman governor,
being stabbed to death with a poniard.
The commonest legend concerning her
is, that, not wishing to marry the youth
to whom she was betrothed, she plucked
out her eyes and sent them to him on a
salver. Whereon he is said to have been
at once converted to Christianity and she
to have recovered her sight. Most repre­
sentations of St. Lucia are suggested by
this legend, for in pictorial art she
generally holds her eyes on a salver.
Her other attributes are the palm of
martyrdom and a poniard, with which
she was put to death. She is the patron
saint of the blind.
Luke, St. The disciple and companion
of St. Paul. Tradition says that he was
a physician and also a painter. In very
early times portraits of the Virgin were
ascribed to him.
He has therefore
always been regarded as the patron
saint of artists. In pictorial art he is
244

LUK
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAC
represented either as an evangelist hold­
ing his gospel and with an ox at his side,
or as a youthful painter with a portrait
of the Virgin in his hand. In pictures
of the Byzantine school and the schools
derived from it he assumes the latter
character.
Luke, St., Academy of. St Luke being
regarded as a painter himself and a
patron of painters, the earliest guilds
of artists were established under his
name. A guild of St. Luke was estab­
lished at Florence in 1345, in Paris in
1391, and at Rome in 1593. That at
Rome is still in existence.
Luminous. A term applied to brilliant
and striking tones, bright canvases,
and pictures in which the lights predo­
minate over the shades.
Lunette. (Arch.) A small vault con­
structed in a barrel vault of larger di­
mensions than itself, its purpose being
to admit light to a dark place, or to
throw a part of the weight of a con­
struction upon other points of support.
The term lunette also denotes a win­
dow or space (often semicircular) about
a square­headed window or door. This
space is frequently filled with decor­
ative paintings, which are themselves
called lunettes.
Lustre. (1) (Pot.) The glazing, varnish,
or enamel which applied to porcelain
in a very thin layer gives it a smooth
and glistening surface.
Lustre. (2) An arrangement of lights
hanging from a ceiling, a vault, or the
nave of a church. Ecclesiastical lustres
are frequently in the form of crowns and
are hung from the roof by chains.
[Corona.] The lustres which light the
auditorium of a theatre are of immense
size. The fittings and decorative por­
tions are generally of gilded bronze and
are enriched with crystal balls and
drops arranged in festoons:
Luxembourg. A gallery of pictures in
Paris, inaugurated in 1818, including a
large number of works by living artists.
In accordance with a law, which, how­
ever, is very little respected, works
ought not to receive a definite place in
the Louvre until the artists who painted
them have been dead at least five
years.
Lyceum.
A building among the
ancients in which learned men met to
discuss and the youths of Athens received
instruction.
Lyre. A stringed musical instrument
frequently represented in ancient works
of art. In form it resembled the cithara.
It was the attribute of Apollo and St.
Cecilia.
M.
Macabre. A term applied to subjects,
either painted, sculptured, or engraved,
in which figures a representation of
Death, either under the form of a
skeleton or of an écorchê.
Mace. The mace was originally <&fo
a spiked metal club for use in JT­i
actual fighting, but it is now <g
confined entirely to ornamental j\
purposes. Many corporate
\
bodies, especially the universi­ (J
ties, have maces of their own,
^m
which are carried before the 4ΰ
chief officers of the university &•
on important occasions.
The most
245

MAC
noted mace is that belonging to the
House of Commons. It always rests
on the table of the House when the
Speaker is present, and when the
Speaker leaves the chair and the House
resolves itself into committee the mace
is placed under the table.
Machiolation. (Arch.) A projecting
and continuous gallery built into the
fortified castles of the Middle Ages at
the summit of the curtains and the
towers, with openings whence the foot
of the buildings might be seen from
above.
Machiolations
in stone re­
placed timber hourds, the deteriora­
tion of which was necessarily rapid.
Machiolations
were
substituted for
hourds from about the 12th century.
In the 14th century they were so
constructed that projectiles might
ricochet, or describe curves, or strike
the besiegers even when at a certain
distance from the walls. In the 15th
century machiolations were sometimes
ornamented with trefoils ; but they dis­
appeared finally when artillery came
into general use. In certain Gothic
houses timber machiolations were oc­
casionally erected on the upper stories
to sustain the cornice angles, but with­
out being of any utility, and simply for
the purposes of decoration.
10NARY.
MAG
Madder. (Paint.) From the root of
the rubia tinctorum a series of pigments
are obtained called madder lakes.
They vary in colour from a light pink to
a dark purple. They are useful both in
oil and water­colour painting, and when
free from adulteration are permanent.
Madonna. A painted or sculptured
representation of the Virgin. A statuette
of the Virgin generally placed in a niche
upon the public way, often at the angle
of a building.
Maenades. [Bacchantes.]
Magdalene, Mary. From the 13th
century onwards Mary Magdalene was
perhaps more eagerly worshipped than
any saint in the calendar.
To the
scanty facts that can be gathered with
regard to her from the New Testament,
the Middle Ages added many interesting
legends.
It was said that after the
death of Christ Mary with Martha and
Lazarus, whose sister she is assumed
to be, came to France and landed near
Marseilles.
Here Mary lived the
retired life of a penitent, spending years
in complete solitude in a cave. It is
this legend which has suggested the
subject we so often meet with in picture
galleries of the repentant Magdalene.
Of these the best known is that by
Correggio at Dresden. In other artistic
representations Mary Magdalene ap­
pears thin and haggard with a wealth
of golden hair. Her invariable attiibute
is the box or cup of ointment with
which she anointed Christ.
Magot. Chinese or Japanese gro­
tesque figures, painted, designed, sculp­
tured, and sometimes illuminated, in
which the dimensions of the head are
considerably exaggerated. There are
magots in porcelain, in faïence, in bronze,
in wood, or in ivory, which are some­
times miracles of clever execution. The
term magot was contemptuously applied
by Louis XIV. to the subjects painted by
Teniers, and hence it has generally been
employed to mean genre pictures, such
as were painted by the Flemish master.
ART DIC:
246

MAI
ART DIC
Maξtre. (Her) This is the French
name for a peculiar charge that is more
often met with in Germany
^
r
~
1 than elsewhere. It is a sort
I of wedge with curved out­
L I line rising from the base
k I of the shield and occupy­
jmjitjjJ ing a large portion of the
Λ
·
field. Thus the annexed
cut would be blazoned :
Argent, a maître gules.
Mail. A general term applied to all
armour which consists of chains, rings,
or scales. It is opposed to plate armour,
(q.v.) . It was worn by the ancients and
was universal in the Middle Ages until
the reign of Edward I., when it began to
be superseded by plate.
Majesty. (Paint.) A term denoting
pictures of our Lord seated upon a
throne and surrounded by angels, with
the symbols of the Evangelists (q.v .)
and the A and
Ω
.
Majolica. (Ceramics.) A term applied
to certain Italian faïences of the Renais­
sance as well as to faïences of modern
manufacture, made in the style of
the pottery introduced into Italy by
the Arabs or the Spaniards of the
Balearic Isles. The first specimens of
majolica were made at Faenza and at
RY.
WKL
Gubbio (1425—1480). They consist
chiefly of large plates painted in various
colours and sometimes having a metallic
lustre. At the end of 1520 we find
pieces of majolica ornamented with
yellow or red arabesques of very delicate
workmanship, but they attained their
zenith in 1530; their decadence dates
from 1560.
Malachite. A green carbonate of
copper used in jeweller's work and in
decorating furniture.
Α
..ΤΊ^Λ *
green pigment is obtained feSSfaESfia
from it, to which the name
xfjsÈÊÈSB
" mountain green " is also
"
S
Mallet. (Sculp.) The
JI
mallet generally used by
V^
sculptors consists
of a cylindrical
247

MAM
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAN
block of wood slightly curved so as to
form the arc of a circle, and fitted on
to a wooden handle that passes through
it. In heraldry the mallet sometimes
appears as a common charge.
Mameliere. A round plate or boss
fastened to the breastplate, as indicated
in our cut, which is from a brass in
Minster Church, Isle of Sheppy. A
chain attached to it held the helmet or
sword in its place.
Manche. (Her.) A long hanging sleeve
which is used as a charge in heraldry.
Manduchile. A grotesquely ugly mask
with open gaping mouth which was worn
by the actors in
Roman rustic plays.
Our cut is taken
from an engraved
gem, and beside the
manduchus there is
another attribute of
the pastoral player,
the pedum or shep­
herd's crook.
Maned. (Her.) When the manes of
horses, unicorns, &c, are of a different
tincture from their bodies they are said
to be maned.
Manganese, Brown. (Paint.) A native
brown pigment of considerable value in
painting. Its advantages are that it dries
very rapidly and is permanent.
Manica. The term manica is used in
several senses. First of all, it denotes
the long sleeve reaching to the wrist
worn by Eastern nations, and regarded
with contempt by the Romans of the
republican ages (cut i) ; secondly, it
denotes a protection for the arm worn
by gladiators (cut 2) ; and thirdly, a
covering reaching from the elbow to
the wrist worn by Roman archers
(cut 3).
Maniple. A piece of linen, frequently
richly embroidered, which was worn by
priests across their left hand or arm.
In its origin it was no doubt a handker­
chief, but it soon became a mere orna­
ment. One of our cuts represents the
maniple held in the hand of Stigand,
Archbishop of Canterbury, in the Bav­
eux tapestry. It was also borne as a
charge in heraldry.
Manner. The method of composition
and the process of execution adopted by
a particular artist. For instance, when
we say that a picture is painted in the
manner of Corot, we mean that, at the
first glance, it reminds us of the work
of that artist. We may say too that
an artist has several "manners," mean­
ing that his style or technique have
undergone distinct changes.
In fact
few painters have lived whose pictures
do not display several " manners," cor­
responding to the growth, development,
and decadence of their talent.
Mannered. The style (or work) of
an artist is said to be mannered when.
248

MAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAR
instead of being fresh and suggestive
of nature, it exhibits certain stereo­
typed tricks or dodges of execution.
The term is applied indifferently
whether these tricks are caught by
the artist from his own previous
work or copied by a pupil from his
master.
Mannerism. Mannerism may be de­
fined as manner in a bad sense. Quali­
ties of treatment which when mode­
rately displayed mark individuality of
style, when carried to excess and too
often repeated degenerate into man­
nerism.
Mansard. (Arch.) A window placed
in the slope of
a roof. Man­
sard brought
this kind of
window (to
which he gave
his name) into
fashion in
1650. Pierre
Lescot, how­
ever, had used it much earlier in the
Louvre. Rooms with mansards are often
low ­ pitched,
and have as a
rule insuffi­
cient light, but
from a deco­
rative point of
view the ex­
ternal
effect
of a mansard
is admirable,
and helps to
soften the
hard outline of a roof.
Mantelpiece.
(Arch.) A slab of
marble placed horizontally,
rather
higher than breast­high, upon the
two vertical uprights of a modern
chimney.
Mantle. (Her.) The mantle is a ong
flowing cloak worn in former times by
knights over their armour, and still worn
by peers when in their robes of state.
17
The decoration and fulness of the
mantle varies with
the dignity of the
wearer, and each
order of knight­
hood has its own
appropriate man­
tle. In blazonry
it is often shown
as covering
a
shield.
Mantling. (Her.) The mantling of a
helmet is an accessory formed of cloth or
other material hanging in ornamental
folds.
It was
probably in­
tended origin­
ally to protect
the helmet from
the effects of the
weather.
The
mantling of a
peer's
arms
ought to be of crimson velvet, in other
cases its colour should follow the tinc­
ture of the field of the escutcheon.
Manuscript. Books written by hand
and sometimes enriched by miniatures.
Some manuscripts of the 12th and 13th
centuries were decorated on each page
by painted illustrations, or with initial
letters in gold. The manuscripts of the
14th and 15th centuries are adorned
with equal richness. And even as late
as the 17th and 18th centuries we find
splendid examples of the art, both as
regards colouring and design.
Marble. A carbonated limestone rock
of great hardness and of various colour­
ing. After being cut, trimmed, and
polished this stone offers very strong
resistance to the attacks of time and
weather.
Architects have very fre­
quently employed coloured marble for
pavements and the like, as also for de­
corating façades. Statuaries generally
use white, not veined marble.
The
finest antique works have been sculp­
tured in marble from Carrara or
Paros.
240

MAR
ART DICT
Marble, Artificial. Imitation of mar­ I
ble executed in stucco.
—, Parian. The marble most highly
prized among the Greeks was that which
was quarried in the Island of Paros. It
was not of a brilliant white, but of a soft
tone.
— , Pentelic. Marble from Mount Pen­
telicus used by Greek artists for their
statues and sometimes for buildings.
— , Statuary. White, not veined mar­
ble.
Marbled. A description of paper imi­
tating the colours or patterns of mar­
ble, used for ornamenting the outsides
of volumes, cardboard, &c.
Marbling. A description of painting
in imitation of marble ; a chance medley
of colours, reproducing the spots and
veins of marble, with which the sides of
bound books are sometimes covered.
Margaret, St. According to the legend
St. Margaret was born in Antioch, and
on her refusal to marry the governor of
that city she was subjected to the
cruellest tortures. She was confined in
a dungeon, where Satan, in the form of
a dragon of hideous mien, tried to break
her spirit, but she triumphed over all
her persecutions and gained many con­
verts to the Christian faith. She was
finally beheaded. She has always been
regarded as the type of purity, and she
is the patron saint of women in child­
birth. Artistic representations of her
are frequent. She is generally standing
over the prostrate dragon, which she
overcomes with the cross.
Marine Painter. A painter who de­
votes himself to the representation of
sea subjects, and to the various effects
observable on the sea­shore or on the
open sea under the varying circum­
stances of atmosphere and weather.
Mark. The works of artists, whether
painters, engravers, potters, or gold­
smiths, are frequently signed with a con­
ventional mark, which takes the form
sometimes of a punning device, some­
times of a monogram. The marks on |
lONAttY.
MAR
the bottom of pieces of porcelain fre­
quently tell us the date as well as the
locale of its manufacture. Goldsmiths'
work may also be identified by the mark
or cypher placed upon it. We give here
3toWΔ,
the mark adopted by the communautés
d'orfèvres at Bar­le­Duc.
But it is the
engravers who have made the most
frequent use of marks.
Some engravers
indeed are only known to us by a rebus
or cypher.
Such are the " Master of
the Die" and the " Master of the Rat,"
whose mark we give. Lucas Cranach
signed his works with a dragon holding
a ring in his mouth, Hufnagel with a
nail surrounded by an E, while Hans
Schaufelin employed cross shovels. The
marks of these three artists are given in
the cut.
Marked. (Paint.) Indicated too dis­
tinctly, accentuated. In a landscape,
for instance, the distances are too
marked when instead of being suggested
with a light touch, they are painfully and
laboriously insisted upon.
Mark of Cadency. (Her.) This is an­
other name for difference (q.v .) or brisure.
It is a mark added to a shield to distin­
guish the individual wearer from other
members of the family who are also
entitled to the same coat of arms.
Marks, Guiding. Fixed points or
J marks, the object of which is the guid­
250

MAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAR
ance of artist or workman while his
work is in progress.
Thus it is by
means of guiding marks that several
colours may be printed by successive
printings on one sheet of paper.
Mark, St. The evangelist and friend
of St. Peter is said to have suffered mar­
tyrdom in the year 68 A.D. In the gth
century his bones were taken from
Alexandria to Venice, and from that
time he became the patron saint of
Venice.
In art he is represented as
one of the evangelists holding a book
and accompanied by a lion [Evangelists],
or mitred as the Bishop of Alexandria.
Marli. (Pot.) A French term, denot­
ing the inside bor­
der of a plate or
dish. Filets of
gold or colour are
frequently drawn
upon this border.
Dishes of Rouen
ware often exhibit
mar lis, decorated
with delicate arabesques and other pat­
terns.
Marmoset. (Arch.) Small figures,
found principally in buildings of the
Gothic style, placed in a squat or
grotesque attitude
on the profile of
mouldings at re­
gular intervals.
These small fi­
gures frequently
hold a phylactery
in front of them partially concealing
their bodies.
Marquetry. A method of decoration
by placing in juxtaposition pieces of
wood, metal,
or
other materials va­
riously coloured.
The taste for mar­
quetry was intro­
duced in France in
the 16th century,
and the furniture
of Boule (1642­1732) is decorated in
this style, with great richness of com­
position and exquisite workmanship.
Marquise. (Arch.) The term marquise
is applied to a light roof which projects
from the façade of
^—
a building. It is
"
generally placed
over a flight of
steps. On the out­
side of theatres
marquises of con­
siderable length
are not infre­
quently to be seen,
they have a glass roof.
Mars. (1.) [Ares.]
Mars. (2) (Paint.) This term is used to
describe a series of artificially prepared
pigments coloured by oxide of iron.
They are called Mars Brown, Mars
Orange, Mars Red, and Mars Yellow.
They are all useful pigments and gene­
rally permanent.
Martel­de­fer. A weapon, which was
the development of the hammer. It had
a hammer one side and a pick the other,
Almost invariably
and no doubt was a very efficient de­
stroyer of armour Our three cuts re­
present specimens belonging to the
251

MAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAS
periods of Edward IV. , Henry Vili.,
and Elizabeth respectively.
Martello Tower. (Arch.) A round
tower armed with guns, such as Charles V.
built in Sardinia and Corsica, as a pro­
tection against pirates. Similar towers
were built in England, especially on the
South Coast, where specimens are still
to be seen, as a defence against the in­
vasion of Napoleon I., which was so long
expected.
Martlet. (Her.) This is the name for
the conventional swallow
1 employed in heraldry. It
&
is always shown without
AgggL. I legs and beak and in pro­
IwP* J file with the wings closed.
The martlet is the special
mark of cadency assigned
to a fourth son.
Martha, St. St. Martha, the sister of
Mary, who " troubled herself about
many things," is regarded not inappro­
priately as the patron saint of house­
wives. According to the legend, she
came to France with Mary Magdalene
and Lazarus, and freed the neighbour­
hood of Aix from a loathsome dragon ;
in allusion to which she is sometimes
represented with a dragon at her feet.
As the patron saint of housewives she
carries a bunch of keys at her girdle and
holds a ladle in her hand.
Martin, St. St. Martin, though by
birth a pagan, was very early converted
to the Christian faith. For many years
he followed the calling of a soldier, and
while quartered at Amiens he divided
his cloak with a naked beggar, an inci­
dent which is the subject of the majority
of pictures in which St. Martin figures.
From 371 A.D . to his death
in 397 he was bishop of
Tours. He is the patron
saint of drinking and con­
viviality.
Mascle. (Her.) The mas­
cle is diamond­shaped like
the lozenge, but is voided
or pierced so that the field of the escut­
cheon is seen through. In the case of the
mascle the part thus voided or cut out
is itself diamond­shaped, whereas in the
rustre the hollow part is circular.
Mascled Armour. A kind of mail
worn by the Norman soldiers, consist­
ing of small lozenge­shaped pieces of
metal, which were sown on a leather
tunic. Our cut is from the Bayeux
tapestry.
Mask. (1.) (Arch.) A system of decor­
ation taking the form of a head, usually
carved whimsically and
surrounded with a gar­
land. It is sometimes
placed in the centre of
a cartouche, serving as
an ornament for a key
stone, for the central
portion of a lintel, of a
panel, or the like. The
term is also applied to theatrical
masks, of which the two common types
are the tragic and
the comic masks,
both inspired by
antique models.
They are generally
used in decorating
the façades of thea­
tres, or are placed
on monuments
erected to the me­
mory of dramatic or lyric authors or
actors.
Mask. (2) (Sculpt.) A mould taken
252

MAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAS
Masonry.
denotes the preparation
from the face of a corpse. These masks
have often been used as models in in­
struction.
Masoned. (Her.) Towers and other
buildings used as heraldic
charges are said to be
masoned when the joints
of the masonry
are
clearly shown. As a rule
sable would be the colour
used to designate the
joints.
(Arch.) A term which
and piecing
together of stones in walls or buildings.
When we say that the masonry of a
building is defective, we mean that the
combination of stones in courses and
the superposition of the joints do not
give a sufficient guarantee for its dura­
bility. The two
main classes in­
ιπ
?^^ΐ 1^"
to wnich ma
­
*»Ì/j*uilullJli1ii
r
|,ÌMti»iiiii|iiiilmii)­­ · ,
sonry may be
divided are: (i)
that in which the stones are squared and
laid in even courses, to which the name
ashlar (q.v.) is given ; (2) that in which
the stones are put together without
being squared or cut into any regular
shape ; this is called rubble.
From
earliest times walls have been composed
of blocks of stone. Cyclopean masonry
[Cyclopean] is referred to by Homer
and must neces­
sarily be of great
antiquity. The
Greeks and Ro­
mans had several
kinds of masonry,
of which an ac­
count is given below. The masonry
of the Norman period was of consider­
able variety, the opus reticulatum of the
Romans and herring­bone masonry both
being employed. After the 12th century
it is difficult to distinguish between the
masonry of different periods, except in
those buildings in which flints are used.
In the Early English style flints are left
rough, in the Decorated and Perpen­
dicular styles they have a smooth sur­
face.
Masonry, Clyclopean. [Cyclopean.]
—, Herring­bone. Masonry which con­
sists of stones laid in courses inclined al­
ternately from
right to left
and from left
to right. When
the stones are
j&vAJ^Xk\\,
^g^>·
squared, as in
the cut, this
form of ma­
sonry is termed herring­bone ashlar.
It was used by Roman architects and by
them termed opus spicatum.
—,
Greek. The following are the
different kinds of masonry employed by
Greek architects : (1) opus isodomum,
in which the
stones are ash­
lar and laid in
courses
of
equal height ;
(2)opuspseudi­
sodomum, in which the stones are ash­
lar but laid in courses of unequal
height; (3) opus emplectum (
έ
μ
π
λ
ε
κ
τ
ο
ν
),
in which the
faces of the
wall are ashlar
and held toge­
ther by girders
called diatoni,
while
the
space between
the faces is filled with rubble. In Greek
masonry the stones were laid in mortar.
— , Oblique.
Masonry in
which
the
stones are loz­
enge ­ shaped
and arranged
in regular
courses.
— , Reticulated. Masonry formed of
stones cut square or lozenge­shaped and
so arranged that the joints give the wall
253

MAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
MAT
the appearance of a draughtboard. This
form of masonry un­
der the name of
opus reticulatum
was
employed by the Ro­
mans.
Masonry, Roman. The kinds of ma­
sonry in use among the Romans were the
following: (i.) opus incertum, in which
the stones used were not squared ;
this corresponds to the modern rubble ;
(2.) opus reticulatum, in which the stones
formed a draughtboard pattern ; (3.) opus
spicatum, in which the stones are so
placed as to form a herring­bone pattern.
— , Romanesque. In the Romanesque
period the walls were formed of stones
laid in regular courses of unequal height,
or else herring­bone or reticulated ma­
sonry was employed.
—,
Rustic. Masonry in which the
surface of each stone instead of being
flatwascutawaysoastocometoa
point. When the stones thus prepared
are set side by side, their projecting
surface causes a space to be left be­
tween them.
Massicot. A yellow or reddish pig­
ment consisting of protoxide of lead.
Like all lead pigments it is affected by
damp and bad air, and on account of
its non­permanence should be banished
from the palette.
Master. A term applied to a painter,
sculptor, engraver, or architect who
founds a school, and whose works are
generally admitted to possess high
merits. [Little Masters.]
Mastic. (Paint ) A resin which when
dissolved in alcohol or turpentine forms
the varnish generally used by painters
upon their pictures. It is obtained from
a tree which grows in the Levant.
Masterpiece. A work of art which is
great both in intention and accomplish­
ment ; or in another sense the most
masterly and finished work of a par­
ticular artist.
Mater Dolorosa. The mother of
sorrows, a name given to the Virgin,
when sorrowing for her crucified Son.
In art, the Mater Dolorosa is generally
represented alone, sometimes with one
sword in her breast, sometimes with
seven, in allusion to the seven sorrows
she endured. When she holds the body
of the dead Christ on her lap, the picture
is called a pietà.
Matrix. A steel die, from which im­
pressions in relief are obtained upon
coins and medals by striking. Matrices
are obtained in the first
instance from punches
(q.v.) cut in relief. The
common method now
is to make one punch
from a steel matrix,
and then to obtain from
this punch as many
matrices as are required. Engravers
fix the matrix in a metal case, of cylin­
drical form, with a screw, and place the
whole upon a cushion, as shown in our
second cut.
Matt. Dull, lustreless, applying to a
surface having neither brilliancy nor
polish. Used also in reference to un­
varnished colours in distemper and to
unburnished gold.
Matter. (Engrav.) A kind of punch,
used by engravers in mezzotint, consist­
ing of a shaft of metal with a kind
of round die on the end. This
die is covered with small pro­
jecting points placed at irregu­
lar intervals. It is used to lay
a light ground or to matt, i.e .
to render darker the parts of
the work that are too trans­
parent or clear.
Some matters are
254

MAT
ART
DICTIONARY.
MED
made with a wooden handle and are
used like roulettes (q v.) .
Matthew, St. St. Matthew, the apostle
and evangelist, is seldom represented
in art. In the few pictures of him in
existence he appears as a bearded man
writing his gospel, while an angel stands
at his side. Sometimes he holds a bag,
in allusion to the calling of tax­gatherer,
which he followed before his conversion.
[Evangelists.]
Matthias, St.· The attribute of St.
Matthias, the successor of Judas among
the apostles, is the, lance or axe, with
which he is said to have been put to
death.
Maulstick. (Paint.) A light wand of
wood, generally rather more than a
yard in length. On the top of it is
placed a small sphere of wood, which is
covered with a piece of cloth or skin.
The painter holds the maulstick in his
left hand with his palette and brushes,
and lets it rest gently on the edge of
the picture or on the canvas itself, if
it is of large size. The maulstick thus
serves as a support for the wrist of the
painter's right hand.
Maurice, St. St. Maurice, one of
the great military saints and the patron
saint of foot soldiers, is generally re­
presented in armour, holding the palm
of martyrdom in one hand and the
standard in the other.
Mausoleum. (Arch.) A term first ap­
plied to the tomb erected in 351 B.c. in
honour of Mausolus, King of Caria, by
Artemisia, his wife.
A large portion
of the sculptures which decorated this
tomb were discovered in 1855 by Sir
Charles (then Mr.) Newton, and are
now in the British Museum. They were
the work of Scopas, Leochares, and
other distinguished sculptors of the 4th
century B.C . The term mausoleum is
now applied to any funeral monument of
large proportions and ambitious design.
Mediaeval. [Middle Ages.]
Meander. A system of ornament con­
sisting of fragments of lines broken up
in different directions, or twisted, or
crossed. Some au­
thors also give this
title to interlaced
straight lines cut­
ting each other at
right angles.
The
latter decoration,
however, is gen­
erally termed
Greek or Guillochis (q.v .).
Medal. (Numis.) A disk of metal
with the effigy of a person struck upon
upon it, or engraved with a figure, scene,
or allegorical group.
Medium. (Paint.) The liquid vehicle
in which pigments are ground. The
usual medium is linseed oil, and though
generations of painters have attempted
to find a new medium which should give
the mellow tone of age to their pictures,
they have not hitherto been able to im­
prove on the old­fashioned linseed oil.
Medallion. A medal of large dimen­
sions. The term is applied to subjects
painted, drawn, engraved, or sculptured,
and set in a circular or elliptic frame.
Architectural ornaments inscribed in a
circular cartouche or decorating an en­
tablature or façade are termed medal­
lions.
Medusa. The youngest of the myth­
ical beings called Gorgons. Her hair
was turned into snakes by Athene and
her face rendered so terrible, that all
who looked upon it became stone. She
was destroyed by Perseus, and her head
worn henceforth upon the aegis of
Athene. Medusa was frequently repre­
sented in Greek art. One of the metopes
of the temple of Selinus in Sicily, which
dates from the 7th century B.C ., has for
its subject Perseus cutting off Medusa's
head. Small representations of her
255

MEL
ART
DICTIONARY.
MET
head 'were used as charms, and many
such have been found. [Gorgoneion.]
Meissen. [Dresden China.]
Mellow. (Paint.) An old picture is
said to be mellow when its tones have
been softened down by time, the influ­
ence to which the old masters are said
to owe so much. A modern picture may
be called mellow when its tones, so far
from being harsh and crude, have some­
thing of the softness and quietness of an
old master.
Members. (Her.) This term is applied
by heralds to the legs and feet of birds
so far as they are free
from feathers. When the
members of a bird are of
a different tincture to the
rest of the body, this fact
is expressed by the use
of the word membered
followed by the name of the tincture.
Menhir. A Celtic monument consisting
of an enormous stone driven into the
ground and standing vertically,
Mentoniere. A piece of armour which
was worn as a protection for the chin
and throat. It was generally provided
with an aperture to breathe through, as
is shown in our cut.
Mercury. [Hermes.]
Merlon. (Arch.) The part of a para­
pet between the intervals formed by the
loopholes or crenelles (q.v.) . Merlons
assume different forms according to their
style and period. Sometimes they are
terminated by small pyramids, some ­
times they are pierced with long vertical
loopholes.
Mermaid. (Her.) A mermaid is one of
the mythical beings whose existence is
due to the fertile imagination of the
ancients. This being is
half woman and half
fish, and is generally
represented
combing
her hair while she holds
a mirror in the other
hand. The mermaid
has always been ex­
tremely popular with
heralds either as a charge or as a sup­
porter of a shield.
Metal. (Her.) There are two metals
employed in heraldry, gold and silver,
which are always described by their
French names, or and argent. See Tinc­
ture.
Metal­work. The arts of beating and
casting not only iron and bronze, but
also the more precious metals, have
been practised from the earliest ages
and among all nations. Among the
256

MET
ART
DICTIONARY.
MEZ
specimens of the most ancient Greek
art found by Dr. Schliemann at Mycenae
are many interesting objects in gold and
silver. Throughout the supremacy of
Greece and Rome cups and other objects
of great beauty were made of metal. We
engrave here two cups of classical work­
manship. In the Middle Ages the most
noticeable examples of metal­work
were the monumental brasses (q.v.)
iron railings, locks, hinges, and other
architectural decorations. [Iron­work]
Of late years the art of working in metal
has been revived with considerable
success.
Metoche. (Arch.) In Greek architec­
ture a metoche is the space existing
between two dentels.
Metope. (Arch.) The space between
the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric
order (q.v .). Metopes were decorated
either with paintings or bas­reliefs.
The term is also
applied to the
bas­reliefs found
on metopes. For
instance,
when
we speak of the
metopes of the
Parthenon,
we
mean the series of reliefs representing
the combat between the Lapiths and
Centaurs, some of which are now among
the Elgin marbles.
Mθzza­majolica. (Pot.) A kind of
glazed pottery made in Tuscany before
the stanniferous glaze was known.
It
is easily recognisable by the following
strongly­marked characteristics : the out­
lines of the figures drawn upon it are
traced in blue or black, the flesh is
white, while the draperies are tinted
blue.
Mezzanine. (Arch.) A small story
placed midway be­
—
<
­,. •
tween two larger
stories. A mezza­
nine floor is gene­
rally found between
the first and second
story of a building.
The term is also
applied to the small windows, generally
of greater length than height, which
light an entresol or intermediate story.
Mezzo­relievo. A term applied to
sculptured works in relief, which project
half their proper proportion from the
ground on which they are carved.
Mezzotint. A process of engraving
which may be described as the reverse
of line engraving and etching. In these
two processes the engraver sets to work
on a polished plate, whereas in mezzo­
tint he has first of all to give his plate
a roughened surface, which if inked
would print a deep uniform black.
Technically speaking, the process is as
follows. The preliminary operation of
laying the ground is performed with an
instrument called the rocker (q.v.) or
cradle. This somewhat resembles a
cheese­cutter in shape, its edge being
deeply notched or serrated. It is rocked
to and fro and so driven across the
plate, leaving behind it an indented
path or way. A close series of parallel
ways is thus made across the
257

MIC
Other ways are then made at a certain
angle over the previous ones, until a
sufficiently close velvety texture is
obtained. The ground being laid, the
whole plate would, as we have said,
print black The lights of the picture
which is being engraved in mezzotint
are obtained by scraping away the
ground, the high lights being got by
the use of the burnisher.
The advan­
tages of mezzotint are manifold. It
does not involve the labour entailed by
line engraving, in which the lines have
to be ploughed into the copper, and it is
therefore capable of greater freedom
than some methods. Then again by
its range of tone it is admirably adapted
for the representation of the various
textures in a portrait or the planes of a
landscape. Its invention has generally
been ascribed to Prince Rupert, who is
said to have hit upon it from seeing a sol­
dier scraping the rust off his musket. This
story has, however, been proved to be
false. The real inventor of mezzotint
was Lieutenant­Colonel Ludvig von
Siegen, who in 1642 published a print of
Princess Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse.
Some ten years later he explained his
invention to Prince Rupert, who intro­
duced it into England It is in England
that mezzotint has been practised with the
greatest success ; in fact, nearly all the
engravers who have attained celebrity
in this branch of their art have been
Englishmen.
Michaelangelesque. A term applied
to works of art in which the method of
Michael Angelo is imitated. Figures,
for instance, are said to be Michael­
angelesque whenatheir pose is bold, their
movement rapid, or their anatomy
strongly accentuated.
Michael, St. The archangel Michael
when represented in pictorial art is
young and of a smooth countenance.
His face wears an expression of severity,
indicative of his perpetual contest with
the powers of evil. Sometimes he is
robed in white, sometimes in armour
VIONARY.
MIL
with sword and shield in his hand. He
is always winged, and often poises his
spear before killing the dragon.
In
pictures of the Judgment St. Michael is
clothed in armour and is winged, and
holds in his hand the balance in which
souls are weighed.
Middle Ages, The. All works of art
are said to belong to the Middle Ages
which were produced between the 12th
and 16th centuries. This, however, is
by no means the historical meaning of
the term Middle Ages, which extend
from the fall of the Roman Empire in
475 A D. to the taking of Constantinople
by Mahomet II. in 1453
Middle Distance. (Paint ) That part
of a picture which lies between the back­
ground and foreground.
Middle­tint. (Paint) A colour inter­
mediate between the brightly lighted
part of a picture and the part placed in
shadow. Middle­tints help to give har­
mony to a picture, and to render the
transition from light to shade less
abrupt.
Milky. A term applied in painting
to slightly opaque tones of white.
Precious stones are said to be milky
when they are sprinkled with spots or
covered with a light tint of white.
Millefiori. (Pot.) A kind of mosaic
glass, consisting of several rods of glass,
of various tints, melted together. It was
made in Venice centuries ago, and its
manufacture has been revived within the
last sixty years.
Milling. A term applied to the regular
notches incised on the edge of a coin.
Mill­rine. (Her.) The
mill­rine or mill­rind is the
^^^p
iron clamp fixed to the
ES
centre of a millstone.
It M1%L
appears in heraldry as an
armorial bearing,
either Mm^gm^
alone or shown on the mill­ »
W·
stone, but more often alone.
β
The same instrument gives ^%pP^f^
also the idea for a special
kind of cross, the cross moline (q.v.).
ART DIC
258

MIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
MIS
French heralds make a distinction
between different kinds of mill­rines.
Thus in the accompanying cuts they
would call the first a fer de moulin or
mill­rine, and the second an anile.
Minaret. (Arch ) A lofty tower set by
the side of a mosque, with a
â
projecting balcony at its sum­
mit and a roof in the shape
of a bulb. Thence the term
is applied to a tower or bell­
turret which is at once lofty
and of slender proportions.
| The towers of St. Mark's
r..—
at Venice and of La Giralda
j?$|I at Seville have the character­
ξ^tξ^iljH istics of minarets. In the
IjSJjgP architecture of the present
"SB day a
^
turrets are terme
d
f.WIBP minarets which suggest even
in a remote way the Mus­
sulman style.
Mineral Blue. (Paint.) This pigment
is described as a ferro­prussiate of
alumina. It is a good colour, but its
permanence cannot be relied upon.
—
Grey. (Paint.) A neutral tint
obtained from lapis lazuli, of great
service in oil­painting, as it admirably
represents effects of cloud and mist.
—
Yellow.
(Paint.) A pigment
obtained from proto­chloride of lead.
Like all lead pigments it is destroyed
by time and exposure.
Minerva. [ Athene.]
Miniature. (Paint.) The term minia­
ture, derived from minium (q.v.), was
first applied to the small water­colour
drawings which adorn manuscripts.
It was afterwards extended to all
works of art, whether paintings, draw­
ings, or engravings, of small dimen­
sions and delicate workmanship. Small
portraits on ivory or vellum, executed
with such care and minuteness that
the smallest detail will bear inspec­
tion, are more particularly known
as miniatures. The art of miniature­
painting in this sense was brought
to great perfection in England during !
the last two centuries, but has had to
encounter a serious rival in photo­
graphy.
Minium. (Paint.) Minium, which is
also known as red lead, is a peroxide of
lead. It is a brilliant red pigment, with
just a suspicion of yellow in it. It was
used extensively by the illuminators of
manuscripts and in earlier times by
painters in oil. However, as it contains
lead, it proves destructive to other pig­
ments, and its use cannot be recom­
mended. In architecture it is of con­
siderable service, being employed to
cover iron rails and planks of wood,
the former of which it preserves from
rust, the latter from damp.
Minster. (Arch.) A church which
belongs to a monastery or religious
house. Several of the English cathe­
drals are termed minsters, but this is
to be accounted for by the fact, that
they were originally the houses of
prayer attached to a monastery, and
became cathedral churches after they
were built.
Mirror. An ornament consisting of a
looking­glass placed in a frame, gene­
rally gilded and sometimes enriched
with carvings.
The most esteemed
mirrors at the present day are those
which have a convex surface and
present a diminished image of whatever
they reflect.
The mirrors of the
ancients consisted of a circular piece
of metal with a highly polished surface.
The metal employed was either a
mixture of copper and tin or silver.
The back of the mirror was often
decorated with designs of great beauty
and interest, incised upon the metal,
which fact places Greek and Roman
mirrors among the most valuable relics
of ancient art.
Misere­corde. A small dagger, which
was used by the warriors of the Middle
Ages for giving the death stroke to a
wounded antagonist. It was generally
damascened, engraved, or otherwise
richly decorated. The three specimens
259

MIS
ART
DICTIONARY.
MOD
in our cut belong respectively to the
reigns of Heary VI., Edward IV., and
Henry VIII.
Miserere. (Arch.) A small seat placed
within the stalls in Gothic churches.
In that part of the service during which
the occupants of the stalls were sup­
posed to stand, these seats were turned
back and afforded a considerable amount
of support to the person who to all
appearance was standing upright in his
stall. Misereres generally assumed the
form of brackets, and were ornamented
with bas­reliefs and symbolic or gro­
tesque figures.
Missal. A term applied to the manu­
scripts or printed volumes of large
dimensions which are used in the
services of the Catholic Church and
contain the prayers of the mass. They
are generally enriched with colour, and
their ornamental letters are designed
in imitation of those found in mediaeval
manuscripts.
Mitis Green. [Emerald Green.]
Mitre, (i.) A term applied to the
joining of planks or mouldings at an
angle, generally at an
angle of forty­five de­
\
grees. Frames and
panels are formed by
mouldings cut in mitre and joined by
means of a mortise or tenon or simple
nailed.
Mitre. (2.) The head­covering worn
by bishops. In the nth and 12th cen­
turies it was a simple
round bonnet with two
strings at the side, as in
our second cut. It as­
sumed the pointed <
shape, which it still re­
tains, in the 15th century. In coats of
arms of ecclesiastical dignitaries the
mitre takes the place of coat and helmet
and rests upon the top of the shield.
Mitred. (Arch.) A term applied to
towers and bell­turrets, the crowning of
which has the form of a mitre.
Mixtion. A term applied to the mor­
dant which is used in fixing gold leaf
upon wood in the operation of gilding.
Model. Any object which an artist
260

MOD
ART
DICTIONARY.
MOD
undertakes to reproduce is called a
model. Thus we speak of a drawing
model. In the language of sculptors the
term model is applied to the first repre­
sentation of his subject modelled in clay,
as well as to the plaster cast taken from
the clay. These two stages on the way
towards a statue in marble or bronze are
called the clay model and plaster model
respectively. Model is used absolutely to
denote the living model. [Model, Living.]
Model, Living. One whose profession
it is to pose to an artist. Many female
models, possessed of great beauty of
face and form, have gained considerable
celebrity from sitting to distinguished
artists.
Male models are of various
nationalities, frequently Italians. Young
children and white­bearded old men,
with strongly marked features, were in
great request when religious painting
was still fashionable, and artists wanted
models for the infant Christ, the saints,
and the prophets. Nowadays, however,
the artist devotes himself to the repro­
duction of less conventional types, to
modern or even realistic portraiture, and
so the classical type of the model is fast
disappearing. The living models of tradi­
tion—the men with slouched hats and
torn and patched cloaks, the women with
curious costumes, so very much the
worse for wear—only pose now in acade­
mies or schools of art. In these institu­
tions the model stands upon a pedestal
or table in the midst of a semicircle.
The students sit round in tiers, the
draughtsmen in the front row, the painters
in the second, and the sculptors behind.
A good deal of nonsense has been talked
of late years by ignorant but well­mean ­
ing persons about the temptations to
which models are exposed. They are as
a rule a hardworking and deserving class,
who devote themselves with intelligence
and energy to the profession, to which,
in most cases, they have been brought
up from their earliest childhood. The
business of a model, like so many of the
liberal professions, runs in families.
Modelling. (Sculp.) That part of the
sculptor's art which consists in con­
structing in clay or wax the model, which
is to be reproduced in plaster, terra­
cotta, bronze, marble, stone, or wood. The
term has another meaning. In a painted
portrait we say that the modelling is good,
when the painter has succeeded in indi­
cating the various planes of the figure
which he has represented. The term is
also applied to painting. The modelling
of a figure is admirable, when its pro­
jection is so strongly and withal so subtly
indicated that you can see all round.
Modelling Tools. The tools used by
the sculptor for modelling clay are made
of wood, ivory, or metal, and vary con­
siderably in shape and size. Our first
cut represents that one generally used ;
the second and third tools have serrated
i.
2
3.
4·
5·
ends for removing masses of clay, which
purpose is also served by that repre­
sented in Fig. 4, which, it will be noticed,
has a loop. The last, Fig. 5, is a metal
tool used for cutting plaster.
Modelling Wax. (Sculp.) A yellow
wax, with which black resin, terebinth,
and oil are mixed. It is used by sculp­
tors for modelling works of small dimen­
sions, and especially for making preli­
minary sketches for statues which are
2ΣI

MOD
ART
DICTIONARY.
MON
afterwards modelled in clay. It is slightly
tinted with vermilion or red brown. The
facility with which modelling wax is
moulded varies according to the quantity
of oil which enters into its composition,
and it is harder in summer than in
winter.
Modillion. (Arch.) A term applied to
brackets placed at regular intervals
under a pro­
jecting cor­
nice or bal­
cony. The
name is also
given to small
brackets
placed against
a wall and sup­
porting vases
or busts. The
volutes of mo­
dulions are placed horizontally or ver­
tically ac­
cording to
the pur­
pose which
they serve,
and
the
height and
projection
of the cornice they support.
Modulus. A measure by which the
intercolumniation (q.v.) and other pro­
portions of Greek buildings are measured.
The modulus generally taken as the
standard by architects is the diameter
of the column near its base.
Moerae. [Fates, The.]
Mole. (Arch ) A kind of stone jetty
running out into the sea at the entrance
of a harbour, the purpose of which is
to break the force of the
waves.
Monde. (Her.) An he­
raldic term, denoting the
globe encircled with band,
and surmounted by a cross,
which is among the insignia of royalty.
Monochrome. A painting executed in
one colour.
Β
Monogram. A cypher used as a signa­
ture to works of art. It consists of initial
letters, interlaced or juxtaposed, or some­
times of an emblem, which serves to
denote the artist, such as
^*^*
v
£L
the master of the die, m I • ­^"*
the master of the bird.
[Mark.] Potters as well
as painters used mono­
•
grams, and pieces of poicelain may
often be identified by the monogram,
found upon them. The name
of Christ and the Virgin writ­
ten as monograms are fre­
quently found as ecclesiastical
decorations. Monarchs and potentates
too have had
their
mono­
grams, and our
third
cut, in
which the letters
ΚAR
Ο
LVS
are juxtaposed,
represents the
signature
of
Charlemagne.
Monograph. A biographical study or
a collection of documents bearing upon
the life of one artist is termed a mono­
graph, as is also an essay on a special
branch of art, such as enamels, faïences,
bronzes, &c
Monopteral. (Arch.)
An antique temple, cir­
cular in form,
which
was surrounded by a
single row of pillars.
The choragic monument
(q.v .) of Lysi­
crates at Athens
was a fine speci­
men of a monop­
teral building of
the Corinthian
order.
Our se­
cond cut shows
a monopteral
temple represented on a coin of the
Tullia gens at Rome.
It will be
seen that a statue is placed in it, as
262

MON
ART DR
a receptacle for which the monopteral
temple was frequently employed.
Monopyle. (Arch ) A term applied to
Π
a building which has only one
door. An enclosure with a
portico, which surrounds a
temple, and has only one en­
trance, is sometimes termed
a peribolus.
Monostyle.
(Arch.) In ancient
architecture a temple is said to be
monostyle when it is surrounded by
only one row of columns. The term is
also applied to a single column com­
plete in itself, such as the column of
Trajan.
Monotriglyph. (Arch.) A term applied
to a method of intercolumniation, which
only allows a single triglyph (q.v.) to be
placed in a frieze.
Monstrance. A monstrance is a trans­
parent pyx used in the services of the
Catholic Church, to expose the host to
the eyes of the worshippers. [Ostensoir.]
Monument. (Arch.) A term applied to
an architectural construction, or more
especially to a statue placed upon a
pedestal to perpetuate the memory of a
celebrated man or an important event.
MOR
This purpose is fulfilled sometimes by
a single statue, sometimes by a symbolic
group, or elaborate construction such as
the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park.
Monument, Choragic.
[Choragic
Monument ]
—, Celtic. A term applied to the
monoliths or collections of unhewn
stones, set up in those parts of Gaul or
Great Britain which were once inhabited
by Celtic tribes. [Cromlech, Dolmen,
Menhir, &c]
—, Expiatory. A monument erected
in expiation of crime
—, Funeral. A monument in the form
of a chapel, stele (q v.), or tombstone
erected over a grave or in a cemetery in
memory of the dead.
—, H istoric. A term applied to all
those ancient buildings which on account
of their artistic value, their historic im­
portance, or their distinguished associa­
tions are of public interest. It is the
duty of a community to see that its
historic monuments are not tampered
with. They should indeed only be re­
stored with the utmost caution, for when
once they are robbed of their antiquity
their interest and sentiment are gone.
Moorish. (Arch.) A style which was
introduced into Spain after the invasion
of that country by the Arabs.
The
mosque at Cordova and the Alhambra
(13th century) may be instanced amongst
the most noteworthy of Moorish build­
ings. The term Moorish is also applied
to a system of ornament consisting of
fantastic foliage which is frequently em­
ployed in damascening.
Morbidezza. (Paint.) An Italian term,
which denotes the delicate, subtle, and
vivid rendering of the flesh in painting,
sculpture, or engraving.
Mordant. A mixture of Jew's pitch,
thick oil, and plumbago, to which some
drops of essence are added, used in mat
gilding. The term is also applied to a sub­
stance obtained from metallic oxides,
and used to fix the colours in dyeing and
calico­printing.
263
•
TIONARY.

MOR
ART
DICTIONARY.
MOS
Morion. A helmet of a curious shape,
with a sharp peak in front and behind,
which was adopted by the Spaniards
from the Moors, and reached England
in the 16th century.
Morse.
A brooch or
clasp used by priests to
fasten their cape. It af­
orded an opportunity for
a good deal of decora­
tion, often of a mystic or
symbolic
character,
and
was generally of gold or
silver.
Mortar. In architecture the term
mortar is applied to a mixture of sand,
cement, and lime, tempered in water,
which is employed to bind together the
materials used in a building. In another
sense a mortar is a small vessel in which
certain substances are reduced to powder
or colours ground. [Pestle.]
Mortier. (Her.) A charge in French
heraldry representing the head­dress of
the chancellors of France and of the
presidents of parlia­
ment. The chancel­
lor's mortier was of
gold cloth, embroid­
ered and turned up with ermine. The
president's mortier was of black velvet
or plush, orna­
mented
with
large galoons
(q.v .) of gold.
Mortise.
(Arch.) A notch
cut in a piece of
wood to receive
a projecting piece called a tenon (q.v .) .
There are several methods of carrying
out this method of joining. The mor­
tise, for instance, may be straight or
oblique, and more than one tenon may
fit into it.
Mortise Chisel. A tool con­
sisting of a quadrangular piece
of metal with a bevelled edge.
The cutting edge forms the
greater part of it. It is used
for making mortises (q.v .).
Mosaic. Under mosaic may be
classed all works which consist of
pieces of hard coloured sub­
stances, such as glass, mar­
ble, &c, put together
and
combined to form various patterns.
Florentine mosaic (q.v .), for instance,
consists of small squares of poUshed
marble and precious stones applied to
pieces of furniture and ornaments.
Pavements and facings, which consist of
plaques of coloured marble, are another
form of mosaic, perhaps the most ancient
of all. [Pavimentum.] The term is
also applied to the designs incised in
ancient buildings. [Graffiti.] There
yet remains the enamel mosaic which is
employed by the goldsmiths and jew­
ellers of Rome.
Finally a few words
must be said of the decorative mosaic,
which consists of small cubes of
coloured enamel applied by means
of cement to a hard surface.
This
last occupies an important place in the
history of decorative art. Some fine
specimens of it are to be seen at the
mosque of San Sophia in Constantino­
ple and at St. Mark's in Venice. A
part of the South Kensington Museum
is thus decorated, and had Wren's de­
sign been carried out the dome of St.
Paul's would have been brilliant with
mosaic.
264

MOT
ART
DICTIONARY.
MUF
Mother­of­pearl. A substance with
which the inside of certain shells is coated.
It is white, hard, and iridescent, takes a
high polish, and is accordingly of con­
siderable value in the decorative arts.
Motive. In painting the motive is the
subject of a picture ; in sculpture it is
the pose of a figure or the arrangement
of a group ; in architecture it is the
general effect of the painted or sculptured
decoration.
Motto. (Her.) A word or sentence
written below an escutcheon.
It is
frequently a punning device suggested
by the name of the bearer of the coat of
arms.
The motto of the Cavendish
family, for instance, is Cavendo tutus.
Moucharaby. (Arch.) A projecting
balcony on the outside of a building
covered with a lattice of wood. It is
frequently found in buildings of the
oriental style, and produces a pictur­
esque effect.
Mould. (Sculp.) A mould is an im­
print of an object in relief, by means of
which a reproduction of this object may
be obtained. The mould à creux perdu
can only furnish one copy of an original,
for it must be broken ί
ο
be detached
from the cast. From the mould à bon
creux, however, which consists of mov­
able pieces, an indefinite number of
copies may be obtained
Moulding. (Arch ) A projection,
square, convex or concave in
profile, ornamenting a wall.
Examples of flat mouldings
will be found under the
headings Fillet, Listel, Drip­
stone, Fascine, and Plinth; of
convex mouldings under the
headings Baguette, Quarter­round,
and
Torus;
and of concave
mouldings
under the headings Cavetto,
Gorge,
and Scotia.
Some mouldings, such as
the cyma and ogee, are half convex, half
concave.
Mouldings are frequently
decorated with foliage. Not only are
they used in architecture but they
serve to ornament numerous surfaces
upon which their projection and
shadows produce effects of light and
shade. In the Greek and Roman orders
the mouldings, to which we have al­
ready referred, are employed. In build­
ings of the Romanesque style these
mouldings are retained, but their outline
is heavy, and very often plat­bands (q.v.)
decorated with frets or chevrons receive
the name of moulding. In the Gothic
period fresh mouldings were introduced
such as the chamfer, and a whole series
of small mould­
ings, the pur­
pose of which
was to set off the
profile
of the
curved
mould­
ings. At the Re­
naissance the an­
tique mouldings
were revived, with some slight modifica­
tions, but without the loss of their
original grace.
Moustiers Faience. (Pot.) A very fine
faïence was made at Moustiers in the
17th and 18th centuries. The earlier
specimens were blue and white in colour,
and the decorative designs upon them
were suggested no doubt by the antique.
On the later examples of Moustiers poly­
chrome decora­
tions were in­
troduced.
Muffle. A hol­
low demi­cylin­
der of fire­proof earth, closed at one end
18
265

MUL
ART
DICTIONARY
MUR
and open at the other. It is used by
painters in enamel and in porcelain for
firing and vitrifying their colours.
Muller. (Paint ) A small pestle of
crystal, porcelain, or marble, which is
used by painters to grind their colours
either on a piece
of polished glass
or in a porcelain
h yjj&k—TiT —
saucer
·
The
—
>
**Tξ' ii!§SβBflaP muller is gen­
erally in the
form of a trun­
cated cone, the
upper part of which is slightly convex,
so that it can be held in the palm of
the hand.
Mullet. (Her.) The rowel of a spur
borne as a charge in heraldry. Unless
otherwise stated it has five points.
Mullion. (Arch.) A term applied to
the stone compartments which divide
the surface of windows in buildings of
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
the Gothic and Renaissance styles.
Throughout the Middle Ages mullions
had a distinct outline in every century.
In the greater part of the window
mullions are vertical, but in the upper
part they inter­crossed and form compli­
cated curves. During the period of the
Renaissance windows were divided by
mullions cutting one another at right
angles.
The
^
space between
the mullions was
filled with panels
of glass held up
by iron bars.
Multifoil.
(Arch.) A term
applied to an
arch, which con­
sists of more than
five foils or segments of circles.
Mummy Brown. (Paint.) A term
denoting a rich brown pigment, which
is composed of white pitch, myrrh, and
the flesh taken from ancient mummies
For a long time, however, mummy
brown extracted from real Egyptian
mummies has been very rare, as ­the
variety which the druggists of the
Levant palm off upon Western Europe
is not genuine, but is obtained from the
bodies embalmed by both Jews and
Christians in the Levant in bitumen
and some aromatic substances.
But
whether genuine or not, it cannot be
recommended to the painter, as,
although it is a rich colour, it dries
with difficulty, is not permanent, and
may contain ammonia and particles of
fat.
Muntin. A vertical piece of wood or
iron, which forms part of the framework
of a door or bay.
Mural Decoration. Nearly all the
arts have been called into requisition
for the purpose of decorating wall
surfaces. The ancient Egyptians and
Assyrians
employed low reliefs in
marble for this purpose, and many
specimens of their work are still extant.
Walls have been covered with thin
slabs of marble, brilliantly enamelled
tiles, stucco, mosaic, stamped leather,
and paper. Then they have been painted
in every age and in every country. It is
from the painted walls of Pompeii that
we gain our scanty knowledge of Greek
painting, and this method of mural
266

MUR
ART
riONARY.
MUS
by Apollo, who is hence called Musa­
getes. In later art they have each their
separate attributes, suggested by the
branch of art, such as history, tragedy,
comedy, &c, which is regarded as their
own.
Museum. A public building in which
a collection of works of art, belonging
especially to ancient times, is gathered
together and classified for the purpose
of intelligent study. The British Mu­
seum and the South Kensington Museum
are the most celebrated institutions
of the kind in England.
—, British. The British Museum
was established in 1754, on the site
which it occupies at present. A nucleus
was formed by the collection of Sir
Hans Sloane, the Cottonian library, and
the Harleian manuscripts. The collec­
tion of Sir William Hamilton, acquired
by purchase in 1772, was the foundation
of the Department of Antiquities. In
1802 a large collection of Egyptian anti­
quities were acquired, and some years
later were purchased the Townley
Marbles. The magnificent sculptures
from the Parthenon, known as the Elgin
Marbles, were obtained in 1816, and
seven years later the library of George
III. became public property. The en­
largement of the building was then in­
evitable, and the Museum, as we know
it to­day, was designed by Sir Robert
Smirke. In 1857 Mr. Sidney Smirke
built the Reading­room, the plan of
which was suggested by Sir Anthony
Panizzi. Important additions have been
made every year to the British Museum,
which, besides a vast library, includes a
collection of artistic objects from all
countries, and belonging to all ages ; nor
must the admirable department of
prints and drawings be forgotten.
Between the years 1880 and 1883, the
Natural History Collections were re­
moved from Bloomsbury, and placed
in a separate building in Cromwell
Road, now known as the Natural History
Museum.
267
decoration continued through the
Middle Ages, and indeed still survives.
There are, however, very few pre­Refor­
mation mural paintings in existence
For at the triumph of Protestantism
these interesting examples of art were
ordered to be destroyed, and replaced
by texts and allegories. The usual
method at the present time of deco­
rating walls is to cover them with wall­
papers. This practice seems to have
been generally adopted in the 18th
century, though it was not unknown
before. The design is printed on the
paper from wooden blocks, cut in relief, I
a separate block being used for each '
colour. The best kind of papers are
printed by hand, but the cheaper kind
are printed in machines.
Murex. The murex is, strictly speak­
^­.
ing, a shell­fish, but in
IJVK J^^ji art it generally denotes
\**r**^Srœ
a twisted shell­shaped
λ
>—^
.
γ
trumpet, which was
"^^ J
one
°*" ^
e
^tributes
Ο
Ι
>
*
the Tritons. Our illus­
tration is taken from an antique gem.
Murrey. (Her ) A term used in old
heraldry books for sanguine (q.v .)
Murrhine Vases. Murrhine vases
were first brought to Rome in the time
of Pompey. They were highly valued
by the Romans, who paid fabulous sums
for them.
Pliny describes them as bril­
liant, iridescent, and of various colours.
Many opinions have been set forth as
to the material of which they were
composed. Some say they were of
jade, others of opal, while others again
hold that they were Chinese porcelain.
Muses. The daughters of Zeus and
Mnemosyne, and the patronesses of
music and the fine arts.
They were
nine in number, and each had one
branch of art under her control. In
early Greek works of art the Muses are
represented together as nine maidens
similarly attired, and each holding a
musical instrument or a roll of manu­
script as their attribute. They are led (

MUS
ART
DICTIONARY.
ΝΑ
Ι
Museum, South Kensington. The
South Kensington Museum was one of
the results of the Exhibition of 1851. It
was intended primarily to include ex­
amples of art applied to industry, as well
as a collection of such works as should
have an interest and value for art stu­
dents. But it has gone far beyond these
limits, and is, in addition, the refuge of
many miscellaneous objects, such as the
Dyce and Forster collections of books,
drawings, &c, and a large number of
pictures, the majority of which belong
to the British School. The majority of
the pictures acquired under the terms
of the Chantrey Bequest find a home at
South Kensington.
Muzzle. (Arch.) An architectural
decoration represent­
ing the muzzle of an
animal, whether real
or fabulous.
The
muzzles of lions are
frequently employed
in the decoration of
fountains or gutters,
jets of water issuing
from the openings thus formed.
Mutule. (Aich) A kind of modillion,
of considerable size, peculiar to the
,,Λ|«2
£*S*i3L
Doric order.
It is sometimes quite
plain and sometimes covered with rows
of guttae (q.v .).
Myology. That branch of anatomy
which includes the study of muscles
The living model does not always give
the artist sufficient guidance. As the
model gets tired the muscles relax, and
after a while no longer display the ten­
sion which they should have in action.
The artist must then fall back on his
knowledge of anatomy, and by this
means imagine what his model can no
longer represent to him.
Mythology. The greater number of
subjects affected by ancient sculptors
and painters were suggested by their
mythology, i e , by the fabulous history
of their gods, goddesses, and heroes. An
account of the chief among these deities,
with the attributes by which they may be
recognised, will be found under separate
headings. Mediaeval and modern artists
too have often sought their inspiration in
classical mythology, especially in times
like the present, when there has been a
sort of classical revival.
N.
Naga. Among the Dyaks of Borneo a
ceitain kind of jar, to which the name of
naga (a dragon) is given, is very highly
prized. It is uncertain when and by whom
these jars were made, but all have a figure
of a dragon traced upon their surface.
Naiant. (Her.) This terms mean swim­
ming, and is used in
heraldry of a fish repre­
sented on a shield in a
vertical position. When
a fish is shown in a hori­
zontal position, it is said
to be hauriant (q.v .) .
Nail. The heads of nails form one of
the simplest methods of ornament in the
world. They are frequently employed
to decorate the panels of doors or of
small pieces of furniture such as coffers,
cabinets, &c. In this case brass­headed
nails are generally used.
Nail Ornament. (Arch ) A system of
ornament frequently used in the Ro­
manesque style.
The
"nails" often present
the appearance of diamond points and
are set side by side Sometimes, how·
268

ΝΑ
Ι
ART
DICTIONARY.
NAT
ever, they are spaced out and the heads
of monsters are incised upon them. In
this case they are commonly known
under the name of corbels or modulions.
Naissant. (Her.) This term is applied
to demi­lions, or other
charges rising out from
" the middle of a fess or
some other ordinary.
It differs from issuant,
which implies that the
charge rises from the
lower edge of the ordinary, which in
this case is always a chief.
Naked. (Arch.) A term applied to the
surface of a wall, to which projecting
ornaments are applied, or to
the actual surface or vertical
line, beyond which a moulding
or decorative motive projects.
In a cartouche, for instance, the
volutes and foliage project be­
yond the naked of the surface
which they decorate, while the
centre of the cartouche may
project still further from the
naked, may be so depressed as
to coincide with it, or may be so
hollowed out as to recede from it.
The latter is often the case when
the cartouche is incrusted with marble.
Naos. (Arch.) The central portion of a
Greek temple, in which stood the statue
of the deity to whom the temple was de­
dicated. In the modern Greek church the
naos is the nave reserved for the faithful.
Napkin Pattern. (Arch.) A name
given to a decorative pattern frequently I
carved upon panels of wood in the
Gothic period. It suggests a square
piece of cloth folded sometimes double
with the two ends curved inwards, some­
times in many close folds. The com­
moner name for this ornament is linen
scroll (q.v.)
Naples Yellow. (Paint.) A pigment
which was originally composed of the
oxides of lead and antimony, but is now
generally manufactured from zinc. It
derives its name from the fact that it
was once prepared at Naples. It is a
useful pigment, and, though it is affected
by bad air and by pigments, such as the
ochres, which contain iron, it may be
regarded as permanent.
Narthex. (Arch.) The interior vesti­
bule of a Christian basilica railed off
from the rest of the building, where the
catechumens and penitents were ad­
mitted.
Nasal. That
portion of a hel­
met which pro­
tected the nose.
Our cut represents
the head of a
warrior from the
Bayeux tapestry.
National Gal­
lery. The Na­
tional
Gallery,
which is situated
in
Trafalgar
Square, in London, contains about 1,300
examples by English
and
foreign
masters. Compared with many foreign
picture galleries it is a very young
institution. It dates its foundation from
1824, in which year a small collection of
38 pictures was purchased from Mr.
Angerstein. This formed the nucleus
of the unrivalled collection now at
Trafalgar Square.
The Angerstein
Collection was speedily augmented
by gifts and bequests, and in 1853 the
nation possessed 236 pictures. Shortly
before this time the pictures thus
acquired had been removed from Pall
209

NAT
ART
DICTIONARY.
NEC
Mall, where they had been exhibited
at Mr. Angerstein's house ever since
their purchase, to the building now
known as the National Gallery. Annual
grants from Government, largely sup­
plemented by private munificence, have
enabled us within the short space of
rather more than sixty years to get
together a collection of pictures which in
some respects is unsurpassed in Europe.
We may particularly congratulate our­
selves that our gallery, small though
it be, contains for the most part
picked examples of the great masters
and is singularly free from rubbish.
Of late years the pictures have been
carefully rehung according to schools,
and their value from an educational
point of view has thus been much en­
hanced.
National Portrait Gallery. [Portrait
Gallery, National.]
Native Green. (Paint.) A pigment
artificially prepared from oxide of
chromium or chrome ochre.
Itisa
deep opaque sage green, and is very
useful, as it is quite permanent.
Nativity. The " nativity" or birth of
Christ was one of the favourite sub­
jects of the old masters. It is repre­
sented as taking place in a stable. The
child, wrapped in swaddling clothes, lies
in the manger, its mother and Joseph
keeping watch over it. The ox and the
ass are never omitted from the scene.
This may be called the realistic repre­
sentation of the scene.
Sometimes,
however, it is treated symbolically, the
infant lying on the ground and the
mother kneeling over it, while attendant
angels keep guard.
Nature. An artist is said to execute
his work from nature when he paints,
draws, or models from the living model,
or places his easel before the landscape
he wishes to represent and paints in the
open air.
Naturalism. An aesthetic tendency
displayed by a certain school of artists
to keep as close as possible to nature in
the representation of her various phases.
The naturalism of the present age too
often lacks loftiness of aim, and is
sometimes little better than brutality.
However, such artists as Albert Durer
and Lucas Cranach have shown that it
is possible to be a naturalist without
losing nobility of sentiment.
Naumachia. (Arch.) This term, which
literally means a sea­fight, was applied
to amphitheatres or circuses in Rome, in
which sham sea­fights took place. The
first was built by Julius Caesar, and the
naumachia of the later emperors were
vast structures.
Representations of
them are frequently met with on coins
or medals.
Nave. (Arch.) That part of a Gothic
church which extends from the choir to
the western door. The word nave means
a ship, and it was applied to the body
of the church, in accordance with the
simile which compared the church to a
ship.
Nebris. A fawnskin, frequently found
in representations of Bacchantes and
Thyades.
Nebulé. (Her.) This is one of the
varieties of the dividing
lines of a shield. Nebulé
take slightly different forms
on different shields, but
they all resemble pretty
closely the specimen here
shown, consisting of well­
marked double indentations and pro­
jections.
Necklace. An ornament worn round
the neck. It has been made of glass
beads and the seeds of plants as well as
of jewels and richly chased gold. There
is no race, either barbarous or civilised,
270

NEC
ART
DICTIONARY.
NET
among whom necklaces have not ,been
worn. Our cuts represent two necklaces
discovered in Etruscan tombs, the upper
one being now in the British Museum.
Neck­moulding. (Arch.) A broad
fillet or astragal, which separates the
shaft of a column from the capital.
Necropolis. A term applied in ancient
times to that portion of a city, some ­
times a subterranean vault, in which
the dead were buried. In modern times
it denotes a large cemetery.
Needle. (Arch.) A name given in
Gothic architecture to the pinnacles or
bell ­ turrets, which are some­
times termed spires, as well as
to steeples in the form of a taper­
ing pyramid. Egyptian mono­
liths or obelisks of pyramidal
form and of great height in pro­
portion to their breadth are also
called needles.
Such is Cleo­
patra's Needle, which now stands
upon the Thames Embankment.
Negative. A term applied to a photo­
graphic proof, in which the light parts
are represented by black and the parts
in shadow by white spots.
Neo­Greek. A style of painting
adopted by some artists who attempt
to infuse modern sentiment in the style
and subjects of ancient Greek art. In
architecture the term neo­Greek is
applied to a style inspired by the Greek
orders with these modifications : the
ornamentation projects but little, foliage
for instance, being only incised, while
uniform surfaces of considerable size
and mouldings with a long narrow
outline predominate.
Neptune. [Poseidon.]
Nereids. In Greek mythology the
Nereids were the daughters of Nereus
and were regarded as the spirits of the
sea. They are represented as attending
Aphrodite, when she was born of the
sea. The Greeks with the anthropo­
morphism which was characteristic of
them, imagined the Nereids as maidens
of great beauty and thus they appear on
painted vases and other works of art,
swimming in the sea or riding on dol­
phins. They suggest an obvious parallel
with the mermaids of Teutonic mythol­
ogy. Four figures representing Nereids
are among the marbles discovered by
Mr. Fellows at Xanthus, and are now in
the British Museum.
Nereus. One of the sea­gods of Greece,
the father of the Nereids. He is repre­
sented in works of art as an aged man,
with a long beard and a Jove­like head.
Nero Antico. A marble sometimes
used by the ancient sculptors of Egypt
and Greece. It is of a very deep black
in colour and is unknown in its natural
state in the present day.
Nerve. (Arch.) A term applied to the
mouldings which surmount the surface
of a vault. It is synonymous with rib
(q.v.), which is the term more commonly
employed.
Nervous. A painting is said to be
nervous when the colours are firm and
the drawing is vigorous. The term is
applied to a piece of sculpture, the
modelling of which is solid without
being heavy, while the various planes
are strongly and clearly marked.
Net. (Her.) Nets are sometimes borne
as charges on coats of ar­
mour, and may cover
either the whole or part
of a shield. Or a net may
be supercharged on some
other charge ; thus, for ex­
ample, we might have a
fess or a bend charged with a net of a
different tincture.
Netsukés. A Japanese word denoting
a small toggle or button, carved in ivory
or wood and attached by the Japanese
to the fasteners of their medicine boxes
271

NEU
or pipe­cases.
In spite of their small
size they are often exquisitely carved, as
a rule into grotesque forms, and as they
have been made continuously from the
15th century they constitute an impor­
tant branch of Japanese art.
Neutral. A term applied to a vague
colour, which does not present any pre­
dominant tone. It particularly denotes
a grey of a bluish violet tint used in
water colours. Neutral tints form ex­
cellent grounds for pictures, for they in­
crease the value of striking colours and
make them stand out with peculiar bril­
liance.
Nevers. (Pot.) From the beginning of
the 17th century Nevers was the centre
of a very important ceramic industry.
The earliest pieces of Nivernais pottery
were made under the auspices of a
family named Conrad, and were copied
from oriental models. In the 18th cen­
tury Italian faïence was imitated at
Nevers. About 1760 the manufacture
lost its artistic interest and became en­
tirely commercial.
Newel. (Arch.) A term applied to the
central part of a spiral staircase.
Niche. (Arch.) A recess either in the
façade or in the interior wall of a
^^
building, sometimes en­
*^d^pT%S^ closed by pilasters and
• J^Jsg­Ljpw intended to contain a
statue, bust, or decora­
tive vase.
Examples of niches are
found in every style of architecture.
In the Arabian style the term niche is
applied to the series of alveoli, which
support ceilings. In buildings of the I
NIE
Gothic periods we meet with niches
formed by colonnettes supporting a
small pediment and sheltering a statue.
In the 16th century niches are generally
the 17th and 18th centuries niches play
an important part in the external deco­
ration of buildings.
Nicholas, St. St. Nicholas, one of the
most popular saints in the calendar,
was born at Panthera, in Asia Minor,
was for many years bishop of Myra, and
died in 326 A. D . On one occasion he
threw three purses or balls of gold into
the house of a nobleman, whose three
daughters were penniless and undower­
ed. On another he restored to life three
boys who had been killed and put in a
brine­tub by an innkeeper. These two
episodes in his life have suggested sub­
jects to many artists. ' His attributes are
three balls of gold, an anchor, and a ship,
for he is the protector of seafaring men
and commerce. He is also the patron
saint of Russia, and in an especial degree
the friend of young children.
Nickelled. A term applied to metal
ornaments, whether of iron, copper, or
bronze, upon which is deposited by an
electro­metallic process a coating of
nickel. This protects the metal from
rust and from the alterations caused by
rust and damp, and at the same time
gives it a brilliant appearance.
Niellatori. The artists who practised
that branch of engraving metal plates
I called niello (q v.)
ART DIC
272

NIE
ART DIC
Niello· A process of decorating metal
plates brought to perfection by the gold­
smiths of Italy in the 15th century.
A design was incised upon a plate of
silver or of gold and silver mixed. A
black compound consisting of copper,
lead, borax, sulphur, and sal ammoniac
was then introduced at a high tempera­
ture into the incised lines, and when
cool formed an incrustation, leaving the
rest of the metal plate bare. The plate
was then polished and presented the
appearance of black incrustation on a
light ground. This method
Β
of engraving metal plates
was practised with success
by Byzantine and German
artists, and many of their
works are executed with
wonderful delicacy. The
Italians, however, were the
most distinguished niella­
tovi,
and among them
Tomaso or Maso Fini­
,
___
guerra is justly the most
celebrated. He was in the
habit of testing his half­finished work,
by taking a proof of it in earth or sul­
phur or even on paper. There is in
the print­room of the Paris Library
a proof on paper of a Pax partially
engraved in niello by Finiguerra in
1452. This proof is of the greatest im­
portance in the history of engraving, for
there is no doubt that intaglio engraving,
the art of multiplying copies of a design
incised on a metal plate, took its rise from
the rough proof taken by the goldsmiths
of the 15th century from their nielli.
Niggling. (Paint.) When such de­
tails as the leaves on a tree are treated
separately, and without any regard to
their mass, they are said to be niggled,
and their method of treatment is
called niggling. The works of the Pre­
Raphaelites afford many complete in­
stances of niggling, and will illustrate
the confusion and want of dignity in­
sured by this false realism.
Night. The Greeks with their cha­
NIO
racteristic anthropomorphism, regarded
Night as the daughter of Chaos, the wife
of Erebos, and the mother of Sleep and
Death. Artistic representations of her are
by no means unknown. A statue of Night
by the sculptor Rhoecus is said to have
existed in Ephesus in the 7th century
B.c. On painted vases she appears as
heavily draped and wearing a veil covered
with stars. She bears two children,
Death and Sleep, in her arms.
Nike. The goddess of victory among
the Greeks. She was particularly asso­
ciated with Athene and Zeus, and the
golden and ivory statues of Athene at
Athens and of Zeus at Olympia each
held a winged Nike in its hand. Nike
was generally represented as a draped
maiden with wings. She holds a palm­
branch and wreath in her hand, and
sometimes stands upon a globe. Coins
struck in commemoration of a victory
frequently have a figure of Nike struck
upon them. One of the most celebrated
statues of Nike in existence is from the
hands of Paeonius. It was ordered by
the Messenians to commemorate the
victory of Sphacteria, and a cast of it is
to be seen at the British Museum. As
we have said, Nike is generally a winged
goddess, but in early art she is repre­
sented without wings, and a temple in
honour of Nike Apterus, or Wingless
Victory, existed at Athens.
Nimbed. A saint is said to be nimbed
when his head is surrounded with a
nimbus.
Nimbus. The luminous circle placed
by painters and sculptors on the heads
of saints. Some nimbi are cruciform,
others triangular. They assume indeed
a variety of forms, according to the saint
whose head they surround. [Aureole.]
Niobe. In Greek mythology Niobe was
TIONARY.
273

NOC
the wife of Amphion, and as a punish­
ment for her boast that she might rival
Leto as the mother of beautiful children,
her children were all slain by the arrows
of Apollo and Artemis. The tragic fate
of Niobe and her children has from early
times been a favourite subject with
artists. The most celebrated rendering of
it in ancient times was a group by Scopas.
Nocturne. (Paint.) A group of mod­
ern painters have borrowed the termin­
ology of music for the description of
their works, and for some time it has
been the fashion to call impressions of
night nocturnes.
Norman Architecture. Norman archi­
tecture is the style which prevailed in
England from the Conquest until about
the end of the twelfth century. The
doorways and windows are round­headed,
and are often recessed and enriched with
several bands of ornaments. The arches
are always round. The piers are gene­
rally massive, and are either circular or
multangular.
The mouldings princi­
pally used are the zigzag, beakhead, and
square abacus. The capitals are heavy
and large, and sometimes rudely carved
with grotesque heads or foliage. The
general effect of a Norman building is
massive and sombre. The majority of
Norman churches were found wanting
by the succeeding ages and modified
or destroyed. The nave at Rochester
and St. Bartholomew's Church in Smith­
field are good examples of the style.
Note. (Paint.) A term applied in paint­
ing to the tonality of a work or to some
special quality in its composition. Thus
we speak of a good note of colour. By
an easy transition a picture itself in
which a certain note of colour is evident
maybe called a note. Thus
/^^
­V
""} *
n tne
catalogues of pic­
1ii^U^wl
*
ures
belonging to the
/ iw TiSr \ advanced school we fre­
[ ^Nir ] quently meet with such
\_
^y
titles as a note in red.
^
Nowed. (Her.) An her­
aldic term which means knotted or
'IONARY.
OBE
twisted. It is applied to serpents or
wyverns or other animals which are
represented with their tails twisted or
tied in a knot.
Nude. A term applied to studies of the
figure made from the naked living model.
For instance we speak of a drawing of
the nude and at the same time we term
the drawing itself a nude.
Numismatics. The science which
treats of the coins and medals of all
ages and their artistic and historical
significance. From an artistic point of
view the study of ancient Greek coins is
of the utmost importance, for not only
are they in themselves of great beauty,
but they preserve for us the representa­
tion of many Greek statues in miniature,
and so supply links in the chain of art­
history which otherwise would be missing.
Numismatist. A term denoting those
who collect and study coins and medals.
Nuremberg Pottery. (Pot.) Nurem­
berg has been a centre of ceramic
industry from early times. Many beau­
tiful plaques, tiles, and dishes were
made there in the 16th century, which
in their decoration display the influence
of the Renaissance. The Nuremberg
potteries were in a flourishing condition
in the 18th century.
o.
Obelisk. (Arch.) An Egyptian monu­
ment in the form of a monolith of
ART DICI
274

OBL
ART DIC
pyramidal form. By analogy the term
is applied to any small pyramid which
is high in comparison with its breadth.
Egyptian obelisks were generally mono­
liths of colossal'proportions, such as the
so­called Cleopatra's Needle, which
stands on the Embankment in London.
In some modern buildings obelisks—
which, however, are not monolithic—are
employed either as finials or as lamps.
Oblatorium. (Arch.) A lateral apse
in a Christian basilica in which the
bread and wine were blessed. It is also
known under the name Prothesis.
Oblique. A term applied to any
direction which is neither vertical nor
horizontal.
• Obliterate. To efface a copper plate
from which engravings have been struck
by covering it with deep and irregular
incisions, which completely destroy the
value of the work. The purpose of
obliterating plates is to prevent any
further prints being struck from them,
as a large number of prints diminishes
the value of the earlier impressions.
A purely fictitious value is thus fre­
quently given to engravings. In a re­
cent instance only fifty impressions
were struck from a plate, which was
then broken up into fifty pieces and
distributed among the fifty subscribers,
although it was in a perfectly good state
and might still have furnished many
hundreds of proofs.
Oblong. Atermap­
ι
plied to any object
the length of which
1 is greater than its
breadth.
Observe. To study a model closely
and so to reproduce it with accuracy.
Thus in criticising a picture we say that
the figures are well observed, or that the
effect of light and shade is the result of
careful observation.
Obtuse. An angle greater than a right
angle.
Obverse. (Numis ) That side of a coin
or medal upon which the face or the
Γ
Ι
Ο
NARY.
OCT
main device is struck. It is opposed to
reverse (q.v.), which is especially reserved
for the insciption.
Oceanides. The daughters of the
Greek sea­god Oceanus. In Greek art
they are represented, like the mermaids
of Teutonic mythology, as being half
human, half fish. They wear seaweed
wreathed in their hair and ride on dol­
phins.
Oceanus. In Greek mythology Ocea­
nus is said to be the son of Uranus and
Gaia, and the god ot the sea. In artistic
representations he appears as an aged
man with a bull's horn.
He rides upon
a dolphin or in a chariot drawn by sea­
monsters, and in his hand he holds a
sceptre, symbolic of the power he exer­
cises over the sea.
Ochre. (Paint.) An argillaceous sub­
stance coloured by oxide of iron.
— , Brown. A pigment obtained from
a clay containing oxide of iron and oxide
of manganese.
— , Red. A red pigment obtained from
sulphate of iron or by calcining yellow
ochre. It is of a good colour and per­
manent as a rule, the only objection to
its free use being that it contains iron,
and so is likely to adversely affect some
pigments with which it is mixed.
—, Yellow. A yellow pigment which
is nothing more or less than a peroxide
or hydrate of iron. It is useful both in
oil and water­colour, as it is permanent.
It is somewhat opaque, and should be
avoided when transparency is aimed at.
What has been said about red ochre
applies equally to yellow. The iron it
contains renders it dangerous to some
other pigments, and this danger is
greater in chemically prepared than in
native yellow ochre.
Octohedron. A solid body with eight
faces.
Octostyle. (Arch.) A term applied to
ancient temples, the façade of which was
decorated with eight columns.
The
Parthenon, the famous temple of Athene
at Athens, was octostyle.
275

ocu
ART
DICTIONARY.
OIL
Oculus. (Arch.) A small opening or
window of circular form which admits
light and air. The term is especially
applied to the circular openings made
at the top of
Ij'. i
the, pediment
~
in Latin basi­
licae.
The
oculus is also
found in build­
ings of the
Romanesque
and
Gothic
styles. When it plays an important part
in the decorative scheme of a façade it
is called a rose window (q.v.).
Odeon. (Arch.) A Greek building,
differing in its roof and internal archi­
tecture from a theatre. It was used
principally for concerts. The most cele­
brated Odeon at Athens was built in the
time of Pericles, and stood not far from
the theatre of Dionysus.
Oenochoe. (Pot.) A vase or
jug which was used in ancient
Greece for pouring the wine
from the crater to the drinking
cup. The majority of these
vases, which are often richly
decorated, are graceful and
tapering in form. Sometimes,
however, the oenochoe is ovoidal in
shape, has a veiy ihin neck and a
light handle gracefully curved in the
shape of an S. Such is the one re­
presented in our second cut, which is
taken from a bronze oenochoe found at
Volterra.
Offskip. (Paint.) That portion of a
landscape which recedes into distance
is called the offskip.
Ogee. (Arch.) A moulding formed of
two segments of a circle, the concave
segment occupying the
upper part of the mould­
ing and the convex the
lower. The ogee, which
is of a gracefully undulat­
ing form, is a moulding
frequently employed in the entablature
and projecting crowning of a building.
— , Reverse. An ogee moulding, the
upper part of which is occupied by the
convex segment of a circle. It is em­
ployed as a moulding in pedestals and
sub­basements.
Ogive. (Arch.) A term applied by
French architects to the Pointed or
Gothic style which flourished in Western
Europe from the 12th to the 16th century.
In England we call this Pointed (q.v.).
Oil. (Paint.) The oils used in oil­paint­
ing are linseed oil, nut oil, poppy oil,
spike or lavender oil, and drying oil for
colours, such as lake, ultramarine, and
blacks, which do not dry easily. For
grinding colours a mixture of linseed
oil and mastic is used. Up to the last
century artists ground their colours
themselves, and each had his own re­
ceipt for mixing the oil, of which he was
very proud and which he jealously
guarded. Some used linseed oil with a
little copperas, while others added a
certain quantity of litharge to nut oil.
— , Drying. Drying oil is obtained by
adding to warm linseed oil a mixture of
litharge, white lead, and black ochre.
—, Linseed. The best linseed oil for­
merly came from Holland. The painters
of the last century, in order to make it as
white as poppy oil, exposed it in leaden
jars to the sun, adding white lead and
276

OIL
ART
DICTIONARY.
OLP
calcined talc to it. Linseed oil is an
excellent siccative,
Oil, Nut. Nut oil, though not so good
a siccative as linseed oil, is much whiter.
It is accordingly used in diluting whites
and greys, which would be easily tar­
nished by the colour of linseed oil.
—, Poppy. This oil is clearer than
linseed oil, has neither iaste nor smell,
and is used for diluting white lead, the
brilliance of which it does not in the
slightest degree tarnish.
—, Spike. Spike oil is an essential
oil of lavender and is used by painters
for oiling out and for cleaning parts of
the canvas. It is also found useful by
painters in enamel.
Oiling­out. (Paint) When a picture is
to be retouched, it has first to undergo the
process of oiling­out. For this purpose
a drying oil is used, which was prepared
in the last century by artists themselves
according to various recipes. As a rule
it consisted of poppy oil, with certain
substances added.
Oilettes. (Arch.) Long narrow slits in
the walls of a fortified building through
which archers discharged their arrows.
Sometimes they were straight, sometimes
cruciform ; in the latter case they en­
abled the besieged to aim their arrows
in several directions. [Loophole.]
Oiron Faοence. [Faïence of Henri
II.]
Okimono. A Japanese word, which
literally means " a thing to be placed. "
Hence it is applied to ornaments and
objects which serve a decorative rather
than a practical purpose.
Oleograph. A reproduction of a pic­
ture obtained by a process of printing in
which a kind of oil­colour is used instead
of the ordinary printer's ink. The term
is especially applied to the proof obtained
by the processes of chromolithography.
The oleographic process has the advan­
tage of cheapness, but its results are
seldom, if ever, artistic.
Olive. The foliage of the olive­tree,
which is a native of Asia, is frequently
used in decorative art. The leaf is oval
in shape, its upper surface being of a
dark green, while underneath it is of a
lightish hue. The wood of
the olive­tree is of a fine
yellow
tone,
delicately
veined with brown. It takes
a beautiful polish, and is
sometimes used in cabinet­
making. In symbolic art
the olive is the emblem of
peace, and as this it figures in Byzan­
tine art.
Olive Moulding. (Arch.) A decoration
consisting of ob­
long pearls, which
is employed to en­
rich baguettes and other mouldings
which are convex in profile.
Olla. A common
jar, generally made
of baked clay, used
by the ancients for
cooking and other
domestic purposes.
It generally had a
wide mouth and
was covered by a
lid, as is shown
in our cut.
Olpe. (Pot.) An ancient vase of vari­
able size, which resembles a leather
flask in shape. It has a circular handle
and a wide flat rim.
277

ONU
ART
DICTIONARY.
ORB
Onuphrius, St. St. Onuphrius, accord­
ing to the legend was a monk of Thebes,
who spent sixty years of his life alone in
a bleak desert. After enduring without
a murmur the pangs of hunger, he was
found dying in the wilderness by another
monk, who buried him. In art he is
represented as an aged man, scantily
clad and with a lean and hungry look.
Onyx. A variety of agate or chalce­
dony of remarkable beauty and marked
by parallel and concentric rays variously
coloured. It was much used by the
ancients for cameo­engraving.
Opal. A blueish white variety of
quartz, which is semi­transparent and
iridescent.
Opalescent. A body is said to be
opalescent when it is semi­transparent
and iridescent like an opal. The scien­
tific explanation of the phenomenon of
opalescence is that particles of gas or
solid matter are uniformly intermixed
in a transparent body.
Opaque. (Paint.) A term applied
to pigments which lack transparency.
Chrome green is a good example of an
opaque pigment. Some pigments under­
go a curious change when laid on the
canvas; they lose their opacity and so
allow any colour which has been laid
on beneath them to be distinctly seen.
This is especially the case with pigments
containing lead, the use of which can
never be recommended.
Open Air. (Paint.) [Plein Air.]
Opening. (Arch.) A general term ap­
plied to the bays, windows, doors, and
other spaces which break a façade, the
nave of a church, &c.
Opisthodomus (Arch.) That part of
the Greek temple behind the cella (q.v.)
in which the treasures of the deity and
other relics are kept. It was at the
western end of the building, the'Greek
temple differing from the Christian
church in having its principal entrance
in its eastern façade.
Opus Alexandrinum
(Arch ) A
simple kind of mosaic pavement much
used in Rome. Its distinguishing fea­
ture is that its patterns, which are al­
ways geometrical, are composed entirely
of two colours.
Opus Antiquum. (Arch.) A form of
masonry employed by Roman architects
in which the stones were not squared.
This kind of stone­
work is also called
opus incertuum. Both
the opus
antiquum
and the opus spica­
tum, or herring­bone
masonry, were used in buildings of
the Latin and Romanesque styles.
—
Reticulatum. (Arch.) A term ap­
plied by Roman architects to that kind
of brickwork or masonry which we term
diamond pattern.
—
Spicatum. (Arch.) In Roman
architecture the masonry which we call
herring­bone was called opus spicatum.
[Masonry, Herring­bone.]
Or. (Her.) The heraldic name fcr gold.
It is indicated on a
shield by tiny dots ^iffi
powdered
over
a
plain field. The
shield in our cut
would be described
thus: Or, a bend
gules.
Orange. A secondary colour produced
by the mixture of two primary colours,
red and yellow.
—
Chrome. This pigment, which is a
rich opaque orange, is a chromate of lead.
Like all lead pigments it has a delete­
rious effect on the pigments with which
it is mixed, but in pure air and unmixed
it is fairly permanent.
—
Vermilion. A pigment somewhat
resembling red lead. It is more brilliant
and less opaque than vermilion. It is
also pure and permanent and dries well.
Oratory. (Arch.) A small private chapel
or a room arranged and decorated as a
chapel.
Orb. The orb surmounted by a cross
is the symbol of sovereign power.
It is
278

ORG
ART
DICTIONARY.
ORI
frequently represented as held in the
left hand in portraits of
royal personages,
who
hold the sceptre in the
right. Queen Elizabeth,
for instance, in the well­
known portrait of her in
the National Portrait
Gallery, holds an orb in
her hand.
Orchestra. (Arch). In the theatre of
the Greeks and Romans the orchestra
was the central portion of the building,
and corresponded to the pit of an English
theatre. The Greek orchestra was set
apart for the evolutions of the chorus,
but in the Roman theatre the orchestra
was filled with the seats assigned to
senators and other important person­
ages. The orchestra in the modern
theatre is a narrow space in front of the
footlights, in which the musicians sit.
It is sometimes sunk below the level of
the stage, and concealed from the sight
of the audience.
Order. (Arch.) The term order was
applied to the three main styles of Greek
architecture, which were distinguished
the one from the other by various details
and especially by their proportions and
by the character
of their columns
and entablatures.
They were en­
titled the Doric,
Ionic, and Corin­
thian, and under
these heads they
are discussed. In
Roman times an­
other order en­
titled the Tuscan
was
developed.
Two orders may be combined in the
same building, each retaining its main
features. At the Renaissance the clas­
sical orders were revived with certain
modifications.
Ordinary. (Her.) The simple forms
which were originally used as heraldic
| distinctions were called ordinaries. The
honourable ordinaries are nine in num­
ber, the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister,
fess, bar. chevron, cross, and cross
saltier. In addition to these there are
thirteen subordinate ordinaries. A de­
scription of each of the ordinaries, hon­
ourable and subordinate, is to be found
under its separate heading.
Oreillettes.
Round bosses of
meta], sometimes
with a projecting
spike, which were
worn in the hel­
mets of the 15th
century to protect
the ear.
Orfrays. An
embroidered border now only employed
in sacerdotal vestments, executed in
threads of gold, silver, or silk.
Organ Case. A timber construction
enclosing the mechanism and pipes of
an organ. The organ cases of the 15th
and 16th centuries were frequently orna­
mented with paintings. In the 17th and
18th centuries they assumed a decora­
tive character of imposing fulness.
They projected beyond the statues or
columns which formed their support
and were decorated with an extraordi­
nary wealth of sculptured ornament.
Oriel. The term oriel is applied to the
small rooms sometimes found at the
end of halls in country houses or col­
leges, with a bay window projecting
some distance from the wall. This
window is called an oriel window, and
by analogy any window resembling its
shape is known by the same name.
Orientation. (Arch.) The arrange­
ment always followed in the building
of Christian churches, which enables
the worshippers to face the east.
Orient Yellow. (Paint.) A rich but
somewhat opaque yellow of a beautiful
golden tint. It is a very serviceable pig­
ment both in oil and water­colour, as it
dries well and is permanent.
279

ORI
ART
DICTIONARY.
ORN
Oriflamme. The oriflamme, which was
the standard of the ancient
kings of France, was once
the banner of the abbés
of St. Denis. In former
times it had three points
terminated by tufts and
was hoisted at the end of
a lance.
Nowadays ori­
flammes are hung like
banners and are frequently
carried in processions.
Original. A term applied to the per­
sonal method of conceiving and inter­
preting a work of art which is suggested
by nature or by the artist's own imagina­
tion. In another sense the word denotes
a picture, drawing, or statue, from which
copies or reproductions have been made.
Originality. Originality includes all
the distinctly personal or individual
qualities which characterise an artist's
work. To lack originality is to remain
in the old bonds. But originality is some­
thing different from eccentricity. In­
deed, it is the virtue to which eccentricity
is the corresponding vice.
Orle. (Her.) The orle is a narrow band
extending round the shield at a slight
distance inside the edge,
so as to form another
shield hollowed out. It
thus might properly be
described as an escut­
cheon voided, and was
in fact so blazoned by
early heralds.
Ornament. A painted or sculptured
motive enclosed by regular or irregular
lines and contributing to the richness
and effect of a work of art. Ornament
consists of a succession of purely con­
ventional patterns or of a free render­
ing of foliage and figures. In any case
they consist of an arbitrary series of
lines or curves which vary according to
the fancy of the artist. The question
as to the origin of conventional or
geometrical ornament is wrapt in ob­
scurity. Similar patterns are found in
the decoration of all ages and all coun­
tries.
The most probable theory is
that they are developments or degrada­
tions of natural objects.
It is easily
conceivable, for instance, that a human
head drawn over and over again, with­
out reference to the original, might
finally be so conventionalised as to be­
come a mere pattern or arbitrary ar­
rangement of lines. Architectural or­
nament includes mouldings of every
kind as well as the cartouches, metopes,
brackets, &c, which decorate façades,
friezes,orvaults. [Foliage, Moulding,&c]
Ornament, Arabian. Arabian orna­
ment is based upon geometrical combi­
nations of circles, polygons, trapeziums,
triangles, lozenges, and other figures
variously coloured and harmonised with
the utmost ingenuity.
—
ι
Egyptian. The principal systems of
ornament employed in the Egyptian style
consist of hieroglyphics, winged globes,
scarabs, symbolic animals, and foliage,
especially that of the lotus and palm.
— , Gothic. The Gothic ornament of
the 12th and 13th centuries consisted of
a scrupulously exact reproduction of the
flora of the country or district in which
a particular building was situated, to­
gether with representations of chimeri­
cal animals. In the 14th century the
taste for ornament decreased. The
architects of the 15th century, however,
were very lavish in their use of orna­
ment, which soon lost its purity of line and
became meaningless and extravagant.
— , Greek. Greek ornament for the
most part consists of foliage applied
symmetrically to the various portions
of the entablature (q.v .) . ' Such are the
leaves which adorn the curve of capitals
and the roses which are placed on friezes.
The classical architecture of the Re­
naissance adopted Greek ornament with
some slight modifications,
— , Polychrome. Ornament in several
colours. [Polychromy.]
— , Roman. The ornament applied to
Roman architecture differs but little from
280

ORN
ART
DICTIONARY.
OVA
that applied to Greek architecture.
However, in the decoration of wall sur­
faces and pavements the Romans em­
ployed mosaics and fresco­paintings on
variously coloured grounds. In these
works the design generally consisted of
a central motive surrounded by foliage,
garlands, and arabesques.
The frag­
ments of paintings found at Pompeii
present many examples of wall surfaces
thus decorated with arabesques, figurines,
fanciful buildings, and labyrinths.
Ornament, Romanesque. During the
Romanesque period architectural orna­
ment, which in the Byzantine age had
been of the utmost richness, was confined
to the faulty reproduction of classical mo­
tives. The ornament which added so
much grace to the Greek orders is scarce­
ly recognisable in the heavy clumsy de­
coration of Romanesque architecture.
Orpiment. (Paint.) A pigment com­
pounded of sulphide and oxide of arsenic.
It is a rich colour varying from yellow to
orange. It is found in a natural state
and is also manufactured. It was much
used by the ancients, and by them called
auripigmentum, but modern science has
proved that it is not permanent, and
that it is adversely affected by other pig­
ments; its use therefore cannot be re­
commended.
Orthography. A term applied to geo­
metrical elevations and geometrical
drawings representing a building with its
dimensions reduced to scale, without any
attempt at perspective.
Ostensoir. A transparent vase or pyx
(q.v.), in which the
host is placed, and so
exposed to the sight
of the worshippers.
Many of the ostensoirs
made by goldsmiths
in Catholic countries
during the last cen­
tury were of great
beauty. They are
generally in the form of a gloria and
are sometimes enriched with heads of
cherubims, ears of corn, and bunches of
grapes. One of the finest in existence
is that in Notre Dame, at Paris. It is in
the form of a sun and is of solid silver.
It was presented to the church by the
Canon of La Porte and was executed by
Ballin, goldsmith to the king, after the
design of the architect de Cotte. It mea­
sures no less than five feet in height, and
is supported by the figure of an angel
holding the book of Revelations in his
hand.
Osteology. The important branch of
anatomy which includes the study of
bones, the osseous system, and the skele­
ton. It is a study of the utmost impor­
tance to artists.
Outremer. [Ultramarine.]
Outline. (Paint.) The imaginary line
which surrounds an object, when repre­
sented in drawing or painting, is termed
an outline.
How much can be achieved
by a single outline is proved by the ex­
quisite drawings of Holbein. In paint­
ing, an emphatic definition of outline
should be avoided, as it is not essential
to good draughtmanship, and it produces
an effect of harshness, which is not seen
in nature.
Oval. An oblong curve. In principle
the oval is a curve which in form ap­
proaches as nearly
as possible to half
an egg cut length­
wise. But the term
has a wider appli­
cation. Thus an
ellipse is called
an oval. Oblong
curves are often formed by several arcs
19
281

OVE
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAI
of circles meeting one another, and hav­
ing their several centres placed sym­
metrically. The human face seen in
front may be inscribed in an oblong
curve of this kind. The oval of a face is
a common expression.
Over­all. (Her.) When a figure is
borne over another fi­
gure, so as to hide part
ofit,itissaidtobe
over­all.
Ovolo. (Arch.) A con­
tinuous ornament in
the form of an egg,
which generally decorates the moulding
called a quarter­round. The eggs are
generally separated from one another
by pointed darts. The ovolo is very
widely employed to decorate the mould­
ings of the an­
cient Greek orders
as well as Roman
and Renaissance
mouldings. Some
writers on archi­
tecture have fallen into the error of
using the term ovolo to denote the
quarter­round mould, instead of the orna­
ment which decorates it.
Owl. In ancient times the owl was the
bird sacred to Athene, and Athenian
coins bore an owl as their type. From
this circumstance arose the famous pro­
verb, " Owls of Athens," of which the
modern form is " Coals to Newcastle.''
Oxgall. [Gall.]
Oxybaphon. An ancient vase of con­
siderable dimensions and of the shape
shown in our cut. It somewhat resem­
bled the crater both in shape and use,
and was sometimes provided with lateral
handles placed not far below its rim.
Pad. (Engr.) A kind of dabber slightly
flattened and covered
with silk, by means of
which the varnish,
while still warm, is
spread over copper
plates which are to
be etched.
Padding. (Paint.) Under this term is
included every figure in a painting which
does not add to the value of the com­
position, each accessory which, being
superfluous, detracts from the merit of
the work.
Pagoda. (Arch.) A term applied to
the religious buildings of India, China,
and the kingdom of Siam.
Paint. The pigments used by artists
are generally known as paints.
Painting. Painting may be defined
as that one of the formative arts, the end
of which is to represent upon a flat sur­
face by means of lines and colours the
phenomena of the natural world, so that
an illusion of reality in outline, model­
ling, and colour may be obtained. The
means by which this end is arrived at
may be summed up in colour, perspective,
light, and shade.
Painting may be
roughly divided into (i) drawing, includ­
ing water­colour, pastel, pencil, and
chalk drawing, &c. In this class the
work is executed upon paper, parch­
ment, and similar materials ; (2) oil­
painting, in which pictures are executed
in oil­colours upon canvas or panel ; (3)
mural painting, in which pictures are
executed on wall­surfaces in dry colours
or in water, tempera, or wax colours.
To these divisions must be added vase­
painting, glass­painting, and painting on
porcelain and enamel. Painting may
282

PAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAL
be subdivided according to the objects
represented, as follows : (i) historical
painting, under which may be included
religious and mythological works; (2)
portraiture ; (3) genre, the representation
of domestic life and humorous scenes;
(4) animal painting ; (5) still­life ; (6)
landscape and seascape.
Painting in
some form or another has been practised
in almost every age. The Greeks were
the first to attain any proficiency in the
art, and though they knew little of
perspective, yet if we may judge from
the vase­paintings and mural decorations
that have come down to us, their
work was always distinguished. In the
Byzantine period painting was entirely
conventionalised, and in the dark ages
the art seems to have died out, but it
had a new birth in Italy in the 13th cen­
tury through the genius of Cimabue.
[Schools of Painting.]
Palace. (Arch.) A collection of build­
ings, richly adorned and on a large scale,
which serves as a dwelling for sovereigns
and princes, or as a place of meeting for
state bodies.
Palaestra. (Arch.) A Greek word
denoting the place where athletes were
trained. Structurally speaking, the pal­
aestra differed but little from the gymna­
sium (q.v.). The Greeks valued physical
grace and beauty very highly. The
palaestra, therefore, occupied a very
important place in the life of the an­
cient Greeks, and as it afforded the
best opportunity for the study of the
nude, its influence upon art, especially
the art of sculpture, was consider­
able.
Pale. (Her.) The pale is one of the
honourable
ordin­
aries. It consists of
two perpendicular
lines drawn from
the base to the
chief of the shield,
which enclose a
space equal to one­
third of the shield.
Palette. (Paint.) The palette, one of
the principal requirements of the painter,
consists of a thin piece of wood, gene­
rally walnut or pear, hollowed out at one
end with a hole
through which the
thumb is passed.
Palettes are either
oval or square. To
begin with the pa­
lette is set, that is
to say, it is covered
with colours
ar­
ranged in a certain
order. On its edge a smaP saucer is
sometimes hung to hold the oil. In
water­colour painting palettes of porce­
lain are used, while the palette used in
distemper may be described as a large
piece of wood sur­
rounded by holes,
in which the colours
are ground in water
and mixed with size.
The palette is often
regarded as the sym­
bol of painting. The
gilder's palette is an
instrument of wood
which the gilder uses to spread his
gold leaf upon. The term palette is
also applied to the tablet used by
workers in stucco,
as well as to the
iron instrument
with which bin­
ders stamp orna­
ments on the back
of books.
Palette Knife. (Paint.) The palette
knife is a strip of horn or flexible
metal, which is used by painters to
mix their colours on the palette be­
fore laying them on their canvas with
a brush. In former times this was the
only purpose to which the palette knife
was put, but in the present generation
its importance has considerably in­
creased. Some painters of the modern
school use the palette knife only and
283

PAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAL
plate
the brush in the execution of
their works.
Others lay in
their skies and foregrounds
with the palette knife.
The
palette knife has changed its
traditional form, and often as­
sumes a triangular or other
shape, according to the me­
thod of work of the artist who
uses it.
Palettes. Small disks or
plates of metal which, when
armour was worn, were fixed
at the shoulder, as represented in our
cuts.
Palimpsest. A term applied to an­
cient
manuscripts upon parchment
which has already been written upon
once and then erased or otherwise
washed clean. In modern times certain
chemical reagents have been discovered
which render the original writing more
or less legible, and by this means
many valuable fragments of ancient
literature have been discovered in
palimpsest.
Palissy Ware. (Pot.) Palissy ware is
the pottery made by the distinguished
French potter, Bernard Palissy (1506—
1596?). This indefatigable artist set
about making enamels, and for nearly
twenty years met with no success. At
length, however, he triumphed, and
made the figures in high relief for which
he is still famous. His most character­
istic works were the rustiques figulines,
which were dishes or vases with a
rough ground, upon which frogs, snakes,
fish, lizards, and other creatures were
figured.
Pall. (Her.) A pall is an ecclesiastical
vestment worn over the shoulders. The
part of it shown on a
shield takes the form of
the letter Y. The pall
is only worn by arch­
bishops, and is the dis­
tinctive mark in heraldry
of these dignitaries of
the Church.
Palla. A robe worn by Greek women
and reaching from the neck to the feet.
It consisted of a rectangular piece of
cloth, a portion of which was folded over
mers. 1 ne
SI
before it was put on, so that the upper
portion fell double over the wearer. It
was secured at the shoulders with a
brooch.
Palladian. A name given to the
classical style of architecture, as it was
revived in the 16th century by the cele­
brated architect Andrea Palladio. At
a time when architecture was losing its
grace and simplicity, Palladio insisted
on an observance of proportion and
restraint. The buildings which give
284

PAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAL
us the best idea of the Palladian
style are to be seen at Vicenza and
Venice.
Pallas Athene. [Athene.]
Pallet. (Her.) A di­
minutive of the pale
(q.v.) .
Pallium. A garment
which may best be de­
scribed as a large cloak.
It completely en­
veloped the wearer, and was much
worn by the Greeks, among whom it
took the place occupied at Rome by the
toga. It could be worn in an infinite
variety of ways according to the taste
of the wearer.
Palm. The leaf of the palm­tree forms
a frequent motive in decorative art. It
is particularly appropriate in the con­
struction of trophies, as it is the symbol
of victory. In Indian fabrics the name
palm­leaf is given to a different orna­
ment. This is a leaf curved at the end
and covered with foliage and ara­
besques, often very
complicated in design
and rich in colour. A
system of ornament
consisting of
small
palm­leaves is used in
various styles of archi­
tecture.
Sometimes
the leaf is inscribed in a curve, or it
consists of several stems, five in num­
ber or even more, held together by a
kind of clasp. Their lower portion
often ends in a scroll. In classical
art the palm is the emblem of Vic­
tory, and figures of Victory frequently
hold a palm­branch in their hand, as
inourcut,whichisacopyofaRo­
man gem. In Christian art the palm
is the emblem of martyrdom, and
in mediaeval pictures martyrs are in­
variably represented holding a palm.
Palstave. A curious weapon, con­
sisting of a piece of metal, such as is
represented in our cut, which could be
28S

PAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAN
fixed upon a staff and used with con­
siderable effect. It is pre­eminently a
Scandinavian weapon, but it was used
as well by all the Celtic nations.
Paludamentum. A cloak generally
of fine texture and rich colour, which
was worn by Roman officers over their
armour. It was fastened on the shoulder
by a brooch, and in shape, though not
in size—for it was considerably larger—
it resembled the Greek
S HUM IIIiliUr chlamys.
Paly. (Her.) In
heraldry a field is
said to be paly when
it is divided into
several equal parts
by perpendicular
lines. These equal parts are alter­
nately metal and tincture. The shield
in our cut is described thus : Paly of
four, argent and gules.
Pan. Pan was regarded by the Greeks
as the god of flocks and herds, hunting
and fishing. He was said to have been
the inventor of the shepherd's pipe,
which after him was called Pan's pipe.
He is represented in art as a short­
bearded man, with the ears, horns, and
legs of a goat, and his attributes are a
pipe and a crook.
Panathenaic Amphorae. (Pot.) These
vases were given as prizes to the victors
in the Panathenaic festival, which took
place every year at Athens in honour of
Athene. The vases are in the form of
amphorae with lids. On the body of
the vases is a representation of Athene
in her panoply. On each side of the
goddess stands a column surmounted
by an owl, cock, or human figure. The
inscription
Ύ
ώ
ν
Ά
θ
ή
ν
η
θ
ε
ν
'
Ά
θ
λ
ω
ν
runs
down the side of the vases, which are
always purposely archaic in style. On
the Parthenon frieze, now among the
Elgin marbles in the British Museum
may be seen a representation of the
Panathenaic procession.
Pandroseum. (Arch.) A name given
to a portion of the Erechtheum, which
stood on the Acropolis at Athens, con­
sisting of a porch, the entablature of
which was supported by caryatides (q.v .).
Pane. (Arch.) A sheet of glass placed
within the frame of a window.
Panel. In architecture a panel is a flat
or convex surface surrounded with a
frame or decorated with mouldings.
Sunk compartments in walls, for in­
stance, are panels.
The term panel
also denotes a piece of wood which is
used instead of canvas for painting
pictures on. English panels are to be
preferred to any others, as they do not
spoil under the influence of atmospheric
changes,
ι
Panel­picture. A name given to a
picture painted not upon canvas but
a piece of wood or panel Panel­
286

PAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAN
pictures were painted by the earliest
artists, and many specimens are to be
seen in every picture gallery. The cut
we give here is from a manuscript of
the 14th century, and represents an
artist painting a panel­portrait of her­
self, scanning her own features in a
mirror.
that time exhibitions of this kind have
enjoyed unbroken popularity in Paris.
One of the most recent was a picture of
the battle of Champigny, and was the
work of Détaille and de Neuville.
Pantheon. (Arch.) An ancient temple
consecrated to the worship of all the gods.
Athens and Rome, for instance, had each
its Pantheon. The name Pantheon has
also been given to buildings raised in
honour of the illustrious men of a nation.
Pantile. (Arch.) A curved tile used in
roofing.
Pantograph. An instrument by means
of which drawings may be either enlarged
287
Pannel. (Her.) A common charge of
occasional occurrence in heraldry, re­
presenting a poplar­leaf. Pan­
nels generally appear in num­
ber on a shield. Thus, for
example, we might have the
following charge: Ten fian­
nels argent placed three, three,
three, and one.
Panorama. A picture painted on can­
vas without any break in its continuity
and fixed against a circular wall. The
spectators stand in the centre of the
panorama upon a platform considerably
raised and in half darkness.
A strong
light falling on the foreground, whether
it is painted or real, adds to the depth
and greatly increases the illusion. The
panorama was invented by Richard
Barker, an artist of Edinburgh, who in
the year 1788 exhibited a panorama of
that city. The exhibition was continued
in London, where views of London and
pictures representing the wars of Napo­
leon were shown. The first panorama
was seen in France in 1799, and since

PAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAP
or reduced in exact mathematical pro­
portion.
Pantographs are worked on
different systems.
The one in most
general use is based on the principle of
similar triangles and enables us to obtain
reproductions of an original, larger,
smaller, or of the same size, according
to the position of the pivot, on which
the apparatus moves, of the point which
follows the outline of the drawing, and
the pencil with which the image is traced
upon the paper.
Pantometer. An instrument with
which angles are measured and perpen­
diculars dropped ; and also an instru­
ment invented in 1752 by the Abbé
Louvrier, with which portraits of per­
sons in profile are executed mechani­
cally.
Papelonné. (Her.) This term is applied
to a shield covered with semicircular
scales ranged in rows
like tiles on the roof of
a house. The body of
the scale represents the
field of the escutcheon
and the edge of the
scale is shown of a dif­
ferent tincture.
Paper. A material manufactured from
vegetable substances reduced to a paste
and pressed into thin leaves, available
for drawing, writing, painting, or printing.
It is made in certain sizes, each of which
has its technical name, and these are
given below :
WRITING AND DRAWING PAPERS.
Emperor
Antiquarian .
Double Elephant
Atlas
Colombier .
Imperial
Elephant
Super Royal .
Royal .
Medium
Demy .
Dimensions
in.
in.
.
66 by47
•
53..3i
,
4o ,, 26!
•
34»26
.
34i .. 23Ì
.
30,,22
.
28„23
.
27„19
•
24„19
•
22„17Ì
•
20„15e
Large Post .
Post
Foolscap
Pott
Copy
PRINTING
Demy .
Royal .
Dimensions.
in.
in.
.
2o| by 16J
.
18Ï„15
ε
.
17»i3i
.
15»12Ì
.
20,,16
PAPERS.
Dimensions.
in.
in.
.
22a by 17I
.
25„20
Super Royal (about) . 28
,,20
Imperial
Double Foolscap
Double Crown
Double Demy
.
30„22
•
27„17
­
30,,20
.
35ΰ » 22e
CARTRIDGE PAPERS.
Copy
Demy .
Royal .
Cartridge
Elephant
Double Crown
Double Demy
Imperial
Dimensions.
in.
in.
.
20 by l6J
.
22è „ 17I
•
25„20
.
26 ,, 2i£
.
28„23
.
30,,20
.
354 » 22e
.
30»,22
Paper, Creswick. A particular kind
of paper used for water­colour drawings.
— , Chinese. A paper of a yellowish
tinti manufactured from the bark of the
bamboo, upon which proofs of woodcuts
or line engravings are printed. Some
Chinese papers are clear in tint, while
the tint of others is almost bistred.
Chinese paper furnishes excellent proofs
of woodcuts and fairly good proofs of
line engravings. Proofs of the latter,
however, on Chinese paper are some­
what too dry and spiritless, and are
not to be compared for a moment
with the magnificent proofs taken on
parchment or Japanese paper. Chinese
paper is also called India paper.
—, Glass. Canvas or paper upon which
glass reduced to a very fine powder is
sized. In the execution of picturesque
etchings it isf used to dull the surface
of the copper, so that the plate, when
inked, may yield a series of irregular
288

PAP
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAR
spots which help to mark the planes and
give strength to the rendering of certain
passages. Glass paper or emery paper
is used to sharpen the point of gravers.
Paper, Emery. Paper covered with
emery powder is used by artists to
sharpen pencils or steel points, and by
cabinet­makers to give a smooth surface
to wood.
—, India. [India Paper.]
—, Japanese. [Japanese Paper.]
—, Laid. A term applied to paper in
which the wiremarks, watermarks, or
imprint of metal threads, which rested
on the damp paste during the process of
manufacture, are still to be seen. Laid
paper is solid, of great resisting power;
it lends itself admirably to the printing
of line engravings, but its use in taking
proofs of vignettes in relief should be
discountenanced.
—, Parchment. Paper immersed in
a solution of sulphuric acid, which gives
it the appearance of parchment. This
kind of paper is used as a covering for
books.
—, Tissue. A transparent paper which
is used for laying over engravings for
tracing and other purposes.
It is
generally made from the refuse of flax­
mills.
—, Tracing. Tracing paper, such as
is used by artists, is obtained by soaking
ordinary tissue paper in turpentine or
varnish. The process gives it a glazed
surface, and enables it to be drawn on
without tearing or cracking.
—, Transfer. A paper coated with a
special preparation from which tracings
may be obtained on a lithographic stone
or a plate of zinc. A drawing is made
upon the paper, which is then slightly
damped, laid upon the stone or plate,
and submitted to pressure. A perfectly
accurate tracing is the result.
—, Vellum. Vellum paper is a strong
paper without any grain, as uniform
and satiny as possible. When of a good
quality it is excellent for taking proofs
of engravings in relief, as it reproduces
the most delicate qualities of the cut.
Unfortunately vellum paper is far less
solid than laid paper, and it easily gets
spotted with damp.
Paper, Whatman. A very solid kind
of paper, the grain of which varies from
fine to coarse.
Whatman paper of a
coarse grain is used by water colourists.
That with a fine grain is used in print­
ing editions de luxe, after having been
submitted to a heavy pressure, so as to
soften the asperities of its grain. A thick
kind of Whatman forms an excellent
mount for prints or drawings.
Paper Hangings. From the 18th cen­
tury paper printed with variously co­
loured designs has entirely taken the
place of tapestry, leather, and other
costly materials which were previously
used as hangings. The earliest wall­
papers were obtained by a process of
stencilling, the later have been printed
from wooden blocks upon which the
design has been cut. A separate block
is used for each colour, and the more
costly papers are printed by hand, the
cheaper ones being printed rapidly in a
machine.
Papier Mâché. A material composed
of paper pulp sometimes mixed with size,
which is reduced to a plastic mass and
then pressed in moulds into various
shapes. It is then dried, varnished, and
painted, and various small ornaments
may be made from it. It seems to have
been first made in Paris about 1740.
Parabola. A para­
­w^
boia is a curve which
^V
I
results from the sec­
3Λ*
ι
tionofaconebya
J
plane parallel to one
/J
of its sides.
*
I
Paraboloid. A surface produced by
the revolution of a parabola.
Parallel. Two lines in the same plane
are said to be parallel
if, when produced ever
mi
so far both ways, they never meet.
The term is also applied to similar things
placed symmetrically, to subjects of
289

PAR
ART DIC
similar outline which form pendants to
one another, or to parts of a building of
the same proportion.
Parallelipiped. A solid figure bounded
by six rectangles or six squares. In the
latter case it is termed a right paralleli­
piped. The cube is a parallelipiped.
Parallelogram. A four­sided figure,
the opposite sides of
\
\
which are equal
and
parallel. The lozenge
(q.v.) is a parallelogram, the four sides
of which are equal.
Parapet. A wall or barrier about breast
high, which runs along the edge of a
balcony, a platform, or bridge, or pro­
tects the top of a house or church.
Parallel­ruler. A contrivance consist­
ing of two rulers, connected by metal
hinges, which enable the rulers to be
placed at various distances from one
another. By the use of the parallel­ruler
parallel lines may be drawn without the
aid of the square.
Parastate. (Arch.) A term applied
indifferently to pilasters, pillars, and
pied­droits (q.v .).
Parcae. [Fates, The.]
Parchment. The skin of a sheep or
goat, which is prepared and polished
with pumice stone and used for several
artistic purposes. Old manuscripts, for
instance, were executed on parchment,
as well as gouaches and miniatures.
Expensive works are sometimes printed
on it, while it is admirably adapted for
taking proofs of line engravings. A paint­
ing is said to have a parchment tone
when it is a yellowish white, suggesting
new parchment, or a yellowish grey, sug­
gesting old parchment.
Parclose. (Arch.) The circumference
of a church stall.
Pargetting. A term applied to the
decorative figures, foliage, and garlands
of plaster, which are found both inside
PAR
and outside houses of the 16th and 17th
centuries. In many English towns fine
specimens of pargetting are to be found,
often in very high relief.
Parian Marble. [Marble, Parian.]
Parody. A burlesque imitation or re­
production. To parody the manner of
an artist is to reproduce sketches of his
works, in which his style and touch are
so exaggerated as to produce a grotesque
and ridiculous effect.
Parthenon. The great temple built in
honour of Pallas Athene, which stood on
the Acropolis at Athens. It was built in
the 5th century B.C . by Ictinus ; in its cella
or shrine stood the famous gold and ivory
statue of the goddess, while its exterior
was adorned by the magnificent sculp­
tures designed by Pheidias himself, some
of which are now to be seen among the
Elgin marbles in the British Museum.
Parti pris. A French term for which
there is no exact equivalent in English.
It denotes the method in which an artist
has chosen to distribute the light of a
picture, to conceive a scene, to compose
or treat a subject. Thus we may say of
a picture that it lacks parti pris.
Partizan. A long staff surmounted by
a broad blade, somewhat resembling a
spear­head, but with an ornamental pro­
jection on each side of it. It was in its
origin a weapon of war, but like the
riONARY.
290

PAR
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAS
halberd and some other weapons, it
early degenerated into a mere mark of
dignity.
Party per. (Her.) These words are
used to denote that the shield is divided,
and are followed by a word explaining
how the division is made. Thus the
three cuts here given represent respec­
tively divisions denoted by the phrases,
party per f ess, party per bend sinister, and
party per pale.
Party per Fess. (Her.) When a hori­
zontal line is drawn
through the centre of
a shield, the shield is
termed party per fess,
because the line passes
through the fess point.
The proper descrip­
tion of our cut is party per fess, engrailed,
argent and gules.
Party per Pale. (Her.) When a per­
pendicular line is drawn
down the centre of a
shield from chief to base,
the shield is termed party
per pale. We give an ex­
ample of a shield, party
per pale, gules and argent.
Party per Saltire. (Her.) When a
shield is divided by partition lines in the
direction of the bend and
the bend sinister, it is
said to be party per sal­
tire, for the two partition
lines crossing one another
make that form of cross
a saltire.
, (Arch.) An enclosed piece of
ground situated in front of a Christian
basilica or church. In early times
the parvise was called the atrium, and
was set apart for catechumens and peni­
tents.
In the Middle Ages the term
parvise was reserved for a space shut in
with low walls or railings in front of the
principal door of a church. Thus we
speak of the parvise of a church or of a
cathedral.
Passage, (i.) (Arch.) A corridor which
serves as an exit or adit from one wing
of a building to another. The term is
also applied to a vast covered gallery
and to a narrow street reserved for foot­
passengers.
Passage. (2.) (Paint.) The method of
transition from one tone to another, or
from light to shade. When the transition
from the luminous part of a picture to the
portion plunged in shade is not gradual,
the passage is said to be abrupt. In the
language of art criticism we are frequently
told that a " picture contains charming
passages. "
This is of course a metaphor
taken from literature or music.
Passe­partout. (Engrav.) A passe­
partout is an engraving either in relief
or line, formed of two movable parts.
The term may be applied, for instance,
to ornamental letters engraved on wood,
the frame of which always remains the
same, while the centre is movable.
Some etchings too, used to illustrate
books in the last century, may be called
passe­partout. These consisted of a
richly decorated border, in the midst of
which vignettes with various legends
were placed; these vignettes could be
changed from time to time, the frame
meanwhile remaining the same.
A
double mount in which a drawing or
engraving may be easily slipped is also
called a passe­partout.
291

PAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAT
Paste. (Pot.) A mixture of various
substances ground and blended from
which porcelain is made.
The term
Paste is also applied to glass, coloured
by rock crystal, so as to imitate gems.
From this paste facsimiles of ancient
engraved gems have been obtained both
in ancient and modern times, and the
copies are often so accurate that they
even deceive connoisseurs,
From an
artistic point of view they are often not
a whit inferior to the originals from
which they are copied.
Pasteboard. A material composed of
several sheets of paper pasted together
and compressed, so as to form a close,
compact body. It is used for several
artistic purposes, such as drawing
up and mounting prints or water­
colours.
Pastel. (Paint.) A process of drawing
in colour, in which variously coloured
crayons are used. The pastel is drawn
upon paper with a rough surface or upon
a canvas covered with a kind of dis­
temper. The colours are laid on with
hard crayons, while the lights, masses,
and planes are indicated with soft
crayons, which can be crushed and
spread with the finger or stump. Draw­
ings in pastel are easily effaced. Their
whole surface may be destroyed with
one stroke of the brush. They there­
fore should be set with a special fixative
and be carefully shielded from air or
damp, and even placed under glass, if it
is desired to preserve them.
The
crayons used in pastel drawing have a
basis of pipeclay or gum arabic, accord­
ing as the colours to be mixed are soft
or dry. A box of pastels generally
includes thirty crayons, hard, medium,
and soft, giving for each colour the
gradation of tints from white to the
natural tone.
Pastiche, Pasticcio. The imitation of
a work of art, in which the reproduction
either of the work of a particular master
is aimed at or of the details and char­
acteristics of a school. Many modern
f!
pictures may best be described as
pleasant pastiches
of the ancient
masters.
Pastoral. The term pastoral is applied
to pictures in which conventional shep­
herds and shepherdesses play a part.
The works of Watteau and Boucher are
among the most celebrated pastoral pic­
tures.
—
Staff. (Her.) This term is applied
to the staff which priors and abbots
often employed as a crest
to their shields. In earlier
times it was surmounted f~"
'"
\
with a cross­piece, so as
toformaTau;lateron
a globe was substituted
for the cross­piece. In
processions the pastoral
staff was carried behind
the shield of the prior of the convent.
Paten. A vessel used in the services
of the Catholic Church. It is on the
paten that the host is laid before the
communion.
Considering the purpose
which it serves, it is not surprising that
the paten was in olden times frequently
engraved or enamelled, and sometimes
brilliant with jewels.
Our cut repre­
sents a paten, now in Cliffe Church,
Kent.
Patenτtre. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment consisting of rows of chaplets or
292

PAT
ART
DICTIONARY.
PAU
garlands made up of small round or
oval seeds.
Patera. An open shallow dish or
saucer, which was used by the Romans
for holding liquids. The special purpose
to which the patera was put was to
contain the wine which was to be
poured over the head of a victim in a
sacrifice.
In architecture the term patera is
applied to an ornament which consists
of a circular rosette, the outline of
which suggests the form of the ancient
patera.
Patina, (i.) A green crust, formed of
carbonate of copper, or verdigris, which
appears on the surface of bronzes
exposed to the air. On ancient works
in bronze we find a green blue patina
or rust, which allows the masses of
brown metal, as well as the brilliant
spots which reflect the light, to be seen
through it. This patina is obtained
artificially by the forgers of ancient
works of art, by plunging metal objects
in a bath of acetic acid, chloride of
sodium, and hydrosulphate of ammonia.
The term is applied in painting to the
tone assumed by the varnish which
covers a picture after several years'
exposure to the light. Time gives to
some pictures a patina of an exquisitely
delicate tone. By an extension of mean­
ing, the soft, mellow appearance which
works of art gain under the influence of
various atmospheric conditions or under
the influence of particles of dust is
called patina.
For instance, marble
statues or buildings may be covered
with a patina, which gives them a har­
monious appearance.
Patina. (2) A vessel, generally of
earthenware, considerably deeper than
rzx 7
the patera (q.v.). It was used by the
Romans for a variety of domestic pur­
poses.
Patte. (Paint.) In the slang of the
French studio avoir la patte is to com­
bine a ready skill of hand with spirit
and energy. An artist is said to have
une patte de diable, when he paints pic­
tures with an astonishing cleverness,
which is great enough to cover a thou­
sand faults of drawing or composition.
Paul, St. St. Paul is frequently repre­
sented in art. His invariable attribute
is the sword, and he appears as a man
of short stature and bearded. Among
the incidents in his career which have
suggested subjects to painters may be
mentioned his persecution of St. Stephen,
his conversion, and his martyrdom. His
conversion has been treated by Raphael,
293

PAV
ART
DICTIONARY.
PED
Michael Angelo, and Rubens. St. Paul
too, is often represented in conjunction
with St. Peter
Pavilion. (Arch.) A term applied to
small shelters of picturesque design, to
little houses
standing apart
in gardens, or
to large spaces
covered and
glazed,
and
symmetrical in
form, which protect a square or market.
Pavimentum Sectile. (Arch.) A name
given by archaeologists to mosaic pave­
ments, composed of fragments
of
coloured marbles of various shapes, but
always arranged so as to form geometri­
cal combinations.
—
Sculpturatum.
A pavement
covered with designs, the outlines of
which are obtained by engraving and
by filling the hollows made by the graver
with black mastic. This method of
ornamenting floors was practised by
the Romans, and carried to perfection
by the Italians. A fine specimen of the
pavimentum sculpturatum is to be seen
in the Duomo of Siena.
—
Tesselatum. A mosaic floor com­
posed of uniform and regular cubes of
variously coloured marble, arranged in
geometrical patterns.
—
Vermiculatum.
A mosaic floor­
ing, in which subjects drawn from the
natural world are represented by means
of small pieces of coloured marble of
different shapes and sizes, so arranged
as to follow the outline of the figures or
ornaments represented.
Paving. (Arch.) The covering of the
horizontal surface of the ground with
slabs of stone or marble, squares of
terra­cotta, or cubes of
wood laid in a bed of as­
phalte.
Paw. (Her.) The lower
part of the leg of the lion
or any other animal is
called a paw. In the language of her­
aldry the word is confined to the case
when the limb is cut off below the
middle joint, and if more of the leg than
this is shown it is called a. jambe (q v.) .
Pax. A plaque of metal, sometimes
circular in form, sometimes square,
which in the services of the Church was
first kissed by
the
officiating
priest and then
carried
round
for the worship­
pers to kiss. It
was damascen­
ed,
engraved,
or ornamented
with nielli, and
the subjects
generally repre­
sented on the pax were the crucifixion,
the head of Christ, or the Lamb. From
the pax of Maso Finiguerra were struck
the first line engravings known to us
[Niello.]
Payne's Grey. (Paint.) A compound
colour of a lilac grey tint.
Peacock. In classical art the peacock
is the attribute of Hera (q.v.) or Juno.
In the Christian art of the Byzantine
period it symbolizes the resurrection.
Peau. (Her.) This fur differs only
from ermine in the tinctures of its field
and spots, which are sable and or respec­
tively. It is thus the reverse of erminois
(q.v.) .
Pede stai.
(Arch.) A sup­
«
ψ
;
port, upon which
<^r
a statue is placed.
It is generally
square, and is provided with mouldings,
294

PED
ART
DICTIONARY.
PED
a base, and a cornice. The square part
is termed the dado. Pedestals upon
which statues stand in gardens are
sometimes cylindrical or cut cantwise.
Pédicule. (Arch.) An isolated pillar
serving as a support; for instance, the
pédicule of a baptismal font ; also the
crowning of a pointed arch upon which a
statuette is placed.
Pediment. (Arch.) A crowning of a
building formed of two portions of oblique
cornices or a circular portion which meets
the cornice of the entablature at its ends.
The façade of ancient temples was always
terminated by a pediment, the two sides
of the pediment marking the slope of the
roof. Mediaeval buildings, too, were
frequently surmounted by a pediment,
which, however, was
generally known as
a gable (q.v .). The
pediments
of the
Renaissance period are as a rule circular
or broken. The pediments of ancient
temples were generally filled with groups
of statues, which together represented
some subject drawn from classical my­
thology For instance, on one of the
pediments of the Parthenon was repre­
sented the birth of Athene from the head
of Zeus. Pediments were surmounted
with Acroteria (q.v.) .
— , Angular. A pediment, the outline
of which is form­
ed by two oblique
cornices and a
horizontal cor­
nice. Pediments
of this form are
generally decorated with finials placed
on their summit.
—, Broken. A pediment, the lateral
cornices of
which termin­
«ate in volutes
or are cut off
from the cen­
tre of the pedi­
ment, so as to
leave an empty space, in which a ped­
placed supporting a bust or
A pediment, the
estai i:
statue.
Pediment, Circular.
cornice of which de­
scribes an arc of a
circle. In the 17th
and 18th centuries
this form of pediment was in frequent use.
—, Couped. A pediment is said to be
couped when its
summit is bro­
ken, so as to give
room for a vase,
statue, bust, or
other ornament.
— , Double. When one pediment is
inscribed in another, the two are said to
form a dou­
b1e
ρ
edi­
ment. The
g r eater
serves to
crown
the
entablature, the lesser to crown an open­
ing or ornament set within the greater.
—, Open. A
ρ
edime
η
t
pierced by an
opening
which is
moulding encircling a bull's­eye.
— , Surbased. A flat pediment, the
angle of which is larger than a right
angle. The majority
of ancient temples,
the façades of which
were of considerable
breadth, had surbased pediments.
—,
Surmounted. A pediment, the
angle of which is less than a right angle.
— , Triangular. A pediment in the form
of an equilateral tri­
angle. This kind of
pediment as well as
the surmounted pedi­
ment were frequent­
ly employed by the
architects of
the
Renaissance.
Many
chateaux of this period have dormers
295

PEL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PEN
with triangular or surmounted pedi­
ments.
Felasgic. (Arch.) The term Pelasgic
is applied to the earliest remains of
architecture known in Greece, to which
the name Cyclopean (q.v .) is also given.
Pelice. (Pot.) A form of Greek vase,
more tapering than the amphora, which
it resembles in other respects. It has
two handles connecting the neck with
the body of the vasç.
Pelta. A light shield of wicker or
wood, covered with leather, but never
strengthened with metal. It was either
round or semicircular, in which latter
case it was termed lunata.
It was car­
ried by Asiatics, and Amazons are fre­
quently represented peltatae, or bearing
the pelta.
Pen and Ink Drawing. The universal
adoption of the various processes of
engraving has done much to encourage
pen and ink drawing, simple drawings
in black and white being easily repro­
duced. Steel pens, the fineness of which
varies with the kind of drawing which is
to be executed, have now generally re­
placed the old­fashioned quill. Some
artists use reeds sharpened to a point,
goosequills,or even hair brushes charged
with ink, to add a few vigorous touches
to pen and ink drawings.
Penates. The household gods of the
Romans were called Penates. With the
Lares (q.v.) they resembled the patron
saints of Catholic times. They were kept
in the lavavium, and sacrifices were
offered in their honour. They are re­
presented in art sometimes as old men
fully draped, sometimes as youths hold­
ing a patera and a horn of plenty.
Pencil. A pencil consists of a thin strip
of graphite or plumbago inserted in a
cylinder of cedar­wood. The best are
manufactured from Cumberland lead.
They are used by artists for making
rapid sketches upon paper. The term
pencil is sometimes applied to the small
hair­brushes, set in metal ferrules, which
are used by water­
colourists.
Pendant. In Gothic
architecture the term
pendant is applied to
a boss or other or­
nament which hangs
downwards from a ceil­
ing or roof. Pendants
are most frequently
found at the intersec­
tion of vaults. In ano­
ther sense a picture or
piece of sculpture may
be said to be a pendant to another, when
296

PEN
ART
DICTIONARY.
PEP
it is similar in size and subject and
designed to fill a similar space.
Pendant, Post. In Gothic architec­
ture a pendant post is a post set against
the wall, its upper end being connected
with the tie­beam while a corbel or
capital supports its under side.
Pennon. A small narrow flag either in
the shape of a tapering triangle or of a
swallow's tail. In the
Middle Ages it was
usually fastened to the
end of a lance, and if
arms were blazoned on
it they were so depicted
as to be upright, when
the lance was carried horizontally.
Pentade. A mystical figure consisting
of two triangles, the one superposed on
the other as in our cut.
Pentadecagon. A geometrical figure
which has fifteen sides, and therefore fif­
teen angles.
Pentagon. A polygon with fifteen sides
and fifteen angles.
Pentaptych. A painted or sculptured
panel, which consists of five leaves folded
one over the other. Some authors give
the name of pentaptych to a triptych,
when the two leaves which fold over the
centre leaf are each formed of two
panels.
Pentathlon. The pentathlon was the
most highly esteemed of all the athletic
contests of the Greeks. As its name im­
plies, it consisted of five "events"—run ­
ning, jumping, discus and spear throw­
ing, and wrestling. Whether the prize
was given to the man who won the
" odd event," or was reserved for the vic­
tor in them all, is a matter of doubt. The
competitors in the pentathlon are fre­
quently represented on painted vases.
Penthouse. (Arch.) A shed or roof
with a single slope fixed to the wall of a
building by its upper edge. The term
pent­roof is applied to any roof arranged
on this plan.
Penumbra. The penumbra is that part
of a shade in which
there is a spot of light
due to divergent rays.
At the point at which
the light blends with
the shade the lines be­
come less hard and less dry.
Peperino. A conglomerate of ashes
and small stones, of volcanic origin, much
used under the name of lapis albanus by
the Romans for building purposes. It is
grey in colour, somewhat tinged with
green, and it is quarried at the present
day at Marino.
Peplum. (Cost.) A long robe worn by
Greek women, very similar in construc­
tion and arrangement to the palla (q.v.)
20
297

PER
ART
DICTIONARY.
PER
of the Romans, which has already been
described.
Peribole. (Arch.) The exterior circum­
ference of a building, also the space
surrounding an ancient temple, which
was decorated with statues, altars, and
votive offerings.
Peridrome. (Arch.) A covered gallery
running round a building.
Peripteral. (Arch.) An ancient
temple is said to be peripteral when it
is surrounded on all sides by free
columns. The colonnade thus formed
is termed the peripteros.
Peristyle. (Arch.) A colonnade run­
ning round the interior of a courtyard.
An ancient temple is called peristyle
when its interior is adorned with a row
of columns. In Roman domestic archi­
tecture the peristyle was the central
courtyard, surrounded with a colonnade,
through which entrance was gained to
the private apartments.
Perpendicular, (i) The perpendicular
direction is that given by the force of
gravity. A figure is said to be out of
the perpendicular when the vertical line
which marks the centre of gravity falls
outside the middle of the base of this
figure. Such is the case with certain
antique statues, the Venus of Milo for
instance. A monument is said to be
out of the perpendicular when its vertical
lines do not coincide with those given by
the plumb­line. The most celebrated
example of this is the Leaning Tower
of Pisa.
Perpendicular. (2.) (Arch.) This
term denotes the style of Gothic archi­
tecture which was in vogue in England
from the end of the 14th century until
the middle of the 16th. The follow­
ing are some of its main character­
istics. Its arches are depressed and
belong to the varieties of arches known
as obtuse pointed
and
four­centred.
Mouldings are angular, and windows
are crossed by transomes.
A square
label is generally found over arched
doorways,
and the spandrils thus
formed present an opportunity for deco­
ration. The roofs are generally some­
what flat, and the general impression
given by a building of this style is one of
horizontal and perpendicular lines.
Perpent. (Arch.) A course of stones,
the thickness of which is equal to the
thickness of the wall ; thus the two
opposite faces of the stones form the
two vertical sides of the wall.
Perron. (Arch.) An outside staircase,
a series of
steps pro­
jecting from
a façade or
connecting
the terraces ·
of a garden,
which are situated on different levels.
Persienne. (Arch.) A shutter
which lets in the
daylight. A kind
of pierced frame,
made up of slips
of wood inclined
at an angle like
louvre­boarding.
Persephone. Persephone, the daughter
of Zeus and Demeter, was carried off to
the lower world by Hades, whose bride
she became.
Her mother, Demeter
(q.v .), sought for her over the whole
earth, but found her not. At last
Hermes went to the lower world to look
for her, but she had then eaten half the
pomegranate which Hades had given
her, and so she could only return to the
298

PER
ART DIC
upper world for half of each year. She
is represented in Art as somewhat
resembling Demeter, but younger. Her
attributes are a pomegranate and ears
of corn and poppies.
Perseus. Perseus, the slayer of the
Gorgon, Medusa, and the rescuer of
Andromeda from a sea­monster, has
suggested many subjects to artists both
ancient and modern.
The earliest
known representation of Perseus is on
one of the metopes of a temple at
Selinus, which belongs to the 7th cen­
tury B.c . He is there shown as cutting
off Medusa's head. Among the latest
works of art which deal with Perseus
are a series of designs by Mr. Burne­
Jones. Perseus is easily recognisable
in artistic representations as he carries
the Gorgon's head and a curved sword,
and wears wings on his heels and head,
Perspective. Perspective is the art of
representing upon a plane surface
objects as they appear to the eye of
the spectator from one fixed point.
— , iErial. The art of indicating the
relative distances of objects by means of
a gradation of tone. Thus due diminu­
tion should be given to the strength of
the light, shade, and colour of objects
according to their distances, the quan­
tity of light received by them, and the
medium through which they are seen.
— , Isometrical. A perspective draw­
ing, the purpose of which is to indicate in
the representation the relation which
the dimension of the actual object bears
to the dimension of the object as repre­
sented.
— , Linear. A branch of science which
enables us to represent upon a plane
surface, by means of a geometrical
drawing only, solid bodies as they
appear to the eye, their proportions and
dimensions being determined by their
relative distance from the spectator and
the position in which they stand with
regard to him.
—
of Shadows. A branch of per­
spective by the aid of which after put­
"IONARV.
PET
ting the objects represented in perspec­
tive, the position and outline of the
shadows is represented.
Perspective, Parallel. When an ob­
ject presents a face or side towards the
spectator, its representation is deter­
mined by the rules of parallel perspec­
tive.
— , Visual. When we speak of visual
perspective in a picture, we mean that
the artist has got very near to an appear­
ance of reality, without having recourse
to any theoretical rules, and without
the strict application of the laws of
geometry.
Pestle. (Paint.) A piece of crystal,
marble, or porphyry, which resembles a
truncated cone in form. It has a plane
surface, with which colours placed on
a block of marble are ground. Pestles
are made in all sorts of shapes. Some
are large enough to be held in both
hands; these are used for grinding
colour to be used in oil­painting. On
the other hand the pestles used by
painters in enamel and on porcelain are
very small ; they are provided with a
handle, and grind the colours in small
saucers of marble or agate.
Pétard. (Paint.) In the language of
the studios of Paris, tirer in petard is
to produce a work which is purposely
eccentric and is designed to attract the
attention of the public to its author.
Similarly a picture is said to be too
299

PET
ART DICI
petard when it is painted in extravagantly
brilliant tones, which take it out of the
realm of truth.
Petasus.
A low­crowned, broad­
brimmed hat, worn in Greece by tra­
vellers It was an attribute of Hermes,
and Greek artists when they wished to
make it clear that a personage repre­
sented by them was on a journey,
adopted the simple expedient of sling­
ing a petasus over his back.
Peter, St. The attributes of St. Peter
are the keys, the cross, and the book.
As this apostle was regarded as the first
bishop, he is often represented as wear­
ing a mitre.
Representations of the
following incidents in his career are
frequently found : His call with St.
Andrew; his attempt to walk on the
sea ; the striking off of Malchus's ear ;
the denial of Christ ; the delivery of the
keys of the Church to Peter by Christ ;
and his death by crucifixion head down­
wards. The legend of Simon Magus, his
attempt to bribe Peter and his subse­
quent fall, have also suggested many
subjects.
Petite Nature. A French term ap­
plied to figures in painting or sculpture,
the dimensions of which are intermediate
between life size and half life size.
Petimtse. (Pot.) A Chinese word
denoting a kind of felspar, which is
mixe,d with kaolin (q.v.) used in the
manufacture of porcelain. It vitrifies
while the kaolin remains infusible.
Pew. (Arch.) This term is applied to
the parallel rows of seats placed in the
nave and aisles of churches. The pews
which belong to an early period are
often exquisite specimens of wood
carving, and add to the dignity and
beauty of the churches in which they are
found. In the first half of the present
century pews were constructed in the
shape of square wooden boxes, which
were disfigurements to the church, and
possessed the sole advantage of conceal­
ing their occupants from the gaze of
their neighbours.
'ONARY.
PHE
Phalerse. Round bosses of metal, to
which pendants were sometimes at­
tached, worn at Rome by those who
had distinguished themselves in military
service or elsewhere. They corresponded
to modern medals. Our cut represents
M. Caelius (from whose cenotaph it is
taken) decorated with phalerae.
Phantoscope. An optical instrument
which is used to throw images upon a
screen or upon vaporous clouds.
Pharos. (Arch.) A term applied by
the Greeks and Romans to a lighthouse
(q.v.). It was derived from the structure
on the island of Pharos, near Alexandria,
which was regarded as typical.
Phelloplastic. The art of reproducing
celebrated buildings or bird's­eye views
of towns in cork. By employing a
reduced scale the exact dimensions of a
building or city may be given. This
process, which was invented by Agostino
Rosa in 1780, has been found useful in
making models of harbours, docks, &c.
Pheon. (Her.)
A
This heraldic
/Ì\\
charge represents
/Jv\
a broad arrow
/fm\\
head, such as was
g1Si\W\
discharged from a /
Γ
JOJ\
crossbow. It was &»«J jfj \ •
'
a mark of royalty,
fflLJ
and as such still
<^g^J
survives in the well­known broad arrow.
300

PHI
ART DICI
Phigaleian Marbles. (Sculp.) The
sculptured frieze from the temple of
Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, is now at
the British Museum, and is generally
described as the Phigaleian Marbles. It
represents the battle between the
Centaurs and Amazons, and belongs to
the best period of Greek Art. But it is
restless and violent in composition, and
lacks the restraint characteristic of the
style of Phidias.
Philatory. A reliquary containing
the bones or relics of a saint. That
represented in our cut is at Aix­la­
Chapelle, and is said to contain the arm
of St. Simon the Just.
Philip, St. The first of the Apostles
who was called upon to follow Christ.
In art he is represented as wearing a
short beard and carrying in his hand a
staff surmounted by a small cross. The
principal scenes in his life which have
suggested subjects to painters are his
exorcising a dragon at Hieropolis and
his martyrdom. In some pictures of his
martyrdom he is represented as cruci­
fied with his head downwards,
Phocas, St. In the Greek Church St.
Phocas is the patron saint of gardens
and gardeners. The legend runs that
he lived near the city of Sinope, where
he cultivated his garden and distributed
gifts among the poor. One night some
strangers came to his door, and after
they had supped they told him they had
been commanded to seek out Phocas
ÏONARY.
PHO
and to put him to death. Phocas dug a
grave in his garden and then revealed
himself. He was put to death and
buried among his flowers. In Byzan­
tine pictures and mosaics representa­
tions of St. Phocas, spade in hand, are
common, but they do not occur in later
art.
Photocalque. A kind of camera
obscura, in which by a combination of
mirrors an image may be obtained upon
a piece of polished glass, placed horizon­
tally, and a tracing taken of it without
difficulty.
Photochromatic. A term applied to
all those processes the object of which
is to reproduce colours by photographic
methods.
Photogalvanography. A process of
heliographic engraving, by means of
which drawings either in relief or incised
may be obtained and clichés made from
them.
Photogenic. A term applied to colours
which act upon sensitised photographic
plates.
Photoglyptic. A process of engraving
in which photographic cliches are used.
A cliché in gelatine is obtained from a
cliché on glass. The gelatine cliché
having been covered with a special
kind of ink, prints white or black, ac­
cording as it represents the light or
shadowed portions of the picture re­
produced.
Photographic Camera. A rectangular
case, the sides of which are of leather
and allow the distance between the two
vertical faces to be increased or dimin­
ished at will. The object glass is placed
on one vertical face, while the other is
covered by a piece of dull glass. By ex­
panding the camera and regulating its
301

PHO
ART
DICTIONARY.
PIC
distance from the object which is to I
be reproduced, an image of extra­
ordinary clearness may be obtained. It
is thus that the proper "focus" of an
object is found. To obtain a photo­
graphic image, a frame containing a
sensitive plate is placed at the back of
the camera.
Photograph. A faithful representa­ |
tion of an object obtained by the action I
of the sun's rays upon a chemically
prepared plate.
Photography. A process of obtaining
images of natural objects by means of
chemical agents and special apparatus.
—,
Instantaneous. The process of
obtaining photographic proofs instan­
taneously, or in a scarcely appreciable
space of time, by opening and shutting
the object glass as rapidly as possible.
Instantaneous photography has yielded
valuable information on the move­ j
ments of horses and other questions, i
which without its aid were well­nigh 1
insoluble.
j
—
on Enamel. Photographic proofs
transferred to enamel and rendered
inalterable by baking.
— , Polychrome. A term including all
the processes . by which photographic
proofs in colour are obtained.
Photogravure. A process by which
photographic clichés are transformed to
plates in relief, from which prints may
be obtained. The term is also applied
to the prints thus obtained.
Photolithography. A process which
consists in transforming a photographic
cliché to a drawing upon stone.
j
Photosculpture. A process which con­ j
sists in photographing a model from ;
several points of view, and making a j
rough sketch in clay by following with a j
pantograph the outline of the photo­ I
graphs, each of which gives a different
aspect of the model. A rough sketch of
a figure is thus obtained, and only a few
touches are necessary to get rid of the
edges and impart individuality to the
subject.
I
302
Phototypography. A process by
means of which photographic clichés
may be transformed to engravings in
relief, which may be printed from in a
typographic press.
Phylactery. A phylactery is a band
which was worn by the ancients, the
Jews especially. In artistic re­
^^
presentations of the Gothic
^S|
period figures often hold phy­ jS|[S|
lacteries, the ends of which B.Br
are curled up in their hands.
f§V
Legends, mottoes, verses of
^A
the Psalms, &c, are frequently
)]?1
inscribed on these phylacteries.
ι
β
Ε
$
In manuscripts of the same
period phylacteries are em­
ployed as borders to pages and are
wound round bunches of flowers and
foliage.
Picture. A representation of any ob­
ject in the natural world painted upon
canvas or panel is termed a picture. In
ancient times the majority of pictures
were painted on mural surfaces, but
pictures hung upon a wall as decora­
tions were known to the Greeks and
Romans, as may be seen by our cut,
which is taken from a wall­painting at
Pompeii.
Picture Frame. The object of a pic­
ture frame is to isolate a picture from
the surrounding wall­surface.
Every

PIC
ART
DICTIONARY.
PIE
frame should be designed to suit the
picture which it is intended to fit, if the
picture is to have its proper effect, but
unfortunately the general practice is to
make all picture frames uniform in sub­
stance and design. The picture frames
of the Renaissance and the periods of
Louis XIV., XV., and
XVI. were of carved
wood and of consider­
able
artistic merit.
Modern frames are
usually made of wood
or pasteboard, some­
times gilded and de­
corated with mouldings. The ma­
jority of them, however, are manu­
factured wholesale, and lack char­
acter. During the last few years a new
system of framing has been introduced,
in which plush, velvet, satin, sack­
cloth, Japanese
stamped leathers,
and other ma­
terials,
have
played an im­
portant part.
In France
frames cover­
ed with these
materials have
long been popular. The hard and fast
rule which the Royal Academy im­
poses on exhibitors of framing their
pictures in gilt frames has checked the
ingenuity and taste of English artists in
this direction.
Picture, To make a. A scene or
group which composes well and hangs
together is said to make a picture. A
composition fails to make a picture when
it is unhappily conceived and badly
arranged.
Picturesque. All manifestations of
nature which have effect, relief, and
colour, or indeed are worthy to inspire a
work of art, are said to be picturesque.
" Design, relief, and colour make up
the picturesque Trinity," says a famous
art critic. All that charms us by its
aspect and arrangement, as well as by
the absence of the commonplace, may
be called picturesque.
Thus there is
picturesqueness in a limited sense of
the word in ruins, cottages, &c. In the
broadest application of the term it may
be said that everything that is paint­
able is picturesque.
Piece­mould. In taking a cast of a
statue or model in plaster of Paris, the
wet plaster of Paris is put on and removed
in pieces. The mould thus formed is
called a piece­mould, the pieces being
fitted together before the mould is used
for obtaining a cast.
Pied­droit. (Arch.) A term applied to
the vertical part of a
wall supporting
an
arch; also to the ver­
tical sides of an open­
ing of a bay. In this
sense the term does not
differ from jamb. In
the Romanesque style
jamb­stones are some­
times found in the form
of pilasters or square
or prismatic pillars without any colon­
nette at their angles.
Piedouche. (Arch.) A pedestal of small
dimensions and of a peculiar shape
used for supporting a bust. Piedouches
generally consist of a large hollow mould­
ing, enriched above and below with pro­
jecting mouldings. Of late years, how­
ever, many sculptors have adopted the
fashion of cutting off busts abruptly and
setting them upon a square piedouche
without any moulding or decoration,
save a cartouche bearing an inscrip­
tion.
Pier. (Arch.) The term pier may be
303

PIL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PIL
applied to any vertical support, such as
a pillar or column,
or the wall between
two windows. In ar­
chitecture the term
is now seldom used,
but in the language
of construction it is
frequently and widely
employed.
Pietΰ. A term ap­
plied to pictures re­
presenting the Dead
Christ. The Virgin and sorrowing wo­
men stand near, and sometimes the
Virgin holds the head of Christ in her
lap.
Pilaster. (Arch.) A square support
terminated by a base and a capital. In
Greek
architecture
the capital of a
pilaster always dif­
fered from that of. a
column.
In build­
er
ings of the Roman
and Renaissance
periods, on the other
hand, the capitals
of pilasters
were
actual capitals of
columns drawn upon a square plane.
Pile. (Her.) The pile, which is classified
in heraldry as a subordinary, is a long
pointed stake extending from the top of
the shield to the base. It is supposed
to represent the stakes of wood driven
into the ground to form foundations for
castles. When charges are so arranged
on a shield as to suggest the shape of a
pile, they are described as borne in­pile.
The proper description of the second
cut is Argent, three swords in pile, their
points towards the base.
Piles. (Arch.) A series of stakes driven
into the ground and held together at the
top by a frame work of timber. They
serve as a foundation for masonry
when the ground is damp or un­
stable. Works constructed in water are
also built upon piles.
Pileus. A round felt cap, generally
brimless, which was worn by the an­
cients. The Phry­
gian cap which Paris
is represented
as
wearing in the Aeginetan marbles is a
I form of the pileus.
Pillar. (Arch.) Vertical supports with
or without decoration. They are espe­
cially used in Gothic architecture, some ­
times singly, sometimes in clusters. Pil­
304

PIL
ART
DICTIONARY.
PIT
lars are frequently square and sometimes
surrounded with columns. In the Early
English period they are round or cruci­
form. In the 14th century they are sup­
ported on pedestals equal in number to
the colonnettes which cluster round
them.
In the 15th century they lose
their capitals.
Pily. (Her.) A term applied to a shield
covered with piles.
Pinacotheca. A name given at Athens
to the hall of the Propylaea, in which
pictures were displayed. In the time of
the Roman empire, when Greek art had
influenced the Romans, picture galleries
in private houses were called pinacotheca.
The term has survived in modern times
to denote a museum of paintings, such,
for instance, as the Pinakothek at
Munich.
Pinchbeck. An alloy of copper, zinc,
and tin, of a fine yellow colour which
readily adapts itself to gilding processes,
and is much used in the manufacture of
cheap jewellery. This alloy got its
name from Christopher Pinchbeck, a
musical­clock maker, who plied his trade
in Fleet Street in the last century. He
invented the cheap imitation of gold by
which he will always be remembered.
Pink. A pale rose colour. The term
is also applied to a series of pigments of
a greenish yellow colour, obtained by
precipitating upon a base of chalk or
alumina the juice of a
plant known to botanists
as rhamnus
fvangula.
[Italian Pink.]
Pinnacle. (Arch.) A
small bell turret in the
form of a pyramid upon
a polygonal base.
In
buildings of the Ro­
manesque style instead
' of pinnacles we find
very simple finials. The
pinnacles of the nth
and 12th centuries are
sometimes terminated
with a sort of cone. In the 13th cen­
tury they are richly decorated and ter­
minated with pyramids, the edges of
which are ornamented with crockets,
while their bases are flanked with smaller
pyramids. In the 14th century they are
of extraordinary lightness, and in the
15th they consist of clusters of prisms
and are terminated with pyramids in­
tersecting one another. Finally in the
16th century pinnacles are richly de­
corated with sculptured figures, but
they are not executed with the skill
which is characteristic of the preceding
period.
Pinx. An abbreviation of the Latin
word fiinxit. It often follows the name
of the painter of a picture which is
reproduced by the process of engraving,
lithography, or photogravure.
Piscina. (Arch.) A reservoir or cistern
placed in the open air, and used by the
Romans as a swimming bath. In Gothic
churches the piscina was a basin in
which the priest washed the chalice
after administering the sacrament. It
was either set against a pillar or placed
under an arcade, in which case it was
generally richly ornamented.
Pitch. (Arch ) The pitch of a roof
is its slope or inclination to the hori­
zon.
Pitcher. A vessel for holding liquids
similar in shape and size to a jug.
305

PIT
ART
DICTIONARY.
PLA
Pithos. A large earthenware jar
somewhat
resem­
bling an
amphora
in form, but deeper
and rounder. Some­
times it had a nar­
row neck. Sometimes it was wide­
mouthed. The pithos was frequently
of such huge dimensions that it could
easily hold a man. The tub in which
Diogenes was said to have dwelt, was
perhaps a broken, useless pithos ; at any
rate, it is represented as such in our
illustration, which is from a bas­relief
in the Villa Albani.
Pix. A box or
casket in which
the consecrated
wafer was kept
in the Catholic
Church. It is ge­
nerally of metal,
and often richly
decorated and en­
amelled.
Plan. (Arch.) A
term which in­
cludes geometri­
cal drawings in
general, and in particular drawings
which represent the projection of the
walls of a building upon a horizontal
plane or the outline of the walls upon
the ground
Planchette. A tablet mounted upon a
tripod used by surveyors. [Alidade.]
Plane. (Paint.) A term applied in art
to the different vertical surfaces parallel
to the surface of a canvas, which, with
the aid of perspective, represents the
distances existing between a series of
objects and the eye of the spectator. If
a figure, for instance, is represented as
toonearortoofar,itissaidtobeoutof
its proper plane. Of an ill­constructed
picture we say that its planes are not
sufficiently indicated.
— , Ground. The ground plane may
be defined as the floor of a drawing or
picture. It extends from the lower edge
of the picture to the horizon.
—, Horizontal. In a picture or draw­
ing a plane is said to be horizontal when
it is parallel to the lower edge of the
picture.
—, Picture. The vertical plane upon
which a picture or drawing is made. It
is parallel to the spectators, and is repre­
sented by the whole paper or canvas
upon which the drawing is executed.
— , Vertical. In a picture or drawing
a plane is said to be vertical when it is
at right angles to the ground plane of the
picture.
Planisher. A workman whose busi­
ness it is to prepare copper plates for
engravers. He also aids the engraver
in effacing, if necessary, any part of the
plate after it has been engraved. He
lowers the tone of those portions of the
plate which have been too deeply bitten
in by striking it with a wooden hammer
so as to beat down the metal and lessen
the breadth of the hatchings. He may
also efface parti of a copper plate, spar­
ing the rest of the work, and then beat
out the plate wherever the engraver
wishes to engrave it afresh. When this
306

PLA
ART
DICTIONARY.
PLI
has to be done the plate is held in a vice
and beaten on the reverse side to that
which has been effaced.
Plaque. A fiat piece of metal, terra­
cotta, or china, upon which designs are
executed by processes peculiar to the
material. Plaques of various kinds are
and have been from earliest times a
popular form of decoration.
Plaster­cast. A copy of a work of
sculpture, produced in plaster by me­
chanical processes. Thus we speak of
a plaster­cast of the antique. [Cast.]
Plastic Art. Plastic art is the art of
reproducing the relief or form of an
object ; the art of modelling figures. In
plastic art such malleable materials as
terra­cotta, clay, wax, and plaster are
used, while the creations of the plastic
artist may be afterwards translated into
marble or bronze. The term plastic art
is used in opposition to graphic or picto­
rial art. Bas­reliefs may be said to oc­
cupy an intermediate position between
plastic and graphic art.
., o­^^
Platband. The
^^f
ni
l»5
:::Ss
>»*»1.
upper part of a rect­
fj—fw~^ ­^ijS
angular opening or
*p­| ­1
fSilfr*
bay constructed of
PI1
'
ashlared stones.
Plate. (Engrav.)
A piece of copper upon which an en­
graver works is called a plate. Hence
the impression obtained from an en­
graved plate is itself termed a plate.
Thus we describe an engraving as
an excellent plate, or we speak of a
book illustrated with plates. The term
is only applicable to impressions struck
from steel or copper, and should never
be used of wood­cuts. A plate is said to
be worn when so many impressions have
been taken from it that it prints pale
and indistinct. When a wood block is
worn out a precisely opposite effect is
produced, for it prints black. The pieces
of glass upon which photographic proofs
are obtained are also called plates.
Plate Armour. Plate armour, which
consisted of solid plates of metal, came
into use in the 14th century. It was
extremely heavy and unwieldy, but in
some form or other it continued in fashion
until its uselessness was generally recog­
nised, and it was finally abandoned in
the 17th century.
Platinotype. (Phot) A process of
printing photographic proofs by means
of the salts of platinum. The proofs
thus obtained are generally of a cold
black or sepia tone. Prints obtained
by this process have many advantages.
They have not the glossy surface of the
ordinary photograph, and they are
quite permanent.
Plein Air. (Paint.) The plein
air
school is a school of modern French pain­
ters, whose creed it is to paint their pic­
tures in the open air. In a studio lighted
by a single light, which falls at a given
angle, strongly­marked arrangements of
light and shade are always obtained ;
when, however, the model poses in the
open air, the modelling of the planes is
less positive on account of the wealth
of light, reflections, and luminous rays
which envelop it on all sides. Under
these conditions, the modelling is only
obtained by accurately observing the
value of the tones, and a projection,
which, in the studio, would throw a
decided shadow, is only indicated in a
plein­air picture, by a tone­value help­
ing to detach it. Lastly, it must be
added that the expression of plein­air
is not always used in a good sense.
Some impressionists wishing to simplify
things as far as possible, abuse the
effects of plein­air : they dispense alto­
gether with modelling, which, in this
case — as many contemporary works
show—demands a skilful rendering, and
an extensive knowledge of the value of
tones.
Plinth. In architecture a plinth is a
square block at the base of a column, the
purpose of which is to set off the circular
mouldings above it. In all the ancient
orders except the Doric the bases of
columns are provided with a plinth. In
307

PLU
ART
DICTIONARY.
POI
sculpture the plinth is the rectangular
or circular base
upon
which
a
statue is placed.
The titles of
statues or other
inscriptions
are
frequently placed
upon plinths.
Their chief purpose is to set the statue
at a proper elevation, so that the lower
limbs of the figure are not concealed,
and that the foreshortening does not
alter its proportions.
Plumb. The direction of the plumb­
line is found by letting a weight attached
to a string fall freely to the ground. A
figure is said to be out of plumb when
the vertical line indicating the centre of
gravity falls outside the middle of the
base of this figure. Many ancient statues
are out of plumb—the Venus of Milo,
for instance. A building is said to be out
of plumb when its vertical lines do not
coincide with the direction given by the
plumb­line. The most celebrated instance
of such a building is the Tower of Pisa.
Plumbago. A substance also known
as black lead, which is in reality a sul­
phuret of iron. It is used in the manu­
facture of lead pencils.
Pochade. A rough sketch, which may
be easily and rapidly rubbed out.
Podium. (Arch.) A low projecting wall,
which was placed in Roman buildings
both outside and inside. A podium run­
ning round the interior of a building was
often used as a shelf for wine casks, &c.
Point, (i) (Engrav.) Steel instruments
with a sharp tip are used by engravers
and called points.
In past times en­
gravers used
simple sewing
needles
as
points,
but
nowadays
small steel vergettes fitted into a han­
dle of wood are frequently employed.
In crayon engraving double and even
triple points are used, so as to make
two or three dots or points at once.
These points are fixed in wooden
handles and are frequently blunted, in
order that the marks they make on the
plate may be the bigger. Engravers on
wood use a point which consists of a
thin blade of steel. This is inserted into
a haft of wood, cut in two, and bound
together again with a twisted cord. The
wood engraver uses the point as a kind
of knife for cutting away the block, so as
to increase the white, which in a wood
engraving ought to be deep enough not
to be touched by the roller, with which
the parts in relief are inked.
Point. (2) (Her.) The name sometimes
given to a charge in the
formofawedgewithIA
1
broad end downwards,
β^
I
occupying about a third
JT\I
of the whole field. It is I /
VI
not essential that the point
V^BBs/
should rise to the top of
v~
the shield.
Point. (3) (Arch.) To point is to mark
the joints and courses of the bricks or
stones of a wall
by means of
.
*—
lines drawn up­
on the wall.
Sometimes the
pointings
are
painted in
several colours
and a flower
is placed in the centre of each stone.
Pointed. The style of architecture
generally called Gothic is also known
as Pointed or Christian Pointed. As
one of its characteristics is the pointed
arch and window, this designation is a
correct and convenient one.
The
Pointed style may be divided into three
DE3C.
308

POI
ART
DICTIONARY.
POI
great periods : (ι ) the primitive period,
in which the pointed arch assumed the
lancet shape ;
(2) the second­
ary
period,
which lasted
through the
13th and 14th
centuries, and
coincides
in
point of time
with what we generally term the Deco­
rated style ; (3) the tertiary period, which
occupied the 15th and part of the 16th
centuries, when what we call the Per­
pendicular
style
flourished.
The
following are the
principal varieties
of the pointed
arch : (a) the lan­
cet, or acute,
which
was
in
vogue in the 12th and 13th centuries.
This form of pointed arch was frequently
employed in the military architecture of
the Middle Ages, but its chief interest
for us is that
it is the dis­
ti nguishing
characteristic
of the Early
English style,
of which Salis­
bury Cathedral
is the most
convenient example ; (b) the equilateral,
which consists of two arcs of circles, the
radius of which is equal to the breadth
of the arch at its springing line. This
form of pointed
arch was fre­
quently
em­
ployed in the
14th century ;
(c) the lanceo­
lated,
which
consists of two
arcs of circles, which are continued below
the line, in which the centres lie. The
Moorish and Saracenic arch sometimes
assumes this form ; (d) the obtuse, which
consists of two arcs of circles, the radius
of which is less than the breadth of the
arch. This form of arch is character­
istic of the buildings of the 15th century.
Pointing. (Sculp.) An operation, the
aim of which is to reproduce a plaster
cast in a block of stone or marble.
The model and the block of marble are
set side by side. Above each of them a
square of wood is placed, the sides of
which are marked off into equal spaces,
and from which a plumb­line is sus­
pended . This plumb­line may be moved
and describes an imaginary parallelo­
piped, within which are enclosed the
roughed­in block and the model of the
statue. The distance between the plumb­
line and one of the most projecting points
of the model is then measured, and this
distance is marked on the block. The
block is then cut away with a chisel as
far as the point marked, so as to obtain
the necessary depth. By repeating this
operation for all the projecting points
taken in one plane a silhouette of the
model is obtained, the exactitude of
which depends upon the nearness of the
points taken to one another. Continuing
the process for the other planes, an
exact mathematical reproduction of the
lines of the original is obtained, There
is then nothing left for the sculptor but
to give the marble its finishing touches
before handing it over to the polisher.
Point of Sight. If a line is drawn from
the spectator's eye at right angles to it,
it will meet the horizontal line of a pic­
ture in a point called the point of sight or
3°9

POI
ART
DICTIONARY.
POL
centre of vision. This is the vanishing
point of horizontal lines which are at
right angles to the spectator.
Point, Station. The position selected
by the painter in front of the object
which he wishes to represent. If
his picture is to be a consistent
whole, the station ppint must not be
changed.
Point, Vanishing. [Vanishing Point.]
Points of the Shield. (Her.) In order
to determine accurately the position of
a charge or a shield, heralds have
assigned names to certain points, and
by mentioning these points the position
of a charge can be described with suffi­
cient accuracy. There are altogether
nine points thus distinguished by special
names. We must first explain that the
upper part of the shield is called the
chief, the middle the fess, and the lower
the base. Again the side of the shield
which would be on the right hand of any
A, the dexter chief.
B, the precise
VT
Β
C
D
E
F
BiJ
he precise
s miuuie ciiiei.
ρ
C, the sinister
chief.
D, the honour
point.
E, the fess
point.
F, the nombril
point.
G, the dexter
base.
middle base.
H,
I, the sinister base.
one standing behind it is called the dexter
side, and the other side is called the
sinister.
We have then the following
three points specified in the upper por­
tion of the shield : dexter chief, chief,
sinister chief. Similarly in the lower
portion we have dexter base, base, sinister
base. The central point of the shield is
called the fess point, and the points im­
mediately above and immediately below
are called respectively the honour point
'< and the nombril point, making in all nine
specified points.
Polishing. The polishing of marble
statues is generally entrusted to work­
men, but the sculptor should watch the
process with care. Fine touches may
easily disappear under the action of
pumice­stone. The sculptors of anti­
quity sometimes polished their works
with wax. Statues which are required to
keep their polish are often covered with
a light coat of varnish. Copper plates
which are to be engraved are polished
first with the scraper, then with sand­
stone, pumice­stone, and powdered
chalk.
Polychrome. That which is of several
colours.
Greek sculpture was poly­
chrome, that is to say, was painted in
a variety of tints. This was of course
done in a conventional spirit and with­
out any attempt at realistic colouring.
In modern times polychrome sculpture
has not been held in honour, yet several
attempts have been made to resuscitate
this branch of art, especially by French
sculptors, not only by colouring white
marble statues as in former times, but
also by employing materials of various
colours. In ancient Egypt and Greece
buildings too were polychrome, and no
doubt richness of colour added much to
the effect of temples such as the Parthe­
non. Some portions of Byzantine and
Gothic buildings were painted, and their
mouldings and other details heightened
with colour and gilding, Nowadays
there is a distinct prejudice against
the polychrome decoration of churches
and houses, and the effect formerly
got by colour is now obtained by
the use of variously coloured mate­
rials, such as bronze, marble, tiles,
pottery, &c.
Polychromy. This term includes all
the processes of printing, decoration,
and colouring in which several colours
are used.
Polygon. A geometrical figure which
has several sides and several angle
310

POL
ART
DICTIONARY.
POR
Polygonal. That which has the form
of a polygon.
Polyhedron. A solid figure presenting
many plane sides.
Polyptych. Under this term were
included, particularly in the Middle
Ages and during the period of the
Renaissance, altar­pieces and panels
closed by means of seveial leaves
folded one over the other. In an­
cient times the term was applied to
writing tablets of more than two leaves
or sheets
Poppy, Poppy­head.
(Arch.) This term is ap­
plied to ornaments, some ­
times consisting of fleurs­
de­lis, sometimes of other
flowers or foliage, which
terminate the ends of seats
and benches in churches.
They are most frequently
found in buildings of the
Perpendicular style.
Porcelain. A hard, com­
pact, and
impermeable
kind of pottery, formed from a fine and
translucent paste, the principal base of
which is kaoline.
^—, Hybrid. A term applied to a kind
of Italian porcelain in which the kaoline
of Vicenza plays but a small part, the
base being formed of quartz and vitreous
grit, and glazed with a mixture of lead,
quartz, and flux.
—, Opaque. A name incorrectly given
to fine faïences, which are sometimes
known as demi­porcelain.
Porch. (Arch.) The vestibule outside
a Christian church, corresponding to
that portion of an ancient temple which
was called the pronaos. Some mediaeval
churches possess porches of extra­
ordinary magnificence. From the period
of the Renaissance there have come
down to us many
beautiful specimens
of porches of carved
wood,
while the
entrance to
many
country churches is
covered with a rus­
tic porch of a pic­
turesque appearance.
Porphyry. A hard stone, red or green
in colour, covered with small white spots
and capable of receiving a very high polish.
Portcullis, (i.) (Arch.) An iron grating
hung on chains and placed in a vertical
groove. When it was
let down it served to
close the entrance to
the castles and strong­
,
υ
holds of the Middle
^
Ages. Under the name Jfi_
of cataracta the port­ t
·«$
cullis was in use
among the Romans.
Portcullis. (2.) (Her.) A portculllis
•
Π
Π
π
©7777®
with nail heads visible upon its trans­
311

POR
ART
DICTIONARY.
POR
verse bars frequently occurs as a charge
in heraldry. It was one of the badges
of the house of Tudor, and is frequently
found as an architectural decoration in
churches which were built under the
auspices of the Tudors.
Porte­cartons. A small piece of furni­
ture which gene­
rally resembles the
letterXorYin
shape. It stands
about breast­high,
and is used to hold
mounted
draw­
ings or portfolios,
which can be thus more easily turned
over.
Porte­Cochθre. (Arch.) A gateway
through which a carriage and horses
may pass. [Gateway.]
Porte ­ crayon.
An instrument of
copper or brass, which consists of two
branches soldered together. Its ends
open out wide, so that in each of them
a crayon or piece of chalk may be
inserted, which is held tightly in its
place by a ring pressing together the
branches of metal. It is chiefly used
for holding a black crayon, which is thus
prevented from soiling the fingers, and
may be used when it is too short to be
held by itself.
Portfolio. A term applied to a case
in which drawings and engravings are
preserved. It consists of two leaves of
cardboard bound at the back in linen or
canvas; it is sometimes provided with
pieces of linen at the sides to keep the
dust out and is fastened together with
ribands. Portfolios are made of every
shape and size.
Portico. (Arch.) A covered gallery or
colonnade open to the air on one side,
the vault or ceiling of which is supported
by columns, pillars, or arches.
The
Greeks built porticoes of extraordinary
magnificence, which served as meeting­
places or lounges, and were frequently
decorated with paintings and statues.
The Romans adopted the portico from
the Greeks, and in the time of the
Empire it was an invariable adjunct to
the villa.
Portiθre. A curtain fixed on the lintel
of a bay, draped and caught up or al­
lowed to fall ver­
tically. Its purpose
is the decoration
or concealment of
an opening. Tapes­
tries and
costly
textures are some
times used as por­
tières.
"7/77
Portland Vase. A vase now in the
British Museum, so ­called because it
was brought to England by a Duke of
Portland. Its body is of dark blue glass ;
this is covered with a thick layer of
glass of a lighter colour, which is then
cut away, and the result is a design of
great beauty.
Portrait. A representation of a
person, feature for feature ; the image of
a living model, drawn, painted, or sculp­
tured, in which the artist endeavours to
reproduce with accuracy the appearance,
312

POR
ART
DICTIONARY.
POT
attitude, and expression characteristic of
his model.
Portrait, Bust. A representation,
painted or sculptured, of the head and
upper part of the body of the sitter.
—, Full­length. A portrait represent­
ing the whole figure of the sitter from
head to foot.
— , Medallion. < ­ A portrait, in the form
of a medallion, representing only the
head of the sitter, and this generally in
profile.
Portrait Gallery, National. A gallery
founded in 1857, for the preservation
of the portraits of distinguished English
men and women. The collection includes
painted and sculptured portraits, as
well as drawings, and provides a valu­
able commentary upon history. It has
not been treated with the respect it
deserves : it was for long housed in a
series of wooden sheds at South Ken­
sington, and then banished to Bethnal
Green, but the generosity of an anony­
mous donor has provided money for a
new building, and the collection is to be
worthily placed in Trafalgar Square.
Pose. The attitude assumed by a
painted or sculptured figure is termed
the pose. Gracefulness of pose is one
of the necessary conditions of artistic
success.
Poseidon. Poseidon was worshipped
by the Greeks as the god who controlled
the element of water. He is represented
in art as a god closely resembling Zeus,
except that his long hair is matted with
the salt sea. The horse is sacred to him,
and his attributes are the dolphin and
trident. His contest with Athene for
the sovereignty of Attica, on which
occasion Poseidon called forth a spring
of water while Athene made an olive­
tree to grow, was a favourite subject
with Greek artists, and was represented
in one of the great pedimental groups of
the Parthenon. The god of the Romans
which corresponds to Poseidon is
Neptune.
Post. (Arch.) A piece of timber, set
21
vertically, which answers the same pur­
pose in a wooden
house or building as
a pillar does in a stone
construction.
Post­scenium.
(Arch.) That portion
of an ancient theatre
that is situated behind
the scenes.
Postern. (Arch.) A
small gate by which
foot­ passengers were
admitted to a town
or fortified castle. It was so narrow that
only one person could enter it at a time.
In our cut, which represents the gate­
way of a mediaeval stronghold, further
strengthened by a drawbridge, the pos­
tern is the small opening on the left­hand
side. When a building had but one gate
a small wicket which opened by itself
took the place of the postern.
Potboiler. A so­called work of art, pro­
duced, not because there is any artistic
fitness about it, but merely because it
answers a popular demand, and so serves
to keep its author's pot boiling, is not
inappropriately termed a.potboiler. How
great is the excess of potboilers over
works of art among the thousands of
pictures annually exhibited, a visit to any
modern exhibition will convince the most
optimistic visitor.

POT
ART
DICTIONARY.
POT
Potent. (Her.) This is one of the eight
furs employed in heraldry. It consists
of a series of crutch­heads, upright and
inverted, and arranged
|Jpjglb| jib] I m
^
e
same way as the
Ιΐ|
Α
JClJll upright and inverted
Γ ί1Γ ^£~^0
bells in Vair (q.v.). The
pVf^Îjp^ I term is derived from an
^l=yj^^
old English word ,pottent,
meaning a crutch. For
an illustration of an heraldic crutch­
head see Cross Potent.
Potiche. (Pot.) A Chinese or Japanese
vase, generally of porcelain, with narrow
§neck and slightly swel­
ling body. Potiches were
made of every possible
size, and were covered
with rich ornamentation.
Ρ
The Chinese use large
| ft full­bellied potiches with
F\ lids, which suggest the
roofs of temples, to hold
their crops of tea.
Pottery. The term pottery, strictly
speaking, only denotes that branch of
the ceramic art which is devoted to the
production of opaque ware, the term
porcelain being reserved for translucent
objects. However, in a general sense
we speak of all manifestations of the
ceramic art as pottery, and in the historic
summaries which follow porcelain is
treated of as well as pottery proper,
Further information on particular wares
may be looked for under separate head­
ings. The potter's art is perhaps the
oldest and simplest of all arts. It needs
but few materials and no elaborate ma­
chinery besides the potter's wheel, which
has retained very much the same form
in all ages and in all countries.
— , Arabian. Pottery was manufac­
tured by the Arabians from the 8th to
the 14th centuries. It included tiles, with
which walls and floors were covered,
mosaics and vases, and other vessels of a
blue or green glaze picked out with black.
The patterns mostly in vogue among the
Arabians are geometrical, but on decora­ j
J tive vases figures of animals are some­
I times found.
Pottery, Assyrian. The principal spe­
cimens of Assyrian pottery known to us
are bricks and tiles found among the ruins
of Babylonian temples. They are richly
j coloured and covered with a glass glaze.
Some curious coffins of baked clay, with
I a green glaze, and figures of warriors
embossed upon them, were found at
Warka in Mesopotamia, and remain our
most interesting evidence of the skill of
the Assyrian potter.
— , Celtic. Celtic pottery generally
consists of grey or blackish earthenware
vases, very roughly made, and decorated
with ornaments incised with a stiletto,
which was used upon the paste while it
was still soft.
— , Chinese. Chinese pottery takes us
very far back into the past. In very
early times the Chinese made both stone­
ware and porcelain, and to them belongs
the credit of having invented crackle.
The most ancient decoration employed
by the Chinese was blue upon a white
ground. Their polychrome pottery is
distinguished by a profusion of ornament
and by the introduction of dragons and
grotesque animals. It has been classed
by some authors in several families.
Although this classification is purely
conventional and has been upset by
recent discoveries, it presents the advan­
tage from a decorative point of view of
setting before us the colours and patterns
adopted by the Chinese. It may therefore
be useful to give the classification here :
(1.) Chrysanthemo­Paeonian family : vases
decorated with chrysanthemums and
3H

POT
ART DIC
peacocks. (2.) Green family : vases of a
copper green colour covered with his­
torical subjects, rustic decorations, rocks,
daisies, butterflies, insects, &c, all of
which have a hieratic signification. (3.)
Rose family : vases of a pale carmine
red decorated with arabesques, bunches
of flowers and figures of a familiar
character.
These are the principal
classes of Chinese pottery and porcelain.
There still exist one or two which should
be mentioned, such as " reticulated "
ware, in which the outer side is cut out
in lace­like patterns and superposed on
jan inner vase, and the very delicate
transparent China known as egg­shell.
Pottery, Dutcn. The earliest Dutch
pottery was made at the Hague, but it was
at Delft that the finest specimens were
produced. At the latter town the manu­
factory was established about the middle
of the 17th century " at the sign of the
Metal Pot. "
The majority of the pieces
were inspired by oriental models. The
colours are bright and clean, and the
outline of the figures does not mix with
the glaze. Blue decorations on a white
ground are common, while many pieces
are brilliant with blue, white, and gold.
— , E gyptian. The Egyptians manu­
factured pottery in very early times.
For the most part it was of a soft paste
and decorated with black zigzag orna­
ments and dull blue enamel. The
"IONARY.
POT
decoration employed was for the
most part geometrical, supplemented
sometimes with such rude devices as
animals' heads and hieratic symbols.
Besides cups, lamps, &c, statuettes of
the gods were made of earthenware by
the Egyptians. Our two cuts, which will
give an idea of the decoration employed
by the Egyptians, are taken from wall­
paintings at Thebes.
Pottery, English. The earliest pottery
made in England was Staffordshire stone­
ware. In the middle of the 17th century
the art of making pottery which resembled
that made at Delft was introduced into
England. Drug pots, tiles decorated with
blue landscapes were made at Fulham
and Lambeth, as well as jugs, cups, and
other vessels. Factories were established
at Derby in 1750, and at Worcester a little
later, while in 1769 the celebrated Josiah
Wedgwood opened his works, where
he made vases, cameos, and medallions
in the Greek style. Among his most
finished productions was a copy of the
ancient vase known as the Portland vase
(q.v.), which was decorated with white
figures on a green ground. He also imi­
tated Egyptian pottery in black biscuit,
with red and white bas­reliefs upon it,
while his bas­reliefs and cameos of a bluish
grey ground decorated with designs by
Flaxman in white are justly celebrated.
—, Etruscan. A great many vases
have been found in Etruria and hence
3TS

POT
ART
DICTIONARY.
POT
designated Etruscan. It has, however,
been established beyond doubt that these
vases were not the work of Etruscan
potters but were manufactured in Greece
and exported thence into Etruria. The
term Etruscan pottery cannot therefore
be applied to them with propriety.
—, French. The earliest French pot­
tery was derived from the Italy of the
Renaissance. The first productions of
French potters were of simple earthen­
ware with a lead glaze. Then came the
products of Beauvais, which were of
earthenware, with a pale green glaze
and a uniform tint ; the pottery of Saintes
and la Chapelle­des­Pots was green in
colour and marbled. Green pottery was
also made atSadirac in the 16th century,
while the early factories of Paris pro­
duced a bluish grey enamel brilliantly
marbled. To the same century belongs
Bernard Palissy, whose rustic pottery is
so celebrated. It included mythological
subjects, popular figures, dishes deco­
rated with fishes, lizards, snakes, and
foliage in relief
modelled from na­
ture and coloured
with warm tints,
browns,
whites,
blues, greens, and
yellows. The épis
(q.v.) placed on
gable roofs in Nor­
mandy were made by the methods in­
vented by Palissy. A little later in point
of date are the fine faïences of Henri
II. (q.v .), which were made at Oison.
They were of a fine hard paste, decorated
with designs of brown and black upon
an ivory ground. Their ornamentation
consisted of figures in relief or in the
round, masks, and heraldic devices ; the
pieces were small and slight, and assumed
the forms of cups, ewers, &c. Pottery
has also been made at Nevers, Rouen,
Moustiers, Marseilles, Paris, and Sceaux,
among other places, while the chief cen­
tres of the manufacture of porcelain in
France are St. Cloud, Sèvres, Chantilly,
and Vincennes. Our cut represents a
tea­cup ornamented with bleu-de-roi
manufactured at St. Cloud.
Pottery, Gallo­Roman. The vases
made in the Gallo­Roman period are
more careful in execution than those
of the Celtic period ; their outline is
more graceful and they are decorated
with ornaments in relief.
—, German. The following are the most
important centres of the manufacture of
pottery m Germany: (i.) Nuremberg;
the pottery made here was antique in
style and of very finished workmanship.
The decoration was generally borrowed
from the animals of the country, which
sometimes suggested the shape of a vase
or cups. Drinking cups, too, assumed
316

POT
ART
DICTIONARY.
POT
various curious forms, jack­boots or
reversed helmets, as in our cut, being
frequently taken as patterns. (2.) Bay­
reuth, where pottery was made of a bluish
enamel, decorated with delicate designs
in a dull blue grey. It was fine in sub­
stance and well­worked. (3.) Saxony
where the famous Dresden china (q.v .)
was made. From the time that Bottcher
discovered his white clay very fine por­
still soft clay. In black­figured vases
the red of the clay served as a ground,
the figures being filled in with black.
celain has been made in Saxony, while
Bôttcher's workmen established factories
both at Berlin and Vienna. We engrave
here a coffee­cup, richly ornamented,
which was made at Berlin by workmen
carried off from Dresden, and which is
an excellent specimen of the polychrome
pottery at Prussia.
Pottery, Greek. Greek vases are as a
rule simple and graceful in form, and are
decorated with palm­leaves, meanders,
inscriptions, and subjects taken from the
mythology of the Greeks. They are our
best evidence as to the style of the Greek
painters. A very fine clay was used in
their manufacture. The vase was made
on the wheel, and the neck and handles
were attached afterwards. The vase was
then baked, and after the baking the
vase­painter drew his design upon the
In red­figured vases the figures were first
drawn in outline ; the whole body of the
vase was then coloured black, and finally
the details of the figures which stood at
red on a black ground were drawn with
a pencil. Black­figured vases were made
from 540 B.C. to 460 B.C., and are some­
V7

POT
ART DIC
what archaic in style ; after 460 B.C. vases
were generally red­figured and less con­
ventional in style and execution. The
various forms assumed by Greek vases
are given under their separate headings.
Pottery, Hispano­Moorish. This pot­
tery is characterised by its grace of form
and the metallic lustre of its tones. That
made at Malaga is, distinguished by its
blue ornament and copper lustre;
that of Valencia by its still more brilliant
metallic lustre, heightened with yellow
and reddish gold. The faïence of Majorca
gave its name to Italian majolica.
— , Indian. The art of making pot­
tery was derived by the Indians from
Persia.
Among specimens of Indian
pottery may be enumerated large pieces
of enamel, monumental in size, and exe­
cuted in brilliant and varied tones ; blue
porcelain, decorated with arabesques,
flowers, and birds ; and polychrome por­
celain, which resembles the choicest
cloisonné enamels, incrusted with gold
and precious stones.
— , Italian. From the nth to the 13th
century Italian pottery was covered with
318
POT
enamel. In the next century it was
characterised by metallic lustres. This
was succeeded by the pottery of Lucca
della Robbia, which was modelled in
terra­cotta and ornamented with religious
subjects in blue and white. Then came
the enamelled ware known by the name
of majolica, with its wonderful colours
and lustres. The most celebrated centres
of the industry were Siena, in Tuscany,
Faenza, Forlμ, Rimini, Ravenna, Bologna,
Castel­Durante, Gubbio, Ferrara, &c.
Pottery, Japanese. There are three dis­
tinct kinds of Japanese pottery : faïence,
soft paste stoneware, and porcelain. The
most highly prized faïence is Satsuma,
which is decorated with figures, flowers,
birds in gold and silver, on a creamy
white ground, covered with a very fine
crackle stoneware, sometimes glazed
and sometimes not. We find cups, tea­
pots, statuettes, grotesque figures, and
pieces of a violet brown incrusted with
designs executed in white.
Japanese
porcelain is of the same character as
Chinese, but is easily distinguished from
the latter by the character of its decora­
tion, which is never absolutely symmet­
rical, but which is remarkable for the
excellence of its design and the brilliance
of its colour.
— , Persian. Persian pottery consists
for the most part of enamelled faïence,
of a white, yellow, green, or pale blue
ground, covered with designs of turquoise
or cobalt blue. Its ornamentation in­
cludes geometrical figures, flowers, birds,
butterflies, hares, gazelles, antelopes,
and cavaliers with falcon on wrist. Per­
sian faïence is characterised by unrivalled
harmony of tones.
— , Roman. The domestic pottery of
the Romans was red in colour, about the
TIONARY.

POU
ART DU
tint of sealing wax. It had a brilliant
lustre and was of a very fine grain.
Many specimens of it have come down
to us in an admirable state of preserva­
tion. Architectural ornaments, such as
antefixes, metopes, bas­reliefs, &c, were
made of earthenware by the Romans, and
may be classed among the products of
the potter.
Pounced Pattern. A well­defined out­
line of a design executed on a sheet of
paper of sufficient resisting power. The
process is as follows : the paper is pierced
with a series of punctures placed as close
together as possible. To obtain a tracing
of this outline, a pad in the shape of a
some religious rites of the ancients were
carried.
Predella. The predella is the step
which projects beneath an altar­piece.
On it were generally represented either
three or five scenes from the life of the
saint who figured in the large canvas
above it.
Premier Coup. [Alia Prima.]
Preparation. The method in which a
picture is sketched on or a new canvas
got ready by being covered with tones,
which are intended to give a value to the
complete work.
Pre­Raphaelites.
The name Pre­
Raphaelites was given to a small band
of English artists who attempted a
TIONARY.
PRE
small bag containing a coloured pow­
der is passed over
the sheet of paper,
.. ·;:·*·
:
,'!!!'.!;;;
.^·.'.
ν
:::
and the powder set­
'·'/;· ( "· :':.; .\ '··
::;:
­
tling in the small '.]­ •'.
:;·.,'""
:
/·
:
apertures indicates
'·­/.
:
!j­ *"V \ %( "';.··;
the outline which
·*•/ ;V '*·.. '
:
·
;
.
.·
it is desired to re­
''·: ·.':
:
''
;
*···^
produce. This pro­
cess is used to transfer to canvas sketches
made upon paper, or to obtain an exact
repetition of a system of ornament.
Poussinesque. (Paint.) A term used
in French art criticism to describe a
landscape painted in the manner of
Poussin, that is with the dignity of the
classic convention.
Précieux. A work of art may be said
to be précieux which unites a searching
execution with delicate handling and a
touch of exquisite fineness.
Prefericulum. A shallow open vase,
in the form of a basin, generally of
metal, in which the utensils used in
revival of the aims and practice of the
pre­Raphaelite school about the year
1850. They formed themselves into a
band, which they termed the pre­
Raphaelite brotherhood, and pictures
exhibited by them at the Academy were
catalogued under the name of the artist
followed by the letters P.R .B . Their
aims no doubt were sincere, and their
attempt at realism as falsely interpreted
by the early Italians was earnest.
Though the sum of their own achieve­
ment is not great, yet in bringing about
a reaction against the ignorance and
vulgarity of the English school in the
fifties they did good work. Among their
number were Rossetti, Millais, Holman
319

PRE
ART DIC
Hunt, F. G . Stephens, J. Collinson, and
Woolner.
Presbytery. (Arch.) That portion of
a church in which the high altar is
placed and where the officiating clergy
stand. Properly speaking it is east of
the choir, and is raised slightly above
it.
Présentoir. An ornament in vogue in
the 16th century, which consisted of a
dish set upon a tall slender stem, as
represented in the accompanying cut.
Press. A machine by means of which
the leaves of a book are printed or im­
pressions struck from an engraved plate.
Special presses are used for typographic
and lithographic printing, as well as for
the printing of line engravings, &c.
Press View. Before an exhibition is
thrown open to the public the gallery in
which it is held is given up for one
day to newspaper critics. This oppor­
tunity of seeing the pictures undisturbed
by the public is called the press view.
Primary Colours.
[Colours, Pri­
mary.]
Priming. (Paint.) A uniform layer of
colour with which a canvas, panel, or
other painting surface is covered, so as
to form a ground. In the last century
painters generally primed their canvas
with a layer of brown red, mixed with a
320
PRI
little white and nut oil. In the present
day some painters prefer to work on a
canvas covered with a grey priming,
consisting of a mixture of white lead and
black, with a little linseed or nut oil
added, while others leave the grain of
the canvas visible in some places. Oil
priming has the disadvantage of robbing
the colouring of the picture of its viva­
city, but on the other hand it prevents
the canvas from cracking when taken off
the stretcher. At the same time it
should be remembered that Titian and
Veronese executed many of their oil
paintings without any priming at all.
Panels which are to be painted upon are
first of all sized and then covered with
several layers of white, so as to fill up
the pores of the wood. If pictures are
painted upon copper plates, the copper
is covered with a priming similar to that
used in preparing canvas, but a kind of
grain, to hold the colours, must then be
made upon it, either with the palm of
the hand or with a dabber covered with
taffetas.
Mural surfaces are primed for oil­
painting by being impregnated with
boiling oil and siccative colours, with
linseed oil and varnish added. Some­
times a coating of lime and powdered
marble is laid on first. Plaster walls
before being painted upon are covered
with a mixture of pounded brick and
resin.
Print. (Engrav.) A general term for
any proof printed from an engraved plate
or lithographic stone.
Printing. (Engrav.) The process of
striking off copies from an engraved
block or plate. Proofs are printed from a
wood block or from a metal plate in relief
by the ordinary methods of typography.
Line engravings, however, on steel or
copper are printed in presses made
especially for the purpose.
—, Lithographic. In striking off proofs
of a drawing executed on a lithographic
stone, the printing ink only adheres to
those portions of the stone which have
riONARY.

PRI
ART DIC
been touched by the lithographic crayon
or thick ink. A pressure being exerted
on a sheet of damp paper, the printer's
ink leaves the stone and adheres to the
paper.
Printing of Line Engravings. To ob­
tain proofs of a plate engraved in line, the
plate is slightly warmed and thoroughly
inked with a dabber. The surface of the
plate is then wiped so that the ink only
remains in the hollows. The plate thus
prepared is placed in a press between
two cylinders, a sheet of damp paper and
a thick flannel being laid upon it. In
passing between the two cylinders under
considerable pressure the paper takes
up all the ink, and thus a proof of the
engraving is obtained.
—
of Mezzotints. The printing of
mezzotints presents considerable diffi­
culties. As the portions of the plate
which print white are more hollow than
those which print black, before printing
the hollows must be wiped perfectly dry
by hand or with a small dabber covered
with linen and fixed on a little stick.
Mezzotint plates only yield a small
number of proofs, and are easily worn
out.
—
of Woodcuts. Proofs are printed
from woodcuts, from clichés of woodcuts,
or from any relief engravings obtained
by mechanical processes, in the ordinary
method employed in printing books. The
blocks are carefully adjusted, placed on
the marble, and inked with a roller. In
order to produce strong differences of
tone, small pieces of paper cut out are
put in the places where decided blacks
are wanted. The object of these pieces
of paper is to increase the pressure,
while the delicate parts, being only
covered by a single sheet of paper, only
yield light grey tones.
Priory. (Arch.) A monastery which is
presided over by a prior.
Prism. A solid geometrical figure, the
bases of which are equal and parallel
and the sides formed of parallelograms.
A prism is said to be triangular, hexa­
PRO
gonal, &c, according as its base is
a triangle or a hexagon.
A prism
is said to be a right prism when
its sides are perpen­
dicular to the plane
<
ζ
^\.
of the base and its W^ξ^ïfeJS,
lateral faces are rect­ |l|j
ψ
fflfflf
angles.
In optical Jll. Vf|||fflA
experiments a prism |'
Λ
.'^
Μ
α
Ι
β
Η
τ
of glass or crystal is ^^^O­Hr
used, which refracts a
^<<r
beam of white light falling upon it and
decomposes it into the seven colours
which form the spectrum.
Prismatic. That which has the form
of a prism.
Private View.
It is customary for
the directors of exhibitions to ask the
exhibitors and their friends to a private
view of the pictures, before the public are
admitted. Of late years invitations have
been sent out so indiscriminately that the
day on which it is impossible to look at
works of art is that on which the private
view is held. Private views have, indeed,
degenerated into crushes, in which
women are stared at and costumes chat­
tered about.
Proboscis. (Her.) The trunk of an ele­
phant generally represented /­w^
as twisted in the shape of an ^­Oj
S and placed in pale. This <
η
&
heraldic charge is very rarely f jLfa
met with, and only in German
^fe^Iyf
coats of arms.
·*­
Process. A mechanical method by
which something is produced or exe­
cuted. The innumerable methods of
producing plates, from which impres­
sions may be struck, by the use of pho­
tography, are termed processes.
The
cheap reproductions of pictures which
illustrate so many modern books and
journals are often produced by mechani­
cal processes, and are called process
blocks.
Prochous. (Pot.) A Greek vase
somewhat resembling the oenochoe
(q.v .) in shape. It had a very grace­
ful handle rising considerably above
TIONARY.
321

PRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
PRO
the neck, while the lip if looked at from
above formed a tre­
foil. These charac­
teristics will at once
be recognised in our
cut. The prochous
was used to hold
wine, and was fre­
quently enriched with
paintings.
Profile.
A term
which in general
denotes the repre­
sentation of an ob­
ject seen from one
of its sides. In draw­
ing and painting a
profile is a portrait
of a person looked
at sideways. In ar­
chitecture a profile is
a section so made
as to show clearly
the projections of a
moulding or system of ornament, the
drawing of which in face does not enable
us to appreciate its relief. The design of
profiles in buildings of the Gothic style
was always subor­
dinated to the line
of the masonry and
the mouldings were
always
combined,
so that the joints
were hidden and
did not break the
convex or concave
surface of these
mouldings. The section of Gothic piers
display profiles of extraordinarily learned
design. In the 13th century the piers
•A*
consisted of clustered columns, but in
the 14th their profile or horizontal sec­
tion was made up of a very large number
of mouldings. Finally when mouldings
are executed in plaster, the term counter­
profile is applied to the pattern cut out
so as to show the profile.
Profile, Back. A term applied to a
portrait representing a person seen
sideways, so that the back of the head
is in the foreground, and the features
are partially hidden by the projection of
the forehead and cheek.
Progression. A system of ornament
in which the details assume greater
importance according to the extent of
the surface to be covered. In the decora­
tion of a pediment, for instance, the
ornament should be conceived in pro­
gression, since a larger surface has to be
filled in the middle than at the extrem­
ities, which terminate in a point.
Projection. The representations of
bodies upon a plane surface, vertical or
horizontal; also the figure obtained by
joining the foot of perpendiculars drawn
from every point of an object on to
the plane.
The
drawing of pro­
jections belongs
to the sphere
of geometrical
drawing and pre­
sumes an exten­
sive knowledge
of geome.try. The
^k
architect, however,
322

PRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
PRO
entablatures,
must be familiarised with this branch
of drawing, for it enables him to
judge of the
effect of the
details of
a
building, and
also to indicate
the outline of
the shadows
projected by
an imaginary focus of light convention­
ally placed above and in the left hand
of the drawings, and directing its rays
at an angle of 45 degrees. Anything
which stands out from the line of a
wall or other flat surface is said to be
a projection. The body of mouldings,
and balconies, for in­
stance, project from a
façade.
In a washed
drawing showing the
elevation of a building,
lit by an imaginary ray
of light directed at an
angle of 45 degrees, the
dimension of the shadow
cast by a moulding is
determined by the pro­
jection of this moulding.
In painting, the relief
given to the objects re­
presented is called the projection. Of
a badly modelled figure, for instance, it
may be said that it lacks projection.
Pronaos. (Arch.) A term applied in
ancient temples to the porticoes or
porches placed in front of the cella.
Proof. (Engrav.) A tentative impres­
sion taken from an engraved plate or a
lithographic stone, which enables the
artist to judge how far his work is com­
plete and what retouches are necessary.
It must be observed, in passing, that
after a lithographic stone has been pre­
pared for printing, any alteration in it
is a matter of extreme difficulty. The
term proof is also applied to an engrav­
ing printed from a plate, block, or stone.
The proofs of engravers of medals,
which serve the same purpose as proofs
of engravings, are obtained in wax or
plaster.
Proof, Artist's. A proof of a line
engraving pulled with or without the
signature of the artist. Sometimes
artists' proofs are further distinguished
either by an irregular margin, the en­
graving not being exactly in the centre
of the plate, or by square lines sur­
rounding the subject, but drawn some­
what irregularly, or by sketches or tenta­
tive strokes in the margin.
—
before Letter. A proof of a line
engraving or lithograph before its title
together with the names of the painter
and engraver have been cut or written
in lithographic ink in the place reserved
for that purpose.
— , Lettered. A proof of an engraving
which bears engraved upon its margin
either in printer's type or in regular
handwriting the title of the engraving,
together with names of designer, en ­
graver, and printer of the plate.
—,
Natural. A proof which repro­
duces the actual lines of an engraving
without any "dodges" or retroussage.
Such a proof is obtained by carefully
wiping the whole surface of a plate after
having inked the furrows.
—,
Negative.
(Photo.) A cliché
obtained by exposing sensitive plates in
a dark room. In a negative the lights
and darks of the object reproduced are
transposed.
—,
Positive. (Photo.) A proof ob­
tained from a cliché, either upon paper
or upon glass, in which the whites and
blacks correspond to the lights and
shades of the original. .
— , Remarque. A proof of a line en­
graving which represents a particular
state of the plate. The remarque proof is
distinguished by a sketch drawn by the
engraver on the margin or on the white
portion of the proof, or by the absence
of certain lines in various parts of the
plate. Thus the proof of a plate bitten
by aqua fortis, before it has been re­
touched with the dry point or rebitten,
323

PRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
PSEU
is a remarque proof. These remarque
proofs give us the various states of a
plate from first to last.
Proof, Wax. A tentative proof obtained
by the engraver to give him an indica­
tion of what retouching is necessary.
It is obtained by filling in the lines with
lampblack, and applying to it a sheet of
paper coated with white waxand exert­
ing upon it a gentle pressure with a
burnisher.
—
with Grey Letter. A term applied
to proofs in which the characters of the
legend are grilled with hatchings.
—
with White Letter. A proof in
which the characters of the legend or
inscription are only indicated by out­
lines.
Proper. (Her.) When charges on a
shield are represented in their own
natural
colours they are
usually
blazoned proper.
Properties. In the language of the
theatre this term denotes all objects
accessory to the mise en scène.
Proportion. A term applied to the
dimensions of a painted or sculptured
figure, and also to the relation which
exists between the dimensions of the
various parts of the body. In painting
and sculpture the proportion of the
human body is indicated by the head,
a well­proportioned human body being
equal to seven or eight times the height
of the head. In architecture the pro­
portion of the entablature is furnished
by the radius of the shaft of the column
at its base.
Proportioned. A figure is said to be
well­proportioned when its proportions
are accurately observed and when the
dimensions of its various parts are
properly harmonised,
Propylaea. (Arch.) This term denotes
in ancient architecture the vestibule of
a temple decorated with columns, and
particularly the building which was
placed at the entrance of the Acropolis
at Athens and foimed a magnificent
approach to the Parthenon.
Proscenium.
(Arch.) In modern
theatres the proscenium is that portion
of the stage which extends in front of
the curtain as far as the footlights. In an
ancient theatre it was that part which
was situated in front of the scene.
Prostyle. (Arch.) An ancient temple
was said to be prostyle when its front
alone, was adorned with a row of
columns.
Prothesis. [Oblatorium.]
Protractor. A semicircle of horn or
metal, divided into 180 degrees, which is
used to measure
angles or to draw
them upon paper.
The commonest
form of protractor
is a pierced demi­
disk, as shown in our cut.
Prow. The prow of an ancient galley,
pointed with iron
or steel, is fre­
quently e m ­
ployed as a sys­
tem of ornament.
The prow has
sometimes only
one metal point,
sometimes seve­
ral. [Rostrum.]
Prussian Blue. [Blue, Prussian.]
Prussian Brown. (Paint.) A useful
and permanent brown pigment, obtained
by calcining Prussian blue. It is a good
transparent colour, dries quickly, and
is suited generally to oil and water
colour.
Pseudisodomos. (Arch.) A kind of
masonry employed by ancient archi­
tects in which two courses of small and
324

PSEU
ART
DICTIONARY.
PUN
large stones alternated with regularity.
Masonry which consisted of stones all of
the same height was called by the
Greeks
Ι
σ
ό
δ
ο
μ
ο
ς
.
[Masonry, Greek.]
PseudOdipteral. (Arch.) A temple is
said to be pseudo­dipteral when it is
apparently built upon the dipteral (q.v.)
plan, but is in reality only surrounded
by one free row of columns, another row
of columns being attached to the walls
of the cella.
Psyche. The story of Psyche, who
was beloved of Eros or Cupid, has always
been a favourite one with artists. Eros
and Psyche are generally represented
together, and Psyche frequently has the
wings of a butterfly.
Pteroma. (Arch.) In classical archi­
tecture pteroma signifies the portico
which surrounds the cella of a temple.
Pulpit. A tribune with a seat, raised
at a considerable height above the
ground, from which sermons were
delivered. In Italian churches many
pulpits are to be seen of marble or
bronze, supported by colonnettes. In
mediaeval churches the pulpits were
nearly always of wood and perfectly
simple in construction.
In the 15th
century pulpits were set against the
pillars of the church or against the
wall, and were fixed. At a little later
period they were surmounted by sound­
ing boards in the form of a canopy or
tapering pyramid. In the 16th, 17th, and
18th centuries pulpits were designed in
accordance with the architectural style
of each epoch and some were marvels of
allegorical and theatrical fancy. Belgian
pulpits particularly exhibit a quaintness
of execution and design. The pulpits
of the present day are generally nothing
but an ingenious pastiche on the produc­
tions of former times. Our cut repre­
sents the pulpit of carved wood in the
church at Wenden, in Essex.
Punch. (Engrav.) A steel instrument
called a punch, which gene­
rally has two large blunt points,
is used in crayon engraving to
add masses of black when the
work has already been bitten.
The punch is held perpendicu­
lar to the plate and subjected
to a series of sharp taps, being
moved a little at each tap.
A hollow of considerable width
and depth is thus obtained,
which is represented in print­
ing by a mass of intense black,
plates were executed by this method in
the last century and
were printed in red. In
die­engraving a punch
is a steel instrument
upon which a figure
is engraved, and from
which imprints may be
obtained by striking the
punch at the end the
farthest removed from
the figure. Engravers often keep a collec­
tion of punches, upon which the
commonest charges in heraldry
are engraved. The term punch
is also applied to the imprint of
an initial, device, sign, or sym­
bol placed upon goldsmith's
work, or on gold and silver or­
naments. In the present day
the application of these sym­
bols to gold and silver plate is under the
ff
iMany
325

PUN
ART
DICTIONARY.
PYR
permanent control of the State and is
regulated by especial laws.
Puncheon. (Arch.) A piece of wood
which serves as a vertical support.
Punching Compass. A compass, the
branches of which curve inwards, the
one being armed with a blunt point, the
other with a sharp. It is used to mark
exactly where a copper plate which
has been planed down is to be beaten
out.
Pupil. An artist who adopts the tradi­
tions and produces works in the style of
a painter or sculptor is said to be a pupil
of such a master. Thus we speak of a
pupil of Raphael or of Rubens.
Purity. A term which denotes cor­
rectness and precision of drawing. For
instance we speak of the purity of out­
line in the figures of Raphael or in the
Source of Ingres.
Purlin. (Arch.) A piece of wood placed
horizontally and forming part of a roof,
its purpose being to support the rafters.
Purple. A secondary colour obtained
from the mixture of the two primary
colours red and blue.
Purpure. (Her.) The heraldic colour
purple shown on a shield by diagonal
lines from sinister to dexter.
Purree. (Paint.) A name given to the
pigment more generally known as Indian
yellow (q.v.) .
Putin. In a painting or drawing, when
a figure is set upon the canvas or paper
with a few strokes so as to vividly sug­
gest its movement and attitude, it is said
to be well put in.
Puzzolana. A reddish earth which is
mixed with lime to form a cement used
by builders.
Pycnostyle. (Arch.) An ancient temple
was said to be pycnostyle when its inter­
columniation measures one and a half
times the diameter of the shaft of the
column at the base.
Pylon. In Egyptian architecture apylon
is a mass of masonry in the form of a
truncated pyramid with a door in the
middle, terminated
in a platform as is
shown in the cut.
Sometimes poles
with waving ban­
neroles were set
against the pylon.
The pylons at
Thebes were approached by an avenue
of sphinxes and obelisks.
Pyramid. A solid figure with a trian­
gular or polygonal base, the lateral faces
of which meet in a point
at the summit. Under
this name are generally
designated the three
Egyptian monuments of
the IVth dynasty, the
loftiest of which, the pyramid of Cheops,
is 146 metres high, and is built upon a
square base. It consists of a solid block
of calcareous stone faced with solid
flags, accurately set in their places.
Pyramidion. (Arch.) A term applied
to pyramids the height of which is very
small in proportion to their base. The
summit of an obelisk is often in the form
of a pyramidion. Many sepulchral monu­
ments designed in the Neo­Greek style
are thus terminated.
326

QUA
ART
DICTIONARY.
QUA
Q.
Quadrangle. A quadrangle is a figure
which has four sides, and consequently
four angles. Colleges and similar insti­
tutions are frequently arranged in the
form of a series of quadrangles or
square open spaces surrounded with
buildings.
Quadrilateral. A quadrilateral figure
is a figure which is bounded by four
sides.
Quarrel. (Arch.) A small pane of glass,
either diamond­shaped or square, set
diagonally.
Quarter. (Her.) Each of the equal parts
into which a shield may be divided by
a cross is termed a quarter. The quarter
which occupies the dexter
chief is termed the first
quarter,
that which oc­
cupies the sinister chief
the second quarter, while
those occupying the dexter
and sinister base are known
as the third and fourth quarter respec­
tively. A shield divided into four quar­
ters is said to be quartered.
Quartered per Saltier.
(Her.) A shield is said to
be quartered per saltier
when it is divided by
diagonal lines,
which
cross in the centre of the
shield.
Quarter­foil. (Her.) A flower with
four leaves, which
occurs as a charge
in heraldry. The term
double quarterfoil is
applied to a flower
with eight leaves.
Quarterings. (Her.)
When a shield is divided up into a num­
ber of squares, in each of which is a
coat­of­arms, these squares are known
as quarterings. Our cut, which repre­
sents the shield of the Seymour family,
clearly illustrates the meaning of quar­
terings, but it must be understood that
more than four quarterings may appear
on one shield.
Quarterly. (Her.) A shield divided
by a horizontal line and a
vertical line crossing one
another in the middle is
said to be parted quar­
terly. If divided into
eight parts by a horizon­
tal cutting three vertical
lines it would be blazoned
quarterly of eight.
Quarternary. The quaternary hues
are compounds of the primaries, with
two primaries or one secondary pre­
dominating. Such as auburn, where
orange predominates, puce, where violet
predominates, olive, where green pre­
dominates.
Quarter­round. (Arch.) A quarter­
round is a convex moulding consisting
mMlMJ,
of a quarter of a circle. It is frequently
decorated with the egg and dart orna­
ment, as is shown in our cut.
Quatrefoil. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment employed in Gothic architecture,
which consists of four arcs of a circle
drawn from the angles of a square taken
327

QUA
ART
DICTIONARY.
RAD
as centres. Sometimes the four arcs of
circles are tan­
gents or secants.
At some periods
their extremities
are separated by­
angles, as in
our second and
smaller cut. In
the 12th century
the inner sur­
face of the curve is decorated by a torus.
In the 14th century each
foil, instead of consisting
of a portion of a circle,
consists of a portion of a
pointed arc.
Quattro­cento. (Paint.)
A name applied to the style of the
painters who practised their art in Italy
during the 15th century. The quattro­
centisti may be said to include all the
artists who are more generally known
as Pre­Raphaelites.
Quattro­Coronati. According to the
legend of the Church the " four crowned
brothers " were architects, who refused to
build a pagan temple in the reign of Dio­
cletian. For this refusal they suffered
martyrdom. In art they are represented
crowned and with palms in their hands,
while mallets and other tools lie at their
feet. There is a church in their honour
at Rome.
Quartz. A siliceous stone, the com­
monest of the minerals ; it is generally
transparent and crystalline. It is found
in nearly every part of the world.
The most beautiful varieties of quartz
are used for cameos, intaglios, while
the commoner kinds are
employed
in the manufacture of glass and porce­
lain.
Queen­post. (Arch.) A post which
springs from a tie­beam and helps to
support a timber roof It is not placed
like the king­post in the centre of the
tie­beam, but between the centre of the
tie­beam and its extremity, and, there­
fore, queen­posts are always found in
couples, and are connected at their upper
end by a beam called a collar beam.
Quincunx. An arrangement in squares
like a chess­board. The most frequent
instance of the quincunx is a plantation
of trees, so laid out as to present straight
lines, from what­
_
ever point of
1 ;^C ΐ *'^""1'~*~
view it is looked
*&.'..; λ $(...;..Λ * ­ \­
at. To obtain
..j .^^ .*'. ;..
s
.tf.'
. La­
this result the
„·'/:
X
J,'' \
s
^:'';
S
ground is di­
^\ Y, ;\[ '*v\ \,
vided into a cer­
'••
ν
^·'*'
Γ
'•&·"" • ''·τ
­"
tain number of
&>'. 4 ••^••^••X­­i­
equal
squares
and the centre of the square is ascer­
tained by drawing diagonals.
Trees
are then planted at the four corners
and at the centre of each square.
Quirk. (Arch.) A channel or groove
separating a convex moulding from the
fillet which surmounts it.
Quoif. [Coif.]
Quoin. (Arch.) The external corner of
a building. It is generally decorated,
sometimes with pilasters, sometimes
with a belting­course [Course, belting] of
projecting stones, which gives a decora­
tive character to the building, if the rest
of it is of brick.
R.
Radegund, St. St. Radegund was the
wife of Clothaire, King of France, and
lived towards the end of the 6th century.
She became a Christian, and, in conse­
quence, was obliged to retire from the
court. She was early canonized as a
saint, and in artistic representations she
appears wearing a crown or with a crown
at her feet. Sometimes wolves are at
her side and the legend tells us that
she had power over wild beasts.
Radiated. A term applied to decora­
tive motives, which consist of rays.
Radiation. A method of decorating
a circular surface by means of radii
diverging from its centre. The term is
328

RAD
ART
DICTIONARY.
RAM
also applied to a system of ornament,
which consists in the arrangement upon
a surface of any form whatsoever of radii
of a circle.
Radient. (Her.) In
heraldry a charge is
said to be
radient
which has rays round
it. Our cut, for in­
stance, ­ is described
as azure, a pale, or,
radient.
Radius. A constant distance between
the centre and any point on the circum­
ference of a circle or on the surface of a
sphere is termed a radius.
Raffaelle­ware. (Pot.) A kind of ma­
jolica, upon which mythological and
other scenes were painted. It was made
at Urbino in the 16th century under the
patronage of the Dukes of Urbino.
There is no reason to believe that
Raphael ever designed any specimens
of this ware, though it is quite possible
that some of his school furnished the
Urbino potters with design.
Perhaps
the fact that Raphael was born at Urbino
is sufficient to account for the name
which this pottery received.
Rafter. (Arch.) A piece of timber,
supporting the laths or battens, upon
which a roof of tiles, slates, or zinc rests.
—,
Principal.
(Arch.) A piece of wood
or iron, which plays an
important part in the frame of a roof.
the roof and support the purlins (q.v.)
on which the rafters are laid.
Ragged. (Paint.) A painting is said
to be ragged in style when the objects or
figures represented, instead of being
evenly joined to the background, ter­
minate in rough edges.
Ragstone. (Arch.) Stones of small
size, sometimes squared, sometimes just
as they came from the quarry, used in
building.
Raguly. (Her.) A charge is said to be
raguly, when it i
__
ragged or rough like
the trunk of a tree,
Our cut, which re­
presents a cross ra­
guly will render the
term quite plain.
Rail. (Arch.) The upper part of a ba­
lustrade about breast high, upon which
the hand may be rested. In domestic
staircases the rail is generally of wood,
but in stone balustrades it is frequently
of marble. The term rail is also ap­
plied to the horizontal pieces of wood
separating the panels in doors or wains­
coting.
Rais de Cœur. (Arch.) A system of
ornament in the form
of a heart. It consists
of fleurons and water­
leaves placed alter­
nately, and decorates
J|i||I^Si(||i|^
the surface of some
mouldings which have a convex profile.
Rampant. (Her.) An animal rearing
up on its hind legs in a fighting attitude
is said to be rampant. [Lion Rampant.]
Rampart. (Arch.) A fortified wall
which forms a defensive enclosure for a
The principal rafters give the angle of I town or castle.
In the Middle Ages
22
3*9

RAN
ART
DICTIONARY.
RAY
ramparts connected fortified gates, and
were bordered by fosses.
Ranieri, St. St. Ranieri is the patron
saint of Pisa, and representations of him
are not found outside that town.
He
was born in noo, and after a youth
spent in dissipation he was converted,
travelled to Palestine, and lived for many
years ina desert. On his return to Pisa,
his native city, he was much reverenced,
and when he died he was buried in the
Duomo.
Ranseur. A ranseur is a weapon, con­
sisting of a long, cutting
blade, from the base of
which two smaller blades
project.
It underwent
several modifications of
form; that shewn in our
cut being its earliest.
Rapier. A light, narrow
sword, worn by gentlemen
from the 16th century on­
wards. It was a weapon
of personal
adornment
rather than of warfare.
Raphaelesque. A pic­
ture is said to be Raphael­
esque when it suggests
the work of Raphael, or
is in the style of that
master. We speak of a
Raphaelesque
drawing,
Raphaelesque beauty, &c.
Raphael, St. St Raphael
is one of the archangels.
His special mission is to
guard mankind, and es­
pecially to protect travel­
lers. His attributes are a
casket or wallet and a pilgrim's staff,
and he is generally represented winged
and wearing sandals. The legend of
Tobit and the Archangel Raphael has
suggested subjects to many painters, and
it is in allusion to this legend that
Raphael sometimes carries a fish.
Rapin. A word of constant occurrence
in French artistic slang, of which many
etymologies have been suggested, all of
them unfortunately inadmissible.
For
instance it has been derived from rape,
" shabby," a derivation which is not alto­
gether unlikely, for the rapins of old
were not generally millionaires. Then,
again, some say it comes from rapiner,
" to steal," a purely gratuitous calumny.
Other etymologists see in the word
the pun, rat qui peint, but this is too
far­fetched to be entertained for a mo­
ment. Whatever is the derivation of the
word the rapin of fifty years ago was a
jovial student of art, always on the watch
to play tricks and practical jokes on the
terrified "Philistines. "
For this engag­
ing pursuit he too often neglected the
study of his art. In the present day the
race of rapins of the ancient school has
entirely disappeared. It has gone the
way of the old­fashioned students and of
the school of Bohemians, who advertised
their ideas and affected eccentric cos­
tumes. The modern student of art is
too often a Philistine himself and avoids
any suspicion of eccentricity. His cos­
tumes and manners are conventional,
and whatever else he may be he is
seldom a rapin.
Rasp. (Sculp.) An iron tool used by
sculptors in working on their marble.
Our cuts will give an idea of its shape
and character.
Ray. (Her.) A ray or beam of light is
sometimes found as a
charge in heraldry.
The following is a
description of our
cut; Azure, a ray of
the sun issuing out
of the dexter corner
of the escutcheon.
Rayθre. (Arch.) A French term denot­
ing a long, narrow opening in the thick­
ness of a wall of a mediaeval castle,
through which light was admitted.
330

REA
ART DIC
Re­acierage. The process of aciérage
may be described as the covering of a
copper­plate with a thin film of steel.
When this steel film is worn the plate
may be re­covered ; this second process
is termed re­acierage.
Reagent. Chemical substances which
are used to develop photographs and to
fix the images obtained on a photo­
graphic plate are termed reagents.
Realgar. [Red Orpiment.]
Realism. This word is susceptible of
two meanings. In its strict sense realism
is the representation of real objects, such
as actually exist, as opposed to idealism,
which may be defined as the construc­
tion of the perfect type of these same
things, as the mind attempts to conceive
it. In historical painting the realistic
school devotes itself to representing
events, persons, costumes, and places
as accurately as possible, and will have
nothing to do with conventional types and
draperies. There is, however, another
school of realists. These, pushing to its
extreme limit the doctrine of reality in
the representations of scenes and objects,
forbid the reproduction of aught that
requires interpretation or the exercise
of the intelligence. They limit themselves
strictly to the reproduction of that which
is seen and do not always concern them­
selves with seeing the beautiful side of
things. And so it happens that as often
as not they incline by choice to what is
ngly.
Rear­vault. (Arch.) A vault placed
behind a bay, which terminates in a
TIONARY.
REB
round or pointed arch or in a straight
lintel. The purpose of the rear­vault is
to strengthen the building or to in­
crease its effect. Gothic architecture
presents many examples of rear­vaults
richly decorated.
Rebaking. An operation, the purpose
of which is to fix the colours of painted
pieces of glass or enamel by submitting
them to the action of the fire.
Rebate. (Arch.) A notch or recess cut
in a piece of timber so as to fit another
piece of timber. The commonest in­
stance of a rebate is the notch cut in a
door­post to receive the door.
Rebiting. (Engrav.) When some of
the lines on an etched plate are not
sufficiently accentuated, or if the plate
has been worn from too many copies
having been struck from it, it undergoes
the operation of rebiting. This requires
the utmost care, as the etching ground
hastobelaid soasnottocoveranyof
the lines which are to be'rebitten and
must not be dabbed all over, as at the
first biting. When a worn plate has
been rebitten it can scarcely deceive the
practised eye, as the proper relations of
its tones is lost and the lighter lines
become weaker.
Rebus. (Her.) A rebus is a charge in
heraldry, which has a punning allusion
to the bearer's name. A popular defini­
tion of it is "a word represented by a
picture."
Such devices were very com­
mon in the Middle Ages.
In West­
minster Abbey there is a very good
example of a rebus in Bishop Islip's
chapel. The device consists of a human
eye, and a slip of a tree. Many other
examples might be quoted. We will
content ourselves with two, of which we
give cuts. The first is the rebus qf
33*

REC
ART
DICTIONARY.
RED
Thomas Compton, Abbot of Cirencester.
It is taken from a window in the Lady
Chapel in Gloucester Cathedral and its
significance will be plain to all. Our
second cut is the coat of arms of a
Devonshire family named Arches.
Re­canvassing. An operation which
consists in replacing a worn­out canvas
or worm­eaten panel upon which paint­
ings have been executed by new and
sound materials.
Rectangle. A rectangle is a figure
enclosed by four straight
lines, in which the oppo­
site sides are equal and all
the angles right angles.
Rectangled. A term applied to geo­
metrical figures which contain a right
angle. Thus we speak of a rectangled
triangle, a rectangled parallelogram.
Rectangular. A figure or solid body
in which the angles are right angles is
termed rectangular.
Recuse (Numis.) A term applied to
coins struck with two different types, the
one superposed upon the other.
Red. Red pigments are formed of
ochre or clay coloured by oxides of iron,
which have been calcined and pulverised.
These pigments, when they have a base
of iron, are always deep in colour.
Reds obtained from oxide of lead or from
mercury are bright and intense Among
the latter may be mentioned red lead
(protoxide of lead), cinnabar, and ver­
milion.
Red Lead. (Paint.) This pigment is
an oxide of lead. As, when mixed with
most other pigments, it decomposes it is
of little use to the artist. It is of a
scarlet colour, and when it is pure and
unmixed it is not affected by light.
—
Ochre. (Paint.) There are several
kinds of red ochre, such as Indian red,
scarlet ochre, and Indian ochre. This
pigment is generally a sulphate of iron.
In colour it is less strident than vermi­
lion, and when pure it is permanent.
—
Orpiment. (Paint.) This pigment,
which is a compound of arsenic and sul­
phur and is of an orange colour, should
never be employed by the painter, as it
destroys other pigments and absorbs the
colour of the ground. It is also known
as realgar.
Redan. (Arch.) A pierced or indented
system of ornament used in Gothic
upper surface of which, instead of being
horizontal, is cut off so as to resemble
the steps of a staircase.
Redorte. (Her.) This name is applied
Λ
by heralds to a figure formed by inter­
twining the branches of a tree, with or
332

RED
ART DR
without their leaves on, so as to make a
succession of loops.
Reduct. (Arch.) A term applied in
military architecture to fortified works,
the purpose of which is to prolong the
defence of a castle.
Reduction. A term applied in art to a
copy of a sketch or picture on a smaller
scale than the original ; and also to en­
graved reproductions obtained by me­
chanical processes, and designed on a
smaller scale than the drawings from
which they are made. It also denotes
small copies of a statue ; we speak of a
reduction, for instance, of the Venus of
Milo. There is a special method of re­
ducing statues, which is based upon the
application of the pantograph, or by
which mathematically exact copies may
be obtained. This method goes by the
name of Collas, its inventor.
Re­enter. (Engrav ) When a line on
an engraved plate, which has been
worn in printing or is not bitten
deeply enough, is cut with a graver to
its proper depth, it is said to be re­
entered.
Refectory. (Arch.) The dining­room
in a monastery or convent.
Reflection. A term applied to the por­
tions of a body illuminated not by rays
of direct light but by reflected rays. In
an illuminated body there are three
distinct parts, the light, the shade, and
the reflection. The last is the part of
an object plunged in a penumbra
lighted by the rays proceeding from
other bodies at some distance from
the object and receiving the light
directly.
Refraction. A change of direction
taken by luminous rays in certain trans­
parent bodies. It is in consequence of
this phenomenon that a rod half plunged
in water appears broken, that the disc
of the sun on the horizon appears larger
than at its zenith.
Régals. A music instrument used in
the Middle Ages, which combined the
characteristics of an organ and accordion.
r
IONARY,
REL
In mediaeval pictures saints are fre­
quently represented as playing upon
régals. The cut given here is from a
picture by Memling.
Regardant. (Her.) A term applied in
heraldry to animals which have their
head turned towards the sinister side of
the shield.
Reglet. (Arch.) A small flat moulding,
which is also known by
t
the names of fillet and Γ
ν
listel. When it is very * '^^ww·
1
"
large it becomes a plat­
band, and some writers then describe
it as a taenia.
Regrating. (Arch.) An operation
which consists in cutting away the orna­
ments and projecting mouldings from
the surface of a building, so as to render
the whole surface uniform.
By this
process of levelling many ancient build­
ings have been destroyed or restored, as
the modern iconoclast prefers to style it.
Regular. (Arch.) A plan or façade is
said to be regular when it is arranged
symmetrically.
Relief. In painting the relief is the
apparent projection of objects obtained
by modelling or a gradation of tints.
Thus the reliefs of a picture may be
well rendered, or a portrait may be said
to lack relief. In sculpture a relief is a
figure or series of figures executed on
333

REL
ART
DICTIONARY.
REP
a flat ground, from which it projects
in a greater or less degree, according as
it is a high or low relief. In architec­
ture the mouldings and systems of orna­
ment which project from the surface of
a wall or of a façade are termed re­
liefs.
Relieving Arch. [Arch, Relieving.]
Reliquary. A coffer or box, of very
variable form, in which relics are kept.
In the Middle
Ages there were
reliquaries large
enough to be reve­
renced as shrines,
while some were
small enough to
be carried in the
hand. Sometimes
they assumed the
form of an arm
or a skull, accord­
ing as the relic
within was a bone of the arm or a frag­
ment of the skull. As a general rule they
were very richly decorated, especially
those made from the 13th to the 15th
century, some of which were formed of
blocks of rock crystal supported upon
i&fflffismfëSSJ
pierced columns. Others were vases
of jasper or porphyry with enamelled
mouldings, and many were resplendent
with precious stones.
Remark. [Proof, Remark.]
Rembrandtesque. (Paint.) In the
manner of Rembrandt. A painting is
said to be Rembrandtesque when the
combination of effects, especially of
light and shade, recall those adopted by
Rembrandt. Thus the effect of light in
a picture may be said to be Rembrandt­
esque or the picture itself may be so
termed.
Renaissance.
The period during
which there was a general revival of art
throughout Europe.
This movement
began in Italy in the 15th century, and
continued with little abatement of vigour
throughout the 16th. It reached England
and Germany somewhat late.
The
architecture of the Renaissance was
characterised by a return to the an­
cient orders, which were interpreted,
however, with a certain amount of
freedom.
Render. To render is to represent,
express, or interpret by the means
proper to any particular art.
Rendering. A term denoting the
manner in which a work of art or figure
is painted, drawn, or executed. Thus
we speak of an inadequate rendering, or
say that the rendering of a certain sub­
ject is admirable.
Repaint. Those portions of a picture
upon which fresh colour has been laid
after the completion of the picture are
said to be repainted. Of all the pro­
cesses of restoration repainting is the
most dangerous, and the most hopelessly
prejudicial to the value of a picture.
Reparata, St. St. Reparata was from
the 7th to the 13th century the patron
saint of Florence and representations of
her are to be found in early Florentine
pictures. The tradition was that she
suffered martyrdom in Cesarea at the
age of twelve.
Repetition. A method of ornament,
which consists in decorating a surface
by representing the same motive a large
334

REP
ART
DICTIONARY.
RES
number of times in a geometrical ar­
rangement.
Replica. An original work of art of
the same dimensions as an earlier pro­
duction by the same artist, and repre­
senting identically the same subject
as that treated in a former work.
Repose. A work of art is said to have
repose when its parts are balanced and
harmonious, when no spots within it
unduly attract the eye, and when there
is a quietness and dignity over the whole
composition.
Repoussé. A term applied to the art
of fashioning ornamental objects in metal
by beating it behind with a hammer, as
well as to the ornaments executed by
means of this process. The forms of
the decoration are only roughly in­
dicated by the hammer, and the work
has to be finished by chasing (q.v.).
Reproduction. A term applied to the
copying of works of art and especially to
the interpretation of pictures by means
of engraving, photogravure, and photo­
graphy. The right of reproducing a
work of art belongs to the artist and is
distinct from the possession of the work,
if the artist takes care at the time of
sale to reserve this right to himself. If
he neglects to take this precaution the
right of reproduction ceases to belong
exclusively to any one.
[Copyright,
Artistic]
Reredos. (Arch.) The screen at the
back of an altar, which is frequently
richly carved, is called the reredos,
The term also denotes an open fire­
hearth.
Respond. (Arch.) A term applied to
the two vertical parts of a bay or open­
\
ing, which are united
by the horizontal part
or lintel. The surface of the respond
either is plane or varies according to
the style, epoch,.
or character
of
the building to
which it belongs.
Ressault. (Arch.) The projection of
a moulding or entablature, which is
advanced beyond the surface of a build­
ing. The term is also applied to the
projection of one part of a building
beyond another. For instance, pilasters
may be said to form a ressault.
Ressenti. An Italian term denoting
the forcible expression of a form in a
drawing. For instance, Michael Angelo's
manner may be called ressenti.
Restoration. The restoration of pic­
tures is a task which necessitates the
utmost prudence. If pictures are " re­
painted," i.e ., retouched on a consider­
able scale, they at once lose their value.
Even if the portions repainted are of the
smallest importance, and if the restorer
takes the greatest care in laying on tones
exactly similar to the earlier ones, the
retouches are enough to clash violently
with the old portion of the picture, as
the desiccation of the oil leads infalli­
bly to a modification of tone.
When
paintings on canvas scale off, the gaps
should be stopped with a mastic com­
posed of whiting and strong size. The
joins may be hidden with the utmost
care by means of a brush, and the picture
may then be covered with a layer of sic­
cative varnish.
The restoration of sculpture, especially
of ancient statues in marble, presents
still greater difficulties than the restora­
tion of pictures, and it should be carried
out with still greater reserve. The less
important parts of a figure, if missing,
may be restored or replaced easily
enough, either by means of plaster
coloured so as to closely reproduce
the tone of the original, or by pieces
of marble fixed in their place by
335

RES
ART DIC
tenons or attached by copper.
But,
as a general rule, the restoration of
statues should be restricted to carrying
out whatever is necessary to hold them
together. It will never occur again to
any sculptor to attempt to restore the
arms of the Venus of Milo. During the
last two centuries, and even in the early
part of the present century, ancient
statues were restored with the most
surprising boldness. An absent head
was too often replaced by another differ­
ing from it both in period and province.
The Glyptothek at Munich, for instance,
is a monument to the misplaced energy
of restorers. It is now found necessary
to catalogue those portions of each work
exhibited in that gallery which have
been added by later hands.
In architecture the object of restora­
tion is the reproduction of a building,
wholly ruined or partially destroyed, in
accordance with the original plans and
designs. There can be no doubt that
of late years the work of restoring
churches has been carried a good deal
further in England than it should be.
Architects have been too ready to
destroy buildings which were perfectly
safe, in order to provide themselves with
an opportunity of putting something of
an earlier style in their place.
Lord
Beaconsfield once said, that no church
would be properly restored until we had
hung an architect. We are not likely
to take this extreme measure, and per­
haps the safest maxim to follow is :
" Restoration should not be reconstruc­
tion but only the arrest of decay."
Restore. To restore is to repair works
of painting or sculpture, buildings and
historic monuments, with a view of
bringing them back as nearly as possible
to the condition in which they were
when they left the hand of the artist, and
before they had suffered the deface­
ment of time.
Retable. [Altar­piece.]
Retaining Wall. (Arch.) A support,
stay, or mass of masonry, which serves
IONARY.
RET
to strengthen a building. The object of
a retaining wall is to counteract the
thrust of earth or to sustain an embank­
ment.
Reticulated. (Pot.) A name given to
certain pieces of porcelain which are
bounded by a double surface, the inner
surface being solid, the outer being in
the form of a pierced
_
network. In some
fê&péjF
pieces of reticulated
^^^t^^rV
porcelain of Chinese Î^^*vTi*ÎV*ΰ
manufacture the outer
\V#fei£**»$lr
surface is pierced with
^^?5ft&P^
arabesques, and is
JSJBI^SBLX·
placed over a vase of
* ***""" ~~,
\&
the same form
or
merely cylindrical, but of a different
colour. Vases which are only appar­
ently reticulated are contrived by making
an impression with a hollow stamp upon
the porcelain.
Retouch. A modification or correction
carried out in a picture, drawing, or
engraving ; an alteration made in a
photographic cliché to soften the model­
ling or, in too many cases, to render it
insipid. In line­engraving the object of
retouching is to strengthen or weaken
the tone obtained by hatchings already
drawn.
In wood­engraving retouching
is limited to weakening or lessening the
lines and contours, which appear too
hard or too strongly marked. The pro­
cess of retouching in wood­engraving
only allows the work to be modified by
the suppression, not by the addition of
lines, whereas in line engraving a second
series of hatchings may be laid over a
previous one, and even skies may be
added if necessary. This kind of re­
336

RET
ART DIC:
touching is absolutely impossible in
wood­cutting, where the surface of the
ι
)lock is cut away and a fresh surface, fit
to engrave upon, can only be obtained
by fitting fresh pieces of wood to the
original block.
Retrait. (Her.) This is a French
KHi]|im|w
1 term used to describe a
1^1 ilk S charge which is discon­
I
Λ
κ
1 neci:e
d in the middle so
I^tlilKI^
at one
Part
*
s
*
nre
~
I >fj jyM treat as compared with
^sjr*^
the other.
Retreat. (Arch.) A term applied in
the Middle Agee to small vaulted rooms
or private chambers lighted by arcades.
Retreat, In. (Arch.) That part of a
building which lies behind the line of
the principal façade is said to be in
retreat. Niches, pavilions, for instance,
may be in retreat.
Return. (Arch.) A term applied to a
ξlH
tel
corner, the angle of a
Γ |||Ι ^^^ building, the angle of
|1 'pBSSBli an entablature, a cor­
1"·
'
j, nice or a projecting
moulding. A mould­
ing itself, too, may be said to return.
The term may also denote a building,
which forms a right angle with another
building.
Revarnishing".
(Engrav.) There are
two methods of revarnishing an etched
plate. The one is by heating the plate
and using a dabber, the other is by laying
on a mixture of varnish and smoke­black
with a hair brush. The object of both
these methods is to allow the engraver to
retouch the plate, which has already
been bitten and to make such alter­
RHY
ations upon it, as necessitate a re­
biting.
Reveal. (Arch.) A term applied to the
interior surface formed by the opening
of a bay. Reveals may be either rect­
angular or oblique.
Reverse. (Numis.) The side of a coin
or medal opposite to the face or obverse.
Reversed. In the process of engraving
pictures are sometimes reversed, that is
to say, they are reproduced in the oppo­
site way to the original. A head, for
instance, which looked towards the
right, looks towards the left when re­
versed
Revolution. A term applied in geo­
metry to the rotatory movement by
means of which a solid may be deduced
from a plane figure.
Rez­de­Chaussée. [Ground­floor.]
Rhyparography. A term applied in
ancient times to that branch of art
which was concerned with the repre­
sentation of common every­day subjects.
The name rhyparographus was given
by Pliny to a painter named Pirseicus,
whose " subjects were barbers' shops,
cobblers' stalls, jackasses, eatables, and
the like."
Pliny adds that, in spite of
the meanness of their subjects, these
pictures were very pleasing and sold at
higher prices than the works of many
masters. From the above extract from
the Roman critic it will be seen at once
that rhyparography includes both genre
and still life, and that Piragicus, as far as
subject is concerned, differed little from
the Dutch school.
Rhyton. An ancient vase in the shape
UONARY.
337

RIB
of a horn used for drinking. It was
curved in shape and provided with a
^.
handle and suggested
/tlm^^
the hollow horns which,
(iffiBff^h
no
^
ou
^
>t
'*
n
^
e earlv
CT^L^È^*
stages of Greek civilisa­
i
^
s=
^^r^
tion,were used as drink­
ing­vessels. The sharp end frequently as­
sumed the form of the head of an animal,
while the wide portion was decorated
with paintings.
Bib. (Arch.) The side or projecting
edge of a pointed arch or vault. In the
^
early times of Gothic
»Jç$**E architecture ribs are
$Êjfc#®&
ver
Y simple in profile,
w/jfàÊr
being generally in the
j Y/wJEF
form of a torus. At a
^llSr
η
W
later period their pro­
file assumed delicate
curves, and in the 15th century they
were sometimes ornamented with bosses
and garlands.
—, Diagonal. A diagonal rib is a rib
which, in a groined compartment, passes
from angle to angle and so intersects
another diagonal rib in the centre.
— , Transverse. (Arch.) In a groined
compartment the transverse rib is the
main rib stretching from wall to wall.
Transverse ribs were very slightly or­
namented in the nth century, but their
decoration became more and more rich
and complicated the nearer they came
in date to the 14th century.
—, Wall. The ribs which, in a groined
compartment, adhere to the wall are
70NARY.
RID
termed wall­ribs. An example of the
wall­rib may be seen in the cut given to
transverse rib.
Riband. (Her.) One of the diminu­
tives of bend. The riband is generally
one­fourth the width of the bend, but is
couped or cut short so that its ends do
not reach to the edge of the shield.
Ridge. (Arch.) A term applied in
buildings of the Ro­
__/u.
manesque or Gothic
dim ÊSÊm
style to a moulding
^SETMMESL
at the intersection
jSP^ WMaBB
of surfaces, espe­
1ÊBI9ÈËBP
cially on spires and 3Bf iaBÊBÊSt
word is also used in
*
building to denote the bands of metal,
generally zinc or lead, placed at the
angle of roofs, and also to the semicircu­
lar tiles, covering the top of a roof.
Ridge­piece. (Arch.) A piece of tim­
ber forming the upper part of a roof.
Ridge­plate. (Arch.) Plates of lead or
zinc covering the top of a roof. Ridge
plates are sometimes surmounted by
pierced crests (q.v .) and by vanes. In
some Gothic buildings there are fine
specimens of ridge­plates, the lower
edges of which are cut in the form of
flames, while the roofs of buildings of
the Renaissance period present magni­
ficent examples of this method of decor­
ation.
Ridge­tile. (Arch.) A semi­cylindrical
tile used to cover the ridge or line of
ART DIC.
338

RIF
ART
DICTIONARY.
junction of the two slopes of a roof.
RIS
It
sometimes projects beyond the edge of
the roof, as is seen in our first cut.
Rifler. An instrument used by en­
gravers of
coins.
It
&> consists of a rounded
piece of metal, the
end
of which is
covered with interlacing striae, like a
file.
Eight of Reproduction. The right of
reproducing a work of art, whether
drawn, painted, or sculptured by engrav­
ing or photographing, or of publishing a
copy of a statue in plaster, marble, terra
cotta, or bronze, can be assigned by the
artist. The acquisition of a work of art
only confers upon the purchaser the
right of reproduction when it is a portrait
or when at the time of sale the artist has
made no restrictions. Apart from these
circumstances the artist may sell the
right of reproducing his work to one and
the work itself to another. [Copyright,
Artistic]
Rinceau. A French term denoting an
ornament consisting of sprigs of foliage
arranged in scrolls. Rinceaux are em­
ployed as a decorative motive in all
styles of architecture. The borders of
mural paintings sometimes consist of
rinceaux with palm leaves and other
foliage.
In the neo­Greek style car­
touches and other decorations in relief
are surrounded with incised rinceaux.
In the Romanesque style examples of
this form of decoration are also found,
but it is in Roman architecture, espe­
cially in the friezes of buildings of the
Corinthian order, that the finest speci­
mens are to be seen,
rnxm^jmrn
formed generally of
^®
Μ
ψ
acanthus leaves. At the time of the
Renaissance rinceaux were treated with
peculiar delicacy, and so arranged that
the portions on each side of a vertical
line drawn down the centre, corre­
sponded with one another, as far as
their main outlines were concerned, but
differed considerably in their details and
accessories.
Vases, mascarons, and
small figures frequently break the lines
of the rinceaux.
Rissolé. A term used in French art­
criticism to describe a picture of a
golden tint. Some painters of the Ro­
339

RIV
ART
DICTIONARY.
ROM
mantic school have attempted to repro­
duce the tones rissolés of Rembrandt,
but have too often merely succeeded in
getting red, heavy tones.
Rivet. (Constr.) A nail with a round
II
head, the extremity of which
il
has been flattened so as to
«Kp form a second head. Iron
|| plates are often joined with
i|
rivets, made red hot and
β 8Β |ρ ρ & hammered. In small works
Hi
riveting is done without
^
heating the rivets.
Rocaille. A term applied to the art in
vogue at the time of Louis XV. Scrolls
and foliage, which are a feature of this
style, are characteristic, both in form
and outline.
Roche, St. St. Roche is the patron
saint of those afflicted with plague or
disease. He was born at Montpellier at
the end of the 13th century, and devoted
his life to ministering to the sick and
plague­stricken, and he is said to have
died in prison in his native town in 1327.
His worship began in the 15th century,
and he has been particularly reverenced
at Venice. He is generally represented
in the guise of a pilgrim, with staff and
shell, and he shows the plague spot on his
left thigh. Representations of him are
frequently met with in art galleries, es­
pecially in the pictures of Italian masters.
Rocker. (Engrav.) A tool used by the
engraver in mezzotint. It is a kind of
chisel with a sharp bevelled edge, which
grsm
is set on the surface of the
IB
copper and rocked too
r9
and fro so as to obtain
«il
a series of points forming
ISI
a rough grain. This grain
»ni
retains the ink and enables
pi
the engraver to get a proof
Sf!3
^
of a velvety black, which,
y^^^.
if the rocker has been
L· ί |||§|& handled evenly, is of an
ÉST" ;B3| eciual tint. After this ope­
{|jraj|mKJlmp ration, which, after all, is
only mechanical and may
be simplified, the engraver cuts away
the lights with a cutting tool, just as
he would were he working with bread
crumbs on paper covered with black chalk.
Rockwork. A decoration in the rustic
style generally made up of masses of
natural or artificial rock. It is used
principally to ornament fountains and to
form grottoes.
Rococo. A decorative style which was
an exaggerated development of the ro­
caille style (q.v ). It was characterised
by a profusion of meaningless ornament,
consisting of scrolls, foliage, and animal
forms hopelessly confused and inter­
mingled. As a general term rococo de­
notes anything that is heavy, ugly, and
tasteless.
Roller. (Engrav.) A wooden cylinder
furnished with handles and covered with
leather, upon which a peculiar varnish
is smeared. When the roller is skilfully
passed over a plate, which has already
been bitten, the varnish does not touch
the furrows, but only covers the plane
surface, so that the plate may be rebitten.
Roll­moulding. (Arch.) A term ap­
plied to many mouldings, varying a good
deal from one another, but all present­
ing some resemblance to a roll.
Romain, St. St. Romain was bishop
of Rouen in the 7th century. The ex­
ploit for which he is famous was the
destruction of a noisome dragon, which
in representations of him is generally
shown at his feet.
Romanesque. (Arch.) The Roman­
esque style of architecture grew up in
northern Italy and is the link between
Classical and Gothic architecture. It is
called by some writers round­headed
Gothic. Its distinguishing characteris­
tics are an extraordinary severity and
simplicity of style. Its arches are gene­
rally semicircular, and its vaults barrel
vaults. Its walls are thick and massive ;
in it the classical ideas of proportion
with regard to columns, &c, are re­
nounced; and the classical mouldings
and ornaments, though they still occur,
are much modified.
340

ROM
ART
DICTIONARY.
ROO
Romanticism. A movement in art
which took place in 1830, parallel to the
literary movement initiated by Victor
Hugo and others. It was characterised
by an emancipation from the so­called
classical conventions and traditions.
The Romantic school has left behind
it works that are remarkable for their
colour, their movement, their expres­
sion of the passions, and their inter­
pretation of great poetical sentiments.
It produced both great painters and
skilful decorators and nourished particu­
larly in Paris, where Eugène Delacroix
may be regarded as its earliest apostle.
Ronde­bosse. A French term denoting
a sculptured work in the round, in contra­
distinction to works in high or low relief.
Rond­point. (Arch ) A French term
denoting the semicircular or apsidal
termination of
a
church. It is also
applied to any cir­
4^
cular space at the
*""\\ slf%% en(
*°^
a walk> or
*"^­J**
the intersection of
• I··
avenues, in the cen­
tre of which a monument, statue, or
fountain is set up.
Rood. A representation of the Trinity,
which in Catholic churches is placed
over the altar screen, is termed a rood.
The accompanying cut, which is from a
drawing in Queen Mary's Psalter, will
give the reader an idea of the orthodox
form of the rood. The screen which
supported it was called the rood­screen,
and when it rested on a simple beam
this beam was known as the rood­beam.
Rood­loft. (Arch.) A screen separat­
ing the choir from the nave of a church ;
originally a tribune or gallery, which
served as a pulpit. There are many
rood­lofts to be seen in churches of both
the Gothic and Renaissance periods.
Roof. (Arch.) The coping or upper
part of a building, which serves as a
covering and protection against wind
and weather. The height
of roofs varies consider­
ably ; sometimes, in­
deed, they are quite
flat. The average height
of a roof is between a
third and fourth of the
breadth of the building,
but in the Gothic style
it sometimes exceeds the
height of the façade. It is surrounded
by gutters, which carry off the damp,
and so preserve the
«—«^a
walls of the building
W~~==5*
from damp. Above
it rise chimneys, which afford the archi­
34'

ROO
ART
DICTIONARY.
ROS
tect plenty of scope for design. In
mediaeval and renaissance houses beau­
tiful specimens of chimneys are found ;
some of them entirely of brick, with or
without mouldings, others of stone, en­
riched with pilasters and varied orna­
ments. In later times they were of
larger dimensions, and even more richly
decorated.
Roof, Broken.
A roof with two
slopes, conducting the water to the
same pipe.
— , Mansard. A roof, in which are
placed vertical windows or lucarnes,
known as mansards.
—, Pectine. A conical roof with a
toothed edge, somewhat resembling the
teeth of a comb. In
Gothic buildings the
roof of turrets, when
they are of small dia­
meter, are covered
with small tiles, cut
into semi­circles, and
edged with sharp teeth.
Were square tiles ap­
plied to a convex sur­
face, the right angles would not only
project in clumsy fashion, but would be
very fragile.
— , Philibert Delorme. A roof without
ribs.
—, Pointed. A roof, such as was in
vogue in the 15th and 16th centuries, of
considerable height and very abrupt
slopes.
— , Pyramidal. A roof in the shape
of a pyramid.
— , Span. A term applied to roofs
which consist of two oblique surfaces,
inclined one to the other like a pack
saddle. Some Romanesque churches
present
examples
of
clock ­ towers,
with roof in this
form,
the gable
ends being pierced
with openings.
Roof, Truncated.
A roof which has
scarcely any slope, its surface being as
nearly as possible horizontal.
Roofing. (Arch.) The covering of a
building ; the materials used in making
this covering.
Rook. (Her.) The rook or castle of the
game of chess is sometimes
used as an heraldic device,
and then takes the conven­
tional form here shown.
Λ,
Rose. (Arch.) In the Romanesque and
Gothic styles church windows of circular
form are called rose windows.
The
small rosettes
which decorate
Corinthian
capitals are
known as roses,
while the same
term is applied
to the circular
ornaments
placed in the centre of a pavement, made
up of various coloured substances.
Rose Madder. (Paint ) This pigment
is a lake obtained from the root of the
" Rubia Tinctorum. "
It yields exquisite
tints, and although it dries slowly is a
useful pigment.
Rose Rubiate. (Paint.) A useful and
transparent pigment of a rose colour.
It may be used with advantage both in
water­colour and oil.
Rosette.
(Arch.)
A painted or sculp­
tured ornament of
circular form. Ceil­
ings
and
coffers
are sometimes de­
corated with ro­
settes, consisting of several rows of
342

ROS
ART
DICTIONARY.
ROY
leaves arranged in a circle round a
bud.
Rosso Antico. A deep red marble
with white spots and veins. It was used
by the sculptors of Egypt as well as
by those of Greece and Rome.
Rostrata. (Arch.) An epithet applied
to columns at Rome, which were
decorated with rostra or beaks of
ships.
Rostrum. (Arch.) An ornament con­
sisting of the prow of an ancient ship.
The name, ros­
trum,
was
also
given in ancient
times to the tri­
bune set up in the
Forum Romanum,
because this tri­
bune was decora­
ted with the beaks of ships.
Rotunda. (Arch.) A building of cir­
cular form, generally surmounted by a
cupola.
Roucou. A red paste, dry and of a
disagreeable odour, which is obtained
by the maceration of the berries of the
arnotto­tree, and is used in gilding to
obtain vermilions. ·
Rough­cast. To rpugh­cast a wall is
to cover its suface with a coating of
plaster.
Rough in, To. (Sculp.) To remove,
by means of the chisel and hammer,
and in the case of large surfaces with a
saw, those parts of a block of stone or
marble which protrude beyond the out­
line of a figure or the profile of a
moulding, these outlines or profiles
being approximately traced upon the
stone or marble.
Roulette. (Engrav.) A small disc
of tempered steel, furnished with sharp
teeth. Some roulettes are fixed per­
pendicularly, others parallel to the
handle. The roulette is passed several
times over the plate, covered with the
etching ground, so
as to trace upon it
a series of points which may be crossed
at will in every direction. The grain
thus obtained varies ­in strength ac­
cording to the size of the teeth of
the instrument and the force with
which it is driven over the etching­
ground.
Roundels. (Her.) These are small
circular discs which are frequently met
with in coats­of­arms . It is usual that not
fewer than three together should appear
on a shield, and the round­
els may themselves be
charged, that is to say,
they may have another
charge placed upon them.
They are distinguished by
special names according
to their tinctures ; thus the roundel or
is called a bezant, probably from a gold
coin of Byzantium; the roundel vert a
pomme, and so on.
Rowel. (Her.) The little spiked wheel
that forms the penetrat­
ing part of a spur. It has
five or six projecting points
or rays like a star, and is
not an unfrequent charge
in heraldry.
Royal Academy. [Academy, Royal.]
Royal Blue. (Paint.) A blue pig­
ment composed of glass, which has been
made blue by fusion and then powdered.
It is of much service in fresco and por­
celain painting, and was first used at
343

RUB
ART
DICTIONARY.
RUS
Sèvres. In oil and water­colour it is to
be avoided.
Rubble­work. (Arch.) A coarse kind
of masonry, which consists of plaster
and stories mixed.
Rubens Brown. (Paint.) This pig­
ment is a native earth, richer and
warmer than Vandyke brown. It is
fairly permanent, but is adversely
affected by strong light.
Rubens Madder. (Paint.) This pig­
ment is of a rich purple colour, with
just a suggestion of yellow. Although
it does not dry easily, it is useful to the
painter, as it is quite permanent and is
not affected by light or other pigments.
Rubric. A term applied to mediaeval
manuscripts, in which the initial letters
were illuminated in red. The drawing
of these letters was the work of an
artist, called a rubricator, who devoted
himself exclusively to this small branch
of art.
Rub out. Useless strokes in a crayon
drawing are rubbed out either with
indiarubber or bread crumbs.
Ruby. A precious stone, of a rich
transparent red. It is second in value
only to the diamond.
Rudder. In ancient symbolic art the
rudder suggested good fortune, and is
frequently associated with a cornucopia,
as it is in the accompanying cut, which
is copied from a gem.
Ruelle. (Arch.) A term applied to
the bedrooms which certain ladies of
quality and précieuses of the time of
Louis XIV. transformed into reception
rooms. The full form of the expression
was ruelle de lit.
Ruins. A term applied to the debris
of a building and to pictures, which re­
present such debris laid out in a con­
ventional landscape.
Rule. A flat piece of wood, metal, or
glass, with which straight lines are
drawn.
— , Lesbian. An instrument used by
ancient architects, and consisting of a
plate of lead, by means of which convex
surfaces might be measured.
Rundle. A small disc of
leather or metal pierced
with a circular opening.
Rustic. (Arch.) A style
of ornament in which surfaces are de­
corated with vermiculations and stones
are left with their faces unhewn.
Rustic­work. (Arch.) A kind of ma­
sonry in which the surface of the
stones is purposely left rough, or cut in
quaint shapes, so as to suggest that
they have not been hewn or squared.
This rough surface is covered with many
different sorts of ornament.
—, Cavetto. Masonry in which the
projecting surface of the stones is
terminated by a moulding of concave
outline, like that known as cavetto
(q.v.).
—, Chamfered. Rustic­work masonry,
in which the projecting portions of the
stones are cut at an angle of 45 degrees.
—,
Continuous.
Rustic­work con­
tinued round the façade of a building.
— , Diamond. Rustic­work masonry,
in which the stones
are cut into facets,
so that only one
sharp point pro­
jects.
The stones
thus terminating in
a diamond point
may be either
squares or rec­
tangles.
— , Vermiculated. Rustic­work,
344

RUS
ART
DICTIONARY.
SAG
the surface of which is cut into
irregular figures resembling stalactites,
or covered with threads depressed below
the surface, not unlike twisted worms.
Rustre. (Her.) The rustre is a small
diamond or lozenge pierced or voided
with a circular opening,
thus distinguishing it
from the muscle, which
is pierced with a dia­
mond ­ shaped
opening.
Rustres are generally
borne in number.
Rutilant. That which shines with a
vivid brilliance.
Stuffs, for instance,
may be said to be of a rutilant tone.
s.
Sable. (Her.) In heraldry black is
always blazoned sable. It is shown on a
shield by means of vertical and hori­
zontal lines crossing one another so as
to make a dark shading.
Sabliθre. (Arch.) A piece of timber
placed horizontally, the purpose of which
is to support other pieces of timber.
Sacellum. (Arch.) A name given, in
ancient architecture, to small temples
or shrines, roofless and open to the air.
Sacrarium. (Arch ) That part of
the ancient temple in which were kept
the sacred utensils and vases.
Sacrifice. (Paint.) To sacrifice is to
neglect certain details in a picture so as
to increase the value of the principal
motive. To sacrifice artistically is to
know exactly what parts to neglect in
order to make the other parts stand out
with due effect.
Sacristy. A building attached to a
church, or a small room arranged for
the purpose, in which the sacred vessels
and the sacerdotal vestments are kept.
The treasures of the church are also
kept in the sacristy. Sometimes sacris­
ties are vaulted chambers and are at­
tached to the exterior of the church like
lateral chapels.
On the other hand,
sacristies often consist of one or two
bays, which are lost in the general
arrangement of the building.
Saddle­back. (Arch.) A term applied
to two surfaces inclined at an angle so
as to form an inverted V, thus, A, espe­
cially when the surfaces are slightly
convex.
Saffron. (Gild.) A powder obtained
from saffron flow­
ers and used to
produce vermil­
ions.
Sagum. (Cost.)
A garment, con­
sisting of a rect­
angular piece of
rough cloth,
which was fast­
ened by a brooch
upon the left
shoulder. It was
worn in ancient
Rome by lictors
and soldiers. The
word is Celtic in
origin and means
cloth of coarse
wool. It is con­
nected etymologi­
cal
with our word shaggy.
23
345

SAL
ART DIC
Salade. A helmet worn by infantry
in the 15th century. It was sometimes
made with a movable visor, sometimes
it covered the head and upper part of
the face.
Salient. (Her.) An animal is termed
salient when it is represented as leaping
forward. [Lion Salient.]
Salle des pas perdus. (Arch.) A
French term applied to a long public
gallery, such as the large hall in front of
the audience chamber of a palace, or the
waiting­room in a railway station.
Salon. The exhibition of the works
of living artists which takes place every
year in Paris, at the Palais des Champs
Elysees, remaining open from the 1st
May to the 20th June.
The exhibi­
tion obtained the name of Salon from
the Salon Carrée of the Louvre,
where an exhibition of the "Salon des
Arts " took place as early as 1737.
Faire le Salon is to write a critical
account of it in a public journal. Simi­
larly we say in England, "to do the
Academy," "to do the Grosvenor."
Saltire. (Her.) The saltire is really
•
Γ
VllWIIHlliy I
yas
Pec
^
*
orm
°*
L ^mfr J the cross, formed by
JM combining the bend and
mΘ
the bend sinister, and is
>fw ^
often described as a St.
V^iWihs J Andrew's Cross. There
***
is no diminutive of the
saltire.
"IONARY.
SAP
Samian Ware. (Pot.) There is a
red kind of pottery to which the name
Samian Ware has been given, because
there is a tradition that it was first made
at Samos. It was manufactured in all
parts of the civilised world, everywhere,
at least, that the Roman legionaries pene­
trated, and much Samian ware (of a
kind) has been discovered in England.
Sancte­bell. A bell, generally of
silver, carried in the services of the
Roman Catholic Church and rung to
call attention to certain solemn parts of
the service.
In England before the
Reformation a sancte­bell was some­
times hung in a small bell­turret.
Sandal. (Cost.) The simplest kind
of footgear, consisting only of a sole and
leather­thongs. Among the Greeks and
Romans sandals were sometimes richly
decorated and their thongs ornamented
with jewels.
Sandbag. (Engrav.) A bag covered
with leather and stuffed with sand is
used by engravers to rest their block or
plate upon. It enables them to get their
work at whatever angle they like.
[Cushion.] *
Sandvent. An earthy matter, which
covers the surface of blocks of stone
when they come out of the quarry. This
sandvent must be removed before the
stones are cut and laid in courses or
decorated, as it would not offer sufficient
resistance to time and weather.
Sanguine. A deep red resembling
blood colour. The term also denotes a
blood­coloured crayon and a drawing
executed with this crayon. For in­
stance, we speak of a portrait in san­
guine; a sanguine by Watteau.
Santiago. [James, St. , the Greater.]
Sap green. (Paint.) A pigment
obtained from buckthorn berries or the
346

SAP
ART DIC
flowers of the blue iris. It is useful and
permanent in water­colour.
Sapphire. A brilliant and transparent
precious stone of a rich blue colour.
Saracenic. (Arch.) A term applied to
the Moorish style of architecture, such
as was employed at the Alhambra Palace
at Granada.
Richness of colour and
elaboration of design are its distinguish­
ing characteristics.
All animal forms
are excluded from its decorative scheme,
and flowers and plants are treated in an
emphatically conventional manner.
Sarcophagus. (Arch.) A tomb, in
which in ancient times bodies were
placed without being burnt. Sarcophagi
were made of a special stone which was
believed to have the curious property of
eating away flesh. This stone was a
kind of pumice stone, found in Troas,
and it was said to complete the destruc­
tion of a whole body, except the teeth,
in the brief space of forty days. Ancient
sarcophagi are often decorated with
reliefs, and may be ranked among the
most interesting relics of ancient art.
In the Middle Ages, the term sarco­
phagus was applied to tombs in the
form of altars, decorated with flutings
and sometimes surmounted with statues,
either lying or kneeling.
Sard. An agate of a reddish colour.
Sardonyx A hard siliceous stone,
r
IONARY.
SAT
which was of a dark tint, such as black
or purple, or was made up of strata of
white and red. The last­named variety
was highly prized by ancient gem­
engravers, as it could be so cut that its
strata produced the effect of a white
cameo on a red ground.
Sash frame. (Arch.) A window frame
which opens or shuts by
r
being moved up or down I II
.11
in vertical grooves. Win­
g
M
dows in English houses
1>h
have long been constructed | jl|}|I lill
upon this principle.
J"ί |2§Γ ^0
Satiny. That which has (
Π
^]
the brilliance or lustre of III]
satin. Thus we may say 1 UÀ*.
of a proof of a woodcut,
Sï^^>J
that it is of a satiny tex­
^%^'
ture, or of a picture that
the rendering of its flesh tints is satiny.
Satiric. A term applied to the
draughtsmen of caricatures and humor­
ous sketches. The artists on the staff
of Punch, for instance, would doubtless
describe themselves as satiric.
Satsuma. (Pot.) A fine stoneware
produced in Japan in factories belonging
to the princes of Satsuma.
It was
decorated with flowers, arabesques, &c,
worked in gold as well as in enamels.
The older the pieces of Satsuma ware
are, the more refined and simple is their
style of ornament.
Saturnus. A deity worshipped at
Rome. He was believed at a very remote
period to have reigned over the city, and
the age of Saturn (like the age of Cronos
in Greece, to which deity Saturn pre­
sents some resemblance) was remem­
bered as a golden age. Saturn is said
to have instructed his people in agricul­
ture and gardening, and he is represented
holding a sickle in his hand. A festival
was held in his honour at Rome in
December, and the Saturnalia always
afforded an opportunity for merriment
and riot.
Satyr. A mythological figure. A
demi­god of the Greeks and Romans,
347

SAU
ART
DICTIONARY.
SCA
whose characteristics were a brutal,
sensual face, the feet of a goat and a
hairy body. His head was covered
with unkempt hair, from underneath
which horns sprouted. Statues and
masks of satyrs were frequently used as
a decoration.
Saucer. (Paint.) Small vessels of zinc,
fixed to a plate of metal folded over so
as to fit on the edge of a palette, are
used by painters in oil to hold either oil
or varnish. Painters in water­colour
used small concave
<^jMMijug^jSjjji _
disks of porcelain
f'
"^nnntWjBJP"* of a spherical
shape. They also
use rectangular saucers, which are set
side by side upon porcelain. In these
colours can
be mixed,
ind several
colours used
at the same
time.
Some saucers, hollowed out
of a block of crystal, intended par­
ticularly for Indian ink, may be co­
vered with a piece of glass, so as to
preserve the tints from dust or evapor­
ation.
Saunders Blue. (Paint.) A corruption
of cendres bleues ; the name is sometimes
given to ultramarine (q.v.) .
Savonnerie. A term applied to the
carpets made at the royal factory which
was established in Paris in the 17th
century, and merged in 1728 in the
Gobelins manufactory.
Saxon architecture.
[Anglo­Saxon
architecture.]
Saxony. (1) (Pot.) Dresden or Meissen
china is frequently described as Saxony.
[Dresden.]
Saxony. (2) (Her.) The arms of Saxony,
borne on a shield of pretence by the
Prince of Wales in virtue of his title oi
Duke of Saxony, are Barry of ten, or and
sable, a coronet extended in bend, vert.
This coronet extended in bend is by
French heralds called a cancerlin.
Scabbard. The sheath of a sword,
which was generally decorated with
much elaboration. Many artists have
provided the goldsmiths with designs for
scabbards, and at the British Museum
may be seen some exquisite designs for
scabbards by Holbein.
Scabellum. (Arch.) In the ancient
languages the term
scabellum denoted
a kind of square
footstool, with a
pedestal of a con­
siderable size, and
about the height
of a step, as well
as a movable foot­
stool which was
placed under the
feet of statues, re­
presenting a god
seated
on his
throne. In modern
architecture
the
term is applied to square pedestals with
or without a capital, of
no great height, the
purpose of which is
to support a bust. In
this case it is placed
over a grave or behind
a
sarcophagus,
or
simply set up as a
kind of
commemo­
rative monument.
Scaffold. (Arch.) When a building is
348

SCA
ART DIC:
in course of construction, or a large
mural surface is being painted, the upper
part of the wall or building is reached
by means of a scaffold, which is a tem­
porary construction, made up of poles
and planks.
Scagliola. A spurious marble, com­
posed of gypsum and glue. A varie­
gated surface is obtained by sprinkling
finely powdered spar, marble, &c, over
it. It was first made in the 17th cen­
tury by Guido del Conte, but its use
cannot be recommended as it is not
durable.
Scale. (1) (Paint.) Pictures, whether
on canvas or panel, are said to scale,
when their surface cracks and the
paint comes off in flakes. The scal­
ing of pictures is due to the varnish
used, to bad mixtures of colour, and
also to want of care in the rolling of
the canvas.
Scale. (2) (Arch.) A system of ornament
consisting of tiles cut obliquely, or
notched so as to form arcs of circles.
Scales are used to cover the surface of
inclined walls, so that they may re­
semble a roof. They were first used
when they were either square or semi­
circular.
In the 13th century they
varied very much in form, and in build­
ings of the Renaissance fine specimens
the found pierced with all kinds of
patterns.
Scale. (3) A proportion adopted in
executing a reduction or enlargement of
any work. A scale is a graduated line,
upon which are marked the multiples of
the unit of length. This unit is greater
10NARY.
SCA
or less, according as the objects to be
reproduced are to be reduced or en­
larged.
Scale, Dotted. (Arch.) An indication
of the length, altitude, and dimensions of
a building written in figures on a sketch
or plan drawn to a known scale.
Scale­stone. (Sculp.) When a clay
model is to be reproduced in marble,
the marble block which is to be
carved and the clay model are set
upon
similar blocks, called
scale­
stones. Before the work of pointing
(q.v .) begins, the scale blocks are
covered, each with a series of similar
marks.
Scantlings. (Sculp.) The pieces of
stone or marble removed from a block
by means of a hammer and chisel in the
process of roughing in (q.v .) are called
scantlings.
Scapulary. (Cost.) A narrow band of
stuff which reaches from the shoulders to
the feet. It forms part of the costume
of some monastic orders.
Scarab. A carved stone representing a
beetle. Scarabs were prized among the
Egyptians as amulets, and large collec­
tions of them have been made in modern
times accurately dated by means of the
hieroglyphics engraved up­
^
^
on them.
Ρ
Ρ
Ι
Π
ί
ΐ
Γ
^
Λ
Scarf. A piece of wood
^'llf P^fil
placed diagonally across |i||l!fêji] If
a series of planks, which jl|ri^CI||l
it serves to strengthen and |C._ Ji£~ ­ il
hold together.
^
Scarlet. (Paint.) A bright red
colour of great brilliance obtained
from the action of chloride of zinc
and cream of tartar upon cochineal.
349

SCA
ART
DICTIONARY.
sen
Scarp. (Arch.) The exterior surface
of a wall inclined in talus (q.v.). In forti­
fication the scarp is the back of the fosse
placed at the side of the rampart facing
' he besieging party.
Scarpe. (Her.) A
scarpe in heraldry is
a diminutive of the
bend sinister (q.v.).
The shield in our cut
may be blazoned,
Argent,
a
scarpe,
gules.
Scarpellino. An Italian word denoting
a workman employed by a sculptor to
carve his work in marble. The work of
the scarpellino is checked by the use of
a pointing machine, but the scarpellino,
who puts the finishing touches to the
marble, must possess skill both of eye
and hand.
Scauper. (Engrav.) A tool used by
woodcutters to cut away the spaces be­
tween the lines of a block.
In line engraving an instru­
ment of the same name is
used to draw broad strong
lines.
Scene­painting. Scene­painting was
hardly practised at all in England until
after the Restoration. As everyone knows
in Shakespeare's time the scenic arrange­
ments were of the simplest kind, and the
drama seems to have flourished very well
without elaborate mounting. The first
attempt at stage adornment was made by
Inigo Jones, who, however, relied upon
machinery and heavy sets rather than
upon painted scenes. His experiment
does not seem to have met with encour­
agement, and no more trials were
made in this direction until the time of
Betterton. Even then heavy sets were
for some time popular, but better taste
intervened at last, and during Garrick's
management de Loutherbourg did much
to advance the scenic art. Among the
artists who have also been scene­painters
we may mention Nasymth, David
Roberts, and Stanfield, while the name
of Beverley is indissolubly connected
with the theatre. In the present age the
legitimate art of scene­painting is less
encouraged than that (if art it may be
called) of stage­carpentry, and the
machinist is a more dignified person than
the artist.
Scheele's Green. (Paint.) Scheele's
green is a compound of copper and
arsenic. It is a pigment of useful colour
and more permanent than other greens
obtained from copper.
School of Painting. In the most rigid
application of the term,school of paint­
ing denotes the painters or pupils who
worked in the bottega or studio of one
master. Hence it was extended to in­
clude the painters of a city or province,
who learnt their art from one master.
A picture is said to belong to the school
of a master when it is executed in the
style of that master. We may also
speak of the English school, the French
school, meaning thereby the painters of
England or France, of every date and
every style.
— , Bolognese. The Bolognese School
flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries.
It was characterised by learning and a
sense of decorative effect, but was
marred by academical precision.
Its
chief masters were the Caracci, Guido,
Albano, Domenichino and Guercino.
Of the earlier Bolognese School of the
15th century Francia was the best repre­
sentative.
— , Brescian. The greatest artists of
350

sen
ART
DICTIONARY.
SCH
the Brescian School (16th century) are
Moretto and Moroni, both distinguished
painters of portraits. Moroni's master­
piece, Il Taglioni, is to be seen in the
National Gallery.
School of Painting, Dutch. The
Dutch School is distinguished for the
realism of its portraits and genre pic­
tures, and for the excellence of its
landscape. The greatest master of the
school in the 16th century was Lucas
van Leyden. In the 17th century flour­
ished Rembrandt, the greatest master of
light and shade the world had seen,
Gerard Dow.de Hooghe, Terburg, Metzu,
Van Ostade, Teniers, and Wouverman,
all of whom were distinguished by the
careful finish and accurate drawing of
their works, Ruysdael, Cuyp, Van der
Velde, Hobbema, and Van der Meer, pain­
ters of landscape and sea­pieces, and Paul
Potter, famous as a painter of animals.
— , English. The English painters of
the 16th and 17th centuries were, with
the exception of Dobson, an excellent
portrait painter and pupil of Vandyck,
chiefly miniaturists. Vandyck, Sir Peter
Lely and Kneller, all spent many years
in England, but can hardly be said to
belong to the English school. In the 18th
century the English School first became
of real importance. Hogarth, the carica­
turist, is by some regarded as the father
of English painting. To the same period
belong Reynolds, Gainsborough, Romney,
Richard Wilson, and Morland. In the
early part of the 19th century the land­
scape painters of England were justly
celebrated. Among them are Con­
stable, Crome, Cotman, Turner, Bon­
ington, De Wint, and Copley Fielding.
In portraiture and genre the most dis­
tinguished painters of this period
were the Scotchmen Raeburn and
Wilkie. The Englishmen Lawrence,
West, Barry, 'Northcote, Mulready, Mac­
lise, and the rest are as a rule feeble in
drawing and colour, and too often trivial
in sentiment. About the middle of the
present century a revolution was brought 1
I about in English art by the efforts of the
Pre­Raphaelites (q.v .), of whom the most
I striking representative is perhaps D. G .
Rossetti. The last ten or twenty years
have been distinguished by a great out­
burst of artistic energy, a good deal of the
best work being produced under the
direct influence of the French School.
The English School in one branch, that
of water­colour, has always claimed to
take precedence of all other schools.
From the 18th century onwards the list
of English water­colour draughtsmen is
a long one, including Girtin, de Wint,
David Cox, Prout, William Hunt, Tur­
ner, &c. But it should be remembered
that their methods are not those of the
painter, and in spite of our oft­repeated
boast, we have none who can handle
water­colour with the skill and artistic
feeling of the modern French and Dutch
aquarellistes.
School of Painting, Ferrarese. The
school of Ferrara, which flourished
in the 15th and 16th centuries, was
closely connected with that of Bologna
(q.v.). Like the Bolognese, the Ferrarese
painters were for the most part academic
and uninspired. Among the artists of
Ferrara the chief were Lorenzo Costa
and Dosso Dossi.
—, Flemish. The peculiar glory of the
Flemish School is the richness of colour
affected by its masters.
For three
centuries this School held an un­
rivalled position in European art. In
the 15th century flourished the Van
Eycks. The portrait of Arnolfini and
his wife by Jan van Eyck, which is now
in the National Gallery, is one of the
finest pictures ever painted. The Van
Eycks were followed by their pupils Van
der Weyden and Memling. In the 16th
century the Flemish School fell under
the influence of Raphael and suffered
considerably from the " Italianisers."
Among the Flemish painters of this
century may be mentioned Van Orley,
Mabuse, Pourbus, and Antonio Moro.
In the 17th century there was a distinct
35*

SCH
ART DIC:
revival of the glory of Flemish art,
brought about by the genius of Rubens,
Vandyck, Snyders, and others.
School of Painting, Florentine. Flor­
ence was the cradle of the Renaissance
of art, and the Florentine School oc­
cupies the most important position
of all the Italian schools of painting.
To the 13th century belongs Cimabue;
to the 14th Giotto, the father of
modern painting, and Orcagna; to the
15th Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, Sandro
Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Poliamolo and
Verrocchio ; to the 16th Luca Signorelli,
Leonarda da Vinci, Lorenzo di Credi,
Michael Angelo, Andrea del Sarto, Sod­
oma and Bronzino.
— , French. The French School took its
rise in the 15th century. Its earliest
manifestations were the miniatures of
Jean Foucquet, and in the portraits in
oil by Clouet. These early works were
produced under the influence of da Vinci,
del Sarto, and Cellini, and were mere
pastiches of the Italian style. Then
came Jean Cousin, who was painter,
sculptor, and architect ; he was followed
by Quentin Varin (the master of Poussin),
Vouet, Callot, Le Nain, Lesueur, Ν .
Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Lebrun, Jou­
venet and Monnoyer.
These artists
conferred distinction on the 17th century.
In the 18th century lived Le Moyne,
Vanloo, Oudry, Watteau, Lancret, Bou­
cher, Fragonard, Greuze, Chardin, and
Vernet. Towards the end of the 18th
century Louis David attempted a re­
vival of classicism with some success.
The school of the early 19th century
included Prud'hon, Gros, C. Vernet, Géri­
cault, Ingres, Delaroche, Ary Scheffer,
Delacroix, Charlet and H. Vernet. The
great revolt against classicism took
place about 1830, and Géricault and
Delacroix prepared the way for the
Romantic movement, out of which
came Corot, Diaz, Th. Rousseau, Troyon,
Couture, Courbet, Fromentin, J. ­ F.
Millet. The French school of to­day
undoubtedly takes the lead in Europe
IONARY.
SCH
as far as technical skill is concerned,
and the schools of Paris afford the
most efficient education. At the same
time it must be acknowledged that
much of the most modern French art
suffers somewhat from a love of morbid
sensationalism.
School of Painting, German. The
German School of painting dates from the
14th century, William of Cologne, whose
St. Veronica is in the National Gallery,
being its earliest master. In the 15th cen­
tury the most important German painters
were Martin Schongauer, Lucas Cranach,
and Albert Durer, all of them perhaps
more famous as wood engravers than as
painters. The greatest German master
of the 16th century was Holbein. Since
his period the German School has pro­
duced very few great painters, although
at the present day the schools in Munich
and some German towns are admirably
conducted and much frequented.
— , Lombard. The Lombard School of
painting includes the schools of Mantua,
Modena, Parma, Cremona, and Milan.
The period of its highest development
was in the 15th and 16th centuries. It
numbers among its members Andrea
Solario, Bernardino Luini, Correggio,
Caravaggio, &c.
— , Luccan. It was at Lucca that the
earliest painters of Italy worked. In the
12th and 13th centuries a kind of rude
traditional art was practised by Giunta,
Pisano, and others at Lucca. This was
before the re­discovery of the art of paint­
ing by Cimabue and Giotto, and the
examples of the Luccan School have
little else than an archaeological in­
terest.
—, Milanese. In the 16th century the
chief master of the School of Milan was
Vincenzo Foppa. In the 16th century the
school was dominated by the influence
of da Vinci, and during this period it
numbered among its masters Luini,
Beltrafno, Gundenzio, Ferrari, and An­
drea Solario.
— , Modenese. The School of Modena
352

SCH
ART DIC
is a subdivision of the Lombard School.
In the 16th century Correggio and Parmi­
giano were its most distinguished
masters.
School of Painting, Neapolitan.
The Neapolitan School has no distinct
character of its own, and only con­
sisted of foreign painters up to the
17th century. In the 15th century
works by Van Eyck influenced the
painters of Naples. Antonello da Mes­
sina, who was then at Naples, learnt
the method of the Flemish master, but
he soon returned to Messina and finally
settled at Venice. In the 17th century
Aniello Falcona, Salvator Rosa, Luca
Giordano, and the Spaniard Ribera all
worked at Naples.
— , Paduan. The one great figure of
the Paduan School is Andrea Mantegna,
who flourished in the 15th century. He
was influenced by and in turn influenced
the Venetian School, in which he is
generally given a place.
—, Roman. An offshoot from the
Umbrian School. Nearly all the mem­
bers of the school came from other
cities and worked under the influence
or carried on the tradition of Raphael.
As we should expect from this fact, the
Roman School is distinguished by a
knowledge of composition and perfec­
tion of draughtsmanship. Raphael and
Giulio Romano were the chiefs of the
school in the 16th century, while Sasso­
ferrato and M aratti represent it in the
17th.
— , Sienese. The School of Siena is
one of the earliest of the Italian
schools.
In the 13th century its
masters were Guido da Siena and
Duccio; in the 14th century Lippo
Memmi and Ambrogio Lorenzotti, in
the 15th Sano di Pietro and Matteo di
Giovanni.
—,
Spanish. The most strongly
marked characteristics of the painters
of the Spanish School are a love of
realism and the lavish use of brilliant
colour. In the 15th century Spanish
FIONA RY.
SCI
artists merely copied Italian masters.
In the 16th, in which century they
achieved their national style, the most
celebrated masters of the Spanish
School were Alonso Berruguete, Luis
de Morales, Alonzo Sanchez Coello,
Jose Ribera, and Ribalta. Then came
F. de Herrera, Diego Velasquez,
Alonzo Cano, Francisco Zurbaran and
Murillo.
In the 18th century the
Spanish School is represented by Goya,
while in the present century the
greatest Spanish painter has been
Fortuny.
School of Painting, Umbrian. In the
15th century the chief painters of the
Umbrian School were Allegretto Nuzi,
Gentile da Fabiano, Piero della Fran­
cesca and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. Then
followed Timoteo Viti and Perugino, and
the latter's pupils Raphael, Lo Spagna,
and Pinturrichio.
— , Venetian. The characteristic of
the art of the Venetian painters is
brilliant colour. In the 15th century
flourished Crivelli, Gian and Gentile
Bellini and Carpaccio, in the 16th
century lived Giorgione, Palma Vecchio,
Titian, Tintoretto, Lorenzo Lotto and
Paul Veronese. The Venetian School
of the 17th and 18th centuries is repre­
sented by Tiepolo, Canaletti and
Guardi.
— , Veronese. The Veronese School
attained its height in the 16th century,
when Domenico Moroni, Bonsignori
and Cavazzola flourished. Pisanello,
the most distinguished member of the
school, belongs to a slightly earlier
date.
Schweinfurt Green. (Paint.) A green
obtained from copper and arsenic. It
is a permanent and serviceable pigment,
and is considerably lighter in colour
than Scheele's green.
Scie d'atelier. This is a piece of
French artistic slang, denoting a mystic
saying, a song, the refrain of which is
purposely monotonous and is endlessly
repeated. The object of this repetition
353

SCI
ART
DICTIONARY.
SCR
is to annoy and torment all those who
hear it. For a scie to be successful it
must not only attain this end, but must
even go beyond it. In some ateliers the
scie takes the form of a traditional
practical joke, unpleasant and even dan­
gerous. Such, for instance, is the bucket
of water, suspended over the entrance of
the studio, which empties its contents
on the head of the novice or even the
master himself. But there are also
scies which are spontaneous and im­
provised, full of allusion to passing
events, in which that class of students,
already described under the term rapin
(q.v.), finds material upon which to
exercise its wit.
Seiography. A term applied by the
ancients to the art of representing
objects, due regard being paid to their
light and shade. It also denotes a
geometrical drawing, showing the sec­
tion and the interior of a building.
Sconce. An ornamental candlestick
fixed to the wall by means of a bracket.
Sconces have assumed various forms,
and have afforded plenty of scope for
the decorative artist. Many of them
have plates of brass behind them, which
are sometimes incised, sometimes em­
bossed, with admirable designs, and
serve as reflectors.
Scotia. (Arch.) A moulding of convex
outline, consisting of two portions of a
curve. It is also known by the name of
' ' hollow round, ' ' while
sometimes it is
termed a
trochilus.
It derives its name
from the strongly
marked
shadow l
which it takes (
σ
κ
ό
τ
ι
ο
ς
,!
dark.)
Scraper, (i) (Engrav.) There are several
tools used by engravers which differ
slightly from one another, but are all
known as scrapers.
The mezzotint
engraver uses · the scraper to
remove the grain from those
portions of his plate which he
desires to print white, his me­
thod of work being to leave the
grain to obtain his shades and
to scrape the plate to obtain
his lights.
He works in the
same way as a draughtsman in crayon,
who gets his light portions by rub­
bing the surface with breadcrumbs.
Another kind of scraper consists of a
quadrangular blade, the edges of which
are very carefully sharpened. It is used
to remove the roughnesses produced
upon transparent paper in making a
tracing and also to get rid of the burs
or ridges, which result
from the use of the dry
point upon a copper­
plate. The latter is the
more important use of
this square scraper, and
its management by the
engraver is a matter of
considerable delicacy.
If it is not handled pro­
perly there is a danger
of its scratching the
plate as well as re­
moving the bur. Then
again by scraping away
hatchings different effects
of modelling may be
obtained, and the strength of the tones
may be increased or diminished. Wood
engravers use a scraper to polish their
354

SCR
ART
DICTIONARY.
SCR
wood­block before putting in the dis­
tances and the luminous parts, as well
as another kind of scraper, the
angles of which are almost
rounded. In water­colour draw­
ing a scraper is used to put in
the lights and
considerable
skill may be displayed in its
handling. Many of Turner's
water­colour drawings
were
made on paper stained grey; he was
thus enabled to wash or scrape out his
lights.
Scraper. (2) (Constr.) In rough­cast­
ing buildings an instrument, called a
scraper, is used. As will be seen from
our cuts it assumes various forms.
The triangular scraper is especially
useful to painters, as it enables them to
reach the ground of hollow mouldings.
Scraper. (3) A tool of very variable
form, used to scrape a surface. Stone
cutters use a scra­
per to efface the
marks of a toothed
hammer.
Sculptors,
on the other
hand, use
scrapers of a particular form to cover
certain portions of their work with irre­
gular strice.
Screen. (1) (Arch.) A pierced enclo­
sure, which separates the nave of a
church from the choir, or shuts off side­
chapels from the nave.
Screen. (2.) A piece of furniture, gene­
rally consisting of a panel of stuff em­
broidered or decor­
ated with paintings,
which is stretched
on a frame
and
serves to ward off
the light and heat of
afire. Some tapestry
screens are of great
beauty. Screens from China or Japan,
either lacquered or incrusted, are of
great value and are eagerly sought for
by collectors. They sometimes con­
sist of several leaves, placed vertically
and connected with one another by
hinges. Screens of this kind also are
decorated with paintings or richly em­
broidered stuffs.
Screw­Clamp. A contrivance of wood
or iron, in the shape of a rectangle open
on one of its sides. It is
provided with a screw, as
shown in the cut. Cabinet
makers use a screw­clamp
to hold fast the materials
which they are joining. It is
also employed by photogra­
phers to fix their camera to the table.
Scriber. (Engrav.) An instrument used
by wood engravers to hollow out the lines
surrounding a vignette
or to serve as a guide
in the drawing of hori­
zontal or perpendicu­
lar lines. The point of
the scriber, which in­
dicates the guiding marks, ought to be
slightly blunted so as not to leave any
marks on the wood.
Scrinium. A case or box, generally
circular in form, which was used by the
355

SCR
ART
DICTIONARY.
scu
ancients for holding books, rolls of parch­
ment, &c. Its form will be readily under­
stood from our cut.
Scroll. (Arch.) A system of ornament
consisting of spiral
volutes. Ionic and
Corinthian capi­
tals, as well as
,Τ ­^BJ.
consoles
at
all
g^y^^y epochs, are decor­
'**
ated with scrolls.
The rococo style is nothing but the result
of carrying to its
utmost limits the
application of
scrolls to decora­
tion. The supports
of old signboards
and various kinds
of ancient iron
work present ad­
mirable examples of scrolls.
Sculp. (Engrav.) An abbreviation of
the word sculpsit, which often follows
the name of the engraver on engraved
plates ; e.g., Marc Antonio sculp.
Sculpture. The art of reproducing
objects in relief or in the round, in a hard
material which can be cut with a chisel.
To execute a model in clay is the process
of modelling, but to translate the model
into bronze or marble is, properly speak­
ing, the aim of sculpture. However, as
the artistic skill of the sculptor is almost
entirely displayed in the execution of the
clay model, the art of modelling in clay
is generally described as sculpture.
Sculpture, English. The 'English
sculpture belonging to Saxon and Nor­
man times was very rude and primitive.
An idea of its style may be obtained from
a bas­relief of the nth century, now pre­
served in Chichester Cathedral. To the
13th century belong the admirable
statues, which decorate the western
façade of Wells Cathedral, and which
are among the finest specimens of
mediaeval sculpture.
In the 14th or
15th centuries many excellent effigies
were produced in England. In the 16th
century Torrigiano came to England
from Florence and modelled the figures
on Henry VII.'s tomb. Nicholas Stone
and Grinling Gibbons are the most not­
able English sculptors of the 17th cen­
tury, but the latter was better known as
a carver of wood than of marble. The
English sculptors of the 18th century
had little merit, they cultivated a pseudo­
classic style and not unfrequently clothed
their models in togas and wigs. The
best of them were Nollekens, Bacon,
and Flaxman. In the earlier half of the
present century no advance was made in
English sculpture. Little praise can be
given to Baily, Chantrey, Westmacott,
or Wyatt. During the last thirty years,
however, an immense improvement has
taken place. Alfred Stevens, the author
of the Wellington Monument, was a
sculptor of genius, while there are still
among us, besides Sir Frederick Leigh­
ton, whose " Athlete struggling with a
Python " is a work of conspicuous merit,
such distinguished sculptors as Hamo
Thorny croft, Alfred Gilbert, and Onslow
Ford.
Sculpture, French. The mediaeval
sculpture to be seen on the façades of
French churches is of the greatest interest
and initperhapsGothic sculpture reached
its highest point of excellence. At the
Renaissance, French art fell under Italian
influence, and the most celebrated French
sculptor of the 16th century was Jean
Goujon, who got his inspiration from
Cellini. The 17th century seems to have
produced no great sculptor in France.
In the 18th century the most conspicuous
French sculptor was J.­ A . Houdon, while
Chaudet and Bosio were his younger
contemporaries. In the early part of the
present century flourished Rude, Duret,
Stuart, and Carpeaux.
Technically
speaking the French sculptors of to­day
are unsurpassed, some modern works of
sculpture, such as those by Rodin, show
a knowledge and power which have rarely
been equalled.
— , German. In the Middle Ages sculp­
356

SCU
ART DIC
ture was not practised with the success
with which it was pursued in France.
In the 14th century, however, many fine
works were produced. The 15th century
was the golden age of sculpture in Ger­
many. Many admirable specimens of
wood­carving were then produced, some
of which maybe ascribed to Wohlgemuth
and his great pupil, Albert Durer. But
the most brilliant name in the history of
German sculpture is undoubtedly Vischer.
The family of Vischer were at work in
the 15th and 16th centuries and pro­
duced many masterpieces. Their best
work is to be seen at Nuremberg, Augs­
burg, and Liibeck. Since the 16th cen­
tury German sculpture has declined.
During the last hundred years many
large works have been executed, in all
of which the influence of the classic
style is obvious, but which are for the
most part without merit. Schadow, Kiss,
and Schwanthaler are perhaps the best
known of the modern German sculptors,
but they have no great claim to considera­
tion.
Sculpture, Greek. Sculpture is the
peculiar glory of Greece. It flourished
as an art among the Greeks for many
centuries, and at Athens it was carried
to its highest point of excellence. The
earliest sculpture of the Greeks, such as
the so­called Niobe at Sipylus. and the
Lion Gates at Mycenae, was produced
under oriental influence, but in very
early time the Greek sculptors developed
a characteristic style. To the 7th and
6th centuries belong the Apollo of
Tenea, and the well­known metopes of
Selinus, but it is not until we approach
the beginning of the 5th century that we
leave the age of experiment behind.
Then flourished Callon and Onatas, the
authors of the Aegina pediment, Myron,
whose Discobolus is familiar to all,
Ageladas, the Master of Phidias, and
others. The great Athenian School
was at its zenith in the 5th century, for
then flourished Phidias, the greatest
sculptor of all time, some of whose
SCU
works may be seen at the British
Museum. He it was who decorated the
Temple of Athene, on the Acropolis at
Athens, and made the gold and ivory
statue of the goddess, which stood in
the cella. He also worked at Olympia,
where the gold and ivory Zeus wa s from
his hand. The most celebrated of his
followers were Paaonius and Alcamenes,
while Polycletus, the chief of the Argive
School, was his contemporary and rival.
In the following century there was a
second outburst of artistic energy, which
was in some measure d ue to the encourage­
ment of Alexander the Great. The New
Attic School lacked the severity and
grandeur which were the noblest char­
acteristics of its predecessor, yet Scopas
and Praxiteles both produced works of
great beauty and elegance. The head
of the Peloponnesian School at this
period was Lysippus, who is chiefly
remembered as the Court sculptor of
Alexander. Then came the period of
ruin and decay, and at Rhodes and
Pergamum Greek sculpture made its last
effort before Rome won her supremacy.
Sculpture, Italian. Before the 13th
century, Italy seems to have had no
school of sculpture. In that and the
following century, however, much ex­
cellent work was done in Italy, chiefly
in the decoration of churches and
shrines. It is the 15th century that
is the golden age of Italian sculp­
ture and Florence is the city in
which .the best work was produced.
There flourished Donatello, Luca della
Robbia, Vittore Pisanello, Verrocchio
(the sculptor of the magnificent Colleoni)
and Ghiberti, to whom we owe the great
baptistery gates. In the 18th century
flourished Michael Angelo, the greatest
sculptor of modern times, whose David,
whose Moses, are yet the wonder of the
world. Then there was Cellini, who was
more renowned as a goldsmith than as
a sculptor, Giovanni da Bologna and
Antonio Begarelli. Bernini is the greatest
Italian sculptor of the 17th, Canova
TIONARY.
357

scu
ART
DICTIONARY.
SCY
represents the decadence of the 18th
century. The Italian sculpture of the
present time is for the most part worth­
less. Vulgarity and realism of an offen­
sive kind are carried to excess by men
who have ever before them such models
as Donatello and Michael Angelo.
Sculpture, Roman. The Romans de­
veloped no school of sculpture of their
own. Until, after the Conquest of Greece,
Graeculi esurientes thronged the streets
of Rome, the art of sculpture was not
known in Latium. And when it became
popular, it was only practised by Greeks,
who brought the noble traditions of
their country's art into the strange land.
Some of them contented themselves
with copying well­known masterpieces,
and it is to their copies that we owe
much of our knowledge of Greek sculp­
ture ; others produced original works,
in which the Greek convention was
piously observed. They were not dis­
tinguished men, and the names .of
most of them are forgotten. Apollonius,
Kleomenes, Agasias, and Pasiteles are
the best known of the Greeks who
formed a school of sculpture in Rome.
Sculpturesque. Figures, attitudes, or
scenes which, from their style and the
beauty of their lines, lend themselves
easily to reproduction in sculpture, are
said to be sculpturesque.
Scumbling. (Paint.) When the tints
in a picture are too brilliant, they may
be softened by blending them with a
neutral tint, this neutral tint being laid
on with a nearly dry brush. This pro­
cess is called scumbling. In black and
white drawing the hard outlines may be
scumbled by being
rubbed with the
blunt end of the
chalk
or
the
stump.
Scutcheon.
(Her.) This is a
name sometimes
*"
given to a car­
touche or tablet prepared for the re­
ception of coats­of­arms or of some
decorative design.
Scutum. An oblong shield carried by
Roman foot­soldiers. It was made of
pieces of board covered with hide and
then with cloth. The soldiers of each
legion had shields of a distinctive colour
and ornamented with their own device.
Our cut is taken from Trajan's column
and the shield which it represents is
decorated with the thunderbolt.
Scymitar.
A sword with a curved
blade, used by eastern nations.
Scyphus. (Pot.) A vase used by
the Greeks as a drinking­vessel. It
was two­handled and had no foot,
while its diameter decreased towards
the base.
358

SCY
ART
DICTIONARY.
SED
Scythe. (Her.) A scythe, with or
without a handle, is sometimes borne
as a common charge in
heraldry. If the handle
appears the scythe is then
said to be helved; for ex­
ample, a scythe gules, helved
sable. This charge is often
found in German coats­of­
arms.
Seal. A piece of metal or stone,
circular, square, or oval, in which
Searched.
a design is hollowed out, and from which
an impression in relief can be taken
upon melted wax. These
impressions also bear the
name of seal. Sometimes
seals are fixed to wooden
handles, as shown in one
of our cuts, or they are
mounted in gold and hung
from a chain.
(Paint.) An outline,
silhouette or effect, which is not com­
monplace or vulgar, but is the result of
accurate observation, and at the same
time displays a strongly marked charac­
ter or style, is said to be searched.
Seascape.
Pictures or drawings
representing maritime scenes or views
of the sea. Thus we speak of a seascape
by Turner, Van de Velde, or Henry
Moore.
Sebastian, St. St. Sebastian, whose
martyrdom has proved a favourite sub­
ject with artists of all schools, was a
soldier in the Roman army. He was
tied to a tree and shot at with arrows,
and in art he is generally represented
undergoing this torture. This method
of destruction, however, seems to have
failed, and he was finally put to death
with clubs.
Séchiste.
(Engrav) A barbarous
word employed by some French art
critics to designate engravers who
execute plates entirely with the dry
point (la pointe sèche), without using
any of the materials employed by
etchers.
Secondary Colours.
[Colours,
Secondary.]
Secrétaire. A piece of furniture,
in which deeds and papers are kept,
and a panel of which draws out hori­
zontally, so as to form a table to write
upon.
Section. A drawing representing the
interior of a building, which is supposed
to be cut through in a vertical plane, so
as to show its length and breadth. The
thickness of the walls, the roof and the
interior arrangements may thus be seen.
The term section is also applied to a line
so drawn as to show the outline of a
moulding.
Sector. A portion of a circle, included
between two radii and an arc of the
circle. The term spheri­
cal sector is given to
the solid figure pro­
duced by the rotation
of a sector round a dia­
meter as its axis. The
different portions of a fortified enclo­
sure are known as sectors.
Sedan Chair. [Chair, Sedan.]
Sedilia. (Arch.) A term applied to
the stone seats, set like niches in the
south wall of the choir of churches.
They were used in Catholic times by
359

SEG
ART DIC
the officiating clergy. They are gener­
ally surmounted by arches, which vary
in form according to the style and epoch
to which they belong.
Seggar. (Pot.) A kind of sheath or
box of terra­cotta, in which pieces of
porcelain are placed, to be submitted to
the action of the fire.
Segment. A portion of a circle
­H H^^
included between an arc
^^^^^^^
and chord of a circle. A
pPPIIIIlis^ spherical segment is a
Ve
*
/ portion of a sphere in­
V
y eluded between a curved
^­
^
surface
and a plane
cutting it.
Séme. (Her.) In heraldry a shield
r
IONARY.
SEP
is said to be séme when it is covered
with small objects, such as hearts,
fleurs­de­lis, &c.
Semi­transparent. A term used to
describe the incomplete transparency of
certain precious stones and fine pottery.
Sendal. A kind of silk from which
banners and rich vestments were made
in the Middle Ages.
Sénestrochère (Her.) A French term
applied to a left hand
and arm shown on a
,
\i$?
shield. In blazoning it
^J
,^
β
?
should always be spe­ Λ ΐ ΐ β ^^^^
cified whether the arm 'Mjfflr
is clothed or bare, and
*^
whether the hand is open or shut.
Sentiment. The sentiment of a work
of art is the general effect by which the
artist has expressed his own feeling and
sought to inspire the same feeling in the
spectator. Sentiment is a subtle quality,
and may depend upon colour, drawing,
or any of the means upon which an
artist relies to express himself.
Sepia. (Paint.) The sepia used by
water­colour draughtsmen is obtained
from the bladder of a small mollusc.
Its tone varies in warmth according as
it is natural or coloured. Natural sepia
yields a reddish­brown tint ; artificially
coloured sepia gives the same tint, of a
somewhat vinous shade.
Many sepia
drawings—as the monochrome sketches,
in which sepia is used, are called—were
produced about the year 1830. These
sketches, however, which were always
somewhat cold in aspect, have had their
day. The majority of them, indeed, are
of a most distressing dryness ; yet many
celebrated artists, such as the French­
men Charlet and Delacroix, have pro­
duced admirable sepias. Some painters
of the present day use sepia or bistre,
which is of nearly the same tone, in the
execution of washed drawings, rapidly
thrown off, in which, by laying on the
sepia in broad masses, effects of light
may be easily obtained. Then, again,
the warm tone of bistre or sepia is used
360

SER
ART
DICTIONARY.
SHA
in taking proofs of engravings, which,
if printed in black, would have too
violent an effect. Such, for instance,
are the proofs of Turner's celebrated
Liber Studiorum.
In a similar colour
are printed the facsimiles of ancient
works and the reproduction of pen­and­
ink drawings, or of old texts, which have
become mellow with age, ard the
yellowish tone of which is rendered
exactly with sepia or bistre.
Serapeum. (Arch.) A name given
by the ancient Romans to temples of
Serapis as well as to the Egyptian
monuments in Memphis and Alexandria.
Serpent. (Her.) The serpent not un­
frequently appears as a charge
on shields, and is represented
erect, as in the accompanying
cut, or nowed, that is, tied into
a knot, or else curved into a
circle, when it is said to be
1SU·
­­II!!
(Arch.) When a moulding is
terminated with an oblique
section, plain or curved, it
is called a set­off. Gothic
buildings offer frequent ex­
amples of such mouldings.
The term is also applied to
the diminishing of the thick­
ness of a piece of wood or
pilaster.
Setting, (i.) The process of placing a
precious stone in a bezel and holding it
fixed there with small clamps of metal.
All the decorative metal­work in a ring
or necklace is known as the setting.
Setting. (2.) Drawings in pastels, cray­
on and lead pencil having a tendency to
rub out, a liquid is generally laid over
them with a brush, to set or fix them, and
so render them permanent. Ox­gall has
been used for this purpose, as well as a
solution of gum or size in alcohol. The
liquid is either applied directly to the
surface of the drawing, or if the paper
used is sufficiently porous, it is put on
at the back of the pastel or crayon.
Severe. A work of art is said to be
severe when it displays a rigid adherence
to the rules and traditions which govern
it, when fancy and originality are ex­
cluded from it. Greek statues, executed
in accordance with the archaic tradition,
are conspicuous examples of severity of
treatment.
Sfregazzi. (Paint.) An Italian word,
which denotes a method of shading
adopted by Titian and the Venetians
Instead of the brush the finger was used,
and by this means the colour was laid
on more thinly and uniformly than by
the brush.
Sfumato. An Italian term, which may
be applied to pictures which are soft
and vaporous in execution, and to draw­
ings the outlines of which are vague
and put in with the stump.
Sgraffito. An Italian method of de­
coration, a kind of fresco painting, which
consists in applying a white coat upon a
ground of black stucco, or a coat of a
light colour upon a dark ground, but
picked out with hatchings, so as to give
it the effect of a drawing. This process
can properly only be called sgraffito, but
it is often called graffiti. The latter
term, however, should, strictly speaking,
only be applied to drawings upon ancient
walls.
Shade. That part of a picture, draw­
ing, or engraving representing objects
which, not being struck with luminous
rays, are relatively obscure. The term
also denotes the result of the mixture
of several colours.
Shaded. (Paint.) A term applied to
tones or colours, the tints of which are
delicately graduated.
Shade Lines. Shade lines are em­
ployed in architectural and topographical
drawings, to in­
dicate the outline
of the shadow.
They are put in
with firm broad
strokes, as
is
shown in our cut.
Shadow. If rays of light fall on an
24
361

SHA
ART
DICTIONARY.
SHE
opaque body, the outline of the illu­
minated portion of this body is pro­
jected on the nearest surface. This out­
line is called a shadow.
Shadow
Cast. A shadow pro­
jected upon a surface by a lighted
body. The lines which bound cast
shadows diverge the more the smaller
the luminous bodies are, and the nearer
the lighted objects approach to one
[^
Γΐ
|
ΐΐΐ
;
ΐίΐίηιΐίιί
'
ΐΐιΐιιιιΐιιηιΐί
'.
ιι
ι
another. The more brilliantly lighted
are the bodies, the more vigorous are
the shadows. The cast shadow is always
darker than the shadow, properly so
called, if the body casting the shadow
and the surface receiving it are of the
same tonality.
Shaft. (Arch.) That portion of a
column, cylindrical or prismatic in
form, which lies between
the base and the capital
The suface of the shaft is
sometimes smooth, some ­
m
times decorated with flutings or foliage
arranged in spirals. Half the diameter
^
of a shaft at its
base is called a
module,
and
serves as the
scale, by which
\/\
'
the other parts
*
r
'
"*
of the column
and the entablature are measured.
Shanks. (Arch.) A term denoting
the plain spaces which separate the
channels of a triglyph in a Doric frieze.
Shears. (Her.) This pastoral imple­
ment occasionally appears on the coat­
of­arms of knight or gentleman.
In
blazoning the herald specifies the posi­
tion in which the shears are placed, but
they are generally represented vertical
with the blades uppermost.
Sheathed. (Sculpt.) A term applied
to statues, the lower extremity of which
is enclosed in a sheath,
which generally begins at
the hips and continues
to the base. Many cary­
atides are thus sheathed.
The advantage of this
treatment of the figure
is, that the beauty of the
torso is not sacrificed,
while the lower portion,
being conventional in its
arrangement, harmonizes
admirably with the archi­
tectural forms beneath it.
Sheep. In Byzantine art twelve sheep
represented the Twelve Apostles, while
Christ was pictured as the Good Shep­
herd. [Apostles.]
Shell. (Arch.) A vault in the shape
of a quarter of a sphere, sometimes de­
corated with flutings, and forming the
upper part of a semicircular niche.
Shellac. A solid varnish obtained
from certain trees.
Whenitisina
pounded form, it is called seed­lac ; when
it is in cakes with a smooth uniform sur­
face, it is called shell­lac. [Lac]
Shelving Ridge. A surface which
presents two sloping planes, which
362

SHE
ART DICTIONARY.
SHI
join at their upper end, and meet a I shield ornamented with the escutcheon
horizontal plane at their lower end.
Sherraton. A cabinet­maker who
flourished in the 18th century. Every­
thing that left his hand was light and
graceful in form, and far more refined
in taste than the heavy, over­elaborate
productions of Chippendale. His name
is now prefixed as an adjective to the
chairs and tables which he fashioned as
well as to those which are constructed
in accord with his style. Thus we speak
of a Sherraton table, a Sherraton side­
board.
Shield, (i.) As a portion of defensive
armour the shield has been used in all
countries and in all ages. Its material
and form have of course changed from
time to time. It has been made of
wood covered with hide as well as
of metal. Shields have been round,
semicircular, and oblong. Our first
two cuts represent the shield in
use in the time of William the
Conquerer ; our third cut shows a
0
of the bearer. [Scutum.]
Shield. (2.) (Her.) The heraldic shield
has taken different forms at different
periods, and seems to
have been influenced by
the style of architecture
prevailing at the time.
The form of an inverted
Gothic arch was the model
for shields from the 13th
to the 15th centuries. During the suc­
ceeding two centuries heralds adopted
a much squarer
form, as shown
in the accom­
panying cut, pro­
bably for the sake
of its conveni­
ence in inserting quarterings.
The
lozenge­shaped shield has been em­
ployed since the 14th
century for the arms
of ladies of noble
family. A lozenge is
also frequently em­
ployed by the Flemish,
whilst the Italians
make use of an oval
shield. The Germans,
on the other hand,
affect shields of a fan­
tastic outline. An ex­
ample of such a shield, called a targe,
is given in the accompanying cut.
36$

SHI
ART
DICTIONARY.
SHU
Shield of Pretence. This is a small
shield borne within another shield. It
is also called an ines­
cutcheon, and is said to be
pretended upon the main
shield. By means of this
device the husband of an
^
J heiress blazons his claim
**"
to his wife's lands, and in
the same way George III. bore the arms
of Hanover on a shield of pretence over
the arms of England.
Shingles. (Arch.) Small squares of
pine, chestnut, or oak
cut like tiles, which
were used to protect
the beams of a build­
ing against the drip­
ping of water.
The
houses of the middle
ages were generally
covered with shingles, which were some?
times painted or cut
into patterns, so as
to form geometrical
combinations.
Small
houses in the coun­
try are still to be
seen the façades of
which are decorated
with shingles.
Shore. (Arch.) A transverse stay
placed in the trenches
dug at the foundation
of a building ; a piece
of timber employed
to strengthen empty
spaces during the un­
derpinning of a part
already built. Win­
dows and other open­
ings are frequently shored.
Shrine. A box or coffer of a precious
metal and richly carved, in which the
relics of saints are kept ; the term
is also applied to a structure such as
a tomb, in which relics and bones
may be deposited ; the shrine of
St. Thomas at Canterbury for in­
stance. Moveable shrines, before the I
13th century, consisted of
simple
boxes of wood, covered with plates of
metal. They were often large enough
to hold the whole body of a saint. To­
wards the end of the 13th century shrines
were made of gold, silver, or enamelled
copper, and took the form of miniature
churches and chapels. In the 15th cen­
tum they were surmounted with pierced
spires and enriched with statuettes, and
in the 17th and 18th century they were
characterised by volutes and are of a
swelling outline. Some ancient shrines
are of sculptured and gilded wood ; these
are often placed under a canopy and
above the altar.
Shrinkage. A diminution in the vol­
ume of ceramic paste or terra­cotta, which
results from drying or baking. The same
phenomenon, though less sensible than
in terra­cotta, may be observed in
bronze founding.
Shutter. (Arch.) Pieces of wood or
iron fitted together and serving to close
awindow or bay. Some shutters consist
of a single leaf, though this single leaf
may consist of two leaves held together
ZH

SIB
ART
DICTIONARY.
SIG
with iron hinges as shown in our first
L,
cut ; other shut­
- tàmïLjL
Ί
•
ters are com
Posed
["^^ffÉlJ^Bl
ί
"· ·'
°f planks of wood,
'ΪΒΙΜΚΒΓ^
which fit into
|
ι
I § l||iBfflu|Ϊ 7'\ grooves. In old­
! t ''l^W|r­<
fashioned
shops
l­TliSpi^HP'Wp
tnese
moveable
""^^^TpJ^Jn » shutters,
fitting
^
Λ
*
into grooves, were
invariably us 3d. The most modern kind
of shutter is a mechanical arrangement
of slips of wood or a sheet of iron, turn­
ing round a horizontal cylinder, placed
above the opening or window, and put
into its place by means of a wheel.
Sibyls. In ecclesiastical art, especially
in the stained glass of the middle ages,
we find figures called Sibyls, who are
associated with the prophets. They are
mythical creatures, and it is impossible
to explain their origin. In number they
are twelve, each having her own emblems
and attributes. In modern times Mr.
Burne­Jones has made many designs of
the Sibyls and introduced many of them I
into his glass windows.
I
Siccative. (Paint.) Siccative or drying j
oils are those which form a permanent
coat on the surface to which they are
applied, and prevent it undergoing che­
mical change. They are used in the
preparation of painters' varnishes and
colours. They are obtained by
/F~
adding litharge, white lead, black
«i
umber, and talc to linseed oil.
^te
Sickle.
(Her.) This well­
II known implement for cutting |
Urjj, corn
sometimes appears in I
coats­of­arms . The handle need not I
| necessarily be of the same tincture as
the blade of the sickle. The cut shows
a sickle with a jagged edge.
Side Aisle. (Arch.) The lateral nave
of a church, the vault of which is not so
high as that of the principal nave. It
is only at the end of the nth century
that the choirs of churches were sur­
rounded by side aisles. Some churches
consist of a nave and four side aisles ;
but these are the exception, the gene­
ral rule being that churches should
have two side aisles. Their breadth
is variable.
Siderography. The art of engrav­
ing on iron or steel, which was much
practised in the 15th and 16th cen­
turies, and was restored to honour early
in the present century by American
artists.
Sienite. (Sculp.) A coloured marble,
which was originally quarried at Syene
in Egypt. It was used by the ancients,
both in sculpture and architecture.
Sigillography. The study, description
and interpretation of historic seals.
Signature. In old books, and indeed in
many modern books, too, certain marks,
called signatures, are put at the bottom
of the first page of each sheet to facili­
tate their arrangement.
Sign­board. The sign­board of the
middle ages and renaissance generally
consisted of a bracket of iron supporting
a sheet­iron panel. Some were deco­
rated with scrolls of extraordinary pro­
fusion ; of these many specimens are pre­
served in museums. In addition to sign­
boards of sheet­iron there are in existence
curious bas­reliefs and interesting paint­
ings which served the purpose of sign­
boards in the 17th and 18th centuries.
These sometimes represent quite com­
plicated scenes, such as the interior of
shops thronged with a crowd of people,
and are of the utmost importance in the
history of costume, arts and trades.
Some distinguished artists, too, have not
deemed it derogatory to paint sign­
boards. Watteau, for instance, painted
365

SIL
ART
DICTIONARY.
SIT
a sign­board for the picture­dealer Ger­
saint, Géricault a " White Horse," &c.
Silhouette. A term applied to draw­
ings or portraits, which maybe described
as solid masses of black upon a light
ground, their outlines only being indi­
cated. The term also denotes the out­
line of the shadows cast by illuminated
bodies
Sill. (Arch.) The surface formed by a
«
course of stones out­
T?i<//|jlL·
side a window. Some­
1 (­|ft\
times the stones form­
"%"
n
rçBEsfei·
*
n
&^
es
*·^
are co
~
} ­l|te^f·
vered with one long,
flat stone, running the
whole length of the
window, the purpose
of which is to pre­
vent the rain from
penetrating the joints
of the lower course.
Silver­plating. A process consist­
ing of covering metal objects with a
coating of white lead and then with
silver leaf. The objects are afterwards
burnished and covered with a spirit
varnish.
Simon Zelotes, St. One of the Apostles.
He is generally represented with a saw
as his attribute, in allusion to the tradi­
tion that he was sawn asunder. Accord­
ing to one legend St. Simon was a brother
of Jesus, and hence he is sometimes,
though rarely, represented in pictures of
the Trinity.
Simplicity. When the effect of a work
of art is produced by unity of line and
largeness of mass, when the attention of
the spectator is not diverted by restless
detail, it is said to possess simplicity.
The magnificent figures from the
Parthenon,
the finest products of
the sculptor's art, owe much of their
grandeur to their monumental sim­
plicity.
Simpulum. A sort of vase with a long
handle, somewhat resembling a modern
ladle which was used for taking wine
out of a crater.
Sinister. (Her.) That side of the shield
which would be to the left
of a man standing behind
it is called the sinister.
Thus the sinister side of a
shield comes to the right
hand of a person looking
at the shield.
Sinking. (Arch.) A sudden depres­
sion of the ground, which causes the
destruction of the superincumbent
masonry.
Sinopie. (Her.) [Vert.]
S­iron. (Arch.) A piece of iron, gener­
ally in the shape of an S, sometimes in
the shape of a geometric pattern or of
foliage, which is attached vertically
to a wall, and is connected by a hold­
fast to horizontal pieces of timber­
work.
Sistrum. An instrument used by the
Egyptians in the
festivals of Isis just
as the bull­roarer
still is among some
tribes of savages to
warn off the un­
initiated. In struc­
ture it was very
simple, consisting only of some metal
rods inserted (as our cut shows) in a
metal frame.
It was rattled violently
to produce a noise.
Sitting. (Paint.) A term applied to
the space of time during which an artist
366

SIZ
ART
DICTIONARY.
SKE
works, either from nature or from a
model. Thus an artist may be said to
finish a sketch at a sitting. If the mat­
ter be looked at from the point of view
of the model who sits to the artist, it
has a slightly different meaning. A
portrait, for instance, may want one or
two more sittings (of the model) to be
finished.
Sizing. (Paint.) The purpose of
sizing is to render drawing­paper fit to
receive a wash of any colour whatso­
ever. The paper is smeared with a
sponge soaked in a mixture of white
soap and Flanders size, to which pow­
dered alum and a few drops of alcohol
have been added.
Skeleton, (i.) The osseous frame of
a man. Many
artists keep
skeletons in
their
studios,
which are arti­
;
ficially jointed
with brass wire.
Skeletons thus
arranged
will
assume almost
any position at
will, and so are
of the utmost
service to the
artist, for they
enable him in his drawings to set the
limb properly on the trunk, and to verify
the projection of the bones.
Skeleton. (2.) (Sculp.) A series of
bars 01 iron, round which a clay model
built up, its pur­
!
or plaster cast is
pose being to
strengthen
the
weak parts of the
cast or model.
Sketch. A rapid
design executed
from nature, or
the record of a
picturesque idea.
If it is made from
nature, it should
be in
as
few
strokes as possi­
ble, and should be sober in detail, so
as not to have the effect of a finished
work. The first suggestion of a compo­
sition is generally set forth in the form
of a sketch, and it often happens that the
transcription of an idea is more brilliant
and charming than the finished work.
Sometimes painters sketch their works
on the canvas, putting in the general
outlines of the drawing before they
begin to paint. The lights are not
sketched in the same way as the
shades. Account must be taken of the
effects which the tones applied to the
canvas will produce as the artist ad­
vances in his work, and in putting in the
sketch the artist must take care not to
cover those portions of the picture
which must remain transparent, and
should allow the grain of the canvas
to be seen. The slighter the sketch the
more likelihood is there of producing a
good result. A sculptor's sketch is the
first suggestion of a statue or bas­
relief, in which the artist does nothing
more than hint at the attitude and lines
of the figures. Sometimes the sculptor
works up his sketch into a finished
work, carrying out all the details with
accuracy and precision, but more often
he leaves the first sketch as it is,
and starts another on a different scale.
When we say that a work is a mere
sketch, we mean that it is unfinished,
nothing but its main outlines being sug­
gested.
367

SKE
ART
DICTIONARY.
SMO
Sketch­book. A note­book of white
or tinted paper, plainly and simply
bound. In his sketch­book the artist
jots down rapid sketches, which he
works up afterwards in his studio.
These memoranda in. line, filled out
sometimes with a written description,
are a valuable aid to the artist. In
fact sketches taken from nature fur­
nish the painter with the most precious
documents in composing and making
his pictures.
Sky. (Paint.) That portion of a pic­
ture in which clouds and the expanse of
the heavens are represented. When we
say that a sky is fine, we mean that it
is painted in delicate and refined tones,
and is modelled with subtlety and firm­
ness. In another sense a picture is said
to be skied when it is hung in an ex­
hibition high up above the line.
Slate. (Arch). A common schist of a
blueish, black grey or violet tone, which
is cut into rectangular plates, generally
with two of its corners broken. Slates
are used for covering the roofs of
buildings.
Slit and Tongue. (Constr.) A method
used by joiners
to unite two
pieces of wood,
cut out so as
to fit one in the
other, as shown
in the accom­
panying cut.
Slope. (Arch.) A term applied to
anything that is inclined or set at an
angle. For instance,
we speak of the slope
of a pediment or the
slope of a roof. In
the ancient orders
of architecture the
cornice of the en­
tablature serves as
the base of the pediment, while the
upper part of this cornice is repeated
in the slopes of the pediment A piece
of ground the plane of which is inclined
is termed a slope, and advantage is
often taken of it to construct a flight of
; "ps.
Sloppy. (Paint.) A picture which is
loosely composed, and roughly painted,
is said to be sloppy.
Smoke. (Engrav.) When the coloured
varnish which has been smeared over
an engraved plate does not allow the
lines to stand out with sufficient force,
the copper is smoked or blackened. To
do this while the varnish is still warm,
the plate must be exposed to the flame
of a resinous torch, the black smoke of
which incrusts itself in the varnish and
gives the plate when it is cold a beauti­
ful black tint. In order that the
smoking should be successful it is
necessary that the layer of black should
be very thin, and that there should be
no trace of the passage of the smoke
Furthermore, the operation must be
rapidly performed, so that the varnish is
not burnt and deprived of all power of
resistance to the biting.
Smoke­proof. (Engrav.) A proof of
a relief engraving taken upon unsized
India paper. To obtain smoke­proofs,
the wood or cliché is inked with smoke
black, and a pressure is exerted upon
the damp paper with a burnisher. To
prevent tearing the paper, a piece of
card is placed between the paper and
the tool. Smoke­proofs are the most
trustworthy impressions of wood­cuts.
36^

SMO
ART
DICTIONARY.
SOM
The block is most carefully inked as a
rule with the roller or finger. The dis­
tances can thus be carefully brought out,
and the foreground may be strongly
marked by vigorous inking. As en­
gravers take these proofs themselves
as a guide in the completion of their
work, or for their private collections,
they are always very limited in num­
ber, and eagerly sought after by
amateurs.
Smoky. Proofs of an engraving are
said to be smoky when the dust and
smoke of many years have given them a
dirty yellow, almost black tone. The
term is also applied to pictures which
have been exposed to smoke so as to
give them the appearance of old can­
vases, the varnish of which has turned
black with dust and age.
Sober. (Paint.) A term applied to a
refined
scheme of
colour,
which
produces a calm, tranquil impression
upon the spectator.
Soccus. ê(Cost.) A loose kind of
slipper which in Greeee
was worn both by men
and women. In Rome,
however, it belonged
only to the costume of
women and comic actors.
Socle. (Arch.) The term socle is
applied to the square sub­basement of a
building or co­
lumn, and also
to the small
pedestal, with or
without a mould­
ing, which serves
to support a bust
or vase. In the
sense of pedestal,
the use of the
term is
not
strictly accurate.
What should pro­
perly be under­
stood by socle is
the moulding or
projection of the base of a pedestal. In
buildings of the Gothic style we find
examples of socles cut in facets.
Soffit. (Arch.) The portion of a ceiling
below the cornice. Soffits are often
decorated with rosettes of extraordinary
richness. The term is also applied to
the under surface of a cornice, the
round portion of an arch.
—«­> .
The terms flat soffit and }
~~*
curved soffit are applied
by builders to the stones
with which they con­
struct the flat part or
the concave surface of an arch.
Soften. (Paint.) When the outlines in
a picture are too strongly indicated' and
drawn with too much dryness, they
should be softened down until they
blend with the tonality of the ground
and no longer strike the spectator dis­
agreeably.
Softener. (Paint.) A large soft flat
hair brush, either cylindrical or of a
special shape, with which two colours
freshly laid on the canvas are blended.
Solarium. (Arch.) In a Roman home
the solarium was the terrace built over
a porch or upon the flat roof of a house.
It was surrounded by a parapet, but
open, as its name implies, to the sun's
rays.
Solid. In geometry bodies are said to
be solid when they are bounded by sur­
faces.
In architecture full heavy
masses are known as solid, while in
painting the term is applied to strong,
robust workmanship, and to figures
which project violently from the
canvas.
Sombre. Dark. A term applied to
schemes of colour in which black
predominates.
369

SOP
ART
DICTIONARY.
SPH
Sopra Bianco. (Pot.) A name given
to a kind of Italian faïence, which is
decorated with designs of a clear milky
white standing out on a delicate white
ground.
Sounding­board. (Arch.) [Abat­
voix.]
Space. In a picture a figure is said to
lack space when it is placed in a
frame of too narrow dimensions, so that
it appears cramped and confined.
Span. (Arch). The span of an arch is
the width between the imposts.
Spandrel. (Arch). The triangular
space included between the convex or
outer surface of an arch and the rect
angular moulding which surmounts the
arch. The spandrels of doorways in
Gothic buildings are frequently richly
decorated with carvings.
Spangle. A small leaf of thin metal,
circular in shape, and with a hole
pierced through its centre, so that it can
be fixed on to a stiff material with thread
or silk. Spangles scintillate brilliantly
in the light. The court dresses of
the 18th century were decorated with
garlands and other designs formed of
spangles of gold and silver.
Spar, Fluor. A mineral, which in
fusion dissolves metallic oxides, and thus
produces a kind of crystal, the colour of
which varies with the nature of the metal
dissolved. With this spar candelabra,
vases, and other decorative objects are
made.
Spatula. The spatula used by painters
in enamel is the instrument with which
the powdered enamel is taken hold of
and
spread
over the sur­
face of the
plate.
The
spatula
used
in sculpture is a trowel­shaped tool,
with which moulders take the plaster
from the bowl and spread it in the
mould.
Spectrum. The image produced by a
ray of light crossing a crystal prism, the
colours of which, joining one another
by imperceptible shades, are violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red.
Speculum. The mirror of the ancients
was made either of a white metal, (a
mixture of copper and tin),or else of silver.
In order that it might give a bright re­
flection its surface was highly polished.
Its back was often decorated with in­
cised designs of great beauty, and mirrors
form an important class of ancient works
of art.
Sphere. A solid figure produced by a
semicircle turning on its diameter as its
axis. The term is also
commonly applied to
globes representing the
surface of the earth. By
the term armillary sphere
we denote a celestial globe
formed of circles representing the move­
ment of the stars.
Spheroid. A solid figure having the
form of a flattened
sphere. It is produced
by half an ellipse turn­
ing about on one of
its axes. The terres­
trial globe may be
described as an oblate spheroid.
Sphinx. A monster having the head
and breasts of a
woman, the body
of a lion and the
wings of an eagle.
The term is also
applied to colossi
of granite found
in ancient Egypt,
Near the pyramid
of Cheops there
still exists a huge
sphinx cut in rock, which measures
twenty metres in height and forty
370

SPH
ART
DICTIONARY.
SPH
metres in length. Some authorities
hold that the
Great Sphinx
is nothing
more than a
solitary rock,
to which the
ϋ
Egyptians gave
its present
form by means
of blocks of stone skilfully arranged,
^
the head alone having been sculptured.
This Sphinx was the image of the
Egyptian god Hoz­en­Kohn.
Sphyrelata. A name given in Greek
to all kinds of hammered metal­work.
The metal was beaten when cold, and
this simple process is the most ancient
that is recorded. Many sphyrelata belong
to a time before soldering was invented,
and their pieces were joined together by
nails. The surface of these primitive
works of art was often enriched by incised
ornaments. Of our two illustrations the
one represents a bronze bust discovered

SPI
ART
DICTIONARY.
SQU
at Vulci, which is almost childish in its
simplicity, the other a vase, in which
grace and proportion are by no means
lacking.
Spikes. (Arch.) Ornamental pieces of
iron curved into all sorts of shapes and
always armed
wi th sharp
points,
which
are put on the
summit of walls
to prevent them
being
scaled.
They afford an
excellent
op­
portunity for
artistic treatment, and they are some­
times admirable specimens of decorative
iron­work.
Spiral. A plane curve describing
several revolutions round a fixed point,
its distance from this point becoming
greater at· each revolution.
Spire. (Arch.)
A pointed pyra­
midal bell tur­
ret, sometimes
of stone, but
more often of
wood
covered
with lead or
tiles. Spires are
not found in
England before
the Norman pe­
riod, and then
they are neither
lofty nor taper­
ing. In the
Early English
period they
were carried to
a great eleva­
tion, and were
generally octa­
gonal. The
spires of the
Decorated pe­
riod did
not
differ much from the spires of the
preceding period. They were, how­
ever, ornamented with crockets, &c.
In the Perpendicular period spires
retained the same form, and almost
invariably had a gutter and parapet
at their base.
This was not the
case in earlier times, when broach
spires, or spires springing straight from
the tower, without a parapet, were
common.
Splay. (Arch.) The term splay is
applied to any sloping surface, but
especially to doorways or windows, the
width of which is increased by their
sides sloping inwards.
Springing. (Arch.) The springing of
an arch or vault is the point from which
it rises.
Springing­stone. (Arch.) The stone
which supports
the haunch of
an arch or vault
is called the
springing­stone,
and the lowest
line of the arch
is similarly
wknown as the
springing­line.
Spur­post. (Arch.) A piece of twisted
iron, set against the wall at the en­
trance of a porte­
cochère, at about the
height of a step.
The purpose of it
is to keep off the
wheels of carriages
from the corner, as
well as to protect
the doors when they are open.
Square, (i.) A plane four­sided figure,
the four sides of which are
equal, and all the angles
which are right angles.
Square. (2.) The square used in draw­
ing is a thin plate of wood, in the shape
of a right­angled triangle, pierced with
a circular opening or eye, so that it
may slip easily on the paper. With
the square and ruler perpendiculars
axe i­
»
372

SQU
ART
DICTIONARY.
may be drawn, while parallelograms
may be traced with two
squares. A square, such
as the one represented
in our cut, is used by
masons to test whether
they
cut
their
have
blocks of stone evenly.
Square, Double. A square formed of
two flat rules placed at right angles to
one another.
—, Graphometric. A surveyor's
square, which serves the double purpose
f
_
­­^
of a square and graphometer.
"^JM
It consists of a cylinder, the
­ _ _ JÌj lower portion of which is
|^!Jr9S| movable, and works on a
I V il screw. Slits made in the
cylinder take the place of the
pinnules of the graphometer,
and allow the operator to
look in all directions perpendicular to,
or at an oblique angle to, any given
line.
— , Octagonal. A surveyor's square in
the form of an octagonal prism.
— , of 45 degrees. A drawing square,
having one right angle and two angles of
45 degrees. It is often used with the T­
square and planchette, and
with its aid are traced archi­
tectural designs, the projec­
tions of mouldings, &c, while
in shaded drawings it is used
to trace the direction of luminous rays,
which, by a convention generally adopted
in projections, are directed at an angle
of 45 degrees from left to right.
—, Set. A square in theform of a
right­angled triangle,
resembling in form
half the pediment of
.an
ancient temple,
and hence called in
French êquerre à fronton.
— , Sliding. A flat piece of metal, with
divisions mea­
sured upon it,
to which two
other pieces of metal are perpen­
SQU
dicular.
One of these two pieces is
fixed, the other can be moved to and
fro, so as to measure the diameter of
cylindrical bodies.
Square, T. [T­square.]
—,
­ touch. (Paint ) When a painter
lays his colour on the canvas in square
patches, he is said to employ a square­
touch. This point of style may be best
observed in the works of the group of
painters, who call themselves the Newlyn
School.
Squaring. An operation, the purpose
of which is to enlarge a sketch, to exe­
cute a composition on a large scale after
a given model. It will be readily seen
that by the process of squaring a
sketch may also be reduced. The
method is as follows : The model is
divided up into a certain number of
equal squares, and the surface, upon
which the model is to be reproduced, is
also marked out in the same number of
equal squares, less or greater than the
squares on the model, according as it is
the artist's purpose to reduce or enlarge
the original sketch. Large mural paint­
ings, as well as important easel pictures,
are designed in this way. The advantage
of the process is considerable, as the
sketch, which enables the artist to see
the general effect of his work, can be
accurately reproduced. In the squaring,
which is a tedious job, and must be
carried out with the most scrupulous
exactitude, painters are often assisted
by their pupils, deeming it enough if
they themselves correct errors of tran­
scription.
Squinch. (Arch.) A truncated vault
of considerable projection. A number
of stones arranged so as to form a shell.
373

STA
ART
DICTIONARY.
STA
In outline it may either be a quarter
round or the arc
of a circle. In
the 17th and
jy^JÊÊ^ÊÊËÊÊàk
18 th century
^^ÊffiW^y^^ËËÊ^h
overhanging
~
squinches were a
favourite archi­
ll 4$ffilSP^113S^ tectural decora­
tion. Many large
doorways
and
corners of public buildings present
examples of squinches decorated with
rustic­work and sculptured ornaments.
In classical
architecture
the term
squinch is
applied to
the spheri­
cal triangles
formed in a
hemispheri­
cal vault by
the penetration of two demi­cylindrical
barrel vaults, and also to the curved
triangular surfaces
obtained by the in­
tersection of vaults
of different form.
Other architectural
combinations of a
similar kind, but
not identical, give
rise to squinches
of various polygonal forms.
Stadium. In ancient times this term
was applied to a course laid out for foot­
racing. The name was derived from
the celebrated course at Olympia, which
measured precisely one
σ
τ
ά
δ
ι
ο
^.
Stage. (Arch.) That part of a theatre
which is set apart for the actors who
perform in view of the public.
Stage­box. (Arch.) A term applied to
the boxes in a theatre which are situated
on each side of the stage between the
curtain and the orchestra. Stage­boxes
generally give the theatrical architect an
opportunity for decoration, and they
are frequently enriched with caryatides
and sculptured ornament.
Stag's head. (Her.) A stag's head
attired with antlers and tyres sometimes
appears as a common charge
in heraldry. When placed
affronté, which is the usual
position, it is said to be
cabossed, and the antlers
are by heralds frequently termed attires.
Stained Glass. [Glass Painting : Glass
Window.]
Staircase. (Arch.) A series of steps,
serving to connect the storeys of a
building which are on a different level.
The staircases with which the summit
of the religious buildings of the Middle
Ages was reached were often in turrets
pierced with openings to admit the light.
Sometimes they were set in the thick­
ness of a wall. Many staircases in
castles of the Renaissance period are
marvellous from the point of view both
of art and construction.
In the 17th
and 18th centuries staircases were built
extraordinarily light and strong. The
staircases of many public buildings of
the present day are no less remarkable
for their width and proportion than for
the beauty and richness of the materials
employed in their construction.
— , Circular. A staircase with a cir­
cular string­course .
A staircase the
374

STA
ART
DICTIONARY.
STA
steps of which do not follow a straight
line but a curve.
Examples of the latter are very frequent
in staircases on the outside of a building,
which lead to a doorway at some height
above the level of the ground.
Staircase, Spiral. A staircase turn­
ing round a core, which is generally
cylindrical, or in
the midst
of
which a vacant
space is left.
This form of
staircase is also
termed a wind­
ing staircase or
a hélicoïdal stair-
case, and it also
resembles a vyse (q.v.).
Stair­rail. A balustrade of wood or
iron, which is arranged along the edge of
a staircase, and serves as a support.
Stake. A piece of wood or iron
driven into the earth. At the top of
the stake, as employed by surveyors, a
slit is generally made, in which a piece
of card of a bright colour is placed, so
that it may be seen at a distance. Small
stakes are sometimes set on blocks of
wood accurately squared. Stakes are
used by surveyors to
fix points, to measure
ground, as well as in
making plans and
~M
drawing foundations. In some cases,
especially in the cutting of new roads,
stakes, consisting of long poles with a
flag attached to them, are set up on
the top of houses to serve as guiding
points
Stalactites. (Arch.) A kind of archi-
tectural decoration, consisting of pro-
jecting rustic-work. It
suggests the appear-
ance of the petrified
concretions formed
in caves and grottoes
which are known by the name of Stalac-
tites.
Stall. A wooden seat with a high back
Rows of stalls are placed round the choir
in churches. In Christian basilica^ the
stalls were of stone or marble. From
the 13th to the 16th century stalls were
generally of wood and decorated with a
marvellous profusion of carvings. These
carvings were frequently grotesque and
375

STA
ART
DICTIONARY.
STA
free, not only in style but in subject.
There are few of the English cathedrals
that do not display in their stalls magni­
ficent monuments of wood­carving.
Stamnos. A Greek vase with an
ovoidal body, with two handles attached
to it above its shoulders, and closed by a
slightly arched lid. It was used for
holding liquids, and was frequently
richly decorated with paintings.
Stancheon. (Arch.) A stay, generally
of iron, and of great strength ; especially
the iron bar between the mullions of a
window.
Standard. The ensign of war, a flag
of a rich, heavy material, which is dis­
played as a decoration.
Star. (Arch.) An architectural orna­
ment, painted, sculptured, or incised,
consisting of painted rays which vary in
number. In Roman­
esque
architecture
fleurons (q.v .), to
which the term star
is applied, are ar ­
ranged on surfaces
in various geome­
trical patterns, or are
set side by side so as to form a continu­
ous system of ornament.
Starling. (Arch.) An angular pro­
jection on the piles
of a stone bridge,
so situated as to
divide the current
W'Wi fflf
of water, and in winter time to break
blocks of ice
State. (Engrav.) The condition of an
engraved or etched plate before it is
entirely finished. In the case of some
engravings we have proofs of the first
state, the second state, the third state
and so on as the plate nears comple­
tion. When the state is completely
finished and ready to be printed from it
is said to be in its final state.
Station Point. The point from which
a building or any object should be looked
at, so that the whole can be seen by the
spectator at one glance.
Stations. The term station is applied
to the various stages of Christ's Passion,
representations of which are frequently
hung in the nave of Catholic churches.
Statuary. An artist who models
statues or figures. In this sense the
word is seldom used. It is more often
employed to denote a collection of
statues, and we sometimes hear people
speak of the " statuary art."
376

STA
ART
DICTIONARY.
STE
Statue. A work of sculpture in the
round representing the human figure. A
statue in marble, bronze, or wood. A
colossal statue.
— , Equestrian. A statue representing
a person mounted on horseback.
— , Monumental. A term applied in the
Middle Ages to statues representing re­
cumbent figures and covering a tomb,
Steeple.
above which they are only raised by a
slab, which is often of inconsiderable
thickness.
— . Persian. A term which is some­
times, though rarely, applied to architec­
tural figures, which serve as caryatids.
Statuette. A statue, the dimensions
of which are very much less than those
of the human figure. A statuette half
life­size ; a statuette in bronze, or terra­
cotta.
Stay. (Arch.) A piece of timber in­
troduced into a building to form a
support.
(Arch.) A tower, in which
church bells are hung. In
the nth century steeples
were built on a quad­
rangular base. They con­
sisted of several storeys,
slightly retreated the one
behind the other; they
were pierced by open­
ings,
strengthened
at
their angles by but­
tresses, and were termi­
nated with a pyramid on
a square base. In the
12th and 13th centuries
steeples were quadrangu­
lar in base alone ; as
they got higher they be­
came octagonal and were
terminated with a tower,
and sometimes, though rarely, sur­
rounded with a balustrade and had
bell­turrets at their corners. In the
14th, 15th, and 16th centuries the same
principles were followed ; the spires or
pyramids terminating steeples became
lighter and were pierced. Steeples are
sometimes included within the general
plan of the building, sometimes they are
built without reference to it. This
depends on the period to which the
steeple belongs and the vicissitudes
which the church has undergone. Some
churches have two towers or steeples,
generally at the west end. The full
complement of towers in a cathedral
church is three, two at the west end
and one over the crossing.
Stele. By this term we denote ancient
monuments in the form of monoliths
placed vertically, the inscriptions upon
which serve to commemorate an historic
event or to pre­
serve the memory
of the dead. Some
of the most in­
teresting relics of
Greek and Roman
art are stelce, upon
which is sculp­
tured the likeness
of a departed man.
In the British
Museum is to be
seen a most in­
teresting
collec­
tion. In modern
times the term is loosely applied to
broken columns, cippi or square stones
which serve as funeral monuments, and
even to the small colonnettes sup­
porting a decorative object, such as a
statuette or vase.
Stencilling. A method of executing
decorative paintings, which was once
very popular, but is now seldom resorted
to. Patterns are cut out of a piece of
card, which is laid upon paper. Colour
is then laid on, and only reaches the
paper, where the card has been cut out.
The advantage of this process is its
extreme simplicity.
25
377

STE
ART
DICTIONARY.
STI
Step. (Arch.) The steps in a stair­
çmm^'·- —
case are the horizontal parts upon
which the foot is placed. The steps of
a staircase in the in­
terior of a building,
£3/»
whether they are of
wood or stone, are
generally bordered with a projecting
,,
ι
ΐ
^
Ι
Α
,.,,,
moulding, cal­
led an astragal,
the profile of
which is either
a
quarter
round or an
apophyge.
— , Corner.
Corner steps are steps situated at the
turn of a staircase. They are broader
than the steps immediately above them.
—, Moulded. A step is said to be
moulded when it is bordered by a
moulding.
— , Straight. A step which is of the
same width through­
out. The steps
which led up to an­
cient temples were
nearly always
straight and very
rarely had an astragal or moulding on
their edge.
— , Weathered. A step, the upper
surface of which is inclined at an angle,
instead of being horizontal.
— , Winder. Steps arranged like the
radii of a circle. Modern
staircases, built either
in circular cages or in
rectangular cages with
rounded corners, present
many examples of winder steps.
Stephen, St. St. Stephen, the first of
the Christian martyrs, persecuted by Paul
is frequently represented in religious
pictures. The Stoning of St. Stephen
was a very favourite subject with paint­
ers of all schools. When represented
alone, St. Stephen always appears as a
youth, wearing the vestments of a deacon.
He holds a palm in one hand and the
scriptures in the other, and as a rule
stones lie at his feet.
Stereobate. (Arch.) A continuous
base with neither moulding, base, or
cornice (
σ
τ
ε
ρ
ε
ό
ς
,
solid). By the term
stylobate we designate pedestals which
have mouldings.
Stereography. The art of drawing
solid bodies upon a plane surface and
indicating the relief by shading.
Stereometry. The art of measuring
bodies in relief.
Stereotype. To stereotype is to re­
produce by the process described under
the term cliché (q.v.) printed pages set
in moveable type, together with the
woodcuts with which they are illustrated.
After a page has been stereotyped, the
type may be distributed. The invention
of stereotyping has had a most important
effect not only on the art of printing but
also on the art of engraving.
Sticciato (Sculp.) An Italian term
denoting a work in relief, which hardly
projects from the surface of the marble
or plaster upon which it is carved or
modelled.
Stilde grain. (Paint.) A term applied
to certain greenish­yellow pigments
obtained like lakes by precipitating
the decoction of buckthorn berries or
French berries.
Still life. (Paint.) A term which
Z7S

STI
ART
DICTIONARY.
STO
includes all pictures having for their
subjects fruit, flowers, vases, and other
inanimate objects which generally form
the accessories and not the main interest
of a picture. The Dutch have chiefly
excelled in the painting of still life. A
picture of an inanimate object is itself
called a still life.
Stilus. A pointed instrument with
which the ancients traced letters upon
a tablet covered with wax.
Stippled. A painting, drawing or
engraving is said to be stippled when it
is executed by means of a series of points
and not by flat tints or hatchings.
Stockade. (Arch.) A barrier formed
of stakes, the purpose of which is to
strengthen the base of the piles of a
bridge or to defend the entrance of a
harbour, river or canal.
Stola. (Cost.) A garment worn by
Roman women. It was long and reached
to the feet, being girt round the waist by
a girdle. It had sleeves and was some­
times fastened at the shoulder by a
brooch. It was as characteristic of the
Roman matron as was the toga of the
Roman citizen.
Stone (Arch.) A piece of siliceous
or calcareous rock or quartz used in
building. Stones are sometimes put
into walls in the rough state in which
they leave the quarry ; sometimes they
are carefully squared on all their surfaces
before being used.
Stone, Druidic. A Celtic monument,
consisting of a stone,
considerably
higher
than
its
breadth, planted ver­
tically in the earth.
These stones
are
called Peulvans or
menhirs, and in Celtic
remains are found
variously combined.
[Dolmen.]
— , Engraved. A precious stone en­
graved in cameo or intaglio, i.e., either
in relief or incised.
— , Gall. (Paint.) Gall stone yields
a tone approaching that of natural earth
of Sienna. It is used by painters of
miniatures and fans, who, by means of
a solution of gall stone, render the vellum
upon which they work less rebellious to
the tints applied to it.
—, Precious. A hard stone employed
in jewellery and works of art.
— , Rocking. A Celtic monument
consisting
of
two blocks of
stone placed
one upon an­
other in
a
position of
equilibrium,
so that the very slightest movement is
enough to make the upper block oscillate.
— , Tomb. A stone, generally incised,
which covers a grave. It is placed either
on a level with the ground or set in a
vertical wall. There are many tomb­
stones of the Gothic period and the
Renaissance, which represent historic
personages and are valuable documents
in the history of costume. Some tomb­
stones, too, are very richly ornamented.
The figures traced upon them, though
quite hastily drawn, are often remarkable
for their grandeur and vigour.
379

STO
ART
DICTIONARY.
STO
Stone, Toothing. A projecting stone
left in the alternate courses of a wall, so
that if the wall is carried on in the same
line the courses of the new construction
may be easily united with the old.
Stoneware. A kind of pottery which
is opaque, hard
and
impermeable.
Common stoneware is made oi a paste
which consists of clay, sand and silicates.
The paste of fine stoneware does not
differ perceptibly from the paste of fine
faïence. The vases and statuettes of
stoneware made by the Chinese and
Japanese are very much sought after
by collectors.
In Germany stoneware
has been made from the 8th century,
while English stoneware is admirable in
quality.
Stool. A support of considerable
height, terminated by a circular or
square plat­
form,
which
may be moved
up and down
onakindof
pivot. A stool
of this sort
is used by
modellers in
clay to place
their
clay
j upon,
while
!
when the clay
is to be trans­
lated into
marble, it is the stool upon which the
block of marble is placed. The term
also denotes a
seat of wood,
frequently used
in the Middle
Ages. It had the
form of a short
bench without arms or back.
Stopping out. (Engrav.) When an
etcher desires one portion of his plate to
be more deeply bitten than another, he
removes the plate from the acid, after it
has been for some time exposed to its
action. He then covers those portions
of the plate which he deems sufficiently
bitten, with lampblack, and replaces the
plate in the bath. This process is termed
stopping out.
Story. (Arch.) A term applied to the
horizontal divisions made in a building
by means of planks.
Stoup. A vase or basin placed at the en­
trance of a church ; a small shell, which
holds holy water. In the gth and ioth
centuries stoups took the place of
380

STO
ART
DICTIONARY.
STR
piscines, which had been placed in
churches for the ab­
lutions of the wor­
shippers. In the 12th
century stoups took
the form of simple
octagonal
vessels ;
in the 13th century
they were set against
the wall, and so gave
an opportunity for a good deal of decor­
ation. In the 14th and 15th centuries
they were either circular or polygonal,
and were supported by a colonette, while
during the Renaissance they consisted of
a large basin, which
tapering ba­
luster to support it. Finally there are
some stoups in existence in the shape of
immense shells, which are made fast to
a pillar or placed upon pedestals of vari­
ous forms.
Strainer. A kind of double frame of
wood. Round its circumference run
grooves, in which the edges of a strip of
damp paper may be fixed. As it dries
the paper stretches, and so gets a per­
fectly smooth
surface. Strain­
ers are used to
stretch paper
on which water­colour drawings or
sketches are to be made.
Strapaese. A piece of French artistic
slang, an epithet which may be applied to
painted or sculptured figures the atti­
tude of which is twisted or exaggerated.
Strap­work. A form of ornament, con­
sisting of bands or fillets interlaced and
intertwined as in our cut. It is found in I it did not come into common use until
some buildings of the nth century, but | the end of the Renaissance period.
3«i

STR
ART
DICTIONARY.
STR
Strawberry Leaf. A leaf somewhat
resembling the trefoil, which
occurs in heraldry on the co­
ronets of dukes, earls, &c. ;
it is also used as an archi­
tectural ornament in build­
ings of the Gothic style.
Stretch. To stretch an engraving or
drawing is to stick it down fast with gum
to a white or tinted mount, the purpose
of which is to increase its effect. The
term is more strictly applied to the pro­
cess of mounting an engraving or draw­
ing by stretching it on a frame. Neither
method of stretching is to be recom­
mended as each is very likely to destroy
the value and beauty of drawing or en­
graving.
Stretcher, (i.) (Arch.) A stone or
brick so placed in a wall that only its
narrow side is apparent, its longer
sides being lost in the thickness of the
wall.
Stretcher. (2.) (Paint.) A wooden
square or rectangle, upon which a
painter's canvas is
stretched and held
fast by small nails.
When the picture
is framed, the
thickness of the
stretcher is con­
cealed in
the
frame. In the kind
of stretcher repre­
sented in our first
cut, which by the way is not used in
England, the pieces of wood of which
the stretcher is composed are held in
their places by
small transverse
slips, one at each
angle.
The ad­
vantage
of the
stretcher with
keys, represented
in our second cut,
is that by driving
in the keys the tension of the canvas
may be increased.
1u
1
sliiiΘiiiiin'.μ!
HHHEi
wÊBÈKm
Ml
Striae. (Arch.) A term applied to the
narrow fillets which come between the
flutings upon the shaft of a column.
Striated. Any surface is said to be
striated when it is covered with a series
of parallel fillets, either in straight or
zigzag lines.
Strigli. A bronze instrument, with
which the ancients scraped their limbs
after bathing, and with which the ancient
athletes removed the oil after anointing
themselves.
String. (Arch.) A slightly projecting
moulding, which runs round a room on
A horizontal
outside of a
between the
the façade of a building,
band, marking on the
building the divisions
stories.
String­boards.
The point of sup­
port of a stair­
case on the side
farthest from the
wall. String­
boards may be of
wood or stone, they may be grooved or
twisted, plain or decorated with mould'
ings, and they generally spring from the
first steps.
String­course. (Arch.) A narrow
moulding, which runs horizontally along
the wall. It projects but little from the
surface.
Strip. (Arch.) A small piece of timber
strengthening a rafter or ridge or sup­
382

STR
ART
DICTIONARY.
STU
porting a beam of wide bearing. Strips
are nothing more than a kind of strut
beam (q.v .) .
Struck. Any object which has received
an impression from a die, such as a coin
or medal, is said to be struck.
Structure. The manner in which a
building is constructed, also the building
itself. Metaphorically the term is used
to denote the way in which the human
figure, either in painting or sculpture, is
rendered from the anatomical point of
view. The structure of a figure may be
said to be perfect or faulty, as the case
may be.
Strut beam. (Arch.) A piece of wood
used to strengthen timber­work, by
diminishing the
bearing of a beam
or upholding a
wall which needs
to be
consoli­
dated. The strut
beam is almost
always placed ob­
liquely, and
is
sometimes held
in its place by wedges driven in with a
hammer.
Stucco. (Arch.) A coating with which
walls are covered, and which takes the
polish of marble. Stucco consists of a
mixture of slaked lime and pulverised
marble or sometimes alabaster or plaster.
But stucco formed of this last mixture is
less capable of resisting damp. The
stucco with which the outside of build­
ings is coated is sometimes composed
of puzzolana and pieces of tiles reduced
to powder. It is the opus albarium of
the Romans.
Studied. A painting or piece of sculp­
ture is said to be studied when it dis­
plays profound knowledge and research
on the part of its author. Thus we
say of a picture, "The draperies are
closely studied," or of a landscape that
"its foreground is well studied."
Studio. The place in which a painter
or sculptor works. All studios should
face north, for then an artist can work
as long as daylight lasts without being
inconvenienced by the rays of the sun ;
moreover, light coming from this quarter
is more equable and fresher than from
any other.
Studio­box. (Paint.) A table with
drawers, the upper part of which forms
a box, in which colours, brushes, &c.
are kept.
Study. A sketch, the execution of
which is precise and searched ; a drawing
or painting from nature or the living
model. It is from studies that a painter
builds up and composes his pictures.
Stump. A piece of leather or paper
rolled in a cylindrical form, and bound
round with thread. At each end it has
a blunted point. The stump is used
for blending together the hatchings
of a crayon drawing, and also for lay­
ing the black or grey tones of the crayon
directly on the paper. Its use cannot
be recommended, as it gives a drawing
a soft cottony appearance. The dis­
383

STU
ART
DICTIONARY.
SUB
advantages of the stump have recently
been set iorth in the following terms:—
" The stump does not teach drawing, as
it cannot teach painting; in point of
fact the use of the stump is likely to
injure the painter's art, as it may en­
gage his sympathies for darkness rather
than light, for shadow more than for
colour.
Nor does the stump help
drawing, because the use of it is anti­
pathetic to a line. This feeble inven­
tion is neither a severe enough instru­
ment for the draughtsman, nor is it
pliable enough for the painter. It is a
kind of middleman whom we with all
our hearts desire to be rid of."
Stumped. A term applied to draw­
ings shaded with the stump. The
laborious drawings from the antique
produced in schools of art are generally
stumped.
Style. The word style denotes in
artistic phraseology the manner peculiar
to an artist or epoch. For instance, the
style of Raphael, the Gothic style, the
Italian style. The word is also used in
connection with works of a noble char­
acter, in which the figures are drawn or
modelled in a key of lofty sentiment.
Thus we speak of a work of the grand
style, of figures which lack style.
Stylobate. (Arch.) A pedestal with
moulding, base and cornice running
round a building ;
a projecting sub­
basement deco­
rated with mould­
ing, following the
ressaults of a fa­
çade. The word
is synonymous
with plinth,
at
least when the
plinth is decorat­
Plain, undecorated
sub­basements are called stereobates
(q.v.).
Sub­basement. (Arch.) The lower
part of a construction. A continuous
socle (q.v .) running round the base of a
ed with mouldings.
façade or a row of columns. In build­
ings of the Renaissance period of the
centuries which followed it, sub­base­
ments are generally found running round
entrances and are decoiated with rustic
work. In Gothic
a
1.1,
buildings sub­
basements are
generally found
running round
entrances, and
are
decorated
with a profusion
of
sculptured
ornament,
re­
presenting rich
draperies, blind
arcades or sym­
bolic and gro­
tesque bas­reliefs inscribed in trefoils,
quatrefoils, &c.
Subject. A term applied to the
motive, historical or conventional, real
or ideal, which an artist chooses for
interpretation in his work. For in­
stance, a happy subject, an ill­chosen
subject. Some subjects do not lend
themselves easily to artistic treatment :
others, on the other hand, are an inex­
haustible mine of wealth. It is not too
much to say, however, that subject of
itself can never make a picture interest­
ing. A great subject, if not greatly
3S4

SUB
ART
DICTIONARY.
SUP
treated, is of no avail. Pictorial art is
not a debased species of literature, and
it is nobility of line and colour, treat­
ment, in fact, which alone can make a
picture great.
Sub­ordinaries.
(Her.) The sub­
ordinaries, though of less dignity than the
honourable ordinaries, are of frequent
occurrence in heraldry. They are six­
teen in number :—the Canton, Gyron,
Inescutcheon,
Orle, Tressure,
Lozenge,
Fusil, Fret, Flanch, Flasque,
Mascle,
Rustre, Label, Billet, Bordure,
Pile.
Descriptions of these sub­ordinaries will
be found under the different headings.
Sudarium. A term applied to the
handkerchief upon which S. Veronica
took an image of the face of Christ.
Suite. A term applied to a collection
of pictures, the subjects of which are
taken in a certain order of ideas or
events. For instance, the suite of pic­
tures painted by Rubens for the gallery
of the Medici.
Sulphur. A sulphur is an impression
taken from an engraved plate upon a
thin layer of sulphur, which was laid
upon the plate in a melted state. Some
" sulphurs " of goldsmiths' work are still
preserved, and they have an artistic
importance, because they form a curious
link in the history of engraving.
Summer. [Bressummer.J
Summit. The upper extremity. The
summit of a building. The point at
which the sides of an angle or the faces
of a solid meet. The summit of a tri­
angle ; the summit of a pyramid.
Sun­blind. (Arch.) A long strip of
stuff, which may be rolled up on a small
cylinder, to which one of its ends is
attached. It is used to protect a window
from the heat of the sun and the brilli­
ance of the light. Sun­blinds may be
placed either inside or outside a window.
In museums and picture galleries they
are indispensable to diminish the glaring
effect of the sunlight. They are gene­
rally of some soft texture, but they may
be made of very thin bamboo canes, as
indeed they generally are in China and
Japan.
Sun­dial. A plaque set either verti­
cally or horizontally, on which the hours
are marked.
,
The time of (~''
7!r
}%'' '
day may be
told from the
depth of the
shadow cast
on the face
of the dial by
the Gnomon.
According to
Viollet­le­
Duc sun­dials
were set up
on the high­
ways as early
as the 13th century.
15th centuries they were placed against
the walls of churches and other build­
ings.
Sunk­in. (Paint.) When colours, after
they have dried on the canvas, lose
their brilliance, they are said to have
sunk in.
Sunset. (Paint.) It is a common prac­
tice among artists and art critics to
describe a picture by the effect which
the painter wished to produce Thus
we speak of a sunset by
Claude Lorraine
or by
Crome.
Support. A piece of bent
iron, which is driven ob­
liquely into an opening
made for the purpose, and
holds a piece of wood on
a bench. Wood carvers fix the block
In the 14th and
385

SUP
ART
DICTIONARY.
SYM
on which they are working with a chisel
by means of a support
of this kind.
Supporters. (Her.) The
figures which stand upon
each side of a shield.
Only persons of noble
rank are entitled to sup­
porters.
Surbased. (Arch.) An arch or vault is
said to be sur­
based when its
height is less
than half the
length of its
springing line.
Surcoat. (Cost.) A garment worn in
the Middle Ages over armour. The coat­
of­arms of knights was frequently em­
blazoned on their surcoat.
Surface rib. (Arch.) A sharp rib
placed at the angle of a Gothic vault.
Surmounted. (Arch.) An arch or
vault is said to
be surmounted
when its height
is more than half
"\**""'.
the length of its
** springing line.
(Paint.) A scheme of
colour, which is at once free and ener­
getic, or solid tones which enhance the
effect of the modelling, are said to be
sustained.
Sword. A sword is a common charge
in heraldry. In religious pictures angels
and archangels are frequently armed
with a sword of undulating blade, called
a flaming sword. At all periods of his­
tory, and in all centuries, the sword,
which is pre. ­eminently the weapon of
valiance and noblesse, has been orna­
mented and enriched with all the re­
sources of decorative art.
Sycamore. (Her.) An
heraldic sycamore is a
piece of armour in the
shape of a barrel hoop.
The binding that fastens
the hoop and keeps it in a circular
Sustained.
form should be distinctly marked This
charge is, however, of very rare occur­
rence.
Sylvester, St. St. Sylvester was the
Bishop of Rome who is said to have been
instrumental in converting Constantine
to Christianity. In order to convince the
Empress Helena of the truth of the
Christian faith he restored to life a bull
which had been slain by a magician.
Hence a bull is his attribute in ar­
tistic representations, in which he
himself always appears in episcopal
vestments.
Symbol. A conventional representa­
tion of figures or objects, which are the
signofanidea;afigureis saidtobe
symbolic when it embodies certain
attributes and characterises an abstract
idea. For instance, we speak of a
figure symbolic of victory, the soul,
thought, &c. The attributes of music,
painting, sculpture, &c, have a sym­
bolic value.
Symbolism. The principle applied in
Gothic architecture, by which, in paint­
ing or sculpture, the virtues and vices
are represented under the form of
persons or fantastic animals. By the
term " symbolism of art " we under­
stand the conceptions peculiar to each
epoch, to each architectural style, in
which the beliefs of the people are
expressed.
Symmetry. A system of ornament, in
which the motives are reproduced exactly
on each side of an
jy$.
axis real or imagin­
ary passing throught
the centre of the
composition. In the
Gothic style abso­
lute symmetry can
scarcely be said to
exist. At one end
of the building, for
i
instance, there may be a belfry, at the
other a simple gable.
Many church
doors are flanked by towers or bell
turrets of different styles, epochs, and
•
η
386

SYS
ART
DICTIONARY.
TAB
proportions. During the period of the
Renaissance,
and from that
period down to
the present day,
the principles
of symmetry
have, as a rule,
been rigorously
applied to the façades of buildings.
Systyle. (Arch.) In ancient archi­
tecture a temple is said to be systyle
when the distance between any two of its
columns is one and a half times the
diameter of the columns.
T.
Tabernacle. (Arch.) A kind of small
compartment occupying the centre of an
altar and resem­
bling a diminutive
chapel or temple.
In it is placed the
chalice with the
consecrated Host,
and it is termi­
nated by a small
platform, on which stands a cross or
ostensoir.
Table. In architecture the term table
is applied to a horizontal moulding,
which marks the division between the
stories of the building. Tables receive
different names according to their posi­
tion, e.z., bench table, corbel table, &c.
—, Altar. (Arch.) The horizontal
part of an altar, upon which are placed
the holy vessels and books, with which
the priest officiates.
—,
Devil's.
A popular name for
dolmens (q.v.) and other so­called
Druidical remains.
—,
Engraver's.
A table used by
ancient engravers as well as the wood­
cutters of modern times. Its peculiarity
is that it is hollowed out, as shown in
our cut. The engraver stands in the
hollow, placing his elbows on the pro­
jecting por­
tions, which
serve as sup­
ports.
This
table is some­
times fur­
nished with a
projecting rim, which prevents the
engraver's tools from slipping off.
— , Model's. A kind of platform or
support, set upon short legs. It pre­
sents a considerable horizontal surface
raised above the ground and upon it
living models pose, especially for the
benefit of art students, who make studies
from the life.
Tables. (Paint.) In Latin the term
tabula was applied to an easel picture,
and in the Middle Ages painted panels
were often known as tables. Our cut is
from a fresco at Pompeii.
Tablet. A term applied to the square
oblong pigments, of varying thickness,
used in water­colour drawing. It also
denotes the small wax plates, which the
ancients used for writing upon with a
stilus.
— , Memorial. A tablet of stone,
marble or other material, upon which
a commemorative in­
scription is placed.
Houses in which
illustrious men were
born or lived are
sometimes,
though
far too seldom in London
a memorial tablet.
marked with
387

TAB
ART
DICTIONARY.
TAR
Tablinum. (Arch.) A small room in a
Roman house situated near the atrium,
in which the family archives were kept.
Tachiste. A term used in French art
criticism to denote those impressionists
who see no charm in a picture beyond
taches or strong touches of varying
colour and intensity, which are not
blended with the ground.
Taenia.
In the costume of the
ancients taenicz were the ribands
which were twisted round the fillet
worn by priests and others. It was the
taenia which served to fasten the fillet.
As an architectural term taenia denotes
the fillet which, in the Doric order, separ­
ates the architrave from the frieze.
Tailpiece. (Engrav.) An engraving on
copper or on wood, or a
cliché of a wood block,
used to illustrate a book.
Tailpieces are as a rule
merely ornamental, and
are placed at the ends
of chapters.
Talaria.
A sort of sandal, orna­
mented with wings
fastened with
thongs to the feet
of Mercury, Per­
seus and
some
other mythologi­
cal figures repre­
sented as flying through the air.
Talon. (Arch ) A moulding formed of
two arcs of circles, one convex, the
other concave: the first
is placed at the upper
part of the moulding,
the second at the lower
part. If the convex and
concave parts are re­
versed, it is called a reversed talon.
Talus. A
sudden slope
or inclination
in the ground ;
an obliquity in
the surface of
walls. The talus of 45 degrees offers
the most resistance, and it is this which
is most frequently employed in military
architecture.
Tan. A reddish brown colour, tinged
slightly with yellow.
Tanagra figures. Terra­cotta figures
made in ancient times at Tanagra in
Basotia.
Tanagra figures are very
delicate in execution and
of inexpressible charm.
Some are gilded, others
painted, and they
are
highly prized by collec­
tors. The finest of them
date from the 5th century
B.C .,
and are thus con­
temporary with the Elgin
marbles. The interest they
possess, as showing us of what the more
homely side of Greek sculpture was
capable at this period, can hardly be
overrated.
Tangent. A term applied in geometry
to a straight line, which has only
a point in common with a single
curve.
Tapestry. Tapestry may be defined
as painting in textile fabrics. In tapes­
try designs are obtained by interlacing
threads on lines stretched vertically or
horizontally so as to form arrangements
of lines and tints. It should be remem­
bered that in tapestry there is no canvas
or other material to form a groundwork.
The groundwork is formed by the
coloured threads themselves.
The
purpose of tapestry is to cover wall­
spaces, and it should always be hung
loosely and not stretched as though
held in a frame. [High Warp ; Low
Warp.]
Targe. (Her.) [Shield].
Tarsia. An Italian word, which de­
notes a curious art practised in Venice
and some other Italian cities in the 15th
century. It was a kind of wood mosaic.
Landscapes and other scenes were
represented by inlaying woods of vari­
ous colours upon a foundation of walnut
wood.
38S

TAS
ART
DICTIONARY.
TEL
Tassel. An ornament which consists
of a hemispherical head or knob sur­
rounded by
fringe.
The
a pendent
cords with
which curtains are held
back are gene­
rally terminated
in tassels, and
architectural
ornaments
sometimes
re­
semble a tassel
in shape.
Tassets. A name given to the plates
of metal which, in a suit of armour, were
fixed on to leather and hung from the
waist. They protected the hips and
thighs and scarcely hampered the move­
ments of the wearer.
Taste. In the artist taste is the
quality which leads to the selection of
material best fitted for artistic ex­
pression and to the refined and delicate
treatment of the material selected.
In the amateur taste is the faculty
of distinguishing between true and false
art.
Tau. A sacred instrument used by
the Egyptians in the shape of the Greek
T. The term is also applied to an
heraldic charge in the form of a T,
which is really a cross potent, or, as it is
more usually called, St. Anthony's
cross.
Tazza. (Pot.) A cup of the shape
indicated in our illustration. It had a
slender foot and two handles.
Technique. In painting and sculpture
the term technique denotes manipulative
skill, mastery of material and all those
qualities of hand and eye which con­
tribute to the executive excellence of a
work of art. It has been the fashion of
late years to decry technique and to
attach too great a value to certain
gifts of literary invention. But as it is
an artist's business to be articulate in
his own medium, whether it be paint or
clay, it is quite certain that technique is
of far greater importance, and is depen­
dent on far higher qualities of mind
than any knack of finding subjects or
portraying sentiment.
Telamones. (Arch.) Figures of men
used to support cornices or entablatures.
389

TEL
ART DIC:
They are also called Atlantes (q.v .), and
served the same purpose as the more
delicate and graceful caryatids.
Teleiconography. A method of re­
producing drawings at a distance by
means of a series of currents transmitted
by telegraphic wires.
Tempera.
(Paint.) Tempera is a
method of painting, in which dry colours
are diluted in glue or size.
Template. (Arch.) A piece of sheet
iron cut out to reproduce a moulding
reversed. When drawn along damp
plaster it gives a moulding in relief.
The term is also applied to the outlines
of sheet iron or wood, with the help of
which portions of stones are cut away,
so as to leave a moulding projecting.
Temple. (Arch.) A building con­
secrated to the worship of the gods
among the Greeks and Romans. An­
cient temples, independently of their
dimensions and the purposes to which
they were put, may be subdivided
according to the number of columns
which decorated their façade. The tem­
ple was called tetrastyle, when it had four
columns in its façade, hexastyle when
it had six, octastyle when it had eight,
decastyle when it had ten, and dodeca­
style when it had twelve. A temple is
said to be in antis when the two ends of
its façade are terminated with pilasters.
When its façade is the same rear and
front it is termed amphiprostyle.
A
peripteral temple has a colonnade run­
ning all round its cella, while a dipteral
temple is characterised by a double
colonnade. Yet another classification
of ancient temples is possible.
They
may be classified according to the
TONARY.
TEN
distance which exists between their
columns. When the distance between
the columns is one and a half times the
diameter of the column, the temple is
called pyenostyle ; when the distance is
two diameters it is called systyle; when
the distance is two and a quarter
diameters the temple is called eustyle ;
when the distance is three diameters,
diastyle; and araeostyle when the dis­
tance is more than three diameters,
Finally, it should be mentioned that as
a rule ancient temples were hypaethral,
that is, open to the sky.
Tender.
Light, delicate.
Bright,
fresh colours are called tender.
Tendril. The tendril of the vine affords
a charming motive for decoration. It is
used in architecture and frequently found
as an ornament on vases and other works
of art. Our cut will give some idea of
the free treatment of the tendril. It is
taken from a painted vase in the museum
at Naples.
Tenebrosi. (Paint.) A school of painters
who worked principally at Venice, and
recognised Carravaggio as their leader.
Their effects were produced by strong
lights and shadows, and to this they
owe their name.
Teniθres. A name given to pieces of
tapestry, which were made in Brussels
in the 17th century, and the subjects of
which were suggested by the peasant
scenes of Teniers.
Tenon. (1) (Arch.) A piece of iron, used
to bind courses of stone or blocks of
masonry which have to be held securely
390

TEN
ART
DICTIONARY.
TER
together. Also a piece of iron or wood,
cut so as to make a solid joint.
Tenon. (2.) (Sculp.) A piece of stone or
marble which is not detached from a
statue, while it is being carved. It con­
solidates weak places, which the blows
of the hammer upon
the chisel might break.
Tenons are generally
removed by a saw,
when the statue is
finally placed upon
its pedestal. But if
violent movement is
expressed in a statue
it is more prudent to retain the
tenons for the support of the legs or
arms.
Terebinth. A liquid resinous sub­
stance. Essence of terebinth is a hydro­
carbonate and is used to dissolve thick
matters, to clean paint brushes, and to
remove the varnish from plates, which
have been etched.
Terminal figures. Terminal figures
are busts placed upon stone pillars.
Sometimes the stone
pillars are terminated
by figures down to the
waist with or without
arms.
Sometimes,
though rarely, two ter­
minal figures are jux­
taposed, the lower
J— ^s. TSISW ^
mits
°f^
β
two
ke
"
^r^wj^gpr
in
S replaced by a
Λ
single pillar. Terminal
figures are frequently employed in
the decoration of parks and gardens,
while pillars surmounted by the upper
parts of tritons and naiads ornament
grottos and fountains.
Terra­cotta. (Sculp.) This material,
which is a baked clay, has always been
used by sculptors for their less important
works. Casts of statuettes are made in
clay, which is then baked. The process
has the advantage of being simple and
inexpensive, and it is well adapted for
the reproduction of small works. The
most celebrated terra­cottas known are
the Tanagra figures (q.v.) .
Terra di Sienna. (Paint ) A kind of
earth used both in oil and water­colour
painting. It is of a cold yellowish tone,
when in its natural state, but when burnt
it acquires a warm useful tone. [Burnt
Sienna.]
Terra Verde. (Paint.) A useful and
permanent green pigment, which is found
in the form of an earth in Cyprus and in
Italy. Among its ingredients are silica
and oxide of iron.
Terrace. (Arch.) In the architecture
of gardens a terrace is an elevated walk,
rising by steps
above
the
ground in front
ofit,oraplot
of ground laid
out in front of
a building, and
raised upon a
slope above the
general level.
The term also denotes a horizontal roof,
which forms a raised platform above a
building. The upper storey of Roman
houses, which was called the solarium,
presents a good example of a terrace
of this sort. A wide space with a rail­
ing running round it is also called a
terrace, and sometimes the term is ap­
plied to a row of uniform villas. In this
last instance the word appears to have
lost its true meaning.
Terre Plen. (Arch.) A French term
applied to a solid mass situated be­
391

TER
ART
DICTIONARY.
THE
tween the two arches of a bridge. Our
cut will sufficiently explain its purpose
and construction.
Tertiary colours. (Paint.) Colours are
called tertiary when they are produced
by the mixture of a primary and secon­
dary colour, one of the colours being in
excess of the others. They are olive,
citrine, and russet.
Tesselated pavements. (Arch.) In
Rome pavements were frequently deco­
rated with elaborate mosaics. Patterns
and pictures were made by an artistic
arrangement of variously coloured stones.
These pavements are called tesselated,
and are to be found wherever the Romans
pitched their camp. Fine specimens
exist in England and have from time to
time been unearthed with the villas of
which they formed part. The designs
are frequently decorative, but are some­
times pictorial. At Pompeii was found
an admirable representation of the battle
of Issus, a copy of a celebrated picture
by a lady artist named Helena. This,
perhaps the most famous tesselated
pavement, is now in the Naples Museum.
The best known examples in England
are at Brading, in the Isle of Wight, and
Bury, in Sussex.
Tessera. (Arch.) A small pebble, or
piece of glass or earthenware, used in
the making of tesselated pavements.
Testoon. (Numis.) A French coin in
circulation in the reign of Louis XII.
The term is derived from tête, a head,
and was applied to the coin in question
because it bore the king's head upon it.
From this was derived the English word
tester, meaning a sixpence.
Tetragram. A term denoting the
mystic letters, placed in a triangle,
which stand for the name of God
Tetrahedron. A geometrical term,
denoting a solid figure, bounded by four
plane sides.
Tetrastyle. (Arch.) A temple is said
to be tetrastyle when its façade is orna­
mented with four columns.
Texture. (Paint.) A term applied to
the arrangement of neighbouring tones,
or different shades of the same colour
in alternation or juxtaposition.
The
secret of the vibration of the greens in
Constable's landscapes results from the
fact that he gets his effect by a texture of
greens of different intensity. In another
sense texture denotes the quality of the
surface of draperies, &c. Thus we say
that an artist is skilled in rendering
textures, when he clearly marks in his
pictures the varying qualities of the sur­
faces which he represents.
Thanatos. In Greek art of the best
period, and later, Thanatos, or Death, is
personified by a winged youth or man.
He was regarded as the brother of Hypnos,
or Sleep, and was shorn of all his terrors.
He was usually represented as a boy,
but sometimes (as, for instance, on a lecy-
thus in the British Museum) he is
bearded.
Theatre. (Arch.) A large building, in
which plays are presented. It is divided
into two portions, the auditorium, re ­
served for the spectators, and the stage,
reserved for the actors. Ancient the aires
were open to the sky. Modern theatres
are covered buildings, lighted by gas
or electricity. The construction of
the theatre has undergone very slight
modifications. The auditorium is with
392

THE
ART DIC
us as it was with the ancients a semi­
circular series of seats, and the stage of
to­day, though of course its mechanical
appliances are far more elaborate than
of old, keeps quite close to the ancient
type. At the close of a scene or at the
end of a play a curtain is let down,
which shuts off the stage from the audi­
torium. The background of a scene
consists of a curtain, as shown in our
second cut, upon which the distances
are depicted ; the middle distance and
foreground , being indicated by wings.
The framework within which the scene
is set may be increased or diminished
in size by drawing up or letting down a
curtain fixed at the front of the stage.
The effect thus produced may be esti­
mated from our third cut.
Theatrical. Painted or sculptured
figures are termed theatrical when their
attitude is unnatural or exaggerated.
For instance, a statue may be theatrical
in pose ; the rendering of a scene is said
to be theatrical when it lacks simplicity.
Thecla, St. St. Thecla was a maiden
of Anconium, and she became a Chris­
tian at hearing the preaching of St. Paul,
whom she is said to have followed on
some of his journeys. She was cruelly
persecuted on espousing the new faith,
but the lions, sent to devour her, spared
her life She spent many years in a desert
THO
in Seleucia, and she finally disappeared
in a rock, which opened behind her, when
she was being pursued by some " sons of
Belial." In art she is represented as hold­
ing a palm ; sometimes lions crouch at
her feet.
Thermse. (Arch.) The word thevmce.
originally meant hot springs ; then it
denoted hot baths ; and finally it became
a general word among the Romans for a
collection of baths included within one
building. The thevmce comprised numer­
ous rooms, baths, and sweating rooms,
and frequently covered a large tract of
ground. [Baths.]
Thin. (Paint.) A term applied to a too
superficial treament, to a modelling
which lacks consistence, to the render­
ing of a body in a relief by tones which
lack solidity, or to the application of
colour in too fine layers.
Thistle. (Her.) The thistle has always
been the emblem of Scotland. The order
of the Thistle, which is
tfifMfr
supposed to be of very
|g|C
ancient origin, was re­
Â&KH r<i
vived by James V. of Scot­ èÈ^fô|ir
land, and its statutes have
^^^^Π »·Λ »
been since several times modified by dif­
ferent sovereigns of the United Kingdom.
Thole. (Arch.) The keystone of a cu­
pola ; the cupola or dome itself.
Thomas, St. St. Thomas was that one
of the disciples of Jesus who, when Jesus
reappeared after the Crucifixion, de­
manded some proof that he was the
Lord. This doubting on the part of
Thomas has been the subject of many
pictures.
When St. Thomas is repre­
sented alone, his attribute is commonly
a builder's square. This square alludes
to a curious legend, according to which
Thomas was sent to Gondofures, king of
the Indies, who wanted an architect to
build him a palace. Thomas, while the
king was away, did not build his palace,
but gave his money away in alms. On
his return, the king threw Thomas in
prison, but on being told in a vision that
Thomas by giving away his alms had
UONARY.
26
393

THR
ART
DICTIONARY.
TIE
built him a palace in heaven, he at once
released him And in allusion to this
quaint tradition St. Thomas is repre­
sented as carrying a square
Three­quarter. (Paint.) A portrait is
said to be three quarter length when it
only shows the sitter as far as the hips
Technically the term is applied to por­
traits which measure thirty inches by
twenty­five.
Through­stone. (Arch.) A stone which
goes right through a wall, so that its ends
can be seen on either side.
Throwing. (Pot.) The most primitive
method of fashioning pots is what is
known as throwing, that is by shaping
the lump of wet clay with the hands
as it revolves on the wheel before the
potter.
Thrust. (Arch.) The force exerted by
an arch or vault upon a pier. The pur­
pose of the flying
buttress in Gothic
//"W
architecture is to
rùw
counteract the thrust
of the vaults of the
nave, and the skill of
the French architects
of the 12th and 13th
centuries consisted in giving a feeling
of decoration to the masses of masonry
indispensable to the stability of a
building.
Thunder­bolt. The attribute of Zeus.
It assumes the form of a long kind of
spindle, from which proceed zigzag rays,
pointed like ar­
row­heads.
Thurible. A
vessel contain­
ing incense,
which is sus­
pended
by
chains
and
swung in the
processions of
the Catholic
Church.
Thyrsus. A
kind of staff or javelin, surrounded
L·
with vine­branches or ivy and termi­
nated by a pine­cone . It was
the attribute of Bacchus and
his followers, whether priests
or priestesses. According to
some authorities the thyrsus
ending in a javelin point re­
presented the deceit of a com­
batant, who sought to hide his
arms under flowing ribbons,
while the thyrsus surmounted
by a pine­cone symbolised
peaceful life. The Egyptians,
Phoenicians, Greeks, and even the Jews
carried thyrsi in their religious cere­
monies.
Tiara. A headdress
worn by the kings of
Persia and also by the
Jews. Our cut shows
a royal tiara as it is
still worn in Persia.
The term tiara is also
applied to the triple
crown worn bythe Pope.
Tibia. A wind in­
strument
made
of
reed, wood, or the shin­bone of an
animal. There were in use among the
ancients several kinds of tibiae, but they
|fc=
y
'rf
SZ_
=o<!
all had points of similarity, and were
provided with holes for the fingers.
Tibicen. A Roman word denoting
a player on the flute.
Tie­beam. (Arch.)
A term applied to
the horizontal piece «*S|p
ofwoodinaroof.*
In Gothic buildings, in which the timber­
work of the roof is apparent­ the tie­
394

TIE
ART
DICTIONARY.
TIN
beams are decorated, at the ends set into
the walls, with carvings, which generally
take the forms of the heads of fantastic
animals.
Tierce­point. (Arch.) The point of in­
tersection of two pointed arches.
Tige. (Arch.) In some systems of or­
nament the term tige is applied to cylin­
drical branches, from
which foliage emerges.
Sometimes the tige,
slightly swelling at the
end or spreading out
into a bud, is deco­
rated with flutings or striae ; sometimes
its surface is unbroken.
Tight. (Paint.) A painting is said
to be tight, when it is handled without
breadth or freedom, when the outlines
are harshly denned and abruptly cut off
from the background.
Tile. (Arch.) A square of burnt earth
used in roofing houses. Tiles of convex
form are placed at the ridge of a roof !
and known as ridge­tiles (q.v.). Some j
tiles are varnished and coloured, and by
means of these roofs may be decorated
with geometrical designs. Roman tem­
ples were sometimes covered with bronze
tiles laid side by side, while the roofs
of Chinese temples generally consist
of tiles of coarse porcelain painted
green or yellow. The term tile is also
applied to plaques of marble, stone,
or earthenware, sometimes decorated,
sometimes with a uniform surface,
which are used to cover walls or pave­
ments. As a rule they are either square
or rectangular.
Sometimes, however,
they are triangular or in the shape of a
lozenge, hexagon, or octagon ; they are
then capable of very varied combina­
tions.
Tile, Gutter. A hollow tile placed at
the angle formed by
the intersection of
two roofs inclined
in opposite direc­
tions, and serving
to carry off rain
water.
Sometimes
plates of lead or zinc are used instead
of tiles.
— , Hanging. (Arch.) A tile rounded
or cut to a sharp
point,
principally
used to cover tur­
rets or circular roofs.
In the Middle Ages
ridge tiles were large­
ly used to protect the
beams of timber­
built houses from the
effects of rain water.
'"'" *&'
fi
They are still sonaetimeb put to this
use.
Tilting lance. A lance with a broad,
blunt point, which was used in tourna­
ments, not to inflict mortal injuries, but
simply to dislodge an opponent from the
saddle.
Tincture. (Her.) In heraldry the term
tincture is used as a general expression
for the colouring of a
shield and includes all the
three terms, colour, metal,
and fur.
There are five
colours, azure or blue,
shown by lines drawn
horizontally across the
shield ; gules or red, shown by verti­
395

TIN
ART DIC
cal lines ; vert or green, shown by
diagonal lines downwards from dexter
to sinister; pur pur e or purple, shown
by diagonal lines downwards from
sinister to dexter ; sable or black, shown
by horizontal vertical lines crossing
each other. There are two metals, or
and argent, or gold and silver.
Argent
is represented by a perfectly plain shield ;
or by a plain field powdered with dots.
There are eight furs, descriptions of
which will be found under their re­
spective names : ermine, ermines, er­
minois ; peau ; vair, counter­vair ; potent,
counter­potent. The accompanying cut
shows a sable on an argent on an azure
shield.
Tint. (Paint.) A light shade ; also the
colour which results from the mixture
of several colours ; the application of
a particular colour with varying in­
tensity.
Tinted. (Paint.) Covered with a
tint, uniformly covered with a light
shade.
Tinting Tool. (Engrav.) A tool used
by engravers on copper as well as
on wood to cut lines of different
breadths. They vary in size according
to the purpose for which they are re­
quired
Tissierography. A process of relief
engraving invented by Louis Tissier be­
tween 1831 and 1839, by means of which
drawings with pen or pencil, or tracings
on autographic paper, may be printed
typographically.
To­fall. (Arch.) (Lean­to.)
Toga. (Cost.) The characteristic dress
of the Roman citizen. It underwent
many changes of form, and, not being a
rigid garment, was capable of an infinite
variety of folds. But generally it was an
oblong piece of cloth, which enveloped
the body. One end of it was then brought
from behind under theright arm, passed 1
10NARY.
TOM
across the body, then thrown over the
left shoulder, until it reached the ground
behind.
Tomb. (Arch.) A monument erected
over the spot where the remains of a dead
man lie. Tombs vary in form accord­
ing to their style and epoch. Egyptian
and Roman tombs sometimes cover
a large extent of ground. In the Middle
Ages tombs often assumed the form
of small buildings; they were then
either attached to the outside wall
of a church or placed in a chapel in
the interior. During the Renaissance,
tombs were decorated with pilasters,
columns or entablatures and equestrian
statues, and were sometimes important
constructions. In the 17th and 18th cen­
turies the tombs of illustrious men were
conceived in an exquisite spirit of decora­
tive art. In the beginning of the pre­
sent century, the neo­Greek style pre­
vailed. Tombs were then often pyra­
midal in shape, and were decorated with
bas­reliefs.
They were generally in­
artistic and almost always ridiculous.
The revival of sculpture in the present
day will no doubt have the effect of im­
390

TOM
ART
DICTIONARY.
TOR
proving the public taste in monuments
in honour of the dead.
Tombstone. A term applied to blocks
of stone, which
cover or stand at
the end of tombs.
Tombstones in
the Middle Ages
were sometimes
decorated
with
incised designs
of much rich­
ness, and when
they represented
persons of rank
or
distinction,
the faces, hands,
and armorial bearings were incrusted
with marble.
Tonality. (Paint.) A collection of
tones subordinated to one dominant tone.
A vigorous tonality. A picture painted
in a violet tonality.
Tone. (Paint.) Tone is denned by
some writers as the variations of a colour
or tint, which are produced by its ad­
mixture with white and black. It keeps
the same hue and becomes lighter and
darker. The term is also applied to the
brilliance, the intensity of tint, the domi­
nant effect, observable in the colours
of a picture. Thus we speak of warm
tones, cold tones, energetic tones, &c.
—, Local. A term applied to the general
tone covering a surface, the modelling
which is obtained by means of dark
touches, representing the shades, and
light touches, indicating the light.
— , Neutral. A term applied to a scale
of broken tones, which, precisely on
account of their neutrality, give an addi­
tional value to other brighter tones or
colours.
Toned down. (Paint.) Colours are
said to have toned down when with age
they have become lower in tone and
more sombre than they were when freshly
laid on.
Toothing. (Arch ) The demolition of a
piece of masonry so as to bind more I
sii.** .
solidly together a portion already con­
structed with a
portion still in
course of con­
struction. The
term Toothing
stone is applied
to the stones
left uneven or
toothed in or­
^H^I ^
der to facilitate
the binding of two portions of a wall
built at different dates.
Tooth Ornament. (Arch.) A system
of ornament in the
form of a series of
pointed teeth. It is
peculiar to the Ro­
manesque and early
Pointed style.
Topaz. A precious stone of a yellow
tone.
The burnt topaz is somewhat
darker.
Topia. (Paint.) A term applied by
Vitruvius to a landscape of a purely
decorative and conventional character,
many florid specimens of which have
been discovered at Pompeii.
Topographic. A map or plan repre­
senting the form of a country with all its
details is termed topographic.
Toque. The headdress
worn in former times by
the Doge of Venice. The
ducal toque was richly
ornamented and had ear
pieces.
In France the
term was applied to the black velvet
cap, surmounted by eagles'
feathers, which the imperial
noblesse wore before 1815.
Torchθre. An allegorical
figure holding a torch, lamp,
or candle. The name is
given to vases of metal
which have a handle and in
the interior of which some
inflammable substance is
put, which on combustion
produces an intense flame. Also to the
397

TOR
ART DICTIONARY.
TOW
supports of delicate shape, upon which
candelabra are placed.
Toreuma. The name given by the
ancients to bas­reliefs executed in metal
and chased.
Toreutic. (Sculp.) Among the Greeks
and Romans the term toreutic was
applied to the chasing, carving, and
boring of hard substances, such as ivory,
stone or silver.
Torsade. A French term denoting a
system of ornament in imitation of a
twisted cable ; also a twisted fringe,
used as a border for curtains, draperies,
&c.
Torso. That portion of a human figure
which includes the shoulders, veins, and
breast. The term is
generally applied to
a statue deprived of
head and arms. The
" torso of the Belve­
dere " which was dis­
covered at Rome at
the end of the 15th
/ *?y ILriÉ^"
centur
y>
an
disnow
I ,A__J^­
preserved in the Mu­
seum of the Vatican,
and the " torso Farnese," now at Naples,
are two admirable fragments of ancient
sculpture
Torus. (Arch.) A moulding of convex
profile.
This profile is generally a
ijrHl/llliH^
semicircle. In buildings of the Gothic
style, however, we sometimes find tori
which have an elliptic profile or a profile
made up of two arcs of a circle, cutting
one another at a right angle. In me­
diaeval buildings archivolts often con­
sist of one or more tori separated from
each other by small angular mould­
ings.
Touch. (Paint.) The method in which
the colours are laid on the surface of the
canvas by the painter. We speak of
a light touch, a want of touch, or a
square touch; it may be said that the
modelling is indicated by a few skilful
touches.
Tourelle. (Arch.) A tower of small
diameter runing up the height of a build­
ing, in which a circular staircase is gener­
ally placed. [Turret.]
Tourmaline. A hard stone formed of a
silicate with a base of limestone or mag­
nesia, and containing boric acid and
fluor. It is sometimes colourless, some ­
times of a dark green or brown red, com­
ing very near to black.
Tournure. The characteristic as­
pect of a drawing ; grace or grandeur of
line.
Tower. (Arch.) A building of great
height in proportion to its breadth with a
circular, polygonal, or square base. The
towers of castles serve as a donjon, to
connect curtains and to protect the angle
of a fortified enclosure. In the 12th
century towers were square ; in the 13th
they were circular ; from the 14th to the
16th century they nearly approached the
square, especially when they were don­
jons. The clock towers of churches are
398

TOW
ART
DICTIONARY.
TRA
called towers, when their base is square,
their
upper stories polygonal, and
many objects of domestic use.
The
clock case in our cut is a somewhat florid
instance of tracery applied to wood
carving.
Tracing. A mechanical reproduction
of a drawing. Tracings are indispensable
to an engraver if he wishes his print to
be an exact reproduction of the original
work. Sometimes also an artist will
trace a first sketch when he finds in it
certain qualities which he can only re­
produce by this mechanical means.
There are several methods of obtaining
tracings. A simple method is to place
the drawing, assuming it to be on paper^
when they do not terminate in a pyra­
mid.
Tower, Clock. (Arch ) The tower of a
castle or church in which a clock is
placed. Its face generally serves as
an opportunity for decoration.
Tracer. An instrument consisting of
two flat pieces of metal, the ends of
which are made to approach
one another by means of a
screw. The tracer is dipped
in ink and is used to draw
lines of uniform thickness.
Some tracers are used to
draw straight lines; they are
then provided with a handle,
which can be unscrewed ; or
the tracers may be adapted to
a compass, in which case they draw
curved lines and arcs of circles.
Tracery. (Arch.) A term applied to a
kind of ornament found in the upper
part of Gothic windows. It is geometric
in pattern, and it has been applied to
399

TRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
TRA
against a window pane, and to set over
it a sheet of thin paper.
The lines
of the drawing will then appear
through and if they are followed with
a pencil an exact reproduction will
be obtained. A similar, but more
convenient method is by the use of
transparent
paper,
called tracing
paper. The original drawing can then
be laid on the table or on a drawing­
board, and the lines followed with pen
or pencil on the tracing paper. Another
method is by the use of blackened
paper, which is laid with its black­
ened face downwards on a sheet of
white paper,
the drawing being
placed above the blackened paper.
By lightly pressing with a blunted
steel or ivory style on the lines of
the drawing, the black is transferred
to the white paper below, and the
drawing is reproduced. This method,
though extremely easy, has the disadvan­
tage of spoiling the original drawing.
The method generally employed by en­
gravers is as follows: A sheet of gelatine'
paper is laid upon the drawing which can
be seen through the gelatine; the en­
graver follows the lines of the drawing
with a sharp point which cuts into the
gelatine, so that the lines of the drawing j
are represented by little canals in the
gelatine paper.
The whole sheet of
gelatine is then dusted over with
black powder which remains in the I
depressions when the plane surface
is wiped. The tracing thus prepared
is laid face downwards on the wood
to be engraved, and either the ­hand
or a burnisher passed over it, so as |
to transfer the lines of black powder
to the block. The engraver thus has
on his block an inverse of the ori­
ginal drawing, so that consequently the
print will face the same way as the
original.
Tracing of Shadows. A tracing the
purpose of which is to determine the
precise form of cast shadows and
the luminous parts of a body having |
400
given the luminous point in relation
to this body.
Trajan's Column. (Arch.) A column set
up in the Forum by the Emperor Tra­
jan to celebrate his victory over the
Dacians.
^E.sthetically it is not a su­
premely beautiful object, but it is very
valuable as a record of costume and
weapons, being decorated with reliefs
representing the military life of the
Romans. A cast of it may be seen at the
South Kensington Museum.
Tranquil. A work, which is executed
in a quiet, harmonious tonality, may be
termed tranquil. To produce a tran­
quil effect all striking notes in a picture
must be softened, and its brilliant lights
must be extinguished.
Transemaux.
This barbarous term
was proposed by M. Salvetat, to denote
transparent faïence enamels, while he
suggested opemaux to mean opaque
enamels.
Transept. (Arch.) The smaller arms
in the crossing of a Gothic church are

TRA
ART
DICTIONARY.
TRE
called transepts, one of them being to­
wards the south, the
other towards the
north. Some churches
have a double set of
transepts.
Transition. (Arch.) The term trans­
ition is applied to an architectural style
which possesses the characteristics of two
styles, one of which is gradually giving
way to the other.
In English archi­
tecture, for instance, there is a period of
transition, when the Norman style is giv­
ing way to the Early English, another
when the Decorated style is taking the
place of the Early English, and a third
when the Perpendicular is supplanting
the Decorated.
Transom. (Arch.) A horizontal bar or
mullion in a window. Transoms are
sometimes quite plain, sometimes deco­
rated with simple mouldings.
Trap. (Arch.) An opening in a floor or
ceiling, which is closed either by a grat­
ing or by a shutter.
Trapezium. A quadrilateral figure, in
which two sides are parallel and all the
sides unequal. A solid figure is called a
trapezohedron, when each
\
/ of its faces is a trapezium.
^—
'
A particular form of this
solid figure has twenty­four faces present­
ing the appearance of symmetrical
quadrilateral figures.
Travertino. (Arch.) A kind of limestone,
which was used by the Romans for build­
ing purposes and highly prized by them.
It is a very hard stone, is white when
freshly cut, and tones down to a yellow
with age and exposure. It was quarried
by the ancient Romans atTibur, whence
it was called Lapis Tiburtinus,
Traver­
tino being its modern name.
Tread. (Arch.) The horizontal part of
a step, upon which the foot rests.
Treasury. (Arch.) A small isolated
building, chapel, or sacristy, belonging
to a Gothic church, in which relics and
sacred vessels made of the precious
metals were kept.
Treat. (Paint.) To treat, in painting, is
to express or represent in a certain way.
For instance, we speak of a subject
treated with spirit, a figure badly treated,
a group happily treated.
Trefoil. (Arch.) A system of ornament
in vogue in the Gothic style, which con­
sisted of three foils
"" ,,,,^.
ι
••>.. ~ ­
or portions of a
~
circle.
Some tre­
foils
are
simple,
some are compo­
site, that is to say,
other trefoils are inscribed within them.
It also occurs as a charge in heraldry ;
in this case it may be
described as the three­
leaved grass, having a
small stalk. Our cut
may be thus described:
Argent, three trefoils,
gules, one over two.
Trellis. (Arch.) A garden decoration
consisting of vines or creepers, trailing
over walls or vaults. In the 12th and
following centuries vaults were built in
gardens and covered with trellis­work.
From the 16th century onwards the
principle of trellis was applied to archi­
tecture, and at that period porticoes,
covered with richly decorated lattice­
work, to which the term trellis was
applied, were quite common.
401

TRE
ART
DICTIONARY.
TRI
Tresse. (Arch.) A system of ornament,
either flat or convex.
It consists of
bandelettes (q.v.)
intertwined.
In
the
romanesque
style tori (q.v.) are
frequently decorated with tresses.
Tressure. (Her.) A French heraldic
term, denoting a narrow orle (q.v .) . The
tressure is frequently met with in coats­
of­arms, and may be either simple or
double, fleuronnée or fleurdelisée.
Triangle. A geometrical figure having
three sides and three angles. A right­
angled triangle is a triangle which has
a right angle ; in an equilateral triangle
[Ν,
Α
Δ
Κ
the three sides and the three angles are
equal ; an isosceles triangle has two
equal sides ; and a scalene triangle has
three unequal sides.
Triangular. That which has three
sides or is in the form of a triangle.
Tribune. (Arch.) A semicircular seat
always found in Roman basilicse ; in all
styles of architecture, a raised gallery,
supported by columns or arches; a
passage made in the thickness of the wall
in Gothic build­
ings and bounded
by pierced balus­
trades. The term
is also applied
sometimes to the
platform in
a
rood ­ loft, from
which discourses
were
delivered.
Some authors give the name tribune
to the galleries running round the lan­
tern, which terminates a dome. Gene­
rally any raised place or rostrum, from
which speeches are made, may be de­
scribed as a tribune.
Tricky. A work of art is said to be
tricky when its effect is produced not
by the means proper to the art itself,
but by ficelle (q.v ) or sleight of hand.
Triclinium. (Arch.) The dining­room
of a Roman house. It was so­called
from the fact that it contained three
seats arranged round a table, there being
room on each seat for three persons to
recline.
Trident. A three­pronged fork. Nep­
tune is always represented
armed with a trident. It is
also the attribute of the
gods of the sea, such as
Tritons, Nereids, &c, who
are represented in mytho­
logical scenes or as deco­
rative groups on fountains, &c
Triforium. (Arch.) A gallery immedi­
ately above the nave in a basilica or
church. Some­
times the tri­
forium
occu­
pies the whole
breadth of the
aisles ;
some­
times it is only
a narrow gal­
lery, set against
the roof of the
nave. The pur­
pose of this vaulted gallery is to serve
as a flying buttress to counterbalance
the thrust of the central vault.
Triglyph. (Arch ) A
system of ornament,
found in the frieze of
the Doric order.
It
consists of a project­
ing piece pierced by
three narrow flutings
or glyphs. The frieze
of the Doric style
is made up of alternate metopes and
402

TRI
ART
DICTIONARY.
TRO
triglyphs, and in Greek temples the
angle of the entablature is strengthened
by two triglyphs, one on each face. In
Roman Doric buildings, however, the
angles are formed by two demi­metopes,
and the triglyphs are always placed at
the axis of the column.
Trilith. [Lichaven.]
Trilobé. (Arch.) A system of orna­
ment consisting of three cusps or lobes
It is also called trefoil. It was con­
stantly employed in
buildings
of the
Gothic style from
the 12th to the 16th century. Examples
of mullions and arcades in the form of
trilobés are very common.
Trimmer. (Arch.) A piece of wood,
in which the joists of a plank are held
fast.
Tripod. That which has three feet.
A term applied to table lamps or in­
cense­burners, which stood upon three
feet. The most famous tripod in
ancient times was the seat with three
legs, upon which the priestess of Apollo
sat to declare the oracle at Delphi. In
consequence of this the tripod was the
attribute of Apollo.
Triptych. A picture painted on a
panel and covered by two leaves, which
turn on hinges.
Some triptychs are
painted with bas­reliefs painted and
gilded. Some of the finest triptychs in
existence we owe to Rubens, while the
early masters of Italian and German
schools painted a very large number of
triptychs.
The doors or leaves were
generally painted on both sides, as well
as the central panel.
Triquetra. A
mystical
orna­
ment, sometimes
found as a mo­
tive in architec­
tural decoration.
Triumphal
Arch. [Arch,
Triumphal.]
Trochilus. (Arch.) A moulding with a
concave outline, which generally sepa­
rates two tori or convex mouldings. The
trochilus is a special variety of the
scotia (q.v.) .
Trophy. A decoration consisting of a
group of arms, bound together with
ribands and hung from a wall. Mural
surfaces are frequently decorated with
painted or
sculptured
trophies.
The term
trophy is also applied to a group of
attributes of the chase, thus we speak
403

TRO
ART
DICTIONARY.
T­SQ
of a trophy of the chase. The practice
of setting up a trophy in commemoration
of a victory dates from very early times.
After a battle the ancients set up
trophies, which consisted of the arms
and spoils taken from the vanquished.
In modern times trophies, consisting of
flags, &c, are put up in churches.
Trowel. A trowel consists of a tri­
angle with a rounded end fitted on to a
handle. It is used by masons to spread
the plaster between the courses.
A
small trowel is used to mark the joints
^± between the stones or
jjËtâ&P bricks in a piece of
^^yfj ^
masonry. Painters use
s\^0^
a
palette knife shaped
t­ """^
like a trowel to spread
the ground over a canvas, and to put in
those parts of a picture, which by their
rough execution are intended to present
a contrast to the more carefully finished
parts.
True. This piece of French artistic
slang is almost synonomous with ficelle
(q.v .) , but it refers rather to the method
than to the means of execution.
It
does not differ greatly from the English
word, " knack." An artist is said to have
the " true," when he possesses a special
knowledge of the details of his art, and
can grasp at once the method in which
a thing is to be done.
Truculent. Brutal and lively at the
same time. Thus bright fresh colours,
which do not lack harmony, but are
laid on with a vigorous hand, are termed
truculent.
Truite. (Pot.) A term used by Jac­
quemart and other French writers on
the Ceramic art to denote a fine
crackle which is found on some pieces
of Chinese porcelain. The name is
given to these pieces of porcelain be­
cause their surface resembles the scales
of a trout.
Truncated. Any solid figure is said to
be truncated when its upper part is cut
off parallel to its base. Oar cut gives
an example of a truncated pyramid.
| Pedestals are frequently cut into the
shape of truncated
^­— %^
! pyramids, their up­ /^S$[8?f*V
per part present­ /
fflMW^
ing a smooth hori­ /
||M\i\l^P^^
ι
zontal surface.
^^J^Jn^^^^
Trunk­light. (Arch.) [Abat­jour]
I Truqueur. A truqueur is an artist who
j fraudulently manufactures pictures,
j drawings, or the autographs of famous
men, and attempts to entrap amateurs
into buying his forgeries as if they
were genuine. The art of trucage has
made immense strides in our own days.
The truqueur visits Greece to collect
scraps of Parian marble, which he
converts into bas­reliefs of the 5th
century, and studies the arts of all
nations and ages with an intelligence
worthy of better things than his fraudu­
lent employment.
Truss. (Arch.) A term applied to the
pieces of timber or iron which support
the ridge of a roof,
.
through the interme­
Jjjk
diation of longitu­
JJLI%
dinal pieces called
>|Ρ1Η^
purlins, placed par­
fffl i 1|
λ
allei to one another.
ml
1 1|V
The truss of a man­
JSjË i
m,
sard roof assumes a ^4gas&zas^^
particular form.
It
Β
Γ
*
Λ
*ji
may best be de­
scribed as a truss of the usual shape,
inscribed in a triangle, as low as possible,
the whole of which would be raised by
means of strut beams.
T­square. A T­square consists of a
flat rule placed at right angles to a piece
of wood which is grooved, so that it
may be applied to the edge of a drawing
board. If this part of the square be
moved along with the left hand, the flat
rule allows the draughtsman to draw
horizontal lines, which are absolutely
404

TUB
ART
DICTIONARY.
TUR
parallel, provided that the edge of the
drawing­board is perfectly straight. The
branches of some T­squares are move­
able, so that oblique parallels may be
drawn.
Perpendicular lines may be
obtained by placing a set square on
the horizontal rule. When once the
management of the T­square is mastered
the execution of architectural and
geometrical drawings is much facili­
tated.
Tube. (Paint.) A small cylinder of tin,
one of the ends of which is closed by a
screw top of the same metal. The other
end is folded over when the tube has
been filled with pounded
colour, reduced to the state
of a soft paste. By unscrew­
ing the top and squeezing
the tube, the amount of
colour which the artist
needs may be obtained.
Tubes of a considerable size are made
to hold colours used in oil­painting. In
former times oil colours were kept in
small pigs' bladders folded in the shape
of a purse. The colour was pressed
from the bladder on the palette by
pricking the bladder with a pin.
Tufa. A kind of red sandstone which
is soft as a rule, and not very durable.
It was used by the early builders of
Rome, because it could be split off into
square blocks without any cutting, a
wedge only being used.
Tumulus. A term applied to a mass
of earth or stones in the form of a small
cone or hillock. In the remotest ages of
antiquity, tumuli were raised as tombs
or commemorative monuments. There
are still in existence many Celtic tumuli.
Etruscan tombs generally consist of a
sub­basement of masonry, with a cone of
earth built on the top of it, which is
sometimes of large dimensions, and
planted with trees.
Tunic. (Cost.) A garment, in shape
something like a blouse, worn by the
ancients under the toga. In Greece
travellers, artisans, and the like wore a
tunic without any
garment to cover
it.
Turitulum. A
moveable censer
into which in­
cense
was
thrown by the
hand. Sometimes
it was an open
grate, as shown
in our cut, some­
times it more (
closely resembled ,
the modern thuri­
ble.
Turret. (Arch.) A small tower, circu­
lar or polygonal in form, found in Gothic
and Renaissance buildings, in which is a
405

TUS
ART
DICTIONARY.
ULT
Ι
staircase or small retreat, often elabo­
rately decorated. Sometimes they
spring from the surface of the ground,
sometimes they are corbelled out and
project beyond the wall of a building.
Tuscan. (Arch.) An order of archi­
tecture of the Etruscan style, called also
the Rustic order. It was employed on
the ground floor of some Roman build­
ings, such as the the­
atre of Marcellus.
This order, which is
described by Vitru­
vius, is nothing but a
degenerate
repro­
duction of the Greek
Doric order.
The
Tuscan order, ac ­
cording to Vignole,
differs only from the Doric order in
being less elegant, as far as its propor­
tions are concerned.
Tusses. (Arch.) Stones placed one
above the other, so as to form alternate
projections and hol­
lows. Their pur­
pose is to bind to­
gether the old and
new portions of a
wall which has been
extended. The term
is also applied to
the projecting stones
in a belting­course,
placed at the inside
angle of two walls, in order to increase
their cohesion.
Tympanum. (Arch.) The triangular
space included between the cornice and
the sloping sides of a
^
pediment. The term
is also applied to the
triangle or kind of es­
tympana of arches are sometimes deco­
rated with bas­reliefs, paintings, or
coinson circumscribed by an archivolt,
an entablature and a pilaster. These
mosaics.
It also denotes the field
bounded by the haunches of the arch
and the springing­line of the arch above
the doorways of Gothic churches.
Tynes. (Her.) The name given by
heralds to the small branches that pro­
ject from the antlers of
a stag. It is not gene­
rally necessary to specify
the number of tynes.
The full antlers attached
to a small portion of the
skull, as here shown, are sometimes
borne as a separate charge.
Type. A term applied in art to a
figure of a precise and strongly marked
character. Thus we speak of a type of a
beautiful woman, a type of a beggar. In
numismatics an historical or symbolic
figure upon a coin is called a type.
Typical. That which has the character
or distinguishing marks of a type.
Typography. The art of printing by
means of characters or types in relief.
Relief engravings, whether in zinc, cop­
per, or wood, may be printed by the typo­
graphic process at the same time as
letterpress set up in moveable type.
Typolithography. The art of printing
on the same page lithograph drawings
and printer's type.
u
Ultramarine. A pigment of a beautiful
azure blue, which is valuable for its in­
tensity. It was formerly obtained by the
calcination of lapis lazuli, but it is now­
adays artificially prepared by mixing
kaolin, sodium, and sulphur.
406

UMB
ART
DICTIONARY.
UNG
Umber. (Paint.) Umber is found in a
native state, and is a mixture of iron and
manganese. The pigment derived from
it is of an olive brown colour when in a
raw state, but it acquires a reddish tint
when it is burnt. Umbers, both raw
and burnt, are useful pigments and per­
manent alike in oil and water.
Umbo. The point or cone, which pro­
jects from the centre of a shield. In
ancient times umbo some­
times denoted the whole
shield. Round Italian shields
of the time of the Renais
sance, which were only dis­
played on parade, were de­
corated with umbos in the
form of Medusa's head. In
oriental shields round the
central umbo, several smaller ones are
found of engraved and damascened
steel.
Umbrella. A white linen umbrella is
one of the indispensable accessories of
artists who make studies in the open
air. The umbrella generally has a long
handle, with an iron point at the end
which may be driven into the ground.
The handle is made in pieces, so that it
may be bent in all directions, and al­
ways keep the artist, and the canvas
upon which he is at work, in the shade,
whatever be the position of the sun.
Uncial. A term applied in manuscripts
to initials or texts, consisting of capital
letters, sometimes richly ornamented
and gilded. Uncial writing took the
placa of capitals in Greek manuscripts,
and was employed until the 9th century
and as late as the 12th century for the
SHSN
books of the Church. In the 9th century
uncials were sometimes replaced by
demi­uncials, and in the 10th century,
manuscripts being executed in small
letters, a much less tedious process,
uncials were no longer employed except
in titles and the headings of chapters.
Undé. (Her,) [Wavy.]
Undercroft. A chapel or chamber
below a church. The undercroft is
frequently the most ancient part of a
church, as it is, for instance, at Ripon
Cathedral.
Undulating Moulding. An ornament
consisting of curves alternately concave
and convex. This decorative moulding
is frequently met with in buildings of
the Romanesque style.
Unguentarium. (Pot.) A small vase or
bottle, which contained
the oil used by athletes
in the bath, or perfumes
and scents. The un­
guentarium was generally simple in form
407

UNH
ART DIC
and not often provided with a foot, as
is one of those engraved here.
Unhewn. Blocks of stone, rough and
rugged as they were when brought from
the quarry, are said to be unhewn.
Unicorn. A fabulous animal, with a
horn in its brow, which figures as a
charge in heraldry
^^^
and sometimes as
<^*<j?V
an
architectural
yJb/^
ornament. In he­
^3^
^­­TOW raldry it is gene­
** ^^c?A ''WWt> ra
^
v
represented
ί ^<2ΐ · passant ; it is said
xfjirjf
to be salient, when
it stands on its
hind legs ; and in defence, when its horn
is lowered in a horizontal position.
Unity. A work of art is said to possess
unity when all its parts are so arranged
that they produce an harmonious effect,
and when the eye of the spectator is not
irritated by meaningless detail.
Urceolate. (Arch.) A term applied to
capitals which are narrow at the bottom
and swell towards the middle, and be­
come still larger at the top.
Urceus. A name given to ancient
vases which have handles.
Urn. A peculiar form of ancient vase
with a narrow neck and swelling body
and generally of large dimensions. There
are cinerary urns, in which the ashes of
the dead were placed, as well as Bacchic
urns or craters. The body and handles
of the urn were generally decorated with
bas­relief and rich ornamentations. A
special kind of narrow­necked urn was
used in ancient times to receive voting
papers. In the present day the term
urn is applied to vases of earthenware
or metal with a circular body, orna­
^IONARY.
VAL
mented with godroons (q.v .) and mounted
on a foot, the outline of which recalls an
Attic base placed on a square plinth.
Ursula, St. According to the very
curious legend St. Ursula was a princess
of Brittany, who in the company of eleven
thousand virgins visited the shrines of
the saints at Rome. On their return
they were all cruelly put to death at
Cologne by the Huns, who were at that
time besieging that town. The events
of her life have been treated by many
artists and she is very often represented
as surrounded with young girls, whom
she shelters beneath her cloak. She is
regarded as the patroness of schoolgirls.
Her own attributes are the crown, the
pilgrim's staff, and the arrow, with which
she was slain. The most famous pic­
tures dealing with events in the life of
St. Ursula are by Hans Memling, and are
on the shrine at Bruges which contains
her relics.
v.
Vair. (Her.) One of the furs employed
in heraldry. It consists of a series of
small bells, upright and inverted, ar­
ranged in rows. All the
upright bells are of one g |Ξ ^ g
tincture and so arranged fLJÌBLJll
that their bases rest on f^ff^ /^Γ |
the bases of the inverted IBI jggj
bells which are all of an­
*^Ρ %^=^
other tincture, whereas in
τ **·
counter­vair (q.v.) inverted and upright
bells of the same tincture are placed
base to base.
. Valley. (Arch.) The angle formed by
the intersection of two roofs inclined in
opposite directions.
Value. (Paint.) Value is the force or
408

VAN
ART Dh
importance of any given tint or local hue
in any given condition of distance and
atmosphere. Thus a tint of orange be­
comes modified in the value of the orange
as it recedes into bluish, greyish, or
yellowish atmosphere, and the value of
the local colour of flesh is always af­
fected by change, as the surface is acted
upon by the light at different angles.
To put it briefly, value is the modifica­
tion of colours by the action of light, air,
and distance.
Vandalism. The destruction or ruin
of works of art. The term was originally
applied to the destruction of works of
art by the Vandals, a German people
who laid waste Rome, Gaul, Spain, and
Africa in the first centuries of the Chris­
tian era. The expression is now used
generally to denote any action whereby
art suffers. For instance the useless or
clumsy restoration of a picture is an act
of vandalism.
Vanishing point. The vanishing point
in a picture is that point in which all the
imaginary lines in the perspective con­
verge.
Vapourous. (Paint.) Enveloped in
vapour, cloudy, undecided. Thus we
speak of vapourous tones, or say that a
distance is vapourous when it seems
bathed in atmospheric vapour.
Varied fields. (Her.) The field of an
escutcheon may be either of one tinc­
ture, as gules, argent, &c, or it may be
covered with a pattern by means of a
repetition upon its surface of one of the
TIONARY.
VAS
ordinaries ; in the latter case it is said
to be a varied field. Thus, for example,
if a shield were divided into a number of
partitions by a succession of gales, the
varied field known as paly would be
formed, and the shield would be blazoned
(say) paly of six argent and
azure.
Other frequently recurring examples of
varied fields are : bendy, harry, barry­
bendy, gyronny, lozengy, compony, fretty
(q.v.).
Varnish. A resinous substance dis­
solved in alcohol, used by painters. The
quality of the varnish and the moment
at which it is put on demand the utmost
care on the part of the painter who is
anxious for his work to be lasting. Be­
fore varnishing a picture, the artist should
wait for it to be perfectly dry. How­
ever, examples are often quoted of pic­
tures being successfully varnished when
they are only just finished, and when
the paint upon them is still wet. In this
case the canvas is placed in a horizontal
position and a liquid varnish is passed
over it. This method of varnishing,
though in some cases it has preserved
pictures, is dangerous and not to be
recommended.
— , Lac. A solution of gum lac in
alcohol, used as a ground and also to
dilute the oil colours in the process of
gilding.
— , Picture. A varnish consisting
of mastic,
camphor, and Venetian
terebinth. A solution of camphor and
copal is also used as a varnish for
pictures.
Varnishingday. A day appointed some
few days previous to the opening of an ex­
hibition of pictures at^the Academy, or
elsewhere, on which artists are admitted
to varnish their pictures. This varnish­
ing is sometimes quite necessary, as pic­
tures often leave the studio too fresh to
be touched with varnish.
Vase. A vessel, generally of earthen­
ware, used among the ancients for hold­
ing liquids, and for both domestic and
sacrificial purposes. The various forms
27
409

VAU
ART
DICTIONARY.
VAU
assumed by vases among the Greeks have
been described under their various head­
ings in the " Dictionary " Ornamental
vases of various
materials, and of
all sorts and sizes,
{lliiyiiiMii/imm;'»»­
are used for architectural and deco­
rative purposes. For instance, large
vases of marble or bronze, either carved
or chased, are used in the decora­
tion of gardens. On the summit of a
building, on the ends of a pediment, or
at the angle of a balustrade, a decora­
tive vase of stone is frequently found.
These decorative vases were particularly
popular at the Renaissance and in the
17th and 18th centuries. In some
buildings they are found of consider­
able dimensions and are surrounded
with groups of children, and some­
times they are crowned with flames
and smoke.
Vault. (Arch.) An arrangement of
stones or bricks describing an arc of
a circle of varying breadth and thick­
ness.
—, Annular. A vault built upon a cir­
cular or elliptic plan. In either case the
annular vault has for its point of support
a detached pier and a vertical, circular,
or elliptic face.
— , Barrel. [Barrel­vault.]
—, Conical. A vault of a circular
plan, which is formed by a right­angled
triangle turning round one of the sides
of the right angle as its axis.
— , Demi­cupola. A vault the arched
portion of which is a quarter of a sphere.
*w*t
Apses and the east ends of chapels
are sometimes termin­
ated by demi­cupola
vaults.
Vault, Groined.
[Groined Vault.]
— in Calotte. A
vault resembling
a
spherical calotte.
The majority of
cupolas, for instance, may be described
as vaults in calotte.
These vaults are also
called spherical vaults.
When the outline of
the vault is an ellipse,
it is called a spheroid vault.
—, Pointed. A vault the curve of
which is bounded
by pointed arches.
Some authors
give the name of
pointed vault to
vaults composed
of transverse ribs,
wall ribs, and pendentives.
— , Rampant. A vault of which the
two springing points are not in the same
horizontal line.
«,^'^^^τ ?*^
To strengthen
­ ^^\J~I\K
the steps in a "J^X. M
staircase
ram­
pant
arches
are
sometimes
built, resting upon piers of unequal
height.
—, Semicircular. A vault the curve,
of which is determined by a semi­
circle.
— , Skew. A vault the lateral surfaces
of which are not at right angles to its
piers. This vault is rarely employed in
buildings, but is frequently seen in via­
ducts.
When two
roadways,
situated
at different levels do
not meet at a right
angle, to establish
communication be­
tween the two portions of the road
placed at the greatest height, a skew
410

VAU
ART DIC
vault must be built. The masonry of
these vaults is very complicated.
Vault, Spherical. A term applied to
a vault or cupola in the form of a hol­
low hemisphere.
— , Surbased. A vault the height of
which is less than the radius of its curve.
— , Surmounted. A vault the height
of which is greater than the radius of its
curve.
Vaulting shaft. (Arch.) A term ap­
plied in Gothic architecture to thin,
delicate pillars.
Vehicle. (Paint.) The liquid with which
pigments are laid on in painting is
termed the vehicle. Different vehicles are
used in different branches of painting.
In water­colour of course the vehicle is
water; in oil­painting oils of various
kinds are used [Oil], while wax is the
vehicle in encaustic painting.
Vein. The threads of various shades
which are to be seen in marble, and
which add so much to its decorative
effect; also the defects which exist in
stones that are to be cut, and in the
white marble used by the sculptor.
Velarium. In ancient times the term
velarium was applied to large awnings
which were fixed with ropes to the top
of masts and protected the spectators in
the theatre from the heat of the sun.
Vellum. The skin of a calf. Vellum
was used for illuminated books in the
Middle Ages, and at a later age for minia­
ture painting. To this purpose it is
still put, any inequalities in its surface
being first removed by pumice stone. Any
blemishes in the absorption of colour,
which is inevitable in this material, is
thus avoided, and it has the advantage
of being extraordinarily durable and
lasting for centuries. It is also used
for taking proofs of engravings and
etchings.
Velum. A curtain hung over a door
or window was called a velum by the
Romans, but in modern times the word
has another signification. It denotes a
piece of drapery or a strip of stuff which is |
VER
suspended horizontally so as to sift the
light and to intercept the rays of the sun.
The velum is sometimes held in its posi­
tion by being tied with cords to lance­
heads ; it then serves as a temporary
shelter or decoration. In studios and
exhibition galleries a velum is frequently
stretched across the ceiling to intercept
the light falling from above.
Veneer. A method of decorating
pieces of furniture, by means of cutting
out slips of variously coloured wood and
by applying the pieces thus cut out to
woods of inferior value. Veneer of ma­
hogany is the characteristic of an epoch
in the history of furniture.
Venetian shutter. (Arch.) A shutter
which consists of a frame, across which
pieces of wood or iron are placed hori­
zontally at some distance from one
another and inclined at such an angle
that those inside a room can observe
what is passing without, but cannot be
seen themselves from outside.
Vent­hole. (Arch.) An opening which
admits air into subterranean rooms.
Venus. [Aphrodite.]
Verandah. (Arch.) A gallery, generally
covered in with glass ; a light building
open to the air and provided with blinds.
The inhabitants of the East build veran­
dahs running the whole length of their
houses.
In many modern buildings
TIONARY.
411

VER
ART
DICTIONARY.
VES
verandahs take the form of greenhouses
or glazed vestibules and are almost
always built of iron.
Verde Antico. A patina of bronze
of a beautiful clear green tone found
on ancient bronzes.
It is obtained
artificially by applying a mixture of
ammoniac vinegar and sea salt with a
hair brush.
Verditer. (Paint.) A colour used
chiefly in distemper. It is found in a
soft stone in copper mines, and then
reduced to a powder and mixed with
water.
Some verditers, used in the
decoration of theatres, yield bright
colours, while others are grey and
dull.
—, Green. A pigment used in dis­
temper painting. It is obtained from
a kind of copper ochre or rust, but it
has the disadvantage of turning to a
brown.
Verdure. A French term applied to
pieces of tapestry or other hangings re­
presenting landscapes, in which green
is the dominant tone both in the central
subjects and in the systems of ornament
which make up the border.
Verge­board. [Barge­board.]
Vermilion. (Paint.) A bright red pig­
ment. It is a sulphide of mercury, and
is found in a natural state or is manu­
factured artificially. It is a useful pig­
ment, being permanent and having a
good body. It loses its too brilliant
tone with time and becomes a kind of
brown.
— , Chinese. A pigment used in water­
colour drawing. It is of a striking red
colour and should be laid on with suffi­
cient lightness to allow the paper to be
seen through it. When the vermilion
is laid on too thickly, or is not sufficiently
diluted, it looks dull and opaque.
Vermiculated. (Arch.) A wall or other
surface is said to be
vermiculated when it
is covered with lines,
>3V
like worms, describing
irregular and sinuous curves.
Vernier. An instrument invented in
the 17th century by Vernier, the geome­
trician. It consists of a small rule, so
graduated as to allow the smallest di­
mensions to be measured. It is gene­
rally about nine millimetres in length,
each millimetre being divided into ten
equal parts. Thus fractions of a tenth
of a millimetre may be measured.
Veronica, St. According to an old
legend when Jesus was on the way to the
cross a woman wiped His face with a
napkin, upon which there appeared at
once an image of the face. This image was
called the vera icon, or true image, and
the woman to whose napkin it was trans­
ferred has been known as St. Veronica.
One tradition says that St. Veronica was
Berenice, the niece of Herod. Pic­
tures of St. Veronica holding up the
handkerchief, upon which is an image of
the face of Jesus, are common. In St.
Peter's at Rome is an old picture of
Christ on linen, which is regarded as the
real napkin of St. Veronica.
Vert. (Her.) The heraldic colour
green shown on a shield by diagonal
lines from dexter to sinister.
Vertical. That which is perpendicular
to the horizon is said to be vertical.
Vesica Piscis. A term applied to the
elliptical
au­
reole, within
which Christ
is sometimes
represented.
Its li teral
meaning is the
bladder of a
fish, and
it
doubtless was
given this
name on ac­
count of the
trad it ional
symbolism in
acco rda nee
with which
Christ
is
often
represented
by a fish.
412

VES
ART DIC
Vestibule, (xlrch.) A covered space
at the entrance of a building or in front
of a staircase or room.
— , Tetrastyle. A vestibule decorated
with four detached columns.
Viaduct. (Arch.) A bridge built upon
piles, at some distance from one another
connected with iron girders or arch­
ways. Viaducts are built across a river
or a depression in the ground.
Vibrating. (Paint.) A term applied
in pictures to a strongly marked, nervous,
living effect of colour, obtained by skil­
ful contrasts.
Vice. A vice such as is seen in our
cut is used by cabinet­makers
|m
to hold fast pieces of wood,
^Jyf
which have been joined with
\~4&
κ
β
size, as well as in many
||H
other operations of their
|
craft. Etchers make use of
IU
a small vice with a wooden
?·|
handle to hold their plates
M|
with when they are heating
M*­T| them before laying the etch­
f \/W
*
n
£ Sround·
[WT
Victor, St. In Christian
[[H
art representations of two
^*
martyrs, both bearing the
name of St. Victor, are found. One
of them is St. Victor of Marseilles, who
was put to death by being crushed by a
millstone, which is therefore his attri­
bute, in the persecution of Diocletian.
St. Victor of Milan suffered in the same
persecution, but the manner of his
death was different. He is said to have
been put into an oven, which is one
of his attributes.
He is frequently
represented standing near a broken
altar.
Victory. A deity or allegorical figure
represented by artists as a girl winged,
crowned with laurel, placed upon a
VIG
globe and holding a palm branch in her
hand.
Vidrecome. A large drinking glass
used in Germany. This ^^. .^^
German glass is gene­
[S3B
rally cylindrical in form P*­^"^S|
and often of considerable fjjj'· ^vffl
capacity.
Vidrecomes {> Jfi+\
are frequently decorated %
J
**//k >${
with paintings in enamel, fa .MEJ Μ *
generally representing A^SMP^»
heraldic devices.
^^^j^st^
View.
A picture or drawing repre­
senting a town or site.
A view of
London; a view of the Roman Cam­
pagna.
—,
Dioramic. A picture or view
executed to be exhibited as a
diorama.
— , Panoramic.
A view presenting
the appearance of a panorama. Pano­
ramic views are nowadays drawings
taken from one and the same point of
view. Sometimes in making conven­
tional panoramic views, the point of
view is supposed to be shifted parallel
to itself. Many panoramic views,
drawn, engraved, or photographed, are
executed on this principle, and the
skill in their production consists in
hiding the points of junction as skilfully
as possible.
Vignette. The term vignette, which
means nothing more than a little vine,
originally denoted an ornament used in
Gothic architecture. It was also applied
to the initial letters in manuscripts,
which were decorated with the tendrils
of a vine. The meaning of the word
was then extended to cuts, forming head
and tail pieces in a book, whether they
were decorative or illustrative.
Here
the meaning of the word was quite lost,
and now vignette denotes any cut or
engraving illustrating a book, which is
not enclosed by rigid lines, but is put in
the text.
Vigorous. A work of art is said to be
vigorous when it is largely conceived
and boldly treated. In painting, the
TIONARY.
413

VIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
VOL
term vigorous is especially applied to
brush work.
Vincent, St. St. Vincent is a Spanish
saint, and was born in the 3rd century
at Saragossa.
He was persecuted by
the proconsul Dacian, by whom his
flesh was torn from his body by hot iron
forks. His attributes are an iron fork
and a crow, which bird is associated
with him on account of the legend that
when Dacian had thrown the body of
St. Vincent to be devoured by wild
beasts it was protected by a crow.
Violet. A secondary colour obtained
by the mixture of red and blue.
Virgin. A picture or statue repre­
senting the mother of Christ. A virgin
by Michael Angelo, for instance, or by
Raphael.
Virtu. Such objects as are generally
found in collections of antiquities
and curiosities are termed articles of
virtu.
Virtuosi. A term applied to con­
noisseurs and those who are capable of
passing a judgment upon works of art
and articles of virtu.
Visage. The human face. A visage
devoid of character.
Visor. The front of a helmet, which
opened and shut, so as to admit light
and air to the unfortunate person con­
demned to wear it.
Vitalis, St. St. Vitalis was a Roman
soldier, who suffered martyrdom for
burying a Christian martyr, himself
being buried alive. He is the patron
saint of Ravenna, and is represented in
the armour of a Roman soldier.
Vitrifiable. A term applied to sub­
stances which are transformed into glass
by fusion.
Vitrification. The method or process
by which substances are converted into
glass.
Vitrine. [Glass case.]
Vitruvian Scroll. (Arch.) An ex­
tremely florid architectural decoration,
which consisted of scrolls and volutes,
in which animal forms were sometimes
introduced. In our cut, which is from
Pompeii, the ornament circles round a
lion.
Volta a padiglione. (Arch.) An Italian
term denoting the intersection of
portions of vaults bounded by pointed
arches.
Volute. (Arch.) In general, a system
of ornament consisting of a spiral scroll,
and in parti­
cular the orna­
ment
charac­
teristic of Ionic
and Corinthian à
capitals. Vo­
lutes are traced j
by means of the
compass. The
simplest form
of volute is
made up of four quarters of circles,
414

VOL
iRT
DICTIONARY.
VOU
meeting at one of their extremities, and
described from radii, which become
small and smaller.
Generally the cen­
tres of these por­
tions of circles are
placed at the four
angles of a square,
itself inscribed in
a circle, which is termed the eye of the
volute. A volute is termed angular when
the centre of its thickness
corresponds with the dia­
gonal of an Ionic, Corin­
thian, or composite capital,
which, in this case, is deco­
rated with scrolls on each
of its four faces. Consoles,
seen in profile, are some­
times decorated
with
volutes.
They generally
project considerably, and
the leaves of the acanthus, or some
other system of ornament, are applied
to the face of the con­
sole.
Generally, the
scroll at the top of the
volute is of larger di­
mensions than the
scroll at the bottom.
Volutes are sometimes decorated with
foliage or rinceaux. Volutes of this kind
are particularly common in iron work.
The contour of the volute is executed in
forged iron, while foliage of sheet iron,
cut out, hammered, or repoussée, is
added to the volute.
Volute, Horn of. (Arch.) An ornament
_^—
_
used in some
Corinthian ca­
pitals, which
apparently
springs from
the scroll of
the volutes, and projects abruptly from
the plane of this scroll.
Vomitoria. (Arch.) A term applied to
the doors, openings, and vast passages
which gave access to the different por­
tions of ancient amphitheatres.
The
term is still applied to the exits of large
public buildings.
Votive Tablets. In all ages and in all
countries small tablets have been offered
to the Deity on recovery from sickness.
They are generally adorned with repre­
sentations of the part affected. Of our two
cuts, the former is an ancient Egyptian
tablet evidently offered by one who had
suffered from a disease of the ear ; the
second is a Greek tablet offered by one
Tertia. Similar customs prevail in Italy
and elsewhere to­day.
Voussoir. (Arch.) A stone cut in the
shape of a wedge,
which, in juxtaposi­
tion with other stones
of
similar
shape,
forms an archway or
platband. The upper
and lower sides of a
voussoir are termed
the extrados and in­
trados
respectively.
Voussoirs are always of an unequal num­
415

ν
ο
υ
ART
DICTIONARY.
WAI
ber, and the centre one is called the
keystone. Some voussoirs are so cut
lTU'llllllUrnir ­a
that their upper part is
to fit in with a horizontal
stones.
Voussure. (Arch
prolonged
course of
The curve of an
arch ; the thick­
ness of the in­
trados of an arch.
In buildings of the
Gothic style doors
are crowned with
voussures, which
consist of a num­
ber of rows of
niches, occupied by statuettes placed in
retreat, the one below the other.
Vrilles. A system of ornament, which
suggests the spiral form
of vine tendrils. At certain
epochs, especially in iron
work, scrolls are termi­
nated with vrilles.
The
term is also applied to
the small
volutes
of
Corinthian capitals, the
scroll of which projects,
distinguishing characteristic of
every form of
vrille is that it has
the form of a cork­
screw or spiral,
which gets smaller
and smaller, and
finally terminates
in a sharp point.
Vulned. (Her.) A term applied in
heraldry to a creature that is wounded
not by itself, but by another.
The
Vulning. (Her.) A term applied to an
animal which is repre­
sented on a shield as
wounding itself. The cor­
rect description of our
cut is, argent, a pelican's
head, erased, vulning.
Vyse. (Arch.) A term applied to stair­
cases so plan­*
ned that their
steps, whether
monolithic or
not, have a new­
el (q.v .) for their
point of depar­
ture. When the
steps are mono­
lithic, each one
is supported by the one below it, and
this arrangement is apparent from under­
neath the stair­
case. In another
kind of vyse the
masonry is so
arranged that
the shell of the
staircase has the
appearance of a "*
Λ
*
¥­<
Φ
**TM
Φ
Ζ
Α
vault. These staircases are built upon
a square, rectangular, or circular plan,
and offer, especially in the first two
cases, combinations of pointed or ram­
pant vaults, the adjustment of which is
a matter of the utmost difficulty and
requires a mason of the greatest skill.
w.
Wainscot. (Arch.) A plane or covered
surface, cover­
ing a wall
or partition,
sometimes de­
corated
with
mould ings,
sometimes not.
It is generally
forme d
of
panels,
and
though rarely found in modern buildings,
416

WAL
ART
DICTIONARY.
WAS
was a favourite form of decoration in
old houses, and gave an opportunity for
a good deal of carved ornament.
Waling. (Arch.) A method of joining,
in which the
pieces of wood
are held to­
gether by an
iron bolt.
Pieces of wood
thus joined
are
often
halved.
Walling­wax .
(Engrav.) Etchers
sometimes instead of putting their plates
in a bath, build up a wall of wax round
the edge of the plate itself. The wax is
Wall painting.
— , Partition.
fixed in its place while still warm, and
then left to cool before the acid is poured
in. By the
spout, which,
as our cut
^«shows,
is
left, the acid
may be poured off when it is done
with.
[Mural decoration.]
(Arch.) A light wall,
generally made of
lath and plaster,
which divides
the interior
of
a building up
into
rooms or
apartments.
—
Tie.
(Arch.) A piece of iron
generally in the form of an S, but some­
times in the form of a scroll or cipher.
It is set vertically against the surface of
a wall, and is united by a tie to the
horizontal timbers. Its purpose is to
counteract the thrust.
Warm. (Paint.) A colour is said to be
warm when tones of red or yellow pre­
dominate in it and produce an effect of
vigour and transparency. Blues and
violets, on the other hand, are always
very cold colours, though they afford an
opportunity for delicacy and distinction
of tone. Water­colour drawings boldly
coloured with burnt sienna or carmine
are warm in tone. Generally speaking, a
picture is said to be warm in tone when
its scheme of colour is vivid and brilliant.
Warp. Panels, tables, and furniture,
made of wood, which is not absolutely
dry, have a tendency to lose their shape
or to warp, as it is called. The same
happens to picture frames if they are of
unseasoned wood.
Wash. To wash is to spread flat
tints of water­colour or Indian ink
evenly upon the surface of a piece of
paper.
Architectural and mechanical
designs, for instance, are frequently
washed drawings. In washed drawings
the object is to lay a uniform tint with
perfect regularity upon the paper,
while in water­colour, properly so­called,
and artistic drawing generally, the tints
are laid on freely without any attempt to
attain perfect evenness. There are, how­
ever, in existence many washed drawings,
which are the work of real artists, and as
late as the last century some artists used
washes to indicate their arrangement of
light and shade. Nowadays washes are
only used for plans and machine­draw­
ings. Even architectural façades are now
often executed in water­colour.
417

WAT
ART DIC
Watch tower. (Arch.) A tower
attached to the fortified castles of the
Middle Ages, in which a man was placed
to keep watch.
Water­colour. (Paint.) Water­colour
drawing is, if we may believe some
specialists, a modern invention. It can
be proved indeed that the artists of the
18th century did not use water­colours
except in the form of washes or flat
tints. These washes were used to mass
the shadows or planes already indicated
by hatchings, which did not disappear
when the washes were laid on, but on
the contrary gained additional strength.
Water­colours, properly speaking, are
transparent, and in water­colour draw­
ing advantage is taken of the surface of
the paper. Gouache (q.v .), on the other
hand, is a kind of opaque water­colour
and was used in the 18th century.
Indeed at a far earlier date than this
miniatures and illuminations in manu­
scripts were executed in gouache on
parchment and their effect heightened
by the use of gilding.
Waterfall. Artificial waterfalls are
(or were) a favourite device in the
decoration of gardens. Sometimes they
418
r
IONARY.
WAY
are so arranged as to fall over a suc­
cession of steps, as shown in our first
cut, or they fall from a considerable
height in an unbroken stream, as in our
second cut.
Water­mark. A mark, which is
discernible on laid paper when it is
held up to the light. Water­marks
generally represent some
common
object, such as a vase, crown, or shield ;
sometimes, however, they represent
coats­of­arms and heraldic beasts, or
they bear the name of the maker, or
the. date of the manufacture of the
paper inscribed upon them. The water­
mark on bank notes is often very com­
plicated and consists of all sorts of
combinations, in order to render forgery
impossible.
Wave moulding. (Arch.) An orna­
ment consisting of a succession of curves
in the form of an S, each of the curves
being terminated at one of its ends by a
volute, from which the next curve
springs. This ornament may be de­
signed in several ways, and is capable
of various combinations ; some examples
of it are quite simple, others are pro­
fusely ornamented.
Wavy. (Her.) One of the partition
lines in heraldry is from
its form known as wavy,
Γ
I
or undé. Like other par­
Lrtirm^^^­nmtiii^J
tition lines it may be |J||] pllll|||
applied to any of the
Γ
^
Λ
honourable ordinaries, the V
J
chief, pale, cross, &c. The
Λ
cut shows a shield which would be
blazoned argent, a bar wavy gules.
Way. (Engrav.) The series of parallel
paths hewn out by the rocker (q.v .)

WEA
ART
DICTIONARY.
WIN
on a mezzotint is technically termed a
way.
Weathercock. (Arch.) A vane or
pirouette in the form of a cock, the bird
of vigilance, placed on the top of church
spires.
Weathering. (Arch.) A slope or in­
cline given to surfaces, which otherwise
would be horizontal, to prevent rain­
water from lodging on them.
Wedge. A small piece of wood placed
under the heel of a living model to keep
the leg foreshortened. When the model
gives an energetic
movement, and the
sole of the foot is
not entirely placed
on the ground, the
wedge serves as a
point of support, and
enables the model to keep his pose
more easily. Sometimes sculptors leave
wedges under the feet of their figures ;
in this case the wedge serves as a
tenon, and adds strength to a fragile
part.
Whatman. A familiar abbreviation
for Whatman paper, which is used for
water­colour drawings, for taking proofs
of line engravings, or for printing edi­
tions de luxe. [Paper, Whatman.]
Whetstone. A hard stone upon which
engravers roughly grind their tools before
finally sharpening them with emery
powder.
White lead. (Paint.) In water­colour
drawings, white lead is used in a powdered
state mixed with cobalt blue and essence
of terebinth, which has been exposed for
some days to the air. By means of white
lead the artist obtains lights upon paper
already covered with a dark tint. In oil
painting, white lead, which is only car­
bonate of lead, has the disadvantage of
turning black under the influence of
sulphurous vapour. White zinc is often
used instead of it.
Whitewash. A mixture of chalk and
size diluted with water, which is used to
give a white coating to walls.
small gate to
Wicket. (Arch.) A
admit foot pas­
sengers, placed
not far from
a much larger
one.
Some­
times a wicket
is nothing
more than an
opening in a
large gate, which closes a courtyard.
Such is the wicket represented in our
cut.
Window. (Arch.) An opening through
which light and air are admitted into a
building. In the Romanesque period,
windows had semicircular heads, and
were closed by frames of wood, stone, or
marble, in which round, square, or poly­
gonal pieces of glass
were inserted. In
the 12th century win­
dows are often found
two together with a
round or trefoil open­
ing in the space
above them. In the
13th century, windows are more graceful,
and their curves of greater delicacy.
The mullions then increase in number,
and quatre­
­,
•^|
ί
(
Ρ
«
ΐ
|
Β
1
Ι
ΐ
'
Ρ
««"
Μ
ΐ
ι
ι
ι
Π
|
ι
ι
^.
foils
and
cinque­foils
are met with.
In the 15th and
16th centuries,
florid traceries appear. At the Renais­
sance period, windows are surbased
419

WIN
ART
DICTIONARY.
WOO
(q.v.) and the ribs in the upper part of
the windows are sometimes carried
beyond the window­head, as indicated
in our fourth cut. In the 17th and 18th
centuries, the subdivision by mullions
disappears, and the window frames are
formed of pilasters and columns.
Window, Attic. A window which con­
tracts towards the top, and the uprights
of which, instead of being vertical, are
inclined obliquely to one another.
— , Casement. A window, the space of
which is divided into four parts by two
,..·
'_. .
,..
uprights crossing one
*«=
'· another
at
right angles.
ΊΗΙΙ^Β!*' In some buildings, we
meet with windows
which, instead of having
one cross­piece, have
two cross­pieces, and are
so divided into six com­
partments by a vertical mullion and
two horizontal pieces placed one above
the other in the upper part of the
window.
— , Dormant. A window which does
not open.
— , Italian. A window in three arched
compartments supported by colonnettes.
— , Mezzanine. A window which ad­
mits light into an
entresol. The dis­
tinctive feature is
that its breadth
is always greater
BWJBÌ
j__jl JT
than its height.
— , Rampant.
window, the sill of
which is not hori­
zontal, or of which
the frame is not
placed in a vertical
line. In the former
case the rampant
fΊΒ
Μ
Ι
τ
*
wm
dow is fixed, and
does not open ; in
the latter case it
may have shutters,
although its uprights are not vertical.
—, Sham. A window painted on the
surface of a wall, an architectural abomi­
V
nation which is rarely seen 'in modern
buildings.
" Windscreen. (Arch.) A term applied
in Gothic
architecture .
to small, cir­
cular screens
of
wood,
either pierc­
ed or con­
sisting of car­
ved panels,
general 1 y ,
placed in the
angle of a
room or surrounding projecting stair­
cases. In some Gothic buildings wind­
screens of stone are found.
Wing. (Arch.) The portions of a
building which are added to the main
body of a building, being constructed in
the same line as the main block or re­
turned from it. In Greek and Roman
temples the lateral porticoes were
termed wings (
π
τ
φ
α
or alee).
Wire­brush. A brush generally made
of brass wire, with which gilders spread
their amalgam of gold and
mercury, and with which they
clean gold and silver work.
When the gold is being laid
with the wire upon the surface
of any object, it is of the ut­
most importance that this sur­
face should be kept damp during the
process.
Wood­block. The first essential of
the wood­blocks used by wood engra­
vers is that they should not be porous.
The wood of the pear, apple, and box
are generally used, and for delicate
420

WOO
ART DIC.
work the last­named is by far the I
best
Wood­cut. A term applied to proofs
of engravings cut upon wood.
Wood­cutting. (Engrav.) The art of
wood­cutting is one of the imitative arts,
and it consists in drawing (or photo­
graphing) a design on the flat surface of
a block of wood, generally boxwood, and
in cutting away all that portion of the
block upon which the strokes of the
pencil do not appear. The part of the
block which is left in relief is covered
with ink and impressions are then struck.
It will be seen that the process of wood­
cutting is the reverse of that of line­
engraving, in which the lines which are
reproduced upon paper are incised.
Wood­cutting was invented first of all
by the Chinese, who employed the pro­
cess in the printing of books. It was
independently devised by the Germans
in the 14th century for printing playing­
cards, and soon after applied to the
reproduction of drawings. The earliest
wood­cut known to us is a St. Christopher
of 1423. Wohlgemuth, Durer, Holbein,
all practised it with success, and in the
earlier part of the present century the
English Bewick gave the art a fresh
impetus. It has been largely employed
for the illustration of books and news­
papers, and specimens of the art may be
seen every week in the pages of Punch.
But mechanical processes have been
brought to so high a pitch of excellence
of late years, that there is some chance
of wood­cutting lapsing from fashion.
Woolly. (Paint.) À term applied in
painting to a soft method of execution,
which lacks firmness and consistence.
Work. The word work is used to
designate a picture or statue of an
artist. Thus we say Donatello's St.
George is a dignified work, Raphael's
Madonna della Sisto is a great work, and
so on. In a different sense work denotes
the collective productions of an artist or
even his style. Thus we say the work
of Rubens is considerable, and in ex­ I
:TIONARY.
YEL
I pressing approval of an artist's style
we say that we like his work.
Wyvern. (Her.) An imaginary heraldic
animal. It has a ser­
.
pent's head and body,
*^^/ÊL·.
and the wings and claws fàjìi% *^
of abird,whileitstail ^ΪΚίΚ».
terminates in another
^
Ζ
^
Κ
Ρ
^
Α
».
small serpent's head.
^^ **
x.
Xoanon.
(Sculp.) The earliest
statues of gods fashioned by the Greeks
were rude wooden images, resembling a
pillar rather than the human form. An
awkward attempt, however, was made
to trace the features and outlines of a
human being upon the rough pillar.
Legend said that the xoana fell from
heaven, and long after Greek sculptors
had acquired technical skill over their
material, the xoana were held in the
greatest reverence.
Xyloglyphy. The art of engraving
I letters upon wood, and of executing
I ornamental letters to illustrate books.
Xylographer. One who cuts draw­
ings upon wood.
Xylographie. That which belongs or
has reference to the processes of wood
cutting.
Xylography. The art of cutting
drawings upon wood.
Xyst. (Arch.) A hall or portico, in
which Greek and Roman athletes
exercised themselves.
Y.
Yataghan.
A very long Turkish
poniard with a curved blade, the hilt
and scabbard of which are sometimes
inlaid with precious stones and decorated
with arabesques of great richness.
Yellow. Yellow is one of the three
primary colours. The yellow pigments,
except the earths of Sienna, which are
I ochres or clays coloured with iron oxide,
421

YEL
ART DIC
have all a base of lead and so easily
tarnish and turn black.
Yellow, Chrome. Chrome yellow, as
used in water­colour drawing, is a very
brilliant colour, but somewhat dusty.
There is also an orange chrome, i.e , a
yellow chrome with a slight admixture
of red. The chrome yellow used in oil­
painting is nothing more or less than
chromate of lead.
— , Indian. A colour, used in water­
colour, of a very striking tone.
— , Naples. A yellow pigment, with
a slight tendency towards green, which
consists of massicot or oxide of lead.
— , Turner.
A yellow pigment con­
sisting of litharge and sea salt.
Yellowish. (Paint.) A colour or
tonality is said to be yellowish when it
approaches nearly to yellow.
z.
Zeus. In Greek art Zeus is invariably
represented as a bearded man of majestic
mien.
The gold and ivory statue at
Olympia showed him seated on a throne,
as became the king of gods and men.
His attributes are the sceptre, thunder­
bolt and eagle. When he is not repre­
sented throned in kingly state, he is
generally taking part in the war against
the giants, or Athene is being born from
his head. He is frequently represented
side by side with Hera, who is then veiled.
Zigzag. A broken line forming angles,
which alternately project and retreat.
THE
VIONARY.
ZOT
Architectural mouldings are sometimes
decorated with zigzags.
Zinc. A metal of a bluish­white
colour, upon which engravings in relief,
which may be printed by the ordinary
typographic processes, as well as line
engravings, are produced by chemical
processes. In the case of line engrav­
ings on zinc the plate is covered with
a ground and bitten with aquafortis in
the ordinary way, but the zinc soon
wears out and only a limited number of
proofs may be struck from it. Nor does
zinc lend itself to the expression of
fine delicate lines ; but to compensate
for this it yields broad and soft out­
lines.
Zincography. The process of engrav­
ing upon zinc.
Zinzolin. A violet colour tinged with
red. The word comes from the Spanish
cinzolino. Some authors write gingeo­
Un.
Zodiac. (Arch.) A term applied to
bas­reliefs representing the signs of the
zodiac interpreted with considerable
eccentricity. Numerous examples of
zodiacs are to be found on the doors of
churches of the Gothic style.
Zone. The portion of the surface of a
sphere included within
>^**~
ξï
"l)v
two parallel planes. The ingflA
paintings in cupolas gene­ ΟMillBBH
rally occupy a zone, the ^^'''V­T^jy
upper portion of the cupola
^ssssP
1
being pierced with a circular opening.
Zoςphorus. (Arch.) A term applied by
Vitruvius to friezes decorated with
foliage and arabesques, in the midst of
which the figures of animals are intro­
duced.
Zotheca. (Arch.) A recess introduced
in the sleeping room of Roman houses.
The bed was placed in it.
END.
(1)
422

THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES·
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to establish a standard of equality in the crafts, more especially
associated with design. Workmanship where separated by too
wide a gulf from fresh thought—that is, from design—eventually
decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation apart from work­
manship is apt to be unreal and affected. Furthermore, there is
a demand for such standard works from those who put artistic
craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for
those who would gain a livelihood, with a chance of reaching a
distinct measure of success.
Illustrated. 12mo. Half­Bound.
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A Handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders, and Li­
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By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings by the Au­
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By C. W. WHALL . With Diagrams by two of his
Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1.40 net.
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11
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