/
Text
THE MILITARY
TECHNOLOGY OF CLASSICAL
ISLAM
VOLUME 11
David
Nicolle
Thesis presented
to the University
of Edinburgh
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
1982
5qz.
PART THREE
Tactical
and the Military
Developments
Technology
of
Islam
1 ei
..
Lx xx1
II
vi
X
(.,XX
-1r"
.
WWI
1,
z55
CHAPTER 1
TACTTCS TECHNfILf)CY AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION IN PRE-ISLAP"If: ARRPIR
Of all
less
world,
in
those
is
known about
the original
exception
are virtually
North
the
the dating
of much supposedly
Even those
verses that
along
with
of
the
the
rest
Arabian
Arabs
example,
the
coat
external
of northern
from
indicate
the
that
as more backward
quite
of mail
influence.
Arabia
nor
of
some widely
they
the helmet.
2
thoroughly
the
or only
cultural
background
partially
tho
accepted
Others
portray
viewn
were.
that
they
It
has,
the military
like
for
knew neither
one
avercmphaaize
flyzantine
Arabs'
technology.
military
really
Thus some say that
were
be regarded,
when studying
been maintained
recently
JähilTyah
the general
than
neighbouring,
standpoint
than
debatable.
1
as o whole.
from
the
most usefully
rather
while
is highly
verse
as illustrating
was borne
material
background
These sources
the
Islam
itself,
came from
should
the possible
with
else,
representations
pro-Islamic
certainly
the Muslim
of
and organization
peninsula
may be the most reliable
cultures
general
Pictorial
such poetry,
peninsula
Descriptive
Arab,
of
anywhere
Arabian
they
that
in which
situation
almost
so into
are probably
than
Africa.
from
unknown
technology
military
Arab homeland
Berber
of
were to become parts
that
areas
traditions
Syria
and Egypt,
1.
(London
U. Montgomery Watt, Tha Ma jestythnt
Islnm,
1974),
was
C. Pellat,
"Jewellers
pp. 77-78 and 90-92;
with Words, " in
7hc) World of Islsm
(London 1976), pp. 143-145.
0, Lewis edit.,
2.
A. ä. 1'lelikian-Chirvani,
Asintiaues,
XXII (1970),
"La Roman do Varga at
pp, 38-39,
Coln
h,
Arts
-z56
with
lamellar
short
and that
shields,
3
Arabia,,
the
fought
long
the predominant
by maintaining
of
role
of
the military
Arabia.
a tendency,
encouraged
to portray
4
Some tend
to
to emphasize
on one source
among the ancient
that
helmets,
with
5
Arabs.,
Arab archery
or
was inferior
to
find
the
to earlier
a more reasoned
equipment
Yet even here,
return
and organization
there
I believe,
by the Muslim's
analysis
own view of his
of
remains
cultural
"simple,
pagan Arab as excessively
" that
backward.
The nomadic,
Arabia
3.
and lances.
one must often
capabilities,
7
style
and
6
perhaps,
pre-Islamic
is
relying
central
Yemen, Hijäz
Sassanian
swords
such as A. van Kremer
scholars
origins,
the
and round
common in
were
Arabia,
qualification
foes.
Surprisingly,
of
in
hauberks
mail
armours
of western
archery
without
their
mail
straight
by apparently
oversimplify
to that
the Arabs
frontiers
hauberks,
cuirasses,
Hellenistic
that
or
Syrian
mail
and scale
and the
semi-nomadic
Fertile
Crescent
and settled
Arab tribes
were almost
certainly
of
northern
more sophisticated
M. V. Gorelik
"Oriental
Near
Middle
the
East
Armour
and
of
,
from the eighth
to the fifteenth
as shown in works
centuries
(London
Arms and Armour, R. Elgood edit.,
art, " in Islamic
19,79), p. 31.
v
4.
M. Lombard, Les m6taux bans l'ancien
(Paris
1974), p. 35.
siecle.
5.
D. J. F. Hill,
Journal
of the
monde du Ve au XIe
"Some Notes on Archery in the Roman Worlds"
(1958)i
1
Society
Archer
Antiquaries.
p.
of
6.
D. D. Latham, "The Archers of tho Middle
Background"
(1970),
Iran.
VIII
p. 97.
7.
A. von Kremer,
(Vienna
1875),
Culturgeechichte
p. 78.
of
East:
des Orients
2.
The Turco-Iranian
unter
den Chalifen,
r
257
than
militarily
was in
culture
of
it
those
Iranian
general
ioned.
side,
the Ulpiao
tribes
By the
4th
were playing
cnuivocall
1iý
in
the
JazTro
Mu'ta
at
in
the
Potraeorum,
a far
more prominent,
the
area,
5assanian
10
could
form
629 AD.
12
Arab troopop
these
the bulk
of
though
to be ment-
One possibly
and To2hlib
ßakr
occasionally
and the Byzantine
apocryphal
archers,
and even to
limp
century
a Byzantine
the
Arab infantry
in particular
Oyzentine
and
come from
the
ß
role
the Hellenistic
frontier
fly the 7th
such positions,
Arab area.
of presumably
of
the
military
vital
references
cavalry
other
is
are among the earliest
light
century
their
the
within
the
cohorts
six
of
material
been emphasized
between
detailed
where
that
of
and south
warfare
their
while
to overstate
to defend
were a1co recruited
and pagon.,
north
in
between
role
command in
rarely
Most of
Romano-ßyzentine
9
however,
tribes
worlds.
archers,
version
Would be hard
northern
cousins,
a poorer
between
contact
Similarly,
of
southern
What has,
neighbours.
degree
their
Arabs,
Christian
that
as
such
army
source
oven has a
K.
G. al Acali,,
CE
South Arnhia
in the 5th and 6th centuries
(Unpub.
to rplationi
Ph.
Arabia
t.+ith reference
Central
+7,
with
thesis,
St.
"ilyzantino-Arabico:
Andrew's
Univ.
I. Shahid,
1968);
Thc; Conference
Wear E'nstern
1D 524, " 3ournal
of Roi1a,
of
(1964),
Studies.
XXIII
130.
p.
ß
9.
"Rote sur los carps
Von Hubert van de W'eerd and P. Lanbrechts,,
I
d'äýrchers
cu klaut Empire, " in Din Araber in der Alten trielt
(Berlin
F, Altheim
1964 t p. 663.
and R. 9tiek1
edits.,
10. F, Altheim
persischen
11
kielt.
"Die Araber an der bsträmisch.
and R. Stiehlt
" in Die Ar: xbnr in
Grenze im 4. Jahrhundert,
(Derlin
1965), 9 pp. 324-. 327.
der
11. F. Altheim and R. Stiehlt
11ýn"pr II und die Araber, " in Die
!'.rater in der Alten 4x'elt. II, (Derlin
1965), p. 344.
12.
A. J. Cutler
pp. 150-151.
The Arnb Concuent
of
EctYpt.
(Oxford
1902),
Alten
L-x xxix
>C C.
zý8
Christian
force
in
Arab
defending
Byzantine
Such evidence
might
than
an ill-equipped
this
same evidence
might
homogeneous whole
as far
those
Fertile
Crescent.
This
of
from
that
Arab
troops
could
were partially,
in
of
they
is
14
fortifications
Arab peoples
of
Ibid.,
of
these
sources.
of
the
begun.
sea,
both as essentially
AD, there
2nd century
areas
of
of the
were sophisticated
semi-nomadic
and neighbouring
bedouin
were ideally
The Nabateans,
for
horsemen
himself.
placed
example,
could
drive
whom were horse-
many of
archers,
Trajan
surrounding
as Syrian.
the
life
from
recruited
traditions
meanwhile,
and
armed forces
their
although
be regarded
bedouin
Falmyra
be seen as
could
centuries,
the
centuries
earlier
of the military
in
while
threatened
true
but
bordering
areas
has been considered
In open battle,
archers,
considering
had hardly
region
still
rot
flere,
Ronan cavalry
is
one
ahom
mixed
manned by townsfolk
peasantry.
were
even predminantly,
should
Arab and as a melting
cast.
just
were not a
capabilities
military
particularly
the
by contrast,
Ilatra,
Semitic
as their
the Arabs
that
be more
Nevertheless,
auxiliaries.
indicate
also
an Arab
perhaps
tribes,
tribal
of
3rd or 4th
the
islands13A
Aramaic
13.
invasion
and linguistically
culturally
Dura Europos,
variety
Muslim
one must specify
when the Arabization
back
the
suggest
rabble
Clearly
concerned.
Arab
during
13
Egypt,
in
Tinnis
"Roman" and Arab
Coptic,
a mixed
coauaoandof
ls
Clearly
to
learn
probably
the
from
a
adopted
P. 353,
13%. F. Altheim
"K)dainat und I'almyra, n in
and R. Stiehl,
in der Alten Welt, II,
(Berlin
1965), pp. 269-270.
14,
F. Altheim
and R. Stiehl,
welt g IV9 (Berlin
1967),
15.
Ibid.,
p.
249.
"fdatra,
p. 244.
" in
Die Araber
in
Die Araber
der Alten
the war-horse
lot
from
tactics
of
camels
their
ßC they
century
repeated
and-Iran,
an their
military
such a strategy
for
thehoavy
thair
for
in
the
l7
in Yemen. the
the
both
using
reflect
age-old
loaned
otherwise
lß
storing
and their
of s4Ira uere
in
engines
Sobacon kings
the
full
in
their
upon
the trnbs'
to build
already
may
military
limited
himself
3rd century.
were also
it
drawing
supposedly
command were unable
farmer
Thema arrnnganent3
t3elisarius
uarfaro.
has
did much the camc+
between
contradiction
between
dependent
It
the
the takhmids,,
of
line
struggle
much war naterial.
nnd Anbar,
some spheres
in a long
to have remained
merely
war,
cavalry
CUkbarä'
his
in
The Snsseniens apparently
Arab rulers
siege
may also
appear
for
time-of
ns siege
under
complicated
1G.
in
en apparent
in cuch, nreas
t¢hercas
even they
catcphract
canahilities
gabs
to ba, involved
the ßyzantines
nrsen. ia, ut
account
the
that
at turn,
w.n farr,
rind Laakhmids were the last
protectors.
equipment
ararnal
karr
though
yet
respective
been auggpated,
bedouin
own essentially
and retreat:
Arab : Mates
Hellenism
their
as they
16
influence.
client
As early
neighbours.
attack
The Chaasänids
of
Syrian
had evolved
and cavalry
Parthian
z5-q
skills
that
otntcd
fortificationsij.
known to be using
20
For to
known to hove built
the south,
fortresses
äcf. pp.
Ib.,.,.,
ý
fruchtbaren
Altheim
im
296 .-297, ý.. tlarkalj
"ErF3te Festsetzungen
ý;
T,
Flslbmond$'n in hic-1 tirfiher in- rlor Alten Welt,
(nerlin
1964)9 pp. 299-301.
end ß. Stiehl
edits.:
Althein,
ýrn
1ý
t'elt
end ri; 3tiehlj'
`J 1 "(Perlin
and Sticahl,
Althviry
19.
O. P. Portiington,,
A Niator
( Canbridr, o 1960). p. 106.
20s
Ibid.
109.
P.
ý
"
Me
in
"Dhü tv'uL;
räsp
197-0)t p. 316.
" Sopür II ' 'nnd die Arnbers"
IS*-
of
Grprk
Firs
19
Arr+ber in der
pp. 351-352.
snd Cunnnwdar,
z6o
21
or so lnter.
Eacentury
Certain
though
specifically,
characteristics
however,
were,
be seen again
during
and EjTra,
example,
for
the
first
and Smarr-s'22
and tactics,,
time
refrain
24
oddo. 0
all
towards
fror
"25
latter
f?uslim
from nomadic
Küfa,
maximum force
But were
they
these
shoot
at
rest1
like
descriptions
pose as nany question,
the Porthians
settled
neighbours,
Arabian
warriors.
Arabia.
are
largely
For less
tevertholess,
all
in
the
and
and if
horse-archers$
such contemporary
as they answer.
build
areas
their
the eyes of
of
up a picture
may be said
these
bow among
probably
perhaps,
seen through
we can thus
the
of
or cavalry,
Typically,
impossible
attitude
Gyzantine
like
the same
of
in archery
life
infantry
raiders
face
the
rational
their
who pass
on ruses
and at
by a Syrian,
or in notion
Though they
in
was the primacy
who were described
and
3achdad
emphasis
an, eminently
there
Hatra
encampments
QayrawSn,
"a l'outronce"
Finally
These would
expansion.
an exceptional
indicate
as "Saracens
did
wave of
to exercise
resisting
of which
appearing.
of
was also
a desire
Arabs
century,,
raiding.
the
23
warfaro.
the desert
5th
There
Arab military
solely,
already
developed
may be seen as the prototypes
not
wore
in
north
and southern
central
of
these
more
close
sufficiently
21.3.
f°1onr+rchi us r+n Arnbin P'eridionale
ftyct: n,ar.a.v L' institution
P. 231.
awint L' lslram. (Louvain19a1).
22.
F. Althain
and R. Stiehl.
(0erlin
1966). p. 7.
23.
N. Lmmens.
"Les AhäbTa et 1'organi5ation
" ýrnal
`."ecquR au Oincle dä 1'tiicgira.
(1916),
VIII
432.
p.
o
24,
t'ontgomery
25.
A, ti1, ii. Oonec.
Trade of Asia
tJatt.
op,
cit.,
Die
pp.
Arnbor
in
dcr
Alten
,nilitairo
Asiatic, ue,
Welt,
III,
de lo
11 sar.
32-34.
"Asian Trodc in Pntiquity.
(Oxford
1970). P, 6,
" in
Ia1nmnnd
the
Xc
xcýI
i
xcil1
z6(
for
contact
them to have probably
The Nebatenns
trade
from
routes
were
in
long
of
Arabian
is
Such
cultural
Yemeni
the
would
similarly
nttnck
under
the armies
4th
early
rg ,Ipür
of
Yeneni
south
the linited
available
inscriptions
mounted
warriors.
obliged
to request
king.
32
a force
Such Sassaninn
2G.
Al Asalip
27.
Shahid.. loc.
26.
Al Asali,
29.
Ibid.,
30.
Ryckn . ns,
o2,
31.
Al
no.
32,
Ibid,
pp.
Asall,
p.
Iranian
refer
one Yeneni
of
regular
heavy
of
ums, in
were$
in
pp.
52-55.
ci t
pp.
134 and 231.
cit. ý
pp.
101-102.
fact,
counter-
and perhaps
Plthough
and auxiliary
tribes,
to infantry
cavalry
entire
cavslry.
/rnbion
cavalry
south.
27
differentiate
troops
heavy
the
outsides
3a3senion
southern
ns airn
55-59.
304.
lack
leader
ci. t.
cit..
the
only
f-97.
op.
of
to
influences
military
deeas howeveri
those
role
an apparent
the
oubsenuent
Yemeni and central
Indeed
which
penetrated
perhaps,
employed
from both
through
and even,
the
a vital
peninsula
during
was the south's
kings
the
across
Arebin
central
played
reinforced
28
from
contingents
31
been
One feature
This
regions.
lýTra
a centre
during
Arabia
with
influences
century,
11,29
northern
Sabnenn rule
facts,
Arabia
central
have been felt
central
under
may have
of
link
trnns-desert
with
links
Lakhmid
and military
contacts
in
in
was,
cultural
domination
Palmyrn's
a direct
traditions.
ninny military
concerned
Similarly,
having
Vira
vitally
while
26
standing,
Iranians
area
courses
the Gulf,
south.
that
Gulf
of
politics,
tIinyorite
also
were,
shared
30
and camel-
desperation,
fron
the
stationed
Sassnnian
in
Z
Oman.
The arrival
lords"
followed
province
in
the
6th
in
known,
however,
the
acorn until
that
here
conquerors
of
the Byzantine
Nuccesü
Gh3acänida
their
/rib
political
traditions
the 6th
Yemen,
34
sphere
against
35
various
both
of
of
with
the
of
The least
central
feed
being
into
the
coast
we often
of
north-south
and the Ethiopian
course
employed
with
foes,
the
Arabian
peoplPS
camel-
the PFd Sea
across
distorted
mirror
9eceuse
of
know more about
its
of
close
the military
the Red Sea than we do of
Oman,," :Inurnal
within
cavalry
and no mobile
as cavalry
Yemen end ýltjnz.
which
Arnbia"
were of
southern
bo seen as n rather
riyzcntiuv,
western
also
and Nubian
Ethiopian
in
peoples
rnd
ý-?
iat
to dominate
via
channel
filtered
Both
military
one may assume
Arab t; hassnnids
which
influence.
thoir
reasons,
neighhouro
the
between
recorded
of Oman,
Arab leadership',
rind obvious
probably
Sassanian
unclear.
and in a way complementary,
in particular
links
century.
the
and continued
authority
33
of
is
or local
ulnndn
"marcher
landed
Arab aristocracy
important
interesting,
Persian
of
or
parts
and settled
class
Sassanian
technology
infantry.
may, for
this
the
of
was another
waa that
mounted
that
collapse
!Another
great
is
military
coastal
the local
the end of
Sasscnlan
link
How for
and mar. zibnp
a reorganization
the
is
influenced
survived
Is
that
century,
aristocrats
nsntArn
khusrau Ar icvnn'
iazün,
of
Iranian
of
the
Oman Studies,
33.
J. C. Wilkinson,
"The ]ulAnda
I (1975)s pp. 99 and 103-104,
34,
I. Shah'fdi "Ghassän. " Encyclopedia
.....
22ý pp, 1020-1021.
35,
the
Earl
Con
in
The Plobilit
Armips
TJ. R, Hill,
the
rst3
Arab
of
(Unpub. C".Litt,
thesisj,
Univ, of nurham 1953)p p. 13; F. Altheim
.
in
Altan
der
in
Arnher
Die
tielp
"Das
R.
;
Aksüm"
and
christliche
it.
'ºOhassan#" loc- .
h'elt
V/79 (ßerlin
1969)9 p. 232; Shnhldt
of
of
Ialtým.
of
second
edition!
z63
Like
eastern.
36
The D; ja and nomadic northern
Elder primarily
as archers.
also used large
numbers of camels in their
to Arab tradition
the bow from the FJubianc.
use of
made extensive
It
has also
the area
to serve
though
attack,
Introduces
so-named
4-0
the
and west
of
the
perhaps also having
traditions,
above-mentioned
cavalry
arrive.
36.
nab
reached the area,
actually
41
At that period, as later,
and Stiehl,
37.
Althain,
3Ei.
üdiý,
Al Maa
39.
Lem cans' lac
4I3,
41.
lac.
D. 11. F. Nilli
ap,
soldiers
were apparently
further
to reinforce
east
for
the control
on southern
asvarän)
of Yemen, and
Arabian military
is come doubt that
heavily
DayiamT infantry
these traops
the
armoured Persian
did
certainly
had a fine
reputation
cit
"Dag christliche
1,
L
VO
Rksücnp" p. 226.
303,
382..
pP.
cý__it..
it.
Larxtens
aa.,,.
"Ahäbiahýx" EncXclo
A. ChristQnman$
p. 362,
This
and combat styles
While there
(Pahlavi:
unknown.
39
counter-
common.
own influence
was Saasanian
in
remained
In Vernon they
traditions
apparently
the Yemen.
h« Were the
is likely
it
the Ethiopicns
Iran.
is
eh
or Ethiopians?
the military
its
the
of
in
warriors
or cavalry
Red Son had much in
Competing with
how to use
Arab and Sassanien
the
after
question
Arabs
according
while
learned
cparations
their
many of
Whatever tho answer,
that
contention
that
as infantry
the Hijmz
In
their
during
as mercenaries
difficult
Ethiopians
As mentioned above, the Ethiopiana
cavalry
whether
the
the letter.
30
been suggested
warfarel37
of Yemen and Hijäz
the tribes
the
were regarded by Pliny
the Ethiopians
Arabs,
pp.
W. Montgomery
433 and 441-442;
III*
Is1am.
second editionp
oß
L+ Iran saus les
.... ...
Snsaonides,
---
Gtattv
pp* 7-Go
(Copenhagen
1936), ý
6ýz
and fought
throughout
documentary
Io generally
involved
spnrco,
43
long-hnired".
warriors
such as Hatra
be useful
barely
related
there
3rd
is
of
already
Joseph"
description
could
it
has also
it
42).
is of little
origin
suggest
on the other
the
subject,
23)p
the
that
that
the
as
such as the
throne
ivory
(Fig.
otherwise
might
such a written
long-haired
figure
in
subject
question
21).
that
the wearing
was characteristic
value when attempting
of
two swords,
of the pro-Islamic
or
Arabs.
of much of the Arab area,
Itself
the fashion
and was widespread
throughout
to identify
is,
the east.
I. believe,
Hence it
a subject.
Organization
under the ßüyida of
XVIII. "XIX (1965-1966),
p. 147.
42.
C. E. Cosworth, "!Military
Persia and Iraq, " Drip
43,
Cutler,
44,
N. Snyrig, "Armory et costumes ; renione
XVIII (193? ), p. 30 and 30 n. 9.
op. cit.,
between
of
Arab
hair-styles
of
Whore,
evidence
at Matra and elsewhere,
of Iranian
In specifically
or whore a story
Arab subject
may Indeed have been typical
appearing
°1
Byzantine
century
been suggested
of a sward and a dagger,
Uhile
(Fig.
as most other
art,
links
were
possible
similarities
and 28).
1.27
can only
(Fig.
an Arab
represent
It
an Ishmoolite
Saracens
of
as to the nationality
on a 6th
Elsewhere
croppect
cultural
of
may be used as further
an Arab.
the
that
works
Arabia,,
as evidence
some doubt
suggest
closer
and south
Dura Europos
century
"Selling
available
to be
peoples
the warriors
ences to
refo:
cone use when identifying
of
(Figs.
Arab wnrfare
pro-13lamic
ccncerning
One such status
limited
appear
z,
a
,
may only
is
the
is
to make famous
42
descriptive
purely
This
in
Arab warriors
in
evidencc
are even more so.
regions
they were later
much of the Muolim world.
tJhilo
hand,
the weapons that
with
151.
15-.
pP.
do Pelmyre, " Syriý
44
Xc
ýu
>CCu
2-65
There are indeed
be said
to show Arab Warriors,
are overwhelmingly
this
few pictorial
Iranian
in style.
which was used by an elite
flared
with
hilts.
military
Iranian
limited
to some very rusted
arrowheads of types
A horse-bit
Central
associated
with
the simple
snaffle
iron
with
a long
fl,
strenge,
bit
sleeveless
information.
Hellenistic,
rather
a scale
skirt
Various
hoad-b&nd of a supposedly
forms throughout
In contrast
ordinary
north
Arab captives
(Fig.
S2).
(Fig.
at the front
lot
century
weapons are
plus bronze
spearheads
Ist
while
perhaps
time generally
extent
Iran,
century
tribesmen
For the
of 2nd
boss
31) have been excavated.
(Fig.
statuette
26)
in facts
such as the
bust in Mosul Pluseum will
Islamic
of Hotro,
period
persist
(Fig.
we may see
among those unfortunately
"Triumph"
than
rather
A fragment
a few styles
much of the early
in a rock-carved
at Hatra iss
of Hatra costume wills
elite
to the Irani. zeo(
.'
Arabian
both tang
scale haubork under a
or a short-sleeved
aspects
often
though
a mass, and a domed bronze shield
be echoed in Umayyad works of arts
in various
26),
the
in
Rome
and
west.
used
or bridoon
tube or spike
shirt.
simple or
24,, 29 and 30).
Surviving
typo at that
Asia and to a lesser
fused into
mails
wears either
iron
also excavated
armour of Hatra we have even less
century
sword.
2nd century
(Figs.
(Fig.
appear
baldric
of the snaffle-paalion
significantly,
longs
with
As Bs C, P1and T, two- and throe-blZrdeds
types.
and socket
in the surviving
reflected
scabbard-. slide
an Iranian-type
carries
that
slung from a loose sword-belts
dons the Mediterranean.
-style
even here it
at least
equipment,
who are probably
They are generally
a characteristic
Rarely
One nay, however, assume that
Hera swords are long and straights
sculptures.
can definitely
except some in Yemen. Those of Matra
so of Hatto'o
was equally
that
sources
disarmed
of flahrZm II at flrhäpür
28).
z66
From the other
aide of the desert
(Fig.
area
from the Ruhaydoh
carving
or the Suwayda Museum considers
No reason for
this
the carving's
very simplified
Islamic
(Fig.
dark-faced
typical
sword does have similarities
is
this
this
although
with
is
early
quiver
passible
less well
I take to indicate
mutllnted
to the right
than their
that
beneath
it
should
period.
the camel-riding
(Figs.
infantry
the only
warriors
as Arab,
to be of much use.
largo-bladed
45
They arc generally
hip.
that
Other equally
spears,
and in one case n
flanks,
Sabnoan carving
counterparts,
in San'
that
is
too
undated and crude carvings
of evidence
öI
ämn
Tlusaum (Cat. No. 31.300.1751)0
c Arnb
(ßoirut
2n1äm,
V
al
al
qnbi
vo1.
..,..,......
as
I have found from
Arabian
such south
the wealth
which
not warriors
Yemen show spears and an apparently
The finest
considering
10,11 and 32).
or cavalry
camel rider
be.
might
century,
Islamic
first
helmet.
a pointed
here we have armed traders,
from Sabaoan or Himyarita
surprisingly
in origin
is on an undated
(Fig.
2).
edged sward
the
clung on the animnlst
Unfortunately,
south Arabia
as a
unarmoured men, armed with
on a baldric
equipped
to be regarded
pälmyrene and Dura Europos sculpture
not necessarily
round shields
as a
the 7th
alone we may regard
of 2nd and 3rd century
These are apparently
for
"Sale
appears
as the representation
from
probably
among evidence
By association
in equipment if
crude
the
showing
trader
Ishmaoilite
a head-cloth
and wears
textile
textile
a mace, later
armed with
an Arab warrior,
be placed
perhaps
Hero the
136).
horseman
Out since
45.
a Chaaaänid warrior.
might portray
we have a Coptic
period
Arab weapon,
Surely
such.
13) which the directorship
weapons.
Joseph"
small
comes an undated
appears to have been published,
attribution
From a. later
of
barrier
frieze
against
single--
shows,
the widespread
oA1T,
Tnr*fkh
in Jawad
1956).
2-'6-7
use or horses in the Yemen, a cavalryman with
Inadequate
in
weaponry,
In certain
tribes
neither
of evidence might be, it
partial
both
into
overrunning
drive
political
a selected
victims
for
an imperial
the
they
their
banner
frontiers
military
and to keep in
of
civilization.
similar
to put
Iranian
or
were
namely
backward
"trained"
to act
chock
German
Ironically,
who locked
who did
their
efports
defences.
by their
future
"untamed"
the
and souths
In both
troops
as auxiliary
those
north
all
organization.
but
capabilities,,
and a reason
few such tribes
own ends,
supposedly
I
in military
nor
3).
ocpecially
Horn were peoples
Romano..ayzantino
seems to havo been strangely
by two centuries.
the
frontier.
basic
cohesion
the
technology,
parallel
nor
does,
and south to be , PDt
in military
Rome's northern
lack
from
nor
respects
along
cases
total
show the Arabs of north
suggest,
poor
as this
a long spear (Fig.
under
tribes
final
further
result
though
separated
26ý
CHAPTER 2
THE FIRST
It
is
generally
organization
time
of
Marwän
II,
as marking
forces
Eastern
that
suggest
than
is,
forces
that
would
have,, of
while
1.
cAll
early
Since
661
in
AD,
the
and
as a relatively
of
it
the
reforms
are
similarly
crmies
to
among their
regarded
more
pro-
sophisticated
investigation
would
changes
rather
moment
another
Muslim
at
which
Arab
armies
more
cosmopolitan,
date
offers
from
itself
be necessary
may
history
political
the
of
early
establishment
consequent
straightforward
n
dynastic
their
equipment
Islam.
the
of
state,
choise.
the early
already
have analysed
period,
been studied
the war-like
The Mobility
of the Arab
"The Role of the
Hill.,
passim;
Fries,
Arab Conquests p" passim;
Hill,
tribal
no obvious
grounds,
year
in
armies
course,
others
Syria,
and certainly
them.
be an obvious
Muslim
The military
military
justify
to
tactical
or
Caliphate
thus
from
considerably
a closer
reflected
cavalry-dominated,
succeeded
of
Yet,
difficult
a convenient
The death
a place
infantry-dominated
on technological
select
Arab
take
reforms
of
and
them.
the
possibly
Cnliph
contemporaries.
technology
revolution,
primitive
could
however,
separate
Umayyad
from
tactics,
developed
sid
Umayyad
1arwän's
those
to
last
that
stimulating
It
to
the
the
armies
CAbb;
the
a change
fessional
Middle
Muslim
Muhammad to
of
that
agreed
the
of
NIUSLI11 ARMIES
in
by a number of
detail
verses
in
Armies
Camel and
op. cit.,
and tactics,
of
the
the
those
Early
Horse
passim.
scholars,
Arabs of
Arabia
Conquests,
in the Early
1
26q
who filled
the
Rarely.,
however,
both
relation
Illustrated
artifacts
it
hardly
to
of
potentially
or
conquered
of
such
useful
illustrated
Islamic
military
the
civilization
that
7th
been
relatively
Arabia
families
of
fact
These clan
merchants'
domination
tribes,
of
Schwarzlose,
Jarhüc,
op.
3.
Lombard,
Q.
Ibid..
op,
cit.,
of
those
153.
from
to
actual
a handful
neighbouring
developments
see
better
barely
Hijäz
of
stores
of
were warriors.
in houses
that
were veritable
arms and armour
that
routes
were also
subordinate
arms.
El Gindi.,
253-255.
these
small
almost
4
importation
its
have
the
Such stores
from
suggested
like
trade
vital
been
and may indeed
of
the
of
traditions
military
considering
lived
city,
aspect
recently
weapons,
proportion
by tribute
pp.
on this
has
neighbours,
passim;
cit.,
j2! ssim.
LPS Mstaux.
p.
the
or
and by a steady
in
a high
tribal
increased
2.
the
known
the
It
poor
Renaissance
territory.
or
light
Islam,
its
that
an Italian
arsenals.
replenished
Yet
be possible
a little
Hence,
the
describe
do survive
be outlined.
than
bourgeoisie
bedouin-controlled
question.
in
shed
was not
richer
The merchant
in
technology
non-existent,
and authenticity.
to
may also
periods.
is
decades
tried
sources
in
subject
subsequent
early
equipment
it
to
date
have
century
must
and the
populntion
to
7th
of
century
few
this
Caliph3.2
era.
attempting
culture
these
Räshidün
see
and
doubtful
pictorial
while
material
of
and
cultures,
Umayyad
Before
from
that
troops
made to
cultures
best
at
and the
been
an effort
material
the
early
Prophet
neighbouring
are
of
the
of
surprising
appearance
of
has
Islamic
while
is
armies
Not all
op.
cit.,
feuding
the
ensured
lay
across
constantly
families
or
weaponry
passim"
need
Al
3
z7o
have been imported
made from
local
from a distance,
ores,
non-metallic
recorded
in use at
the
leathers
mentioned
by early
the
near
Arabian
Although
to
guide
does
the
the
fought
without
warrior
would
hide,
hauberk,
have
horsemen
and the
still
also
armour
Al
Tabarip
6.
Al
Jarbüc.
7.
El
Gindi,
8,
Al
Oarb, uc,
9.
El Gindi,,
or
In
battle..
that
he
such
cases
a
perhaps
foot
and
Qnyayed
in
such
armour,
6
but
,
as the
that
of
basic
the
dire
latter
9
were in most warrior
melee
of
cavalry
warfare
made a cavalryman
the
in
must
themselves,
but
from
CA11
in
rare
ape
vo1. I0
op.
cit.
pp.
j
p.
t.
cit.,
.jp.
p.
quafter
societies,
more
than
was a
even
greater
ranks.
Muhammad
_c
an unseen
poetry
upon
cit
from
might
Of course,
as they
blow
camel-
sword-play.?
among infantry.
than
in
noting
a shield,
helmets,
cit
op.
worth
Arabia,
far
o.
it
it
abundant
in
cA1i
op.
were
armour
and
used
without
verses
by
5.
in
Arabia,
century
elite
based
was
vrrious
produced
have
that
suggest
fighting
the
arms
a particular
he was on
worn
and 7th
considered
example,
to an unexpected
Statistics
that
that
common among cavalry
confused
produced
of
as a literal
be regarded
6th
in
presumably
if
were an
than
arms
armour
and shields
were probably
cannot
poetry
during
armour
foot-soldier
caution
Arab poets,
thesis
for
poet,
more
vulnerable
been
the
was often
been
Arab
support
verses
5
the Prophet,
situation
particularly
Similar
such as felt
equipment
of
from local
Apart
course.
peninsula.
early
one
area.
time
military
seem to
of
early
p.
219-220.
170.
227.
97.
al
1541.
be treated
with
interesting
some
Gindi,
7th
and
century
these
Arabia.
results
have
suggest
again
In
the
Z71
available
swords
compared
the
of
how.
No less
indicate
that
hauberk
was1
and
armour
known
been
as tribute
to
where
the
domesticated
6th
century.
to the Muslims,
horses
in
desert
Fertile
conquests
14
abundant.
but
anything
from
region
spread
beyond
would
a subordinate
in
it
The Muslims,
10,
Ibid.,
11.
Al
Asali,
12.
Al
Bal8dhurI,
13.
Ibid.,,
p.
14.
Ibid.,
p. 93.
p.
while
role
still
149A,
op.
op.
137.
pp.
cit.,
cit
204-205.
p.
98.
least
that
the
more
had
Some decades
time
was acutely
owned
later,
enough
12
including,
their
Horses
perhap3
the Gulf
coast.
peninsula
naturally
were
surprisingly,
13
When
the
became more
first
Muslim
armies.
z,
own
towards
could
the Hij;
only
to be demanded
cavalry
to
Even
when
before
these
settled
probably
and armours.
Arabian
in
richer
were
warriors
of horses
limited
at
was unknown.
horse
areas
and booty
must
peninsula
were plentiful
the
only
and
their
cavalry
Yamämah along
be a long
but
11
other
of
tribute
Crescent,
were
Arabian
to camels
numbers
similar
primarily
tt, e Muslim
say
Arabs
some leading
centuries,
as the
the
that
not
surprising.
but
battle-field
than
the
mentions"
common.
that
that
this
Surely,
quite
is
a few
more
even
are
the
population
dispute
demanded as tribute
also
the
for
n fell
tiajr;
be argued
This
as early
mounts
could
*
would
10
domineted
forms,
of
armour
shields.
various
Arabia,
btouthern
to
spear
head
thirty-four
and only
were made to hauberks,
its
horses.
of
three
spears
of
mentions
and seventeen
to
relating
and
per
few
neighbours,
in
sword
in
of
references
and
it
While
short
seventy
helmets
one hundred
ninety-two
with
The numbers
than
to
seven
arms
he noted
poetry
apparently
play
fought
z7z
in
close
but
outnumbered
foes.
pagan
cold
for
ranks
deeply
Such
the
unlike
were
came into
regarded
Arab
infantry
up to
four
in
foe.
ranks
Behind
weapons
fýanks.
ýg
of
amount
shields.
it
but^was
armour
worn
this
In part
just
by
15.
Moraes
16.
Al Jarbüo,
Farias,
op.
op.
cit.
relying
cit.,
_p
a poverty
229.
247;
18.
Lombard..
Military
Les m6taux,
0rqanization,
o.
Lombard,
Les Metaux,
p.
pp.
spears
who hurled
have
been
been
on the
inspiration
for
reduced
instead
their
the
on larger
greater
mobility,
resources.
It
812.
p.
p.
Ibid.
heaviest
an approaching
already
of metal
spears
the
means
have
may have been a move towards
17.
19.
infantry,
to reflect
as likely
had
warfare.
the
with
the
early
with
may also
to
cErtainly
The Qyzentines
their
century
against
Archers
more
were almost
ideas.
military
are
in
javelin-men
likely
opposing
Graeco-Roman
By this
psili
scutati.
they
although
Such tactics
Muhammad's
the
of
6th
hedge
the
to have been highly
those
ranks'
flanks.
the
stood
Ferias,
before
infantry
a deadly
present
heads
late
of
close
on the
or
scutati
the
here,
stationed
four
Moraos
earlier
updated
needs
to
prefeesional
mentioned
shield-bearing
in
could
these
over
scutati
front
rarely
already
the
meet
long,
metres
four
all
to
had
the
15
seem not
only
are
in
a battle,
of
start
Yet they
they
Byzantium
their
standing
armour
for
formations
now placed
16
contact.
17
the
at
their
defeat
lohich
normal
time.
the
of
to
able
according
were,
Muhammad's
apparently,
formations,
were
but
practice
used
as weapons,
verses.
They
Arab
were
infantry
Iran
means,
warriors
casualties,
and
normal
Javelins
forces
committed
higher
Byzantium
of
By this
support.
disciplined
accept
armies
of
moral
Haldon,
20 and 23.
148.
Some Aspects
of
Py7antine
19
z73
may even have led
than
their
to Byzantine
first
Muslim
7th
the
of
two
been
760
the
AD),
armies
from
identical
the
to
Doubtful
bamboo bow,
Topkapu
20
The role
cavalry.
the
most religious
have belonged
(Fig.
the
Hijäz
of
before
a very
had,
to
by
the
Ibn
Is'häq
before
of
an infantry
tactical
concept
must be,
relics
and now in
to the Prophet
is
105),
"Sarecenoi"
flanks
Again
of
simple
the widespread
stirrup
in
242
the
by this
this
overrun
Jä iz,
by al
but,
This
chapter.
in Pnuhammad's first
cavalry
that
provinces
a later
21
of
was skirmishing
the
protecting
dating
probability
use it.
Hijäz
as the
covered
as indicated
the
the
and
antithesis
written
Byzantium.
of
mirror
the period
first
in
6th
type
the
that
adoption
one
may well
the
of
bow.
composite
In all
archers
these
rccordinq
Prophet,
in
have been used in
course,
the
then
and
the
where
evolved
Reliquary
armoured
exact
as archers.
of
enemy's
to
well
in
an almost
that
said
less
javelin
Arabia,
century
of
the
is
characterized
role
closed,
bow to
sources
biography
surviving
formation
is
mid-7th
long
course,
earliest
(d.
in
situation
the
of
Byzantine
century
being
foes.
The subordination
early
infantry
for
existing
empires,
chapter,
i1uýlim
cavalry
did
was not
by Islam.
that
the
will
even known in
be discussed
The Life of i'ýFuhamnad, Apostle
Ibn Is'ýag,
(London 1964). p, 94.
trans.
$
21.
Ibid.,
22.
Al J; hizy
pp.
decision
in greater
107,
Tabyýn,
and the
horsemen
pagan Mecca was richer
Al aayän tiiall
Arabia
first
made a conscious
1920.
Throughout
use stirrups.
hand there
Muslim
of
not
On the other
20.
p.
not,
Eastern
many years,
Since
could
Middle
device
suggestion
armies
is
did
a possibility,
know of
not
detail
to
in
in horses
than
of /Allah
E, ý2ehatsek
Muslim
Z-74P1ad!nah,
cavalry
for
it.
Nevertheless.,
subsequent
decades
first
hand,,
other
or
engage
an enemy
to
ready
If
the
foe
and
In 7th
century
the
retiring
if
the
latter
hover
admitted
in
defeat,
their
any
this
era
cavalry
weapon.
Biddle
long
bcdouin
are
7th
lance
into
date
century,
victory
in
20th
unknown.
virtually
it
would
comes
at
al
infantry,
24
enemy.
to
seek
break
situation.
to attack,
be expected
later
which
particularly
of
art
from
Egypt
Coptic
during
very
the
two styles,
from
uncertain,
(Fig.
Muslim
all
almost
27
weapon.
used
and were
illustrations
One example
cavalry
shown in
is
cubits
eleven
medieval
century'
Ghamr,
the best
have come in
probably
length
cubits'
appear
the
Rather
military
was considered
and a much longer
art,
spears
well
a cavalry
five
weapon of
Eastern
these
the
Among the bedouin
the normal
then
into
to
expected
then
would
a camel
on army
among the
cohesion
a dangerous
would
being
the opposing
infantry
is
led
and waiting.
of
of
from
On the other
have
not
and
or became disorganized.
foe broke
In such situations
26
flanks
loss
any
though
prepared
were
on the
of
Arabia
24
.
23
1f.
might
cavalry
territory,
advantage
contact,
off
if
that
its"
combat
these
to battle
led
than
rather
in
were war-horses
the
for
Islam
against
were generally
indicate
would
take
they
hostile
across
the horsemen
so valuable
mounted
sources
battle
appeared
that
or a mule and only
fighting
Although
by
the
earlier
times
though
possibly
A verse
135).
of
conquest
celebrating
Palestine,
ýý
23,
24.
25,
"The Role of
Hill,
Conquests"
p. 36.
Al Jarbüc,
op. cit
Horse in the Early
"The
Hill,
Conquests"
26.
Ibid.
27.
E1 Gindi,
Role
p.
of
37.
the
Camel and the Horse
op. cit _. p.
ý,
Camel
151.
and
the
"The Role of
p. 3?.
p. 239; Hilly
Arab Conquests"
thr
in
the
Horse
in
Early
the
the
'.rah
Camel and the
Early
Arab
z75
indicates
also
that
the weapon used by other
to
In addition
such
multi-weapon
from
the
7th
and
early
8th
long
javelins.
to
early
centuries
may be worth
It
of
who,
may
that
notLnn
in
developed
while
3yzantium
the
included
course,
the
in
failed
troops
such
centuries,
new foes
against
been
had
cavalry
7th
Arab cavalry
early
or short,
`
archer-lancer
6th
than
longer
was generally
28
warriors.
spears,
haue used bows or
also
lance
a horseman's
Arabs.
The 7th
century
the most effective
of
short
formations
seven
separate
in
units
him from
ranks
the
ambitious
aware of
Khaybcr
and the
Al 0alädhuri,
Hill,
Conquests"
30.
Lombard,
31.
Altheim
Les rnetaux.
and Stiehl,
flank
the enemy's
tt,.
and
or prevent
Muhammad
was ever
from
was obviously
the offensive.
to go onto
possible,
this
area'
such
copying
the
levying
that
the
plus
booty
of
conquest
from
135.
Camel
p.
before
horses
and., where
income
p.
cit.
of
39.
Additional
has even been suggested
It
subsequent
Role
p.
hnrseS
31
Prophet
Islam
if
cavalry
oo
many more
the
yet
of
turn
consist
30
needed
tactics,
as tributs.
"The
attempt
own.
the purchase
to
would
and more manoeuverable
flanks.
on their
Strateaikon
formations
lighter
with
cavalry
sending
to the
such cavalry
lancers
also
the need for
more animals
entailed.
According
Muslims
cavalry
Ho ordered
wastage
Arabs,
cavalry
offensive
that
inevitable
formations
one's
field
to
the
unlike
were rot,
afford
Maurice,
individually
perhaps
not
period,
could
of
looser
would
turning
Clearly
29.
Emperor
or eight
horse-archers
2ü.
infantry
to the
attributed
of
the
and accept
this
of
Thus they
prepared
against
of
cavalry
horses.
though
Syzantines,
and
the
Horse
147.
"Dhü Nuwäs, " p.
320.
in
the
':-arty
Arab
2-76
defeated
Jewish
Muhammad to raise
this
in Wadi al
tribes
Islam's
and maintain
means the Muslims
Qüra.. Taymar and Fadak,
last
were at
first
enabled
32
force.
cavalry
to counter-attack
able
By
their
enemies,
Once
Islam
went
successfully
These
naturally
arose.
fortified
towns
At first,
however,
some specifically
to
these
with
superior
anc( more
Camel-ridingkmobile
bypass
use
the
of
their
their
33
position.
indeed,
of
foes
A lack
of
area
Crescent
source
compar3d
and Egypt.
of
howovcr,
It
that
36
cavalry
the
33.
Hill.,
"The Role of
Conquests, " p.
7.
?.,
34.
Ibid.
35.
Ibid.
36.
A. Crohmann'
37.
Canards, "L'Expandion
pp. 316-317.
in
the
army of
largely
to battle
of
of
some role
in
in
the Arab conquest
of
Egypt
of
Egypt
might,
conquest
Fertile
is
a
still
s primarily
al
37
the
a
armoured
infantry,
scholars
agree,
All
brilliant
this
out-
enemy to attack
Islam's
heavily
on camels?
widespread
places
Iran34
of
successes
CAmr ibn
Muslims
a good defensive
numbers in
Arab conquest
consist
played
Ibid..
campaign.
that
the Muslims
368-369.
pp.
p.
it
riding
32,
adequate
immediate
Was the
during
was also
its
In fact,
or did
known as thagla - h,,
in
and
forcing
entailed
armies
times
at
the
the
upon
infantry
the camParab\'Qslowness
with
conto versy.
force#35
cavalry
for
battle
manpower,
enabled
based
Muslim
besiege
Arab
strictly
strategy
gave
to
need
tactics
had dismounted
camels
the
of
Arabian
this
when the latter
have accounted
this
thus
and
Usually
own choosing.
Arab infantry
shortage
problems
camel.
manoeuvered
an acute
new problems
offensive,
from
primarily
sprang
from
and
the
onto
the
Camel and the
Horse
in
the
Ferly
r.reh
33.
From the World
of
Arabic
Arabes; ' (during
Per?.
questions
(Cairo
after
1952),
his
p.
paper),
114.
Z77
suffered
their
some of
case defending
Oyzantine
inferior
undeniably
to
they
rind enoinsering,
the
siege
of
T; 'ifs
of
cowhide
in
castles
their
and
This
use
engine
used in
the
ultimately
it
Hira
Muslims
the Middle
in
the
the
at
3rd
'j, it
the
of
Byzantines
it
not
the
until
from
learned
via
the
Al Oalädhurf,,
40.
Althein
41.
Fries.,
42.
Schwarzlose,
p. 202,
43.
Partington.,
loc.
ap.
44,
D. R, Hills
Civilization.
"Nechanicý-, il Technology,
" in
(Oxford
J. R. Hayes edit,,
45.
Howard-Johnson,
cif..,
p.
cit..
74;
Fries.,
"Dhti Ptiuwäsý" ap.
p.
42
Iranian-
being
used
invented
century
44
via
45
Iran,
when,
Arabs,
and which
was a more
o
c? t.
pp.
35-56.
366--367.
56.
o R. cit,
F.
cit..,
92.
and was widely
What the
Avara,
39,
op.
Yemen.
41
293.
p.
and Stiehl,
12th
Asia
central
Butler,
op.
in
was probably
which
38.
cit
manganels.,
with
and strongly
known as the man anIa.
had learned
40
c Umar I. 43
Caliph
app©or
had probably
op,
acted
)evernI
was certainly
trebuchet,
was also
Yemen or HTra,
Arabian,
north
century,
time
did
have
latter.
origin
mnntiet
or
Sassanians
Chinese
of
During
art.
was known as the magganon or mannnnikon.
counter-weight
East,
the
were
engines
might
equipped
from
sieve
a dabbnbah
the
this
Muslims
the
The former
operatiny
learned
of
of
both
apparently
may have been known in
conYusin5ly
in
were
terms
ignorant
manganel.
been
where
in
men used
or
Hijäz
fops
in
artillery,
the early
While
entirely
Yomenis
have
might
The true
in
not
those
was perhaps
influenced,
by the
were
the
Byzantium
it
While
their
of
man anon
for
38
Alexandria.
most
from
casualties
f^uhammad's
the
and
as a protection
tribal
heaviest
p.
Cit
321;
E3usworthj
189; $osworthy-
p.
303.
"Armies
"Armics
of
of
the f'rophetp"
the Prophets"
The Genius
of Arab
1976),
pp. 175.187.
z79
primitive
mangonel
by
the
of
such man-powernd
combined
TarstsT
they
in
were
engines
the
pulling
the
clearly
the
of
in
the
torsion
for
same as the
The mangonel,
high
many
on the
be,
however,
and indeed
very
the
Byzantine
effective
"mild
the
against
might
sound,
torsion
throurahout
popular
This
ballista
range,
one of
R9s al
Arab besiegers.
cAin
example,
a small
range,
a larger
to do the
weight
destroyer
for
of
for
stint
hurled
open battle.
Arabia,
was,
while
earliest
rock
so
missile
damage.
the ballista
carrädah
The
its
be
in
abandoned
and had great
trajectory
to
continued
and
ass")
own plunging
defence
by a1
existing
had been
they
49
used in
have been known in
was during
known
was a fortification
was,
become
to
had limited
rock's
the
forms
Various
men.
as such engines
still
Aramaic
a low
of
over
after
onagros.
along
As such the ma.ngonel
could
centuries
by contrast,
and relied
were
(orig.
46
Islam.
eastern
Byzantine
and fast
accurately
Primitive
and were
engines
Carrädah
The
Europe.
48
but
counter-weight.,
descr; bed in deta11
as an improvement
areaand
Islam
were later
century.
seen
Nediterraneen
8 team
of
47
Roman world,
Earlier
used
strength
man3jTq
12th
by a released
not
operated,
may not,
mentions
when the weapon proved
51
assimilate
Elite,
bourgeois
could rapidly
with
urban
equa Ily urbanizes(
the
foes,
its
the weapons and technology
problem of
of
46.
Hill.,
"tt'echanical
47.
Al Tarst
48.
Thruat of the
"The Crusades and the Technological
L. 'w'hite, Jnr.,
p
J.
V.
East
the
in
Middle
Society
West, " in War. Technolo
and
(London 1975), pp. 101-102.
Parry and V1, E. Yapp edits.
49.
Oosworthjl
50.
Fries,
51.
Al
hlhile
Islam,
I,
op,
Oalädhuri,
its
op.
cit.,
"Armies
cit,
'' 1cc.
Technology,
of
p.
opci.
p.
120.
". e Prophet,, " p.
57.
t.,
it.
pp.
242-243.
2C7.
^[
/ý
inhdequate
nanpower-. was not'so
apparently
getting
644-AD),
theýmawälT,
or'newly
asservants
these
54
or. -batman,
Umayynd times.
role-by
but
55
these
as heavily
as horsemen
Now was also
58
organized.
use of limited
Islamic
but-also-an
military
to-set
These Byzantine
merely
a means of
the regional
in this
may themselves
reforms
in the early
garrisoning
aspects of
hava been inspired
Ibid.;
0osworthi,
54.
Croneý
op,
cit.,
were
7th century.
53.
of
mentioned
by
Constantinople's
case
Remarks on the Mamlük Military
Ayalon,, "Preliminary
in Islam"
pp. 44-45.
the
also
and armies could
52,
"Armies
mostly
armies
Like, so many other
theme farces
up regional
Prophet:
" p.
by Sassanian
Institution
203.
93.
p.
554,
Ayalon., "Preliminary
in Islam-"
loc.
cit.;
4
..,.
ýý
,.
Institution
Remarks on the Mamlük Military
pp. - 27 and 92»93.
Crones apR6 cit`..
56,
Ayalon! '"Preliminary
50;
in Islam"
p.
al
Remarks on, -the Mamlük Military
7aberft
vo1. II, p.
op, citlý
57.
Al JaÄiz$ Al Bayn
58,
Montgomery
"Armies of
wall
Watt, Thesty
the Prophet"
bytn,
7aý,
p.
7th
to make-the most effective
organization,
by'Byzantium,
the later
are
und or regional
attempt
manpower resources.
have been inspired
attempt
not
perhaps,
military
57
and javelins.
when the
tima
This'was,
"
a vast new empire,
early
the
the ranks
me
ewalT troops
they
of
a vital
of
part-
official
had entered
although
speers
with-short
given
evidence
fully-fledged
infantry#55
armoured
fighting
the
from
The militarization
playing
some were clearly
Judging
and subsequentýcnnturies,
fought
new Fluslims
latter
foes,
defeated
" was also
"frsedmenj,
converted
52
was
CUmar (634-
Caliph
of Islam's
being encour9ged.
-was
53.
At-first
->
blessing.
of. the
the recruitment
of Persians,
The situation
solved.
by the-reign
serious
at, which°time
icularly
easily
Institution
464.
p. 22.
that
203.
Islam,
bias
p.
50;
Bosworth,
7I
(
cT
2.8a
military
and it
organization,
the
copied
were not
to be so organized
horse-raising
of
the
role
Räshidun
in
the
been in
as their
possession
horsemen
of
finest
breed.
Syrian-Arab
It
it
was both
which
Iranian
and light,,
the
time
a more important
the
rich
have
Arabs might
is
foes.
heavy-cavalry
from
for
clear
for
compensated
between
was a cross
the
This
but
small
Originating
horse.
the
combining
tactics
Arab cavalry-versus-cavalry
to have differed
first
Even in
in
62
if
the written
by the iuslims'
was the
strong
North
in northern
advantages
of
its
63
two forebears*
centuries:
would soon have
mount available.
cavalry
swift
region
been
to
have
as heavily
seem
rarely
Barb and the heavier
African
started
and t3yzentine
Sassenian
the
first
themes
so an ever-increasing
to play
than
have
been
to
more
seems
it
the
were acquired.
But however
a disadvantage,
was indeed
sources,
Syria.,
their
arms,
armoured
this
armios
60
widened,
control
cavalry
Islam.
of
the
61
steppe-lands
Caliphs,
Arabs
Although
Thu- the-Muslims
Muslim
area under
59
Islam,
of
eruption
the
that
possible
the Persians.
was Anatolia.
bocnme aware of the idea.
number of
the
before
completed
equally
from
directly
concept
tho
As.
is
from those that
traditional
be used against
throughout
another
"La Tacticrie
at this
time,
seem
had been, and would remain for many
the Middle
East.
Spears would
horsemen, a sword only being drawn
59,
Darko,
60.
Haldon,
61.
D. T. Bice2 The Byzantine-q.
62.
Canerdt
"L.'Expanoion
63.
L.ombard$
The Golden
Aspects
do not,
p. 136.
TouraniannesIlý"
of Byzantine
Military
Adml.nistration,
(London 1962)s pp. 47-50.
Arabe$" pp., 316-317.
Age of
Islam,
pp.
163-170,
pp. 97-101x,
1
12-V
64
later.
Full
is
revolution
equipment
unlikely
mounted
hauberk
and ba/dah
thread,
It
652 AD,
Muslim
an awls
Unfortunately.,
than
other
136) of
basic
needless
rarely
cA1! (ee
it
sources,
mentioned
in
Part. Two
115).
by an
Nubia
raiairig
while
of
possible
early
show any obvious
does,
however
was to become widespread
that
as the only
weapon on a
that
or Syria,
One of the figures
Although
was
on
might have been the
camm-udd
is
the
bedouin
been
to
have
weapon and
a
seems
use by regular
c
65
was described
Palestine
C
dir
of the 7th and 8th centuries.
noted in early
of
ca üd
appears
Russia (Fig.
in central
smaller
sources
a type
from 7th century
dish$ probably
five
135 and 136) do not
(Fig.
mace
This
shields
illustrations
these
entirely
as turn
dish may wear a scale hauberk of a type that
this
is
(Figs.
One of
among Umayyad cavalry.
discovered
coats
the helmet.
show a long-hafted
silver
of mail"
- available
t'rom Egypt
cavalry
armour
down with
that
the 7th
0
dir
and a basket.
a nose-bag
cavalry
of
a small.
of
needles
a packing
plus
such heavy
as "loaded
66
by al E'aiädhurT
scissors,
was probably
Arab poet
in
was listed
helmet,
as part
the Umayyad
before
just
the rest
during
probably
on a raids
this
forces
linen
to have changed
When going
century.
an Arab horseman
for
Muslim
troops
until
the
Caliphate
tptertwo).
Elsewhere horse-riding
annsir warriors
who took part
in the
in 656 AD were described as armed with swords
67
These
iron
of
in
might,
men
"bristling"
armour.
and
Day of the Camel battle
on baldrics,
infantry.
been
have
mounted
coursep
64.
Al galädhuri,
65,
Ibid.,
66.
Shir, nieq op. cit..
679
üdTj
Al P9as
cit.
o.
Other troops
p. 129.
p. 445.
op
p. A.
t.i
IU,, p. 309.
vol*
_
the
some
on
were,
zýz
occasion,
while
specified
had iron
some also
They were armed with
as cavalry.
were trained
Whereas in Byzantium
armour.
to
fight
as once-only
armoured horsemen could
fight
just
cavalry
would do if,
could
for
example,
fight
also
freedom
greater
movement if
of
657 ADS heavily
armoured
to fight
a duel
between
retained
their
tightened
covered
all
The champion
ewlyah's
Mu
df.rc of cca1Q armour.
spear
victorious.,
and with
While
the
indeed
in
the
armies
of
Darko,
69.
Hill,
The Mobility
p. 188.
70.
Al fasüd!
time
"La Tactique
71.
Ibid.,
72.
N. A. Faris
l,
op.
a aword.
and wore a
dominated the
still
behind one of medieval
for
with
the
of
the Räshidün
the
an infantry
weapon,
vol. V, pp.
vol. V, p.
n72
may well
when Islam
in
while
the
the
did
Arab
spear
II, " pp. 130-131.
of the Arab Armies in the Early
cites,
Prophet
earth.
it
The bow was,
earth.
Touranianfle,
Caliphs
Islam's
said,
them was your
to have been genuine,
unlikely
primarily
68.
apparently
a sword
ye have conquered
might
seem to be conquering
time,
infantry
might lie
Arab bow,
their
is
the
that
coif
they
wore a dirt
in which the Prophet reportedly
and the
statement
have originated
side
wielded
show that
clearly
hadTths
"Use ye the
time
this
and was armed with
eyes,
army also
Such a situation
military
a mighfar
in
71
Such incidents
favorite
his
except
from
5iffTn
of
as dismounting
though
cAli's
for
armour
recorded
armies#
The champion
face
from
battlefield.
the opposing
Arab horsemen
At the battle
also
were
by a maahzsmbelt,
his
70
Arab
This they
69
their
abandoning
required*
68
on fcot.
and outnumbered.
ranks,
horsemen
armour.
hauberk
in
such heavy
chock-troops,
as effectively
surrounded
as infantry
rum0h- lances
Conquests.
55.
49.500
snd R. P. Elmer,
Arab Archery.
.
(Princeton
1945), p. Be
zs'3
was used by all
troops.
Considering
prophet
the
and the
of Muslims,
it
Räshidün
in
blades
now preserved
fact,
the
Arabs'
Both
sides
found
to defend
Reliquary
Nor was it
462, and carried
inflicted
to put
necessary
wore normal long-sleeved
hauberks like
shields,
to shoulders,
hands and bodies.
this
With the exception
on most of
perhaps illustrated
side once again largely
76
ranks.
73.
A. R. Zaki.
victims
74.
R. Levy.
75.
Hill.
The Social
The Mobility
Thordeman
Armour
pp. 149-209.
in
of the most commonly
the least
common
of
such wounds are similar
the battle
of
cÄlim
al Isl
of Islam,
Wisby.
(Cairo
m'f,
fighting
1957).
Battle
in
pass-
(Cambridge 1957). p. 432.
in
the
Early
the
Arab
Armies
of
the
In
the losing
encounter,
infantry
of armoured
Structure
from
This
troops
'Conquests,,
P, 143.
76.
front
be
°uite understandable.
would
Scandinavian
consisted
Al Sayf fTtl
foes.
Arrow wounds to the face were also
grim 14th century
singularly
rear.
that
of the latter,
the
the
the
such front-ranking
to legs and feet,
were suffered
in
If
then an analysis
In
Byzantine
infantry
to
cavalry,
infantry.
their
of
who stood
74
Muslim
worn by all
wounds, drawn up by D. R. Hill,
found
very
are certainly
armoured
of Siffin.
hurts
to those
to
those
or otherwise,
that
so protected
Most frequent
75
common.
generations
was not given
have been among early
was much like
not
the
of
swords
73
might
was the case in the battle
Fig,
r' re emphasis
the Topkapu
situation
those
by later
that
universal.
it
were preserved
attributed
106-114),
not
supposed
which
Genuinely
as armour
was clearly
ranks
in
(rigs.
Abundant
it
hr dTt s.
pious
indeed
early
Caliphs
seems surprising
swords
the
reverence-with
of Wisby.
1361,
vol.
Is
zF4CHAPTER3
THE (1ILTTARY CONTRIBUTION OFCONnuEnro
Throughout
many non-Arab
This
the
history
peoples
naturally
meant
and equipment
to a greater
to the military
or lesser
traditions
differing
drawn into
were
the Muslim
beyond,
strength
Islam.
of
of military
orbit,
the
towards
degree
and indeed
Arab expansion,
of
contributed
that
AND NEIGHBOURING PEOPLE'S
organization
each contributing
Muslim
of
evolution
military
technology.
Syria
Among the
that
is
those
Byzantine
first
inhabitants
before
rule
they,
descendants
possibly
1
combatants
Malik
al
Other
but
later
Syrians,
settlers,
for
the
the
to
their
conquest
Egyptian
or aarajimah,
Limitenei,
their
number later
against
1T,
became ma
w
some of
of
counterparts,
Not only did
their
at
In 716/7
who were
first
under
enlisted
erstwhile
masters
AD YazTd ibn
and
Muhallab
rather
while
the
as non-
apparently
and Tabaristan,
domination
Muslim
resist
locals
been
have
may
whom
Ourjän
under
a major role-in
the Umayyad period.
as soldiers.
Syrians,
who had lived
Crescent
Byzantine
fight
way were the
Islam.
of
like
many of
Syrians
recruited
1.
but
some decades*
GAbd
of
this
were never to play
during
passive
in
Fertile
such as the Mardaitea
warriors
allies.
coming
history,
military
Caliph
the
Syrians
were not entirely
for
the
of
Although non-Arab
Islamic
local
to be incorporated
than
Arab
indigenous
Arabes, " Revue
H. Ahrweiler,
"L*Asie
Mineure et lea invasions
Histariciuc,
CCXXVII (1962),, pp. 5-6; E. W. Brookes "The Arabs in
Asia Minor,
Studip9.
from Arabic Sources, " Journal
of Hellenic
(1898),
XVIII
pp. 25--26.
oe. cit.,
p. 203; Howard-Johnson,
z3S
Syrians
the
Arabs
Islamic
the
of
fact,,
period,
ruslims
Syria
these
not
only
the pro-
in
Syria
were
by
made the absorption
influences
military
and traditions
structure
much easier.
very
and Nubia
both
under
in by the
the 5th
day Nubia
Nubians
penetrate
Romano, from
Nubian
Coptes
some of
was minimal
their
southern
their
thumb or
of
centuries
draw.
rather
2.
R. Levy, An Introduction
1933), Pp. 271-272.
3.
P. L. Shinnie,
4.
Al ElalädhurT,
5, A1MaaaüdT,oýci
the
eyes"
Medieval
the
of
to
reed,
Sociolo
(Khartoum
331.
p.
.,
t ,, vni. I1, pp. 3$2-353.
tell
whether
the
Arabs.
accurate
4
They
and at least
arrowss
Isalam
they
army to
Muslim
"curiously
of
of
the
foes,
exceptionally
armoured
as having
Nubia,
first
of
the
than lighter
the
Blemya
we cannot
tales
with
called
of present-
conquest
their
Like
Egypt
of
south
the oases west
Their
Certainlyl
were described
ov.
_cit.
3
view
of
who were probably
home in
though
Aswan returned
out
the peoples
Nubians
Blemya.
archers,
finger
wooden nabl,
of
original
by 530 AD.
the point
and from
last,
They were the
troublesome
bowmen who "put
shot with
in later
the
was completed
south
the
century
were accomplished
the
but
the most important=
history
to crush
Nile,
is
that
Egyptir`nsf
and Umayyad rule,
an the scene.
arrived
true
of
were more active.
During
Islamic
role
Byzantine
neighbours
used
say that
by Romano-Byzantine
the existing
of
The military
of
that
but
to
be true
probably
influenced
greatly
first
Egypt
in
would,
into
Muslim raids
2
Armenia and Anatolia.
It
in early
involved
were almost certainly
shaped" bows5
II
1954),, p. 2.
(London
2.g6
and bowstrings
that
Christians
troops
civil
Nubians
the Governor
in
tgypt,
war
although
the bulk
Ethiopians
of block
Subsequently
The bulk
of
they
Alexandria
of
could,
fought
for
accepted
Egypt.
Coptic
levies
Many such are mentioned
during
the Muslim
in
fayyüm
and Mier
had at its
in Alexandria
army defending
Tinnis.
of the bucellerii
continued
11
the early
6.
Faris and Elmer
7.
Lurnraena, acs. cit.
C.
Butler,
9.
Ibid.
opt
7
0Amr ibn
such Umayynd
presumably
appear
to have been infantry.
Egyptian
a local
infantry
militia
10
A
Copts in a mixed Byzantine
may or may not have formed
Egypt,
for
12
internal
but they certainly
Under local
security
pannarchs
and low
p. 94,
2,
442
I
441-442
n.
and
pp.
and
r
p. 257.
pp. 102 and 222-224.
10.
Ibid$
p. 330.
11.
Ibid
p. 353.
12.
H. I. B3e11, "The Administration
or
7eitschrift.
XXVIII
Elyzantinioche
"Un Gouverneur Cmayyad: d'Egypto
f
tss4 s cur
les papyrus Araber 11 in
On
(Beirut
marched with
Muslim period.
op. citt.,
the Nijäz,
named Constantine.
forces
and nomarctues they were responsible
formed
in Mecca and MadTnah,
conquest.
also has
Native
in
John#9 while
head an officer
who garrisoned
into
well
would
by a certain
source in Masud!
semi-legendary
part
were led
probably
Islam.
local
of
0
Byzantine
have been
also
The latter
reportedly
of
conquest
the last
course,
the Umayyads bath
troops
such black
of black
corps
during
the pagan Quray h,
serving
have already
would
warriors
troops
the fuslim
during
alýAn
the elite
or pagan Eritreans,
others
a thousand
woven from grass.
have formed
might
who served
Christian
while
were probably
6
1930).
pp. 319--320.
"
Egypt under the Umayyad Khnlifß,
(1926),
H. Ls mmena,
pp. 270.260;
ýarIk
d'epres
Qorra ibn
»
In 5i? ýc1e dh+s 0mnyya d a.
-
2g7
13
enforcement.
off
Byzantine
various
Egyptian
The Coptic
population
Coptic
visual
in
Byzantine
variations.
The Iranian
On the other
hand the originally
and fundamentally
Central
of
variation
in 9th
seems to reappear
(Figs.
period
much Coptic
of
grew in
sword-blade
pre-Islamic
may in
arts
fact
is
dating
and,
long,
the
the
end of
the
the uncertain
given
from
have resulted
the Muslim
problem
in Egypt.
concerning
the last
a particular
14).
manuscripts
East$
towards
and 141)
local
(Fig.
the back
Coptic
the Middle
popularity
10,137
Such uncertain
conquest.
in
hilt
One possible
across
century
appear.
long
scabbard-slide,,
scabbard
and 10th
As elsewhere
143 and 145).
round-ended
of
the
local
minor
examples
pommel do.
angled
to
Egypt
of
with
for
does not,
Iranian
Asian
may be the wearing
though
equipment,
sword-belt
troops
show the
sources
their
be basically
dating
the manning
the Umayynd era was in
during
the main
course,
14
Meanwhile,
(Figs.
of
althoughs
counter-attacks
contribution
the fleet.
This
also
beat
the Muslims
helped
The Maghrib
both
Informations
pre-Islamic
we are better
written
centuries
in
served
for
the Maghrib
the earlier
al ternativ e, in this
warriors
feature
were clearly
of the population
sparse
the
in
Whilo
period.
it
traditions,
extremes
is
one
Berber cavalry
was a tradition
dangerous
6S
of riding
and their
than infantry
bare-back.
These
drawn from the nomadic or semi-nomadic
and normally
13.
Ibid.
14.
M. A. Shaban, Islamic
(Cambridge
1971}f p.
though
case.
More is known about early
most obvious
is
in military
to assume too much continuity
lithe
and pictorials
fought
History.
123.
as light
AD 600-750,
cavalry,
section
harassing
A New Interpretation,
z,88
but
and surrounding,
the aerbera
bedouin
followed
Arabs,
Another
to operate
which
to create
animals
to have been true
iron
heads
be the
Berbers'
of
15.0.
16.
mentioned,
Islamic
in
or
is
feet.
19
periods
11a2hrib
only
and this
javelins
fact,
the Muslim
tribes
20
conquest.
the
of
late
to form
prea sort
to be the most
the widespread
from
to
continued
Camels proved
dates
medium-
carried
also
used pack-animals
yet
appears
These weapons had
in
Herber
such a situations
the western
tactics.
The javelin,
nomadic
era was their
The cavalry
after
and
17
and cavalry.
in open country.
encampment
in
infantry
Berbers
encampment as a base from
va farr
weapon long
chief
beasts
suitable
camels
shields.
and early
defended
both
butts
leather
As already
Islamic
of
the
of
unnecessary
the Islamic
the
weapon was
Berber
and iron
round
sized
karr
In this
that
the nomadic
a "fortified"
essentially
A characteristic
into
to
similar
between
well
foes.
to avoid
concern
similarity
persisted
their
with,
of warfare
a comparable
nomadic Arabs that
pack
closing
a tradition
with
16
casualties.
use of
rarely
Is
a westward
raising
of
migration
in der
Ourian,
"Die einheimische
Nordafrikas
Bevölkerung
Spätantike
bis zur Einwanderung
der Wandalen, " in Die Araber
(Berlin
der Alten !,1ß1t, V/1, F. Altheim
edits.,
and R. Stiehl
1968), pp. 2; 6 and 248
in
P. F. de Moraes Farias,
"The Almoravids: Some Questions concerning
the Character f the Movement during its period of Closest Contact
'Institut
Fnndamentel
,
the
de
Bulletin
Western
Sudan"
with
d' Afrinue
Noir,
(1967)0
13,
XXIX
ser.
p.
810.
17.
(London
lome,
1978),
the
P. Connolly,
Enemies
Hannibal
of
end
"
Chinahandel,
Marot's
"Der
41;
Untergang
Altheim
p.
and Stiel,
"
410.
Fetes,
do
Adargues
301-303;
"Les
E3uttin,
p.
pp.
1g.
Moraea Farias,
opcitt.
19.
Connolly,
cit.
20.
fleshir,
loc.
op.
cit.,
pp.
p. 811.
67-70;
Morass
Farins,
op.
cites,
pp.
810-811.
Z919
of Lawate tribes
that
largely
in the 6th century.
before
a century
Arm,Pnin
the arrival
was Armenia.
and Byzantium.
in
the
reigns
particularly
Armenians
Maurice
of
first
Imperial
Elite
guard
units
in
might
prove
more reliable
The two princes
which this
of
art
for
the
written
sleeves.
than mail
defence
Iran
as cavalry,
important
They were,
the eastern
of
served
5assanian
regarded
Constantinople
a somewhat archaic
and zabns of Byzantine
flexible
the
in
23
role
fact,,
provinces
fighting
probably
sources.
illustrates
generally
fashion,
Armenian
early
cavalry
of
the
similar
on the Cathedral
problem is apparently
is rarely
to
to the lor
kilns
Note also the Iranian-style
Scale armour, being essentially
or lamellar,
art
frontier
at Mren appear
on the carving
scale hauberkss
padded or quilted
of both
24
military
Armenians
an increasingly
and Hereclius.
The riders
wear long-sleeved
27.
plain
25
kt.
onalaity
Muslim
239).
played
during
Whereas the
(Fig.
the armies
in
on Muslim
period
farmer, they were highly
prominent
the
against
levies
In tht
the latter
influence
In the pre-Islamic
and local
as mercenaries
region
pressure
22
the Muslims.
of
their
in the Tunisian
civilization
to have a noticeable.
` area
-
technology
during
It was.. In fact,
and Byzantium
An..
while
Byzantine
obliterated
21
illustrated
less
long sleeves.
with
of Piren, however, wear hauberks
solved by leaving
parts
in
of the
t
ýn
týe
4yes;
}}frr'ca
idc41ý,
Eurc}'ý
td. N. C. Frendp ,"7ýo,rth
Early M
and
the
Royal.
SocieCy,
Sth,
ý
(IqS
),
Nisiorical
ser.
actions o
PI
.6
4-7-6
5,
22,
I,bid.
23.
Christensen,,
24,
Haldonf
25.5haban,
-mý,
op,
Aspects
opt
cites,
of
it,
c_
_
,rrIt5
pp.
pyzantine
p.
26.
201-203;
Military
Lombard,
Les t1etnux,
Administrati
on,
pp.
p,
34.
17 and 19.
2: ct0
Such long scale hauberks,
elbow area unscaled.
front
as they do, may correspond
dur,,,,
r
non-protective
an this
Armenian
raised
pommel,
but
that
suggest
under greater
Byzantine
influence.
an the
Caliphate,
agree.
But Byzantium
had far
of
What Byzantine
technology.
came from
the
rest
importer
to
its
Syria,
of
the Empire.
of
influences
eastern
less
the Muslims,
traditions,
had for
remained for
military
who rapidly
technologies,
there
in
military
their
evolved
the
field
than
influence
area probably
different
in relation
in
developments
10th centuries
own synthesis
of foreign
that
they undertook
from
much more an
at least
than did Byzantium.
sources
of military
this
remained
adapters
a role
illustrations
all
almost
was in
Byzantium
7th to early
more to offer
some centuries
had a profound
was an exporter,
East Roman Empire from the late
that
A
technology
was in many respects
Indeed,
neighbours.
such
in military
upon which
to offer
In facts
it
26
a distinctly
In general
also
a fact
which
than
the
and perhaps aouthern, influencu:
influence
a province
having
unique,
cantle.
administration
the
armies
like
which,
down the front.
Caucasus were,
Iranien,
military
slit
also
unflarad
and the
at least,
is
carving
a flat
Armenia
Byzantine
to the Arab dlr
h, was probably
saddle
opening down the
the
suggest
of military
The Byzantines
and usually
hostile
successfully
for
military
tradition
a thousand years.
Iberia
At the other
also had its
end of the Mediterranean
influence
the
Visigoths
set
apart
upon Islam.
another
While an emphasis on cavalry
from most other
Germanic barbarians,
27
with
26,
Al Agsar-oti'* o2,
pp. 17 and 321; 0. G. Navas Arabi EEnglis
_cit.,
(Qeirut
Dictionary,
1899).
27.
Naffmeyarp
ap. c it.
pp,
r,
viaigoda, 9" p. 101.
77. »78; SsnchezwAlbarno2r
"La Caballeri
21I
the exception
Islamic
(Fig.
Iberia.
61),
customary
This
They are
numbers
law insisted
that
28
infantry
levies
German in
The fact
that
non-Vioigothic
the
states
Visigoths
subjects,
impression
garbate
the
and it
origins
Andalus
al
of
the
in 711 AD consisted
probably
These troops
were not
and indeed
there
the
of
reigns
troops
to
referred
also
define
seems to be no specific
disnppeared.
32
Indeed!
in
more notably,
up their
for
accounts
but
reference
of
at
serfs.
military
inspiration.
infantry,
to cavalry
need not
Arab historians
his
or
the
Ziyäd
Byzantine
cavalry
either
Yet this
Wambe and Ervogild.
Visigothic
and demoralized
elements,
unreliable
units
Elite/of
obvious
various
ä as being
men
the
by Täricj Ibn
Wambe nay have recruited
refQrms
free
all
to call
were obliged
of unwilling
slaves
33
the north.
army defeated
the
survived
and,
to
century.,
many javelin-throbjersq
that
tradition
and even slaves,
that
as Visinothic
of
included
art
obligations.
7th
lote
and one-tenth
in Muslim
Christian
the
probably
29
and slingers.
both
availaole
men had military
t lamba., in
Such infantry
sub-Visigoth`.
widespread
free
population
to persist
collapse
King
by Kinq
was essentially
limited
may have been considerable,
all
in pre-
be ignored
cannot
shown on the
Romano-Celtic
archers
fought
infantry
clearly
and their
the
as wall,
flio
Lombards.,
lout was extended
include
the
the
of
mean that
the Muslim
during
such
conquest
75-76.
28.
Moffmvyer,,
29,
Ibid.
30.4..
d
Spain. " Post
for Uar s Medieval
LouriQ,, "A Society
Organized
preaent,
y
XXXV (1966).
p. 60; C. Sanchez--Albornoz, o "Ei Ejecito
716-1037,, " in nrdinramenii
in Guerra en el Reino Asturieonea!
dal
SettifnRno
di
Studio
in Occidente
Medipp
i~tilitnri
os
no11'Alto
xU 1( Spolata
1960),,
di Stitdi aull' nlta Medioeva
Cnntra Italiana
p. 299.
31.
NcPfmeyer., Ioc.
32,
Sanchez-Albarnoz,
02,
cit.,
pp.
-cit
"La Caballeria
Visigoda,
" pp. 102-103.
31
zaz
make it
clear
cavalry
forces,
insisted
that
their
citizens
troditionel
his
and warriors
Visigoths
political
including
foes,
Two well-preserved
492 and 493).
a for
reins,
more advanced
a curb
specimen,
correct.
Here the psalions
curb-bit,
and its
become typical
also
have a profound
contained
leoneso
a strong
impact
Spanish
its
though
if
its
this
of
It
34
(Fins.
is
in
may have been
The second
curb
bit
is
dating
century
half-. way to becoming
has the
mornle
cavolry.
period
WAtize.
0th
for
high
lack
psaliono
early
In Pict,
Rio Parbate
or a martingale.
rein
a true
part
of
that
will
later
horse-furniture.
would
successor
element,
of
Asturias.
al
Andalus
while
warfare
merely
indeed
be etrongly,
kingdom
on Muslim
and the Umsyyad Emirate
from
lEnding
33
sincgultirly
any
to King
certainly
Eastern
Christian
through
not
survive
traditions
military
by the
retained
south-piece
of Middle
Visigot
are
the
and
belonged
type,
cheek-curb
to extra
and
horse-bits
one supposedly
straightforward
is
treachery,
of
the
of
the
as cnvnlry.
the battle
in
defeat
rick's
that
indicnte
fought
cavalry
chronicles
while
peninsula
of nnny cities
infantry
Muslim
attached
the
of
R
n
army as mounted,
the !lu^lims
provide
King
of
accounts
met large
raiders
by Tärie,
t/isigothhrebels,
seemed to have failed
reasons,
their
the
Arab conquest
subsequent
Muslim
the main invasion
allies,
of
The first
had not.
and before
the core
describe
of
they
Similarly,
cover.
the
that
reinforced
consciously,
35
They would
whose armies
between
simileritias
the
soon
Asturoin
the
33,
! bids
34.
following
rl. Cnnord, "L'r"xpansion
C. Sanche2»Albormoz
in di3cusßion
ýirrýbo-Is1r: rai,c uý t
in L'Expansion
Arabe: le problemv militoires"
,
Satti: nnne di Studio del Centro Itral. inno di stucii
sescussions,
1955ýý pp. 316-317,
XII ( Spoleto
cull"nl. tc medioeva,
35.
Sýnchet-Albornozg
"El Ej©ci*. o y in
716-1037#"
p. 301; Beeler,, op, cit
pp,
103-105,
Guerra an el
p. 1513,
Reino
t'+sturleoneep
zq3
role
of
its
cavalry,
Although
east
and
were
also
North
would
terms
least,
at
certainly
to
not
In
the
degree
it
in
Muslim
the
states
of
that
this
crag
alone,
The Pose,
in
military
eel ^,ndalus
Muslim
nlmost
between
existed
already
traditions,
kingdom
9yzantine
Iberi=n
world.
into
evolved
century,
both
Visigothic
military
Lombard
8th
from
evolved
Frankish
the
successor
similarities
Muslim
early
exist
the
organization.
by
distinct
another.
into
which
the
had,
Germanic
one
be drawn
and
a limited
the
from
reflected
Visigothic
made it
Africa,
with
and proto-feudal
Europe
that
different
however,
did
Mediterraneen
traditions
military
armament
3
that
similarities
and which
be found
only
could
Italy.
Iran
For to
the
the militnry
esst,
some distinctive
raises
in
Asian
a small
degree
in
its
to have
fought
in
a manner not
all
horse-archers,
as did
rapidity
survived
also
the
in
Turks.
than
its
up toy
37
ranks
their
and perhaps
penetration.
made use of massed infantry
charges,
may have been more common in mountainous
36.
"E1. EJcýcito
Shnchoz-Albornoz,
p
718-1037,9" pp. 301-304.
37.
Aussaresses'
38.
Ibid.
r_. __..
oZ.
cit;,
pp.
y in
fact,
the 3yzcntines,
who in
neighbours,
caosanian
acted
as heavy
cavalry,
individually
known more for
however,
the Muslim
to
seem, in
command, not
Thin
Cmpire
very
and only
forces
and also
ussl,
beyond,
of
at
Sassmnian
tactics,
eastern
and shoot
Their shooting
power of
that
unlike
much from
orderly
its
the
army was not
9assanian
organization.
many of whom wore mail
advance
would
or in
organization
learned
probability
of
The rassanian
problems.
Central
its
technology
was a feature
conquest.
though
36
this
latter
areas
rather
than
Guorrß
en ei
Roino
its
that
Sassßniann
tactic
in
the
týgturleoncs1
zq4plains
where
cavalry
Traditional
the
Sassanian
elephants,,
accounts,
to
were supposedly
nor
the
to outflank:
Other
into
no nund or
and possibly
As has already
were not
averse
warfare,
although
combat horsemen
elite
the
the later
finest
clearly
heavy
reflected
the
produced
devastating
hardened
blow
either
their
long-sword
weapon.
edge that
42
Its
infantry
39.
Christensen,
40.
Ibid.
41.
Altheim
42.
Auasaressee,
and Stiehlo
into
II's
40
pp.
case where
close-
one thouscnd
the
with
characteristic
and their
known world,
koennoss,
equipment
advances
perhaps
reliable
a for
enabled
their
as
that
most
and with
a
more powerful
enabled
a swordsman
on horseback
without
leaning
for
too
201--213.
vv
"SBpQr und die
pp.
cavalry
Such osvar; n were regarded
strong.,
also
monarchs
even in
first
or verged
long blade,
length
ap_`__,
_eit.
banner,
tactics,
them with
its
cit_u
and its
5assanian
provided
also
all,
such
Those technological
more effectively
a,
first
Shäp r
then
status.
retained
of
Sasssnian
include
to have been the
army.
the
in
Its
the
41
evolved
cavalry
unit
smallest
appears
Sassanian
unit
rieht
orininnl
the
of
and these
Romano-Byzantine
only
unshielded
particularly
or smaller
in
presumnbly
features
eras
been mentioned,
to be struck,
to combat
as the
were concerned.
of
amvar n
dry
corps,
this
cavalry
wither
by war-
Horse-archers
rear.
an enemy's
organizational
to adopting
heavy
expose,
describe
followed
formations#39
cavalry
the Muslim
var ht
also
by cavnlry,
up the
however,
were,
army were to persist
terminology
of
and this
Iranian,
solely
led
bringing
loft
Such formations
side.
as being
infantry
to dominate.
seem to be based on fact,
which
battle-ordor
and with
an effort
have been expected
could
50-53.
Arober'l"
p.
140.
from
his
2R5
At a time
saddle.
a distinct
that
play
was very
from horseback.
sort
of
a style
of
in, 9th
east
Azarbayj
spread
and 10th
is
The illustration
just
century
theory,
although
Magyar
influences
the western
Kulagysh
if
not
and ere
The bast
from
the
Trnnsoxania
in
sources
in military
(Fig,
a feshion
representation
is to be found,
in
it
is
10th
an early
this
or perhaps
the
of
swordsmen,
47
contradict
Muslim
and 14th
tiestward
context
fencing.
of
the role
9anü Merin
centuries
merely
however,
442),
of east
Here the
strong
suggesting
of many items
of
or mid-
tend to show a
exampled
for h¬ silver
equipments
k' f beJieVe to b2
wk? C.
"flared"
an European
sword-play
13th
Its
by Muslim
adoption
in
west
the
data
from
early
sources
illustrative
The ý few later
period.
.
in
representntions
ccnturiea.
earlier
and that
a good golf
and further
660) need not
that
the
to be soon further
style
of
sword-
trend.
an existing
Asian influence
Central
(Fig.
were at work
Most surviving
Sacsanian
Italian
or
indicate
Mediterranean
in
that
such a style
might
its
wos
givne
the earliest
13th
and
of
fact
manuscript
it
12th
of
one quillon
Turkistän,
a result
as a Spanish
of
Carolingian
the
by the
reinforced
over
this
weapon when used
be compared with
Chinese
in
certainly
regarded
reinforced
a finger
was subsoouently
century
Spain
shows a style
are probably
that
Iran,
in
such n long-bladed
could
plates
sword-play
was almost
generally
in
that
n stroke
n and even
and this
for
suitable
These Sasaanian
owing.
metalwork
In such sources
power to
of
Sacaanian
advantage.
to appear
had yet
when stirrups
Iranian
swords
are
Indian
lato-Sassanian
on the mounted warrior
carving
ntrongor
dish
from
origin
shorter
influences.
equipment
o.
T
at
-i--Bustnn
.............
43.
Metala+orký"
J. F. Haskin3.9 "týorthern
5ass4nian
Origins
,rtibua
of
to
XU (1952)2 P. 258 n. 2; A* B, Hoffmayer. 9 "Introduction
Anise
(1961)9
51.
the
1
the History
"
GladiUa
European
Sword,
pr).
of
"52.
2q6
(Fig.
330).
In addition
of
Sassanian
labarl.
drawing
is
been written
Yet there
Haliodorus
a helmet
had iron
to knees,
while
his
horse
there
was a metal
his
or lamellar
scales
to protect
for
the animal's
are normally
felt
of
be as likely
would
and feet
its
horseshoes
to plate-like
cavalryman
from
as to protect
his
knemidea
Fetal
at
44
that,
iron
of
or cstivals
as iron
and is
worn as a defence
sometimes
For
Such estivals
a horse's
sources
wore
shoulders
bard
and a blanket-like
and rare
micundorstood
In h
by chausses.
are also mentioned.
or leather,
to injure
has here
Heliodorus
feet
tons
an aventail.
armour
and flanks.
not
later
author
sources.
were protected
chamfrom
back
its
indicates
probably
is
centuries
that
original
or lamellar
scale
Tho second
several
to suppose
descriptions
n contemporary
a Snssnn1nn heavy
that
This
or bronze
is
hand.
Arabic
now loatp
face.
legs
in
reason
reports
his
covering
He also
is
though
an raliable,,
Aethic2icn
by !1eliodorus,
to be first
unlikely
having
contemporary,
by at
it
ti+e have two vitol
sources
The first,
n.
nsv
though
account
to illustrated
armour
legs.
Perhaps
really
referring
against
scattered
cal traps.
Al Taborits
in
the aid-6th
century
in
of
factor
stirrups.
or
a
his
favour
his
heads while
arm defences.
Haliodorus,
however,
Arabic
which
his
is
reliability
does'
Al Tabarl
awehan cuirass
of
the men mustered
limbs
the
as; uirnh,
to
reached
His
"Aethiopicas
horse
would
by san
then
of
hauberk
A mi ghfarr
the knees.
were protected
mentions
the equipment
as o_rc
the
cit,
nsvaran,
worn over
coif
chaussoe
bo protected
IXs 15,,?' in Esdias a
AnüshTrv5n
Another
he 'nvxhere
that
list
by Khusrnu
Heliodorus.
in no way contradicts
as he was known in
sä°3dayn
44,
description
at on
and
by atP
u. 1ý0.
2q7
bard
or cnparison,
turn
sýyyf oword,
archer
shield,
such a warrior
of tWitty
two
arrows
tied
s
strLi
to
Most late
indicate
the
loft
T!, q-. i--0ust7an
as his
feat,
it
would,
long-sleeved.
FTrüzäbad,,
however,
In other
though
equipment
p/features.
ocffý
He wears
but
mail
which
is
hauberks
Iranian
do,
sources.
by a horacº-archer
probably,
certainly
however,
(Fig.
the
might
339),
have been known no xi_rth.
whothor
mail
comparable
of
a type
on other
region.
7th
is
335).
wins
those
with
rsian
Short-sleeved
century
is
and is
knee-length
(see1flow
Durn Europos,
I.
or 8th
at
of his
Central
seen at
Such mail
right
whether
hauberk
be to the waist,
only
hin
the rest
Ardnshir
of
sources
a spear-bearing
and generally
Another
(fig.
his
hcvertheleas,
Triumph
appear
this
to check
As he is
is
art
330) has lost
that
it
oventoil
by an infantryman
of
of
seem likely
One, which
The question
armour
more advanced
from
(rig.
basic
longer.
a mail
locking
Iranian
shield.
respects
a little
shows various
Muslim
rider
his
two spare
early
and I have been unable
beneath
arm exists
warrior
the
kept
4ar
saddle.
and very
to have remained
mail
arm as well
rcýor of his
had their
weapons already
also
an
bowcaor, with
and a kncn
side,
is
ncbnh quiver
n
with
need the rider
case of
lance,
o rumh
carry
and tnb. -+rzTn battle-nxe.
IN-----------
These latter
left.
Sassanian
Unfortunately
his
right
the
nlso
be equipped
worn on his
in
would
nnco,
also
but
strings
c urz
should
nws bows on his
tr
urnw
the rider
while
hauberks
west
worn
worn,
would
almost
45
or not
the
scale
haubork
continued
to
45.
trans.,
t1l. H. 7otenberg
"Tmrlkh a1 qu^vl wall C;ulüks"
Al TabarT
I
"Cavalry
(Paris
1867)= a. 228; n3var,
Chriýrhirua de Tnbar3s11
75-?
75
Frontier;
'*
?
Cuphrntes
the
Equipment and Tactics
vr.
on
and 291,
469
Elivar., "Cavalry
p. 291.
Equipment ard Tactics
on thp Euphrntes
Frontierg"
?
zcl
be used in
Iran
is
mare difficult.
the Romano-Byzantine
Iranian.
is,
the
lamellar
the
centuries
to
Sassanian
of
442),
worn
the
but
also
final
illustrated
is
obscure
of
both
in
of
pictorial
(Fig.
336),
a coif
material
sources.
Calf
helmet.
This
crude
Although
this
may account
piece
of
its
does not help uss to interpret
it
where on aventoil
the
art
can at
it
(Figs.
48,500,51,5311
Tisq-i-Eiustan
invariably
lies
(Fig.
330),
upon the
(Fig.
is either
Unfortunately,
the more
some of
of
or
point.
one at
that
to have been
attached
to such a
once painted.
surface
detail,
Floe-
in question,
strongly
suggested
is
clearly
quite
In no case does it
of
are well
are a case in
the head-covering
shoulders
Iran
was probably
and 442),
arnour,
332).
explain
lack
century
though
lamellar
more likely
apparent
of mail or scale
of Mid-7th
specimens.
an aventatl
stucco-work
for
f2(11
post-Sassonian
appear
than
or cap,
the
Sassanian
and eventail
head-covering
a helmet
in
have
construction,
west
to help
and an immediately
does the
under
for
seem to
until
and bronze
and by surviving
art
written
in one source,
Only
iron
such mixed
the
head protections
the
does
fashion
only
was known reasonably
and other
a lack
not
fashions
4siaan
.
we have a fragment
indicates
which
it
Helmets
there
Forunately,
shape,
that
Transoxenien
or
final
The lamellar
hauberk,
a nail
heartland
these
technology.
military
31t')),
traditions,
course
Central
of
(Fig.
lrsninn
west
Of
the
with
3ras:annin n specimen
Csian
the
era.
revival
over
Iranian
lamellae
not
Sassanian
saw a pronounced
Sassaniane.
Iranian
the
of
in
thnn
horse
Central
strong
with
associated
rather
Tmp-i-Oustan
abandoned
also
on east
the
of
been
end
(Fig.
remained
have
the
their
very
many aspects
jnuishnn
by
carried
with
generally
and the best-known
simpler,
Parthians,
seems
until
in
that
course,
After
is
is
Arab worldo,
and perhaps
Lamellar
of
It
another
join
in
shown
the hauberk;
garment,
whether
2ýý
of
armour
or not.
for
preference
of
former
of
between
a clash
form
early
(Figs.
curved
Only
been added.
Elsewhere
(Figs.
worn underneath
show the
outlines
i'n' others
while
place
is
equally
are
production
probably
survival
is
of
far
admittedly
(Figs.
51,
neck-guard
an extra
has
ring or plume,
is
construction
a spangenhelm
suggested,
their
no
helmet
they
by which
into
a time
at
large-
iron
would
of
The
capabilities.
Ielamic
early
construction
when the
sheet
a single
lower
in,
kept
are
times
from
ewer
embossed
clearly
their
coverings,
a leather
sources
metallurgical
existing
style
these
surface
from
Cap shape,
the Parthian
In some such cases
other
beaten
from
edges and a symmetrically
though
of
emonth unriveted
this
spnngenhelm
in
and SOC).
In yet
helmets
later
outline
of
perhaps
or headbands
apparent.
whether
a low-domed
are
flexibility
laces
of
of
The
Cap shape,
outline
330)
something
Cap.
40,500
have been beyond
probable
by that
the
(Fig.
helmet,
apparent
by their
argued
scale
a tell
lower
is
art.
40) or or the
covering,
caps or hoods
leather
indicate
outlines
the Parthian
of
way reminiscent
decorative
the helmet
and here
shown,
(Fig.
T&.. i-Oustmn
at
Parthian
in most cases
though
the
and most of
shows a similar
art
or some form of
attached
clearly
the
Iranian
there
concerned,
have straight
All
and 339),
are
so-called
construction
Some of
comb.
the
of
55 and 56).
53A, 530,337
is
tall,
this
confirm
40 and 41).
specimens
surviving
two-piece
simply
themselves
helmets
are generally
the
(Figs.
aventails
as the
As far
helmets
Surviving
is
suggested
Hamadan (Fig.
335).
The lacing
in
coverings
T q-i-austän
Already
it
or headband
is
position
(Fig,
330)!
had acquired
loather
such
hold
that
aoen on helmets
though
also
a decorative
niono,
elsewhere
function
or
fabric
halmet-
most obviously
(Figs.
over
as
331 and 337).
and above its
3 00
original
purposo
head.
the
As such,
become a very
tightening
of
headband
of
it
although
"Persian"
to
in
the
t:or was the
eastern
either
the growing
or the
impact
the
their
the mountains
of
south
large
infantry
they
and traditional
Qivar,
"Cavalry
48.
t3oswortht "Military
an a( Iraq, P14-7,
model.
elementss
peoples
no cavalry.
as well
Sea were always
also
The men of
the most
operate
Sijintan
as would
apparently
Equipment
famous remained
as a contingent
though still
47.
who are believed
as a
were
contingents
from the Cnucnsug, Ccdusinns from Azarbey j; n,
been mentioned
times
would
and
cress,
the more warlike
Caspian
they
late
reflect
could
infantry
were
the
of
(Fig.
origin
both
Byzantine
from
pieces
Sassanien
conquerors
infantry.
Of these
Kirmän.
of
though
mounted
and Abkhazions
who have already
regions
warriors,
to have included
from
enlisted
It
appears
other
general,
in oast
on the
firmly
frontier
likely
shields
Arab ruelim
thumb--draut.
also
Iranian
and 442).
influence
Asian
levies
mobile
art
It
in which
in
s the
47
Asian.,
Iran.
an east
might
illustrated,
4reatises,
Central
has,
330,339
archery
highly
In Sassanian
Iranian
first
tribal
force
suggest
than
was regarded
military
bronze
wearer's
suhsertiently
clear
are
finger-draw
to western
Sascanian
(Figs.
as infantry
and Päriz
the
its
arms and armour.
In less
Iran
Byzantine
strongly
Sessanian
of Albanians
Islamic
of
Sossanian
that
Central
of
Among the
renowned
would
century
century
associations
Cay1,aM! s from
lacing
limited
and costume
various
or enlarged
"Roman'. It or more nccurate2y
5th
to have based
around
thumb and finger-draws
The thumb draw in
331).
of
6th
finger-draw
on a probably
equipment
Both
has been argued
style
oaposod
in
archery
have been expected.
lining
feature
characteristic
The role
a helmet's
fought,
as later,
to
with
Daylamis,
the Yemen.
swords,
javelins.
ZhU2Tn
obscure
somewhat
an± Tactics.,
Organization
sent
the
" po.
284-285-
Persil
the
i)üyids
45f
under
40
3o1
Many troops
the
Caucasus
imediatoly
is
colours
no c©nf irrit
as h
simply
than
tion
Islom.
odopted
the
Cädis! ya in
of
so
that
nrnn.
asvý_,
Theas letter
increased
rapidly
to Zufa,
adopted
up in
even to Egypt.
rivalries.
others
the f'uolim
to those
of
north
äwiyatz
I1u
to
the
later
J3zTro
complexions
heavily
armoured
then
split
to
nunbvra
flocked
armies
and promptly
or west
r.uslims
Their
Sassanian
there
got
caught
up by sending
Syria,
and some
52
Ex-Sassanian
with
51
allegioncr
were known'
fir-3t
as c57.
pon5iona
were allocated
the
than
of
thounh
paler
presumably
defeated
to enlist
their
as they
known to the
Arabic
Znliphate
Daylnmis
followed,
dnylann,
cavalry
the
of
as elements
inter-Arab
somo to Oa ro,
lighter
were known in
Islam,
thousand
who changed
al
with
the
such troops
Others
troops,
foreigners
probably
49
hrryr
Sassanian
"red"
were
635 AD.
these
all
Other
ror
Arabs,
to have been four
for
fought
The first
own bodyguard
I exclude
from which
also
conquest.
Iraq's
of
heartland,
now Afghaniatän,
appear
governor
the battle
after
is
the Muslim
after
the Persian
Sasoanion
the
and what
Muslim
under
from
the
ns; wirnh
53
conquerors*
Arab Muslims
also
are
mentioned
specifically
They then
themselves,
I., p.
enjoyed
which
rates
rust
of
as enlisting
pay superior
demonstrate
their
441.
49,
dhurls
Al E3ca7,;
5o.
"clilitary
posworths
Iraq, " pp. 146-147;
Institution
i, ilitary
51.
the
"nmlük
;
Remarks
"Preliminary
Inc.
an
Al ßalndhurTs
Ayßlon!
cit.;
6tudcýs
Institution
in Islam! " loc.
our
Military
cits, ý t. mmnensý
le Sii cla des omeyyndps,
p. 131.
52.
Lewis, o.
loc, cit.
53.
Al ßclädhurl,
cit.
op.
cit :
vol.
Persi:
the
Süyids
Organization
of
a and
under
Remarks of the "ýaralük
AyFalon., "Preliminary
in Islam. " pp. 44-45.
6tudQS
Sipcle
le
60;
Lammens;,
sur
P,
y
oat cit.
vol.!,
"
Iit
180
val.
and
p,
dps nm.
ýý"`aa
p. 109.
302
fine
training
equipments
Many Persinns
Islam
early
if
and reputation,
of
the
conquering
is
still
unclear,
the
of
Iranian,
Outj\nn
first
while
military
been completely
Yüsuf
peoples
later
during
The Saseanian
from
levies
particularly
effective
Kupans
army,
cavalry
the
they
but
as the
for
wasi
example,,
invasions
the
of
I'ovies
mob in
city.
Iraqis
had a minor
to have
680s Nay ºajJej
from
Islam
56
ibn
detribalized
These people re-emorgr
and later
Jurjän,
still
OaQhdäd, known as
as
curt,
57
earlier,
as mentinned
peoples
of
reforms
various
of
in present-day
tribal
recruited
also
frontier
Khusrau
from
to
have
come
seem
from Bactris
in some or
are unlikely
Iraq,
of
conquest
ferocious
the
army in
standing
the military
and thionitos
even
!'.ne-
involved
Iranians,
as early
the
the more Warlike
after
in
part
were similarly
rule,
first
in dofence of their
fighting
Iraq
townsmen from lower
armed but
a primitively
of
for
the
Arnb6 and non-tribal
some decades
took
role
servants.
Transoxasnia
in
status
soon had a military
invade
later
Unlike
pacific,
was recruiting
oxact
as non--conbatdnt
army to
Sassanian
under
they
Their
supposed
a5
conquests.
role
but
many Khurasanis
and ; abaristan,
earlier
Arab tribes.
enlisted
t1uslin
The Semitic
these
seem to have become ta?aar...... or
also
most were originally
fifth
54
I.
regions,
The most
and included
the east,
Afhenistän,
northern
54.
llyttlon: "Pr®lirtin3ry
Remarks on the Marnlük rilitary
in Islam,, to loc. cit .
-
55.
levys MajLttAf
in CentrRl
Asia
5r.
Shahan, o2. city, ý p. 105.
57.0.
"The Military
Roforrn
Ayalon,
background
and consequence, " in
(Jerusalem
Dp hi
1963)ß p. 11.
Institution
The
Armb
Cnnoupsts
Gibbs
R.
271-272;
H.
A.
pp.
(London 1923)s pp. 15 and 40-41.
Vu'taýim,
Caliph
al
of
Congress of Oripntnlists
the
in
Flout
303
58
and even a few Huns,
Kushans at least
Another
the
was the
Not much is
their
for
Agss,
armoured
Iranian
in"the
this
in
Sasasnian,
reasons and not for
Tukharistan'
the
B; niyan$
dealing
a certain
Mails
svailable
While
this
with
example,
sources
from
some significance,
under
the
7th
quite
for
this
is
]. oc.
traditions
though for
were
different
provinces
Fundukist
and
areas
and Chinese
of
written
studicc(
available.
in
(rig.
n
the
333).
the
was essentially
of
Indian
strong
the western
distinctly
modieval
characteristics,
many centuries.
already
as to be one of
53.
cultural
been insufficiently
have as yet
century
producI. nq contras
T. T. Rico'
for
under
'
Indian
appears
of the early
59.
Many traditional
these eastern
the mostly
evidence
name of Ghür'
Christenson,,
as
from
area
pictorial
for
be of
were to be described
differed
had always
amount of
the
military
and Ghür
times,
much of
Caucasus
Equally,
3uzjan
Empire.
Sassanian
sources
so long.
59
05C,
century
Muslim
pro-Islamic
pre-Islamic,
were noted
1st
throughout
in what is now Afghanistan,
influences,
Buddhist
the
of
or at least
to persist
similarly
part
that
in later
centre
as other
as well
whose
and Armenia.
as the
of many nations.
annals
cavalry.
Albanians,
except
as early
inhabitants
warlike
styles,
were to persist
Georgia
traditions
and leather
heavy
were drewn was
came the
after
arms-producing
its
while
military
levies
to be known as Caohistän
a major
cavalry
region,
military
metal
of
area,
was to remain
that
their
tribal
such
the
but
as closo-combat
the main range
of
of
known of
this
Middle
third
armour
In fact
from which
From south
have been horse-archers,
would
to have fought
seem also
frontier
Caucasus.
kingdom
luny
the most
mtislim world.
limited
This
same area
may
that,
famous arms-
It was also
ýcit.
1'tnciAnt
Arte
of
Centr. ii
Asi
(
York
I'lcm
1965), v p.
253.
30ythat,
on area
after
an essentinlly
non-Islamic
a thigh-length
mail
beneath
a tight
the
and
hauberk,
at
His
weapons
are
of
features
to
number
Islamic
world,
carries
a mace with
European
for
the
first
influence
in
60
land.
east
rush
the
in
foreshadow
the
of
.i
eastern
certainly
Such weapons
may already
in
to acouire
were later
worn
was a horscaan.
the
61,
Oibbq
62.
Fries,
63.
Gibbs
were to retain
Islam
Iran
after
various
their
with
brought
west
century.
170,
02a al
op.
atý
ý,
cit.
ciýi`
pP.
p.
p.
40-. 42.
41.
19.
the
sides
military
to Basra
of
this
Arabs
of
^uslim
large
frontier.
warcry,
numbers
61
like
2
by
rrainous
moue
this
setback.,
identity,
cultural
advance
a steady
culture
The
Buddhist
soon recruited
own particular
63
to
temporary
though
both
separate
their
the
and
faith
provinces
from
warriors
before
centuries,
the
fallen
a distinct
itself.
was to $can a peak of
conquest,
both
conquered
temporarily
having
neighbouring
Si, jistäniS
thp mid-7th
now ffohanistgn
such a prolonged
Iranian
idYp.
Ib
is
and 9th
changed
of
60.
of
0th
KhuräsanT cavalry
thousand
is
He almost
head.
winged
as they
after
to have kept
appear
or
what
of
Despite
governors
of
first
fresco
sword-hanging
they
as
Islam.
much of
his
haubErka,
characteristic,.,
of
many centuries
finally
Islam
become
mail
interesting,
very
associations,
region,
their
in
also
his
of
from
retained
cultures.
identity
of
frsnt
a fluted
The warriors
bulk
the
In this
sleeves,
short
judging
time,
a long
for
even longer.
with
wearer,
latterly
and
have had regal
probably
Its
slit
for
culture
tunic.
small
Miuslim conquest
resisting
;',any
those
or the several
cltbd
by
a1 , ahrZn
Ibn
ý,amura
xcviti
xcviI
I
><-CI)<
305
The )soso nian
to
entirely
been
also
in
had
Islam
one
Empire
during
the
of
technology.
as the
this
',:hi1e
that
believe
it
it
Thus
of
their
is
to
that
Transoxania
for
the
the
of
Iran
and
the
to
militir.
y
r-'-+
-inc! -rmcur.
"n--yynW
er,,,,
'sinn
to
hive
those
militz
collnpsnri.
orovincns
wr
should
on the
ry
rm-chrr+
saniann
that
rrabs'
of
3F;ir1 centuripr.
fl
influences
Ialnmic
classical
the
inr'
rrr-,
'--Pntril
particularly
by
', r"n
seemed
before
persisten
and
C^bb.
hart
worlr'
trrm,
nrm~
the
continuing
just
in
h. i
rdurinn
influences
connuered
important
most
technology
in
Irin
fnli
it
knowr
ýrJvnnrrrý
early
under
the
1!-,1r, rnic
true
the
rnilitary
Asin,
were
most
that
been
so during
peaks
Central
the
to
st-Ar,
centuries,
of
on aarly
been
sinrlc'
powrrs
of
have
was not
t
connuerinq
therefore,
fact,
Iran had itself
iasr,? nine
de!
ow)1
See
Transoxanian
pressureC
another
one
influence
in
mey,
first
wonder,
important
lirge,
military
been
7,mnll
most
its
major
m-my respects
the
was
of
look
military
world.
Turkistän
Transoxania
of
aspects
fmü
)ary3'
the
ruslim
civilization.
beyond
the
in
mountains
c"uslims
Under
head-uaterc
of
iar
north
of
the loop
south
had
the
`' nbbäaids
the
of
the upper
the
Sir
Aral
Sea.
in
Dnrym,
in
the
, hnn
'4-rr
"that
north-east,
which
the lower
in
reaches
the upper
Isbij7b
or
ondy somewhat on its
Khwarazm around
is
heyonri
the
amid
;Jadakhshan
included
5Tr Oaryä,
Tian
common culturally.
"Jahr,, or
Uhrusana
and
rinny
the
beyond
Pamir
conouest
al
this
ks D4rytt rivers,
of
the
Su hd along
and a dministrativoly,
of
much
high-tide
lands
various
upon
effect
a profound
and over
knew as ^'ä !r!orä'
hýnä alcna
geographically
delta
Daryä,
the 7rnü faryý,
and Ka
Zarafshän
volley!
they
have
Those
already
their
reached
the river".
sir
Kashgaria,
in a province
tc
was certainly
of
the
Zarafshän
h-a'$h just
own both
the Amu Darya
306
N'ot only
fragmented
in
fragmented
this
araa,
early
"iddle
was
the
the
since
independence
connuest,
for
diction
to
ship
orea
rule
r'ä Tara'
a situation
of
that
Turks
and more
'While
little
the
, uslim
before
is
illuminate
the
however,,
we have
Mat
and thus
that
regions
fell$
unlike
Those essentially
In
the
north-west
":uslim
to ;:utoyba
submitted
cup from
64)
to that
Su hd,
bit.
and what
appear
this
Unfortunately
tunic
Su2hdisn
F,4.
E.
65,
Ib id.
Knobloch,
1
pp.
of
with
broad
fla and
26--27.
less
to be the
revers,
"xus,
ity
inized
cannot,
as 712/3
than
a year
that
their
of
his
(London
rule.
he ignort'r.
assisting
military
19?? )y
the
themselves
ýine
silver
,
eauinment
quiver
a cheek-curb
horse
were
Iranian
t'nst
earlier.
but
evv n
, reps
that
AD, having
the new box-type
while
those
course,
were
warriors
psalions
from
7asnanipn
of
is
situation
comes
than
to
Fortunately,
to other
has no armour,
rider
the
evidence
as early
suggests
Ir^ni;
survives
area.
This
under
whose
with
vital
similar
areas
Vuslim
Kh-inrazm (Fig.
was similar
a belt,,
ibn
r'ivrr7,
immedi'tely
m=aterial
rntht'r
Transoxenia,
Transoxanin
of
conquest
Turkistan
of
this
such
oresumebly
Khw2razm.,
was
culturrl
Iraaninno,
east
written
elite,
Iranian
"uch
cpnturi:,;.
tho
evidence.
of
by a Turkish
and 4th
history
of
bulk
lerr'er-
nxistinry
reinforced,
pictorial
the
the
'slnmic
Turks.
technology
because
Iranian
strictly
p jurisi,dhrm?
8th
less
even
excellent
dominated
wert'
under
hetwenn
the
of
conquest,
military
fortunate
more
known
tß. on cf
Khur7nan3,
"Turkish"
specifically
troO;
1
noliticilly
thn
the
in
divided
already
64
rulP.
been
also
after
and presumably
was
hnd
permitted
^;nhr
al
it
culturally
many waysy
or
r.,rnerally
reflected,
an area
governors
ff11,
but
in
turkistän,
of
Kushnn
of
continued.,
''uslimc
this
most
!g is,
collanse
political
the
like
slung
from
snaffle-
he does wear a
lacks
nn.
the erually
ý'-ýtý
307
typically
Turkish
the warriors
they
is
Nore
city,
^lukharä.
dated
from,
thoucand
took
highly
regarded
fought
the
on 'Suhdian
they
by the
first
time
Puslim
the military
of
quality
to coin
AD.
was
of
war
as his
67
he does
"the
that
that
states
make
As city
it
clear
as horse-archers
in
from
forging
of
Iran
at
its
Islam
alre^dy
LUIS
5ughhd, " to describe
Gibb, op. cit.
(Unpub. Ph..
fiC.
^1 ý4bari,
(Leiden
during
h; +ri
The super1'tive
led
Eaaykand traditionally
67.
44.
are
disposal.
ilitary
ýternarks on the ý',arnlük 1-,
A; a1cn, 'If-relirninary
in ?slam' 11pp. 51-52.
p.
information
Were captured
66.
ý
r:entrnl
as well.
This
the F,m+ iiary,
Sassanian
probably
and one must rprnember
Weaponry,
across
men wfxrF
they
amount of
famous nrsenal
and its
his
whether
Turkish
persistent
Ziyad
after
thase
dwellers
a
ihn
guard
personal
not
1-noire
U'bnydullnh
becomes available.
as rich
arras and armours
c
chief
fashions
"chevmenid
an increasing
conquest,
of
,
under
fought
traditions
resources
ºabarl
Al
an are'
expedition
the
its
and of
habitsand
Iranian
Sued
or an foot.
ßnykord
a phrase,,
of
from
probably
Arabs
at
at least
soldiers
`.uähd
of
into
but
in
military
by the
thnt
the
though
the fuslim
After
regarded
674
on horseback
influence
Asian
in
ns archers,
latter,
province
incorporation
prisoners
Bukhär-a
as mama
Islam
f'C'
a pre-eninence
It
Incidentally,
to have adopted
enslaved
the
earlier.
thousand
throat-lash.
appear
period.
about
area's
years
of
they
known
Here
defeat
did
cAbbasid
the
two
do not
were r2portodly
the early
until
its
beneath
Khwirazn
of
for
once,
tassel
the
rrahs
excellent
Institution
Pprlod.
the
L+mnyyad
ir
The
Pina+nlT
19;
P.
Crone,
p.
CkýSis,
Univ. of London 1975), pp. 25-2'=.
Tarikh
ük,
;
ýu1,
wall
al
vsül
11379-1901),
pp. 643
Ii.
nnd
.
464;
::.
de `'oeýi"ý cýciit. f
tý
i,
Fries,
op.1rýý,;,
3o8
69
weaponry.
the
This
truth=
the
gther
or
was probably
compora-five
indicate
sources
military
aristocracy
influences.
the
infantry
guards
the
of
first
.`jus7im
Kh-atün
or
n variety
dß'hotanL2.,
oi'
:ukhrar
on
attack
culturnnl
tr.,:., prc, V12ui3bly
,
scj, eWhnt
4ppeor,
raueen
the
of
aprenroncc'
betrayed
5u hd!
of
During
the
that
whatever
egk+Pment
undisputed.
military
u hdian/is
of
abundance
but
exaggeration,
a poetic
inc, ly,
ourpri
7
to
have
1 century
as in
later
the
than
swords
"from
other
warlike
dihc
from
representatives
China
probably
a basic
probably
by just
direr
yet
or
Such evidonce
wealth
n4 wore dagners
troubled
72
The embassy
found
themselves
for
of
4+nc
authorities.
when bottled
desperately
fifty
prices,
and no less
a shield,
nueation
than
up in
short
dirhams
of
fr_r
seven hundrar+
73
mail.
seems to
in
inflated
rth
-3rea rather
the fuslim
against
themselves,
hands at
in
tht,
and weapons
the
of
belts,
in
early
armour
stcte
rising
indicate
economic
that
rather
arms and armour
may have been imported,
Farcyhana,
was a major
which
requested
their
at
that,
The fact
even the Muslims
sixty
a coat
its
another
such a rising,
fifty
for
reflected
resourcea,
These changed
weapons.
a spear,
of
representing
In 706 an, hovavAr,
dukh7re
the
on baldrics.
shoulder"
Bukharä
reflected
poverty
the
71
illustrations.
available
century,
fron
their
carried
g
Suchd's
than
arms manufacturing
tcrms.
productive
from
probably
in weaponry
wealth
centre
ý°nst.
neighbouring
throughout
this
era.
69.
Pam-asa 1,349,
70.
ThP ! dstor
v,arshakhT,
P,,
Qas. 1954), p. 9.
71.
Ibid.
72.
Mahlnr,,
73.
Narahak! ti*f,, op.
p.
Freytag
edit.,
of
'I'»khnrn
61.
o2t
cit,
p.
cit.
71.
p.
in
46.
'sitab,
anýt,
;.
°'. Frye
pn.
trans.,
:33-34.
; : ari`)r. idqr.
30«
Further
It
to
appears
Iranianized
this
been
Turkish
elite
its
a peak
city
The
in
appear
Post
turbans
frescoes
of
Piandjikent
although
members
(rig.
the
Emperor
time
this
firm
any
conclusions,
somewhat
richer
to
closer
than
Far. Qhän;,
as producing
the
Turkish
74.
Iiice,,
75.
!"ahler..
76.
Ibid,
cit..
p. 73.
fell
Arab embrassy
sparSe
that
much such
later
ruler
justiry
cannot
UshruscnR
It
crab
wns,
arms
wns
sPter
nll,
and armour.
geographer
and horse-rurniturP;
the
was sent
Chinese
evidence
to
delegation,
another
the
by the
rnthrr
warriors
presented
of
however,
, smarnanc
wesponry.
<nre,-).
whorens
iuondd^ri.
-archonrl
76
and
of
P,
the
fall
ýentral
71.
at
lesst
of
, smarnand
".ain,
throughout
disturbed
remained
va11Ay
Khngän betwenn
1lrt,
of
pnr, F:rýnce
are,
"uslim
that
ý:,hrugýný'z
of
and wear, apr. arently,
figurines
indicate
source
rebellions
with
op.
terms
harness
Zarafshän
Ancient
in
rr)nrquE'st,
Pfräsip',
nearby
maces
after
might
recorded
was so recorded.
period,
it
view
different
the
first
Such
ranH
proSprrPd.
class.
the
75
or
74
early
years
assumed
only
arms,
The entire
Umoyyad
the
itself
Scmargand was not
certainly
Su,2hd
urslim
carry
Samargand,
though
tt, r
These
later
hauberks.
mail
of
r_k'ntury
5th
"nllnwinr;
warrior
N few
from
specifically
a number
with
Iranian
Chino,
ý,th
from
and may represent
of
the
an entirely
441).
in 712 AD and a year
r,uslims
'uns.
an unparn1le1vc'
give
by a vrry
ruled
lite
and °'ukh'irä
on horseback,
are
though
as U.shrusnnn.
they `! rphth.
7th.
figurines
clay
a local
of
in
of
known
an nren
from
the
warriors
of
western-looking
than
to
}mmargnnd
head-cloths
or
population,
in
ns
latter
in
founded
was
prosperity
a number
by
descended
declined
these
of
very
of
valley
Iranian
capital,
elite,
military
Zarnfsh3n
have
Piandjikent,
reached
the
up
pn.
one major
incursion
thr
by
in 712 An and the
97 -nd
177.
310
start
al
cAbbasid
the
of
first
Nahr at
accepted
that
UshruaTya
half
the
within
group
chbb7sid
puddhist
ancestor3
as mounted
though
archers.
they
do not
A bowcase
lie
arrows
are on horseback
or on foot,
ore rarely
shown being
by cavalry
or infantry.
.
horsemen, judging
to suggest
In either
first
from their
battle
in
this
hips
and right
(Fig.
palace.
in which
quiver
they
whether
applies
scenes,
the latter
Most of
Cows
428).
however,
either
dismounted
are probably
May
though ittbe more correct
equipment,
of Piandjikent
to fight
were content
the
to
Caliphs'
be
they
As such
comparable
would
cAbbäsids'3
later,
strictly
troops, though being unlike the
evidence
would
horseman
thrusting
in
Piandjikent
(Figs.
weapon
used cavalry
elite
of
but
used stirrups,
technique
that
suggest
among the military
handed
or not
left
Piandjikent,
fashion.
the most widely
Every
these
used in
at
recruits.
Art
expect
warriors.
largely
frescoes
This
wear armour
the warriors
that
eastern
Turkish,
carried
are
by most Piandjikent
respectively
appear
on the
latter
as ffghting,
historians
bows end a box-type
two unstrung
uppermost,
as their
battle
numerous
a distinct
in the
Iran
fought,
such warriors
the
threat
in 751 AD.
Tales
in
by Chinese
Certainly
to
have
soon
seems
soon formed
and appeared
they
Ma Warn'
from a Chinese
of
Ushrusana
Perhaps
dominate
for
points
army,
were reported
76
in 747 AD
resulted
the battle
from
77
the ©th century.
of
this
at
warriors
Khuräsän
to the Umayyads but
Perhaps
came to grief
eventually
Certainly
loyal
remained
CAbbasids.
the
in
revolution
of
429 and 430),
lance-play
this
is
fact
area.
the older
preferred,
was
spear
as one would
and urbanized
a settled
despite
the
at least
twoby
...........
77,
Military
Remarks
the
"Preliminary
ramiük
Ayalon,
cn
in Islam, " 10.,,.,
c.:...
"
70,
P1ahlerp
aiC" " p.
_..
. _p.
69.
Institution
311
the
(Fig.
artists
round
probably
shield,
though
it
also
and west
east
14th
Europe,
of medieval
by its
19th
Tatar
it
would
on its
Note that
effective.
such as types
western
of
characteristic
The sword)
and then
mirrors
early
spears,
then
that
the
in
only
written
These TurkistänT
swords
iconographic
two-handed
as late
as the
couched
lance
79
It
by
cannot
is
effectiveness
forms`into
for
this
adopted such weapons from their
15th
of
century
gave sufficient
of lance-play
styles
forms
of
such as types
the Muslim
invariably
rest
of
F and
seems rarely
carried,
(Fig.
spearhesc4
(Fig.
Turkistan
eastern
was considered
and the
Piandjikent
Hence,
onwards.
Turkistan
are
61A).
to be used
430).
Such a tactic
period
such as the
began their
or maces when their
sometimes
the
spear.
simple
in
Turkistan,
were responsible
style
always
Nero champions almost
moved to swords
the
relatively
from
the
at least
continuing
an emergency
sourcos
that
unlike
armour
this
almost
of
be a case of
could
the
Chinese-influenced
thouyt
the art
a somewhat modified
more complicated
generally
Shahnsmah.
from
D and C) predominate
Turkistan)
all
lancers
foes
whereas
in
world
themselves
and that
own,
(Reception
with
in
by such cavalry,
carried
proves
and its
Polish
having
seem more likely
protection
fencing
a small
damaged panel
lance-play,
of
tactic
and Turkish
This
the Muslim
Europe.
the pales
revivalsCO
various
are rare
reintroduction,
century
very
is
429)
clearly
evidence
entailed
as a primitive
indicated
early
used in
Such a style
century.
also
454 and 463).
was still
regarded
shields
(rig.
one case
one other
Yet documentary
conservatism.
technique
in
In fact,
(Figs.
in
Only
on a guige,
appears
VI/26).
Nall:
430),
spears
duals with
had shattered.
seem to have been magnificent
weapons
"The Impact of the European Couched Lance on Muslim
Tradition"
pp. 6..7.
79.
Nicolle,
Military
800
"Influence
Z. S. Lonkiewiczj
Europep"
Gindius.
Western
on
of Polish
XU (1980),
Arms# Armour and fiilitaria
02.
p.
g
3t2
with
long»
extremely
long
are generally
hilts
sometimes
The trofoil
pormel*
appears.
of Central
however,
Asian
hidden
often
This
style
of
Central
Asian
waist.
The limited
both
battles
in
long
more than
of
swords
the
type
fashion
following
they
in the
and China,
broken,
"oxparsding"
indicate
curved
Hoffrioycrs
Rp" 4 fi-4i3.
these
line
blades,
"Introduction
It
is
falchions
According
of
to
the
the
same
to Muslim
written
and mace bent.
parts
were kept
among these
History
which
to be used after
defends
in
430,, 439 and 440)0
also
weapons were
or may have shared
swords
scabbards(Figs.
persisted
They may indeed
nr.
single-edged
as in many other
small
in
whether
single-edged
small
sward blunted
Piandjikents
such single-edged
shsped
81.
spear
of
art
that
reality
Crusades
last
were a warrior's
were spents
arrows
such a tradition
Age acramasax,
Dark
sources
4300 4380 439 and 440).
European
the
the
across
such weapons
carried
I believe
medieval
428 and 436).
pictorial
of
to be known as the khsn
as the European
ancestry
sources
of
and multitude
They were in
later
They are.,
hung horizontally
(Figs.
Islam.
of
so characteristic
on an even more typical
indicates(that
also
the
dagger
a feast
(Figs.
rosettes
from
slung
bulges,
originla1
430) but
429 and 430).
appears
generally
daggers.
simply
also
sources
at
coming
be tho original
come into
or
decorative
the large
warriors
romances
the
after
hanging
written
armours
Muslim
Early
behind
weapons
that
confirm
(Figs.
sword-furnishings
small
D-shaped
of
a pair
Iranian
(Fig,
invariably
are
scabbards
to
handles.
umbrella
vory
are occasionally
by two straps
sword-belts
Such curved
to hove been of
considered
Decorated
like
Hilts
blades.
430 and 436),
as to look
generally
be long.
also
could
(Figs.
so extreme
Quillons
tapering
and perhaps
and curved
are
also
slender
of
early
the
of
Turkistän
strangely
which
might
khan ar5 that
Europoon
Suords"
one
313
tends
to
find
non-symmetrical
to be seen on similar
daggers
or small
Piandjikent.
the
in
Muslim
appear
out
The military
tk? t& at
area of
eastern
technology
of
Turkistän
this
latter
their
of
Yet we may see comparable,
Turfan
435) of
a type
that
these
large
Unfortunately,
weapons.
do not
swords
(Fig,
quillons
scabbards
curved,
(Figs.
462,465
area was, of
at
in use
blades
often
were
and 465),
course,
very
similar
to/Uahrusana.
Another
Piandjikent
Ages it
weapon
the
was
common in
remained
art
relatively
until
in weapons,
construction
of
of
a standard
(Figs.
frescoes
information
Central
Asian
shape.
but
techniques
single
sheet,
make a segmented
either
be of
fixed
true
to an exterior
segments
are linked
specimens
the
Some are
clearly
frame,
of
of
Iran
armour
than
and
with
are
are
type
by their
of
an overall
This
most likely.
large
style
Both
is
as
from
such helmets
in which
for
evidence
segments
in
which
forms
confirmed
of
a
could
are
smaller
construction
by surviving
101).
shown with
This
Helmets
Nevertheless,
a splinted
Asia,
detailed
suggested
only
hammering
form
on the
they
of a spangenheim
to one another.
(Fig.
in
a lack
construction
Central
Crimea
as to be useless.
conquest
unsurpassed.
and I39).
or of
directly
is
this
spangenheim
Many such helmets
so small
is
capable
were known in pre-Islamic
from
become
not
provide
defences
coupled
metallurgical
the
they
430,431
to a point,
rises
Saljüq
characteristic
would
even richer
generally
(Figs.
appearance
shape that
are
and the
428 and 429),
fluteo
the
Fiddle
early
particularly
It
peoples.
the
at
even then.
rare
pointed
Throughout
as a device
after
be illustrated
to
origin
436).
and Mongol
The Piandjikent
are
(Fig.
by non-Turks
Turkish
Islamic
Turkish
clearly
lossoo
was regarded
the nomadic
of
of
is
nusalo,
perhaps
but
another
these
artistic
often
seem
convention
319(Figs.
429 and 439),
(Fig.
full-length
cases
mail
is
Secondly,
432)
been caught
a type
European
not
a number of
leaving
wearer's
By great
good fortune
m`il
hauberk
and the
length
three-quarter
its
an
worn
own with
the
or beneath
was generally
of
It
332).
formed
whose uppor
sleeved,
decorative
(Figs,
430),
consists
a surcoat
(Figs.
with
(Figs.
appear
either
or bronze
Iran
leather,
(Figs.
small
Central
and
429 and 433)
such shoulder-covering,
In
the
illustrated
generally
the knees,
with
could
Lamellar
itself
lamellee
and narrow
of
be
and 439),
429,430,438
Asia
the
garments,
(Figs.
330 and
cuirasses
decorated
been
have
to
covered
or
428,438
thirdly,
433 and 440).
and chest-high
to have consisted
boleros,
(Figs.
and 438).
428,433,435
iron
is,
twice
also
The former,
and reaching
(Figs.
century
429 and 431).
two major
of
below
or without
13th
drawn up over
cuirass.
sleeves
(Fig.
are also
chin-strap
such
ano 430_440 ),
and 438-440).
such mail
lamellar
place,
429,431
is
Piandjikent
first
in
reappear
face-protection
over
and Central
wear padded arming
eyes exposed
the
that
homage to a leader
(Figs.
skirts
additions
The finest
around
in
much of
seen
probably
Iranian
his
metal,
parts
the
the neck and face
aventails
mail
loose
cuirass
to those
similar
at
they
until
seen in
confirm
428-431j,
(Fig.
unprepared
only
and hanging
Body armour
doing
hauberk
these
face,
unfastened
helmets,
The mail
to a mail
cases
(Figs.
seen again
manuscripts.
attached
never
without
warriors
a helmet
some
chin-straps
In the
a coif.
and not
seen without
or having
caps of
worn with
was an aventail
never
end in
also
in
helmets
presumed
were again
Piandjikent
Crimea,
head-protection
world
The
and 431).
428,429,430,439,440
Iy da: ect
various
in the
nomad grave-sites
Asian
continued
or reinforced
cheek-pieces
(Figs.
the mail
to its
Even more common are brands
428).
laminated,
clearly
is
as one such nasal
short-
by such
440).
and
bolero-shaped
garment at
315
Piandjikent
has its
sleeves
440).
feature
was, however,
This
(Fig.
66) where
simpler,
were widely
illustrated.
9th
Qstrükhana
frescoes,
Could
be the original
babr
bayän,
that
Firdaws!
of
The fact
may not mean that
They are
the
shield
the
warriors
picture,
drawn,
whereas
so drawn,
common in
the
82.
art
horizontal
of
in
existed
beneath
the
eastern
cit,
worth
noting
a
ewshan
frequently
hand,
drier
appear
those
shown
leather
conditions
lamellae
of
443).
is
between
lines
In almost
famous source
0th
all
to those
on this
lamellae
indicating
rows of
435 and 953.
other
slightly
lamellae
are
are more
454 and 462),
nearer
respects
are not
this
as
such
(Figs.
century
somewhat crude
individual
come from an area
pp.
short-sleeved
early
identical
cuirasses
Turkistan
at Piandjikent
equally
leather-covered
Note that
lamellar
representations
4
the
do not
Iran.
Firdnwsl,
is
are less
sleeves
shield
lines
Short-sleeved
the earliest
to
the
known as
worn over
On the other
(Fig.
(lug
of
the vettical
as being
leather,
of
Piandjikent.
of
It
446).
fantasy,
of
armour,
ý2
late
(Ft. g.
Piandjikent
Skin"
shown on another
shown on this
the horseman
earlier
never
clearly
castle
the
460),
area of Ushruaana,
from
seen in
the realm
Shähnämýh?
some numbers
lamellar
they
from
outside
bsbr bnyän
probably
(Fig.
that
comparable-shoulder
again
'leopard
the
of
Turkist'sn
eastern
of mail.
quite
Turkistan
is
far
not
435 and 437).
in
have been found
boleros.
this
lamellae,
(rigs.
It
existed
Rustam in
and a zirih
at Piandjikent
forms
(Fig,.
heads
animal's
more common in
mysterious
describes
Larger
eastern
they
that
of
worn by
lamellar
from
if
such garments,
gaping
more rational
protections
century
like
shaped
though
to China
than
3/6
Sleeveless
illustrated
dated,
lamellar
Piandjikent,
seen in
tassel
beneath
strap
drawn up across
hauberk,
and above all
impression
than
rather
9th
the
more so than
limbs
very
for
such leg
but
view
of
one must return
outside
this
the
mail
mail
that
to
gives
shoulders.
take
a strung
dish
silver
greaves
to
was
half
of
such as those
the late
the legs
in
slit
up the
indicated,
In eastern
shown only
Although
boots
for
certainly
though
suggested
some
sides,
never
Turkistan
chaussos
To get
have been more popular.
Fiere such grooves
an the inside,
lower
439).
and
is
are
chuasses
the
for
be mistaken
61A) might
446).
Mail
and 439).
to Ushrueena,
and joined
Iran.
9th
century
frescoes
arc
clearly
hinged
of
down the
Europe.
430 and 440).
Like
similar
illustrated
at Piandjikent
Ustrükhäna,
examples at
a
at Piandjikent,
those
later-4edievol
of
no were
Laminated vambraces are more clearly
(Figs,
to
designed
that
its
short-sleeved
Pia
ndjikent,
at
common
construction
laminated
(Fig.
and Renaissance
might
429,430
(fig.
and feet
Ustrükhana
a typs
429,430,433
laminated
(Figs.
clearly
clearer
hip,
greaves
._.
coverings
their
legs
the aventail
on crupper
with
cuirass
beneath
in pre--Islamic
438),
in others
the
those
Turkish,
spangenheim
lamellar
was also
(Figs.
seemed more common
cases
to
"horse-brasses"
face,
suggest
and almost
has many parallels
distinctively
the
of
well-
or even later,
century
(Fig.
once
large,
the sleeveless
bow, could
unstrung
Armour for
for
the
It
awshen seems closer
the wearer's
the bowcase on the left
Only
century
430 and 436), " the
reaching
of
or 9th
0th
throat-lash,
(Figs.
less
444)0
lamellar
and are
exist
and certainly
probably
(Fig.
Tote
art.
aventail
every
its
the horse's
and pectoral
is
Turkistan
Muslim
early
It
though
however,
well-known,
dish.
silver
comes from
certainly
with
less
on a rather
crude
did,
cuirasses
they are
317
built
the
laminated
up of
inside.
grooves
such hinges
Since
a general
from large
are also
armours
metal.
Vembraces of
pre mably
generally,
invariably
not
This
of hiding
and 439).
clothing
was to become characteristic
Islamic
early
habit
Uehrusana
and the upper
iron-rich
Farohänä
a bigger
by culture.
neighbours
83
recruited
There
these
of
contingent
the
in
ordinary
centuries:
stud
of
As such
they
in
by the
nhar2anoi
het
Italy
sent
to
in
would
ireie
guard.
the early
cow the Lombards.
Cncyclonndin
84.
ftnward-. Johnsons aný,,,cit..,
also
as archers
Forty-five
century
85
Is1rý
J
ýýý
of
n. +. ý.
pp. 63-85.
though
east-Iranian
their
from
their
served
who formed
of
as part
Whether
are
military
to
In addition
out.
Farr jhina
64
9th
this
these
of
or not
neighbouring
however
does,
little
we know of
that
were described
63,
p. ßa.
have differed
the
from
inhabitants
and speech,,
to
bear
seem
Caliphs,
Its
sources.
and Surhd.
fact,
Farjhaniý
Daryä.
Str
from pre-Islamic
we have nothing
by origin
C. Cahent "LLay h'"
/'}
(y(ý
pp . 504..507.
gs. ' ;bý,
(Figs.
Muslim
subsequent
is
which
armour under
evidence
valley,
the written
as Turkish
Fmpoeror'o
even reached
Zarafshan
in Ushrusana
being
the
in
role
does,
traditions
of mug,
castle
tunic
or
problem
pictorial
of
and the upper
regarded
generally
the
arms and armour.
L}hereas we have plenty
play
construction
at Piaindjikent
mail
one's
greatest
h"lmets*
similar
from
such
construction
indeed
or
surcoat
of the
the single
prove
the
worn over
429,430
and as such will
shield
century
been made of
has already
though
6th
early
on
within
laminated
their
to construct
shown on that
Mention
any flexibility
precluded
inability
of
shoots
and joined
down the outside
one must assume that
and vembracoo,
reflected
hinged
pieces,
in
Byzantium.
one unit
warriors
a mixed
these
secnnd odtticýnj
Oyznntine
her
anoi
11,
3/8
is
were Muslims
not
Chinese
sources
between
champions
all
warriors
in
was despite
Karluk
north
region
the western
New Years
in which
by the
of
divided
D rya
Sir
major
coalfields
effectively
the
of
reaches
Asia's
around
lake
of
seems,
contra
the mineral-
also controlled
state
The western
Kul.
Iasyk
being
Muslim control,
fame and prosperity
Far ha-na'c
to have declined
however,
expanded in the mid-10th
reaches
under
the
from an
century
many of the by now superficially
87
frontier.
the
Caliph's
north-eastern
along
east of Farghäna,, to unite
tribes
information
Written
Arabs,
being
or Chuzz state.
This dynasty
Turkish
fluslim
combats
one of
fuelled
areas,
remained outside
Turkish
as a metallurgical
Oar khanids.
describe
many centuries
This latter
ya
the
Sir
D
ainilarly
of
area just
for
middle
state.
Semirechiye
under
equipment.
and the upper reaches which were under the eastern
E3inknth or hash"
Turkish
the
celebrate
the region's
the Muslim-ruled
their
136
and arms-producing
This
between
to
wag to remain
iron-working
rich
rarcyhän
is
das however$
cams period
wore cuirasses*
farghanä
Warn.
tho
of
any more than
ncntion©ds
though there
bcccmeo available
is no reason to suppose that
tenuous hold on the Str Darya had much, if
traditions
and technology
transitory
to say the least,
imposition
of Farcggna.
Be
in 715 AD*
of tribute
of
86.
Mahler,,
87.
Knobloch,
68.
Ibid.,
89.
Rice$ Ancient
op.
pp.
p.
cit.
first
rulers
place
67.
pp.
o e,
27-31
and 56.
23-24,,
Arta of Central
originally
on the military
conquest was
Assn, p. 220,
and the
promptly
Arab suzarainty.
may have taken
indopendonce
Islam's
more than a raid
The local
of the
the arrival
any, effect
Islam's
being little
Chinese help and were able to throw off
reassertion
after
89
requested
This
in 724 AD when an
31q
Arab
by
was defeated
army
Turkish
the
Khägan
Su-Lu
the
of
TIrgesh
wa's
tribe
of
from immedintely
what
in
fact
that
close
these
Turks
tried
apparently
to
to invade
Me Warn',,
battle
of
Tales
by the
Tibetans
power
west$
years
later
and to
Such a process
on the ruins
built
under a very loose
in the Caliph's
century
in an apparent
excessively
considerable.
quite
having
90,
arrogant
been enlisted
Cibbs, on
cit.,
effort
east,
Far-; china
in
the
What role
to replace
Their
decisive
offensive
Chinese
China would
Turkistan.
were but
one,
Farnhänä was to
of two Turkish
the Farn;.ghina
first
cAbbäsid
of the
they were soon serving
feuding
early
in the 9th
Arab regulars
and
been
to
have
numbers appear
troops$
they naturally
65 and 70.
Khuräsän
Asian power, and partially
were recruited
Thom were free
pp.
than
rather
the easternmost
the Ushruslya
KhuräsänTs.
as adults
in
in those few years between their
and in fact
armies,
The Chinese
rule.
the back of
to a Muslim army and the establishment
like
settled
revolution
Metal-rich
suzerainty.
than
world.
Central
of China's
Caliphal
is not known,
Caliphate
Muslim
or within
in Umayyad Transoxania
submission
whom
the
the
reflected
a northerly
with
eventually
in the future.
independent
remain partially
played
lay
the
than
more
proved
were defeated
Islam
extent
of
Muslim
broke
which
that
peoples,
be drawn into
gradually
states
a lesser
some-
were,
rather
cAbbäsid
the
coupled
ensured
the Turkish
Meanwhile,
would
This,
eight
nomads,
748 ADS but
751 AD.
Turks
Arab cavalry
under
of
advantage
the
certainly
tribal
now falling
Nahr in
al
Turkistans
seat
dominate
in
take
the
Thif'4tmost
were mostly
such as those
communities
in
combat*
Khägnn/, RUminsl overlord
and more manoeuverable
although
90
This
battle
as lighter
foes,
Arab and Persian
successful
In this
described
surprisingly,
their
Farghänn,
of
Transaxanis.
non. -Muslim
all
north
lyk
not slave mnmw
took their
and
own military
ýý
320
traditions,
Al Iia'mün
ructasin
and al
numbers of
Turkish
free
U hruslya
after
a long
their
predecessors
them.
from
its
also
from
its
transit
trade
its
as it
third
dagrach
in
In fact,,
From that
the
as
thooe
who
over
an arc
the mixed
Turkish
south
to Tibet
greater
Shen from
Yarkand,
To the
close
zone,, under
from
the bulk
Yet,
element.
92
Forohänä
of
of
Surhdinns,
East
Turkistan,
three
was a central
itself,
eastward
zone of
smaller
and Kashm! r.
Ä
Here
into
Ka'sgar
was the
civilization
Farn
was in effect
be divided
through
of
one might
Indo-European
Chinese-influence,
Turku-Sunhdian
utvalth
technology
area which
known,, could
Tien
great
neighbour.
have been largely
the
Ito
Road from Piandjikent.
Silk
important
Kol, lake.
was culturally
small
ousted
just
Road, purchased
Silk,
on the military
was otherwise
Just
zones.
the
which
may still
an increasingly
zone stretching
to
the
of
the east!,
along
the oasis-dwellers
artistic
troops
had ousted
famous arms-producing
to
neighbours
or Kash aria
Turkish
with
at
Uhrussn.
to shed cone light.
with
Eventually,
of power and prestige,
Iranians
though
Farrhnnn,
enlisted,
k
new ral
positions
assume that
the next-stop-but-one
though
Caliph's
lamer
recruiting
utartod
apnerently
and half-Turkish
from
weaponry
still
Iraq.
91
the
be able
the
from
Turks
however,
them to
with
1Th
as mar
s from beyond
and Faräý%in a
One may fairly
drawn
own equipment,
soon,
captives
struggle,
Iranianized
preceded
their
and probably
Further
east
lying
around
Kash arse
Khotan,
was a
Turfnn.
was to
91,
le
Changiements
ilitnirQS
Proche
dnn..
techniqu
"Las
C. Cahen,
.am,
.
.
Tchnolony.
'in
leur
3,
Orient
importance
hietari'que,
sß
medinväl 'et
Yaapp
the
Parry
Evat
flidale
U.;
J,
edits. )
in
Socinty
''.
and
end
Ayalon)
London 1975). p. 121; Cahen, "ºZaysh, ", lo c
"
Islsm,
in
Institution
"Prelimninory
Remarke on they c1amiuk Military
pp. 51.52.
92.
Rices Anciant Arts of Central
52-55.
pp.
oL"
-ýýlts. +
Asi aj pp. 176-177;
Knoblochs
3211
both
survive
Muslim
Semirechiye
the
Tien
central
Helmets
Yet there
shown in
the
aventail
or calf
fact,
the
be part
cheek-pieces
hc aria,
Kas,,,,,
though
helmets
influenced
Iranian
being
not
also
appear
worn by warriors
seen in
the
and west
Iranian
there
Turfnn.
China
the
93.
Knnbloch,
94.
Thordemann,
loc,
and in
from
the
in
may,
the east.
in
Laminated
do not
appear
and the
aventails
of uncertain
of
(Fig.
a type
of
610).
between
similarity
the main form of
Cuirasses
very
construction
collars
times
Chinese-
east
defence,
with
short
sleeves
in the 8th and 9th centuries
Battle
of
Wlsby,
in
61A and 67),
r. it.
Armour
clearly
owns both
China
mail
Parthian
wera common in KAZhraria)particularly
sp,angenhelms
are
feature
on its
have raised
period.
true
helmets
do (Figs,
94
and
difference.
latter
appears
was again
T'en9
than
This
was an even greater
in
n valley
where a lamellar
Finally,
since
a number
464)
amid many others
Lamellar
betrays
Similar
are more common in
world
it
at Piandjikent
whose armours
Turkistan.
was in
elsewhere
cheek-pieces
zone of
the narrow
and apperentlylamellar
and 455).
illustrated
lamellar
eastern
style
type
of
and included
61A, 455 and 458)
and armours
In armour
as it
the
north
Zarsfah;
splinted
illustrated.
that
a calf
of
of
reflect
then
Ushrussna
the
any way,
more similarity
(Fig.
zone
eastern
was also
of
in
618,65
zone (Figs.
central
Leather
61A,
smaller
FerEhenn
general,
those
plus
(Figs.
construction
in
than
were more varied
454 and 463),
in
the more Iraninnized
was,
Kul lake
century.
seem reasonable,
from
variations
Ushrusona.
(Figs.
as would
Issyk
the
93
did,
of
the
near
12th
Kagaria
and technology
Shan ranee,
of minor
the
in
many centuries
8aläs7nhün,
into
well
for
pressures
of
zone of
traditions
military
city
Farq! hana,
of
If
and the
area
north-east
and Chinese
1361,
p.
258,
3zz
(Figs.
61A, 454 and 455),
considered
(rig.
world
6th or 7th
an older,
abdomens might
610 and 453).
(Figs.
61A and 610),
panels
cuirass,
it
Kash aria
however,
and those
namely,
those
central
Ka garia
seen in
China where
form
of
leather
also
have been tightened
been the
not
just
it
case with
worn beneath
raised
61A.
8th
the
illustrations
the
across
T'an9
comparable
aria
show
such cuirasses.
the
between
armours
been mentioned;
so characteristic
collars
453).
and
,
of
KR:,
century
One has already
The collars
the
somewhat inflexible
differences
618,450
the
of
was in Ushruaann
This
into
have been developed
might
gorget.
as it
part
was
covering
to an otherwise
of Ushrusana.
(Figs.
also
whether
two major
extravagantly
this
was seen in
clear
houberks
or show mail
were,
is
in
perhaps
mail
flexibility
providing
There
of
Although
variety
sleeveless
style
skirts
have been worn,
also
(Figs.
mail
century
The lamellar
67).
the
and perhaps
Kaash aria
Chinese
is
style
also
a distinctive
may, of
in battle,
throat
of
course,
as seems to have
(Figs.
gorgets
474,478
and 479).
The second,
Turkist-an
and western
in
and Khuräsän
Transoxaniaa,
dofensive
costume
under
in
persisted
clearly
lamellar
protection
for
for
the
weight,
against
cutting
weapons
like
or leather
(figs.
arms
quilted
weapons
arrows
Asia
or padded
auiltad
worn under
after
or
fall
a feature
clothing
armour,
It
often
proiiden
Some of
seen
Turkish
but
it
whether
and Mongol
In the period
seems to have been commonly
excellent
though
these
provided
and 453).
6103 6567,450
such as swords,
spears.
of
modern times.
until
naterial
garments,
quilted
eastern
was rarely
the Parthians,
of
In fact,
have remained
Central
throughout
the
This
armour.
quilted
Ka2h9aria.
or otherwise,
review,
weight
concerned
between
difference
more important,
and perhaps
not
Of course,
protection
against
sources,
the only
penetrating
so far
interpreted
323
as quilted
form of
scale
leader
in
iron
nays however'
armour,
armour
the
scales
third
were
fastened
ways.
appears
once (Fig.
61B).
have already
enough,
the
Koshaaria
454),
while
the
protecting
military
style
small
foundation
silk
in
origin
It
for
in
equipment
Ch,'i
Kashgaria
eruption
(Fig.
10th
and clothing
13th
is
the Muslim titwräz.
adopts
as a decorative
Fig. 122)
fashion
device
In such sources
is purely
Central
evidence
from the 9th
in
of having
east-Iranian
(fig.
76),
Islam
by the
some sort
garment is first
practically
Before
banot worn
of India
frescoes
a
This was a partially
may appear on the arm of a presumably
Ajanta
century
as
century.
there
costume,
hinese art of the mid 5th century,
photographs xc1iI-xCIx)
dynasty(,
the
of
Interestingly
and,
to reappear
the
after
around the upper arm of an outer
northern
in
and very distinctive
close of the Umayyad eras(, Yot this
in
shown
chaussee
most of the Muslim world
in the 5th century
was certainly
east
decorative,
on the upper arm throughout
indicated
in
perhaps
are also
and lamellar
as a top-layer
fashions
simple
oriental
partially
"foreigner"
the west
longitudinally,
lamellar
armour
the Mongol
the Plualim
m&tter, of
onwards.
shins
was not worn over
of wearing
this
of
to
been mentioned.
armour
informative,
papal
or
those
from
hinged
others
idea
a possible
and it
In this
a linen
of
differed
vambrace,
until
fashion
century
by a Chinese
century.
inside
the
we have to wait
dominant
leaving
in
Greaveo
The aurcoat
for
to
The standard
various
for
the 8th
of
a particular
of
to have been "invented"
said
quarter
Limb defences
61i)
stitching
95
garment,
(fig.
show the
originally
ovary
Asian in style.
of
clearly
"barbarian", *
item
Of
The supposed
j us-t as Islam was sweeping towards
ti rn,z next, appears in Turkistcn
is
ýf(gs, 333and436}
or ecrass the aresx so perhaps we have here yet another aspect of
95,
Mohler,
opt cit..
p, 112.
314material
that
culture
Norse-armour
appears
(Fig.
(Figs.
471-473).
it
west,
is
from
Another
on the Muslim
Those steppe-lands
of Manchuria
to the
to little
more than
a single
the
and Tien
Altai
the broad
swathe
of
the
by M. Lombard as the
Turkish
of
they
Muslim
the Mongols
until
the
To Khingan
those
in
ranges
mineral
Gates
were
narrowing
between
of
course,
M'eanwhile$
resources.
been aptly
side+rurgiques
technology
the military
Turks.
an the
though
has itself
"ateliers
nomadic
mountains
Dzungarian
latter
steppes
true
Rumania,
of
at the
these
the
of
impact
described
nomades"96
of
the early
the
confusion
world.
medieval
the
the early
was to have a profound
homeland
and other
role
China
centuries?
that
Eurasian
such a vital
who played
and 13th
pass
of
in
of
and the
Both
arena
to bp popular
indicate
Carpathians
iron
in
rich
exceptionally
Shan.
region
are now Sinkiango'Mongolia
from
borders
southern
horse-armour
vast
stretched
certainly
that
Turkiytan
was the
world
Asia.
almost
popularity
this
Might
what
of
the
continued
the 9th
region
It
aria.
from
widespread
Asia.
between
region
Control
may have been used in
revivcdin
to be used in
continued
Baykal
Though it
Central
Karl
carving
60) and thereafter
was not
erupted
in
a puzzle
fragmentary
an a very
Khotan
owed to Turkish
Islam
nomads certainly
Arab conquest
Khurasan
of
to do for
had been attempting
conquest
had,
and nomadic
however,
zones ucre
took
the opportunity
once again
this
to inflitrate
sealed,
areaO
the
98
frontiers
While
97
much as
Once the Muslim
past.
centuries
been consolidated,
of
it
96.
Lombard, les f^ätnux.
97.0.
"Muotasim and the Turksp" Pulletin
S. A. Ismail
(1966).
Oriental
African
Studivs,
XXIX
p.
of
nnd
,...
ý.
.
.
98.
Ibid.
between
would
settled
be an
nasi
of
12.
the
School
32-5
to say that
exaggeration
by the
Muslims
the northern
frontier
Turkish
eastern
in
the
tho
flow far
equipment
of
Between
629 and 645 AD they
bows in
away out
of
the western
larly
of
probably
mounted
with
describedp
4restern and
traditicnal
along
Turks,
valley
the
wool,
but
one of
in
role
a vital
their
giving
Turks
it
between
changed
was probably
by a Chinese
of
spears
and standards
and
and horses
stretched
for
the
of
Khän of
is particu-
is
the
dromedary
a speedy
where
camels
those
the
that
though
Khan employed
been credited
strategic
mobility.
troublesome
; iLnd Very
is an inevitable,
were
and patient
who have recently
notable
on camelback.
question
Hence we may assume that
to
there
in
strong
variety,
Muslim armies their
the first
fought
rarely
warriors
Bactrian
beasts.
little.
very
as
were the guards
STr Däry`a the
the
similar
Unfortunately
Islam
visitor
the
camels
of
animal,
two-humped
infantry
lines
nomadic
or rather
western
were described
Even in Arabia,
sluggish
singularly
unknown,
riders
responsive
and relatively
the
vie
of
Sea, to the
Aral
Turks,, and the mention of camel-mounted warriors
interesting.
Here in
these
1"99 These troops
sight.
the
were to play
and fine
serge
and the
order,
is
centuries
fur,
true
was apparently
centuries.
and 9th
in
02huz
5aljügct
the 7th
"clothed
Caspian,
now reappeared
The western
and 12th
this
by the
ware occupied
areas
as alrerrly
erea,
known as the
11th
settled
century,
the
from
states
of orgsni2otion.
cub-tribes
all
the nth
and of
Beyond this
Str ßäryä.
the
might otherwise
gap in pictorial
and archaeological
have added flesh
to the hare bones of our knowledge of the weaponry
and appearance of these warlike
99,1ohlers
100,
op. cis
evidence
neighbours
of Islam.
Even such
p. 61.
The Mobility
Hill,
of the 1rnb
the
"The
Role
Hill,
of
resim
Arab Conquests"
maim.
Armies in the Earl
Camel and the Horse
Conquests
in the Early
100
illustrations
as are
controversy.
The magnificent
is
Transylvania
beast
a case
of
this
rare
example
(fig.
an archer
riding
a mythical
445).
the purely
decorative
is,
however,
with
a
to an 6th
or 9th
the north
Caucasus
F3alka in
at Moshchevaye
aspects
the thumb-draw
uses
bow, comparable
typo-A
101
The equipment
The archer
style.
excavated
4110),
One feature
comment,
and that
unlikely
that
item
other
of
the horseman
is
his
armour
stirrups
slower
than
where
the late
do not
stirrups
7th
lashes
or early
a little
later
would
8th
that
indicate
enough
to
adopting
Sassanian
comes from
or people
interesting
tassel,
Pjandjikent
seen at
art
with
the
a time
who were
would
past-. Sassenian
adopted
before
ýFiyc. 331 dnd 339).
centuries
in 6th century
nomadic
This
the new device.
or immediately
every
to include
various
to
have been generally
seem
other
rendering
to be buried
or was one of
in
seems highly
forgot
simply
tribe
a
the
throat
such as
are rarely
into
either
This ewer illustrates
decoration,
such effort
horse-warrior
noighbourn
proximity
a close
suggest
this
appeared,
their
stirrups.
of
important
stirrups
Obviously,
before
clear
demands immediate
also
It
as grave-goods
considered
deceased.
lack
and equipment
particularly
peoples
himself
who has put
an artist
of
stirrups,
101.
one.
been remarked.
represented
crudely
century
in
Asian
Central
in
influence
Sasoanion
Its
important
(Fig.
much
from Hungarian
aa very
a prisoner
with
ewer have often
rather
Iran
two warriors'
and a cavalryman
A strong
and
of
centre
treasure
Nagyszentmiklos
in point:
illustrates
euer
golden
are all
available
tke
AC
too often
items of harness and
Tassels
(Fig.
under horses',
436),
but are apparent
from the some area (Figs.
Ns=szentmikloai
G. Läazio and i. Rnczs
_A
187-188,
pp,
throat
Kincs.
443 and 444),
(Budapest
1978)p
327
They hads of
courses
"barbarian"
and China under
of
decoration
Bustan,
also
with
(Fig.
been common in
rule
appears
This
is
341)s
although
single
loop.
.
it
ewer,
decorative
61A and 466)
This
Gth century.
ture
Central
of
Porm
T: q-i-
Sassnninn
century
Asian
first
again
hero
the
was not
raid
by ei
Yazid
Perhaps
origin
fashion,
tying
while
the
seen until
than
the
of
two-loop
the
OIkän in
ei
of
Although
horse
were all
their
had the
slain.
horses
tails
to do so*11102
Muslim
was in general
a Turkish
have been specifically
might
a
horses
riding
at maneuvering
first
To
Afncpnistan
him but
He (therefore)
one's
style
a
concerning
horsemen
Turkish
the
and was
tail
of
invasion,
5oljüq
They attacked
we were.
shortened
consists
by al DalmdhurT,
against
tails.
339 and
in (Muslim Iran.
How much faster
remarked:
own horses
generally
the horco's
as on the Nztgyszentniklos
represented:
related
of
(Figs.
Iran
was to persist
ADJ. "He met eighteen
barbarians
the
so formed
r"ruhallab
al
(meh,dhü? eh)
_
then
Al Tiuhallab
his
ibn
664/5
year
shortened
were
Sassonian
to be widely
one must odd an incident
these
seen in
was sometimes
this
the
there
pattern
the knotting
is
feature
Surh a fashion
a double-loop
of
7th
(Figs.
330),
tail.
with
the
since
horse-furn',
so much other
As a last
in
east
early
at
Turkistan
west-
Turkish.
Various
his
identify
The pennon
origins.
form with
similar
of
the warrior's
on his
controversial
latter
four
rather
"Siegel'
piece
of
silver
metalwork
than
plate
will
(Figs.
from
Al Ot1ZndhurT, 2.
cit.
Turkiat-on,
feature
p., 608,
for
example,
429 and 439),
two streamers
chapter.
1020
lance,
help
may also
own equipment
to some seen at Piendjikent
identical
This
items
while
a
on the
appears
now in
prominently
is
in
the HermitcgU.
a later
329
The warrior's
spangenhelcN with
Sassaanian or TurkistänT.
its
towards
Iran
Yet there
east
(Fig.
The same goes for
overmuch.
hauberk
mail
short.. sleovod
not
eastern,
Finally,
there
Nordic world
sum total
at
limb
equipment
of
from
particular
influences
Byzantine.
of
first
the
origin
for
the western
were Sassanion
the
Indeed
rider's
though
in western,
anywhere
vembracec and
splinted
and elsewhere
is
to the north
a late
to
ewer.
thus have come from an area recognized
centre,
Central
clearly
degree,
ra<gion,
6th century,
if
this
but also as a region
in
Asian,
Subsidiary
Romano-
probably
Hence my own
Alan or. Khezer,
is correct,
not only
and
armour
region.
the
mountains.
of
7th or early
the PJagyozentniklos
on the
Caucasus
the
vambracCs
as contradictory
to a lesser
and,
L
in Turkistan.
and Tronsoxanian
Turkish
thou
via trade,
to have been
influence
ewer is
Dark
the 7th century
necessarily
not
The domin&nt
Iranian
outside
of those laminated
versions
Thus we may be drawn
and arms-producing
us
likely
more
are
defences
Nagyszentmikios
is for
helping
Asian influence
Central
evidence
seem.
to those steppe-bands
preference
from
Of course,
553) and Scandinavia.
was under strong
might
and
seems to have no parallel
Piandjikent
at
seen
grooves
and
as it
4a4)
avontail.
come from
101).
(fig.
west
helmet
in
(fig.
Avar Crimea
are those extraordinary
and perhaps simplified
This
found
Turkistan.
those Nagyszentmiklos
local
this
while
draws one
are perhaps
in both
mail
could
greaves whose construction
Age England (Fig.
his
latter
the
be
could
chock-pieces
Sth century
to prevent
454)
of
parallels
helmets
are enough similar
Turkistan
probably
and lack
and the
41 and 330)
helmet-laces,
long
shape recalls
pointed
The closest
the-former,
(Figs.
Its
helmet-laces
brim,
straight
its
then it
would
iron-mining
major
a
as
rich
in golds silver,
32M
and load.
copper
of
on those
light
their
With
is
not
by the
arms--rich
Feranhina
long
Some true
before
highly
regarded
become Muctasimts
Wäsif,
Yet such information
Turks
frontier.
the
central
ibn
Muhallab
with
their
would
sector
the
in 716/7
turs
for
impact
as warriors,
named
Islam's
106
in
by Yezid
hundred
four
Those latter
by the
Turkish
elsewhere.
been defeated
as tribute
considered
numbers.
104
warriors
appear
as typically
Arabs
costume.
Further
Their
large
as well
end of
having
and tTls-, 7n cloaks.
to have been hoods or mantles
Persian
the eastern
Jurjän,
of
them in
irnnian±zed
1ß5
armourer.
Turks
recruited
cfibhinsid
One such individual,
have an important
also
eagerly
the early
as armourers
concerns
northern,
background,
from partially
to recruit
ADO had to offer
shields
being
warriors
sources,
chief
S
Islam's
wealthy
are known by name from
by Chinese
confirmed
least1
as distinct
started
deal
shed a great
many centuries.
Turkish
Turks,
also
were to remain
arms it
Muctanim
They were apparently
as is
fired
and Ushrustya,
that
for
in
and,
to
surprising
could
regions
neighbours
warlike
Caliphs.
armies,
Such a conclusion
belligerent,
and often
it
103
west
troops
the
in
array
Sassanian
its
Khazars
had earlier
ruler
of
against
struggle
were certainly
fought,
Los S°1ftnux.
in
the 6th
still
the
Lombard,
104,
Ismail,
105.
Lombard,
105,
Al. AaladhurT,
107.
Christensen,
op., cit. , p. 362;
91.
Nomades CavFaliQre, !'p.
n2l
lea
citt
pp*
1"h'taux
c+
c1t
formed
Arabs
101.
not
crushed
107
century,
the bulk
in 722-737
by the Muslims.
and as prisoners,
reluctantly
albeit
Iran
Such troops
cavalry.
probably
the
of
These were
the
Khazer
AD, when the
assim.
14-15.
pp.
170-171.
p. 472,
0arko,
"La Role
des Peuples
Turkish
C-Ii
ý.
+.il., k,:: . u'..
.1-.
f:
,
il
ý..
ciil
cI v
330
heavy cavuiry
-Turka° werc3 apparently,,,
on Ialon'c
dictinguich©d
particularly
already--=resident
flnok,
north-we$torn
Emperor-in
gyzantina
109
an-effort-to
itaelf.
largo
were rapidly
the-Muslim
world.
erupt
of-which,
Even larger-=areea
to
superficially,
from-whlichnumerous
an area
rush
first
at
-across
of'Arab
world
congUost. '
Had,: thie
Islam.
these
nontain,
fieldsfwould
have had a vital
military
of: earlyfislom.
Taking
-,
its
and its
technological
capabilities
together,,
it
thatýCantral:
conquered.
by', `or-adjacent
Asia'was
tot
steppes
remained
were to
the
first
in
levels
bearing
its
of
civilization
achieve-
upon the
importance
political
cans, therefore,
hardly
the most important
militarily
the
cornverteds
of
its
to
within
not. been so advanced
technology,.
still
Islam
and huge migrations
ores
by the
incorporated
The Turkish
technology
be denied
bordered
few
centuries
.a
within
traditionsland--iron-working
military
that
"wore subsequently
conquerors
the fiuslim
Anatolia
his defences.
strengthen
the north
though
in
time
whore thoy had, been invited
a area
provinces
py that
Sinope,
around
then 'was the huger- diva
:- tThis
10
Classical
of
region
Islam.
India
A"large
portion
by the,. Arabs
was conquered
region
Thereefterthe
subcontinent,
many centuries
without
until
the
India
fall-under
and creative
Classical
`'19ý,.
109,
Islam,
in
facod
major
the period
Muslim
the
Islam
any further
latter-port-of
Hindu
be regarded
of what might
domination,
in
particularly
o_
cit.
pp.
the
across
loss
of
the military
5-6.
the
Indian
9th
Indus
did
cultural
centuries.
for
plain
territory..
and even then
had surprisingly
civilization
and early
under=review
The Thirteenth-irihe.
A. Koestlers,
(London
Herita
1976). p. 28.
e
Ahrwoiler,
8th
as the
Not
most of. northern
its
distinctive
little
impact
field.
Khflzar
Only
EmAirc
in
on
the
and its
33$
13th
when the Muslims
century,
to the
root
victims
culturally
Indo-r"uslim
a fusion
of
is
a groat
also
swards
rather
than
While
in
the
India
that
religious
while
the
epic,
art
India
of
illustrates
clearly
the Gast
Indian
subcontinent.
though
these
10th
was almost
Indeed
style.
would
always
or
the
long,
is
not
known.
110.
f aiiniý
111,
Holstein.,
112.
ý.
L.
a,sý...
there
a heavy
o.
Ilashant
with
j
c,it.
distant
past,
cutting
in
than
the
features,
which,
in
thrusting
many such blunt-ended
these
have
and the
the blade
rather
and
distinct
the Gupta era
shape of
cutting
centuries
might
originated
show various
Whother
nistn
in
Islamic:
materials
certainly
between
absence
been mentioned,
basic
also
was the
their
of
Indonesia
and daggers.
has already
swords
or
to further
and early
swords
almost
pp.
from
many so-called
from a very
dated
and double-edged
twc-handed
a distinct
the weepuns
that
suggest
because
others
ineffective.
straight
tnke
dovelcp
an exaggeration
their
of
did
seems,
came from Malaysia
weapons or
to have thrust
have been quite
Pqi or khidon,
of
and changed
Above all
refuge
really
and tactics
to
India
swords
Indian
Islam
surrounding
the pre-Islamic
Indies,
developed
century.
India$
in
some completed
come from
in
These talon
Indian
of
doubt
of
surely
an abundance
The export
although
is
were rare
110
giving
traditions.
Arab world
it
it
technology
deal
early
did
then,
may be correct
proper,
swords
Hindu
it
themselves
elsewlcro,
military
and Indian
Indian
suggest
of
found
Only
Turkish
India.
early
conquests
and politically.
tradition
There
of
Mongol
of
India
of
weapons
swords
were the
weapons of the Ups Uedris'111
sword of
ancient
Indio,
112
202-203.
pp.
ThP_Uonder
6 &nd 9.
that
wa9 India.
(London
1967)t
p.
134.
PAGE
MISSING
IN
ORIGINAL
333
Pictorial
in pre-Islamic
India,
to
observations
the
barbed
had little
One major
are
under
on Archery
in
of
in
these
to
the
vary
ap.
Roman t;brlds"
cfý`2
pp.
by the broad,
poisoned.
Morse still,
when being
removed
These broad
technology.
It"
242-243;
foe,
and merely
so many oriental
largely
date
potentates
from
in
the gunpowder
his
vital
p. 447; Hill.,
2; Fntimi,
Dnlhi
17.
that
claiming
as to
have
jibes
Many unjustified
friend
there
since
in warfare,
backwards
Hence it
advanced.
war-elephants,
p.
and
rather
the way of military
U1i'lx-Horso and E1a hant in tha
(Oxford
1971). p.
Supoliea,
trvbärakchäha
cane and its
be caused
by Simon Oigby
Touranienn©'t
in
486),
whose spell
which
was
foes
Muslim
split
embedded.
boasts
contradicted
Tactiyue
to break
field.
Such arguments,
convincingly
Digbys
ýtilitnry
of
also
culturally
this
were noted
to have been military
fact,
as dangerous
extravagance
however,
(Fig.
art
their
Creek
there
century
was of
have been its
in
t3arko, "la
114.5.
in
Indirsns
cnvnlry
bow was mado of the same bamboo
string
neighbours
expense
fell.
foolishly
115.
the
were unreliable,
a military
113.
its
to
arrow-head
respects
competition
been mane at
in
might
exception
was no real
the
oppears,
to offer
inferior
tended
do appear
India
13th
were often
which
leaving
in many other
though
era,
115
as the
wounds could,
arrow-shafts
arrow-heads
Hindu
they
Severe
arrowheads
From a Wound,,
Its
that
from
sources,
the
foot-soldiers
of
to suggest
that
the Indian
spear-shafts.
Indian
flimsy
were
dominnnco
written
äy re'
the Hindus
was short.
Indian
Post
as late
while
Trnditionallyj,
as were certain
barbed
t.
the
however,
not,,
literature,
113
that
114
archery.
range
Vedic
archers,
no indication
is
which
insigni(tcan
were unknown or
infantry
seem to confirm
sources
ap.
work
"Some Notas
cit.,
pp.
Sultannte
Mcýwcng op.
cit.,
702-703.
a Stud
pp,
92-93.
33ýon the Delhi
116
Sultanate.
hard-bitten,
dynasts
quarrelsome
in ouch expensive
advantage,
we probably
find
of eastern
the main Indian
some military
is also in this
It
only psychological.
the
that
Ia1cm would have indulged
they hnd not provided
if
animals
even if
It would also seem unlikely
technology
Islamic
to early
contribution
area that
and tactics.
those
Uhoroas
Saffärids
of
had a fighting
brocade
armour.
but
Sind!
for
war-elephants
purposos
in battle
employment
nights
were
was nowhere
thorefores
then
in the late
Conparoble
and carried
were
war-elephants
archers
certainly
Digby,
117.
"The Armies of
C. C. 8osworthp
African
School of Oriental-and
1189
Al hhatTb al GahdädT.
SYZnnce Pt 1es Arnbp%
119.
Ge^hir
120,
"Military
Bosworth,
and Iraq,, " p. 165.
121.
F`irdawaf# oný
cit,
Ibrahim
in
the
forces'
Tulünido,
119
of
whose actual
by Indian
were next
If
on their
used by the
by
handful
Such animals
11th centuries.
towers
of
soy they
backs.
following
121
Ghnznawids,
50-53.
116.
op.
by the
of war-elephants
10th or early
carried
protected
have been employed by the S7manids.
armoured
they
were ridden
recordeda120
descriptions
Detailed
warriors.
given by firdawst
century
0u-yid Persian
siege
probably
by caparisons
Egypt
into
the
8aahdädT,
One may assume that
only.
in mid-10th
al
however$
were not!
introduced
Some were probably
parade
or Sindi
warriors
for
themselves
Caliphs
KhatTb
by the
century
transport
and were covered
These elephants
or silk.
118
to al
According
role.
eight
a crew of
cAbbäsid
by thv
employed
the 9th
seemed to provide
Iran
eastern
those
train#117
used in
few elephants
pp.
ßeshir.,
" Fiullrtin
the Saffärids,,
of tha
XXXI (196a-), o pp. 547. -548.
5tudivs,
in A. A. tla3ilievj,
ßardadjo"
"Ta'rlkh
1950)0 p. 76.
Ia, (0 ussnls
op
Organization
p. 70.
under
0 and 1280.
4?
pp.
:. "
the Oüyid,
of Persia
335
in
Particularly
the
for
first
the
time,
undor
Muslim rule.
ridden
by
nailed
or
from
in
armies
Before
apparently
recruited
Indus,
governors,
history
for
from
these
with
the
Sind
I.
Safferida
of
The Ghoznawids
of
Hindu
13th
under
of
infantry,,
century
the
Delhi
Sultanate
-nown areas
most politically
of
the
they
of
Islam,
el2phnnt
lüks
mn.
were
the river
own dynasty
of
Arab
some warriors
troops
the
Saffarid
125
own commenderep
even Hindu
lower
the
Empire.
Indus
valley
while
and as such would
(Edinburgh
122,
C. E. [3osuorths The Ghaznsvids,
123.
Ayaloni "Preliminary
in Islam. " p. 550
124.
flosworth*
"The Armies of the Safferids}"
125.
Dosworth,
The Ghaznavids
126.
Yar fluhammod Khan, The Army under the
thesis,
(Unpub.
j526 AD
Ph. D.
Univ,
in
the
126
the
among
are
They were also
in
124
numbers
are mentioned,
cavalry
a
army,
large
employed
certainly
may also
have formed
apparently
within
in particular
abroad,
Hindu
century.
would
their
Caliph's'.
that
fortunes
their
9th
century
in esstern
nerved
PJevortheless,
Sind and the
isolated,
four
and carried
the mainstream of Islamic
centuries,
under
to
their
under
own leadership
11th
again
Unfortunately,
leant-,
its
pr6sumably
and from Hind beyond
and 1ultan,
though
than
other
area
in
agnin
also
converted
this
Iran
had,
India
armoured
sub-continent
seem to have sought
areas
dynasty
northern
war-elephnrts,
capacities
three
Hindu
of
then remained outside
virtually
corps
Indian
from
have been recruited,
x-parate
.
becks.
tho
this
122
Sind was fully
Muslim
t'urayh
areas
time
were heavily
Sindiay
various
handlers,
123
lnrge
Such Ghaznnwid
on their
Warriors
by which
century
brought
Ninths,
warriors
Islamic
11th
among the
any circumstances
1963),
Remarks an the Momlük Military
pp. 115-119.
Institution
p. 547.
pp. 109-110 and 113-114.
Sultans
of Delhi
of London 1950),,
(1210 ADp. 27.
336
have had little
India
northern
that
appears
kept
area
fact
Muslim
rulers,
traditions
the
the
itself
that
on Muslim
Turkish
apart
Hindu
occupations
and India's
the period
end of
warrior
from
culture
keeping
lack
developments.
military
to have little
was similarly
towards
until
the
affect
the
also
under
review.
that
clasp
bulk
impact
of
withdrew
finally
its
immediate
becomes more understandable.
on Muslim
culture
Even then
It
conquered
subjects.
Into
as determinedly
of
The rest
impact
itself
apart
thic
Add to this
in
as did
on Islamic
of
the
its
rnce of
new
military
,;;.
4*,. -i' ",A'
(.
%14wr! 20,
-po-,
ýý"+'.ý.
ý
ý. ät,.
C\/l
3 37
CHAPTER 4
HEAVY CAVALRY UNDER THE UMAYYAD AND cAf3nÄSID
THE RISE tlf
it
While
increasingly
that
it
in
this
"typical"
16th
crossbow-bolts
history
of
yet this
in
places,
this
precisely
his
because
speed,
of
his
Thus,
Islam
escape.
't,
of
Muslim
who is
but
cavalry
in
be seen in
fact,
in
that
the long
in
times and
comparison
In tactical
a heavy
to escape
clearly
and mobility,
et. various
wore,
be regarded
Islam
protection
terms
to
their
it
is
cavalryman
is
because
from,
difficult
correspondingly
the
expect,
fight
those
the Umayyads this
of
r
iron-
produced
an admission
flowe'ing.
for
easy
as
such supposedly
might,
armoured.
matters,
world
of
to stop
protection.
as one would
Under
cavalry'yha.
relatively
who is
to
finest
main-
weapons such as arrows,
the existence,,
that
of
or a dead-end
between
heavily
very
increased
was primarily
any discussion
a balance
comparison
a horseman
limited
as its
also
as would
itself
It
reaction
must not obscure
end foes,
comrades
bullets.
and not
never
armour
infantry
is
an
be an oversimplification
certainly
however,
against
it
the Muslim
The equipment
was,
an extreme
armour,
fact
various
simply
knights
to maintain
preferred
Europe.
century
in
might
full-plate
and ultimately
as an aberration,
East
took
cavalry
Islam,
go as far
not
down in
was failing
armour
the wars of
The Middle
Christian
cavalry
heavy
Yet such a viewpoint
weighed
to
mid-14th
in
did
process
misleading.
cavalry
that
agreed
part
EuropeU1
and thus
clad
generally
important
tained
did
is
CALIPHATES
of
who could
normally
operations
Cahen: "alayshp 11loco. cit.
role
in
heavy
not,
cavalry
or would
in early
not,
meant enemy infantry,
this
period
cannot
ignore
and
the
338'
question
of
stirrups
which
The stirrup
the
whether
nomadic
peoples
Although
Iranian
the
learned
of
Turks
foes,
even if
they
or Turkified
That would be during
illustrative
from
had knownof
Iraniens
in
makes it
473).
Turkist7on5
(figs.
Unfortunately,
demaged that
it
is
originally
source
impossible
portrayed
Al Jöhiz of Dawn,
half
2.
after
tho event,
their
it
states
earlier,
2
the Muslim
than
rather
that
they
during
their
that
clear
their
adopted
conflicts
4
The
8th centuries.
stirrups
were
of immediately
not all,
(Fig.
Aäian
or Transoxania.
Iran
eastern
pre-
437,451,456,459
Gustän
horseman
or not
33Or
perhaps less
quite
that
believe
to see i4ihether
writing
Central
Byzantine
the req-i
stirrups
though
has suggested
abundantly
of
Far East,
open to disputes
still
429,430,4142'436#
the legs
use.
various
7th or early
a normal item equipment in much, if
Islamic
is
widespread
.
the
most authorities
the late
evidence
it
scholar
stirrups
3
in
or one of
invented
respected
into
coming
devoloped
Koreans
actually
or Turkish
device,
with
the
one highly
first
Arabs
first
clearly
Chinese,
then
were
this
are
so
invaluable
.
than a century
categorically
end
that
and a
the Arabs
"Cavalry
Equipment and Tactics
Frontier,
"
Bivar,
on tho Euphrates
its
" 0riirntall
D.
giver,
"The
Origins,
286;
A.
I.
Stirrup
p.
and
"Sons Aspects of Byzantine
Arty I (1955),
Military
p. 62; Haldon,
Technology"
p. 22; R. H. Hilton
and P. H. Sawyer, "Technical
Pte
The Stirrup
XXIV
Determinism:
and Prrcent
and the Plough"
(London
(1963),
E.
The
92;
Oekeshotts
Archapolony
Weapons
of
p,
The t. arld of the Hung,
P7aenchsn-Helfen,
1960), pp. 85-86; 0.3.
(London 1973), p. 206.
3.0ivar,
"Cavalry
Equipment and Tactics
on the Euphrates
Frontiers"
4.
" pp. 114-115;
C?Lh-i; 'cLes Changements techniques nilitaires,
V. J. Perry and M. C. Yapps "introdtAction,, " dar. Technology and
Society in the Middle East. (London 1975), p. 01 L. thite Jr.
Thrust of the West, " in WaEj.
"The Crusades and the Technological
Technology And Society in the Middle East] V. J. Parry and M.
5.
C. Frumkinp
p. 76.
Archaeology,
Soviet
Cpntrnl
Aain,
(Leiden
1970)v
p. 290.
73q
knew of iron
in the late
stirrups
not to adopt them, believing
that
lie even went on to suggest
that
dominance within
political
their
the decline
Al ra it
those of the original
W.1,
g
.
Persian
who had taken up various
but consciously
chose
6
use weakened a rider.
of Arab military
Islam coincided
of these aids to riding.?
that
7th century
further
final
their
with
and
adoption
a tradition
reported
in Madinah,
ruh ammad's helpers
including
the use of stirrups,
8
These
were pursueded to abandon them when they adopted Isslam.
by el Zähia were made in reply
statements
of
the
Arabs'
saddle-cloth,
The editor
of this
of,
that
flat
the rider
proVided
habit
firs
in the 7th century,
of
riding
more than
no support.
with
in a note that
states
criticism
hardly
saddle,
timesr, Khorasan,
who, late
to the s3
and their
stirrups
text
vital
at various
ibn Abt Sufra,
of
a frameless
or with
a padded
governor
lack
original
bareback
either
habits
it
9
was the tlmayyad
and t3aTra, el Muhalab
ordered
the troops
to
his
though o.nfortunately
use iron stirrups,
command
without
under
10
fit
the
Such
his
normally
a
source.
story
certainly
would
quoting
that
it
the Turks and Turkified
accepted
theory
Iranians
of Trcnsoxania
inspired
the Muslim Arabs to adopt the stirrup.
was contact
and their
Of perhaps even greater
that
not of iron
stirrups
6.
Al Jähi*
7.
dt
-Ib..
_..,
as
Ibid.
9.
-Ibid_
10.
id.,
_Ibý
11.
Ib,,,
i d.
cultural
interest
cousins
11
For too little
19-r70.
'Caby'fn.
Say_
Al
pp.
än wal1
l
p. 21.
p. 20.
pp.
p.
ý pp.
13-14.
20 note
19-»20.
1.
in KhurÄc n that
is the statement
were known to the early
Arabs.
perhaps even pro--Islamic
with
by at 3
Muslims
attention
iz
and
has been
paid, ' to such loop-stirrups
left
traces,
no archaeological
in early
use in
The pictorial
does from
India
(Fig,
ancient
(Figs.
502),
or early
Art,
Washingtons
Africa
Although
Arabs
12,
Arles),
most of
these
of
being
stirrup
as well
of
Taken together,
Iberia
of
Spain
in
St.
(Fig.
Mongolia
of
or
southern
the cloisters,
the
late
497),
Gallery
483).
loop-stirrup
such as hunting
war in earlier
the
of
(Fig.
Moorish
century
the
possibility
out
as by others.
or travelling,
of such primitive
by the
centuries,
such diverse
evidence
85.
Oaksshott,,
pp.
ap_cit.,
-86;
Digby, op. city,
pp" 13-º14;
the
"
Museum,
the
British
editor,
in
Lota
"An Indian Copper
Rupsm (1926). p. 79.
14,
Iiaenchen-Helfen,
Anon.,
Crum
92; Cakecho.tt,
and Sawyer, op. cp.
Hilton
16.
14th
context
in
used
time
illustrated
representations
non-warlike
Freer
century
side
south
13thror
later
alone does not rule
13th
accurately
in situ
to late
13.
15.
bowl,
capital,
in
a peaceful,
are
forms
(Saljüq
as exceptionally
(carved
Trophima,
century
Iran
16
as it
Christian
Andalus
al
no.
Dac2hestan.
the
century
century
late
clearly
ranging
around
early
57,21),
is
for, post-Saljüq
9th
14
and Scythians.
Cyprus
11th
possibly
13th
134 and 137),
the
and oven possibly
Egypt
71),
the
of
has-been suggested
existence
interesting,
equally
naturally
which
question
Byzantine
century
is
conquest
France
12th
information
12th
this
Its
and has even been suggested
recorded15
North
the entire
Gothsp13 the Nuns, Parthians
continued
(Fig.
in
among the Snrmatians
Indiap12
cigration-period
Muslim
or leathery
rope
and spread of the stirrup.
history
Its
of
op, city,
"Daghestan
cit.
p. 206.
Itinorarium
trans. K, renwick,
(London 1958),, p. 47.
A. Salmony,
p. 162.
loci
Sculptures,
Perenrinorum.
" Ara Isinmica,
The Third
X (1943),
3'H
would seem to make al Oaý111a statement
the first
Throughout
of the 8th century,
part
of the Umayyad era$ Muslim cavalry
part
gathered
this
in a special
horsemen
remained,
cavalry
or broken
18.
infantry.
Umayyad rule
end of
the
changed
to skirmishing
force
would
heavy
infantry,
this
but selective
Muslim heavy cavalry
relying
which mecnt using
on greater
Byzantine
10.
Ibid.
19.
C. Cahan,# "Hnrbp"
III# pp. 181-184.
20.
Ibid.
an, cvol.
vol. Ilf
an Umayyad
the
upon
charges
to attack
19
prepared
than merely
rather
terrorize
have been said
true
be
might
was at precisely
ranks.
attacks.
enemy cavalry
to further
this
role
own Infantry
its
of
the
by
constantly
were abandoned
A1 jabarTi
relegated
The latter's
These new tactics
20
Pnfluenco,
but whilo
17.
of Muslim
each including
unitap
tactics
sh^ck
an already
tactics
the very
horsemen
was thus now expected
beaten foe.
it
at
the bulk
time
and repeated,
speed and weight
that
be
remembered
also
of
disorganized
already
reforms
small
to
halt
seek
would
infantry
of
cavalry.
from behind the security
enemy foot
infantry,
into
bowman and heavy
was to make rapid,
In turn
be divided
minority
The role
light
with
Perhaps
Under the new system
and reconnaissance.
ideally
also
By that
seem to have been armoured1
cavalry
formed that
military
this.
apparently
of shock-troops.
destruction
Mcrwgn II's
those
into
the former
the stirrup.
who now adopted
however,
with
unit
elite
armoured
heavily
relatively
of Muslim
elite
the latter
wai divided
who wore armour and those who did note?
together
from unlikely.
far
this
defeated
it
period
and disperse
to reflect
should
that
Byzantine
such
fords
lTf pp. 1076) 14060 1534 and 1704.
p. 591.
EncyclonQdin
of Iel. emý second edition,
(\J
ý_
,1
342
of
the east,
The question
perhaps
the
since
have failed
"shock"
cavalry
demise
of
accident,
and the
presumed
between
as shown in
intentions
those
of
and he shows, in my opinion
the
realities
of
If
cavalry.
it
from missiles
that
the "shock"
to close with
were seeking
cavalry
it
met infantry
to protect
was primarily
as they tried
delivered
Much
then the armour
is correct,
heavy or otherwise,
charge before
involved.
cavalry
than physical.
moral rather
shot or thrown by infantry
break up a cavalry
art,
by J. 'd. P. Keegan21
convincingly,
such an analysis
of such shock cavalry,
a suicidally
and later
the same seems to have been the case whether cavalry
or other
scholars
commanders and horsemen
analyzed
was primarily
misunderstood,
too often
All
so much medieval
has been admirably
sought to inflict
has been gravely
itself.
cavalry
to differentiate
violent
The question
of
its
shock.
to
If
such
then the same
horse--archers3.
purpose would be served.
cAbd
time
of
al Malik
at the
'Umayyad cavalry
the degree of specialization,
4litism,
indeed
or
häd not reached
that
I
would prevent
them from dismoun Ung and drawing-themselves
their
this
spears used as pikes!
be reached for
eventually
should
many centuries
did occur:
it
up defensively
with
22
Nor would
the need orIse*
in the Middle East.
was a product
of nomad Turkish
When it
habit
ý
rather
than feudal
clans-consciousness.
Those tactical
regularized
changes introduced
by Marwän II reflected
between
offensive
see-saw
P. Keegan,
21.0.0.
and 94-97.
22,
yet another
weapons and defensive
The Face of
Al ýabar; p op. cit.
ors perhaps more accurately,
vol.!!,
Sattle.
P. 959.
tilt
in the perpetual
armour.
(London
1976)'
The same
pp.
87
3 &3
process had earlier
been at work in the Byzantine
In these lattor
empires.
had proOdrineffective
their
by keeping
Instead
hope to be as tactically
as their
Asian foes*
Central
these forces
now found themselves
Central
is likely
CRbbäsid
archers
as their
armies apparently
Byzantine,
to this
problems vio--äv-vie
chomfron and other
protection
against
In Byzantium
boon largely
degootod Byzantine
a number of Asiatic
and one particular
may be taken to illustrate
armour for
in a much smaller
only
forces
Bard,
not only
infantry
but also against
the reintroduction
form that
fact.
this
a mount wore, of course,
horse-archers,
forced
horse-
item of equipment,
the heavy scale bard of the clibanarius
24
time
Justinian,
the
by
of
abandoned
the Avar threat
and
Yet the equipment of domestic
awn ranks.
namely horse-armour,
Umayyad and
Soaennian and f^us13-, armies nought a
the challenge,
also reflected
This
had dine.
predecessors
problem by recruiting
their
into
copied
however,
The Muslims,
their
infantry
and primarily
to have been the main reason why later
Sassanian foes.
solution
more mobile
the same tactical
Asian horse-archers
thus
and adaptable
mcnoeuverable
again failed.
facing
who could
supporting
23
Mien faced by strategically
Arab armies,
more cumbersome
evolved mutually
and horse-archers
flexible,
who,
led to an abandonment
had this
the Cyzantines
of heavy cavalry
units
smaller
Asian horse-archers
Central
case, however,
of heavy cavalry.
of heavy cavalry
had merely worn down their
distance,
In neither
foes.
formations
cacao solid
against
and Sasasnian
missiles.
had apparently
Subsequently,
of horse-armour,
though
forequarters.
heads,
neck
and
covered
on the Euphrates
23.
"Cavalry Equipment and Tactics
fivar,,
Frontier"
pp. 280-290.
24.
Haldoni "Some Aspects of Byzantine Military
the 6th to the 10th centuries,, " pp. 19-19.
Technology from
CI(
( >cl
3 ý-ýSuch ßyzantino-Aver
horse-armour,
felt
most arrows1 though iron
which resisted
horse-crmours
types
heavy
in
cavalry
merely
indicates
used horse-armour,
and probably
by al
were described
this
unfortunately
the Muslim
faf
50A).
they
shedding
without
Such
t!
rather
Sessanien
nalacthurT
that
of
of the
25
used.
(Fig.
FIrüzäbad
seen at
Iraq
of
was generally
lamellar
330) was also
the origin
were perhaps
the earlier
than
but
(Fig.
Taq-i-Bustan
seen at
type
or kentouklon,
as mid:
a
26
were slow-moving
any light
on
such bards.
Horse-armour
light$
effective
the
tern
it
that
clear
further
was
Coif.
a bard
Towards
periods,
iron
intended$27
the end of
covering
Nor was horse-armour
known as ti
the context
in Umebfyad and in later
face$
plus
to the
a min h fnr
regular
mi hfnr
coif,
recorded
arm-defences,
sack
or
troops
of
in use by fundamentalist
AD$ some of whom were dressed
hauberk,
full
a sword and wearing
his
cavalrymen
a mu_affnfsh
Khär, iji
rebels
makes
both
It
696l7
f-nf
to men so protected
the Umayyad Caliphate.
in
that
not,
limited
is
fact
than
the Umayyad era
as armed with
appernntly
both
referred
also
More often
is
described
armour,
28
horses,
armour
was
available
the
from
arise
wore felt
also
muisffafah
and to armoured
however,
cant
or infantry,
men, cavalry
from readily
and was constructed
Confusion
materials.
while
of
It
times.
in
Umayyad
common
was
felt
in
and carried
dir_
rump
25,
"u aresses,
op.
Brown, "Arms and Armour, " pp, 445-446;
Military
Byzantine
Aspects
"Some
58;
6
Haldon,
of
pp.
and
" p. 22.
from the 6th to 10th centuries,
Technology
26.
Al 8alädhurT,
27.
Fries, op. cit
pp. 42 and 61; al Tabari,
and*1704.
pp. 1406-1407,1025,1517,1537
28.
Al rabarTs op. cit.
op. cit.,
cite.
p. 351.
vol.!!,
p. 1704.
on. cit.,
vol. II, ý
34-5
29
lances,
Such warriors
Umayyad regular
it
although
were largely
This widespread
troops.
horsemen's
Turkish Polls in Transoxanio.
The limited
Muslim cavalry
in
the case of this
know whether
Iran
31
armies.
(fig.
is an Arab or,
ibn
armour
Muslim
d,
aý,
to,
lzrr
340),
a clearer
se61s_sW;
in this
case of scale$
spear when facing
that
another
Traditional
them as horsemen armed with
references
century
lance,
first
only late:
335 and
a full
hauberk,
(Fig.
in Syria
fought
eastern
with
his
123),
rump
drawing his sword,
tend
heroes
to
Umayycd
portray
of
two
in
some cases$
mace ands
probably
recalls
to a standard
sword.
More specific
by such historians
as al abari-
Umayyod horsemen wearing
vol. ll,
of
the
the wearing
feature
khan sr in addition
large
(Figs,
a
for many centuries.
Muslim accounts
This letter
for
the
reorganized
was illustrated
cavalryman,
as would remain the fashion
swords.
fought
representation
a horseman still
Heavy or otherwisoy
33
more probably,
worn by men an foot
is
In
armoured.
we do note of course,
A small number of the latter
Heavier
than their
339) does not show early
illustration
Qutayba
to the
30
the horse-archer
even before
horse armour,
being heavier
to have been very heavily
particular
KhuraaenI.
Muslims
use of felt
for
reputation
art
available
were most
as also
might have contributed
does not appear in art,
Arab and Persian
local
Arabs,
baydh
9
describe
helmets
early
of a
0th
and-or mighfar
pp. 958 and 990.
29.
Ibid.,
30.
Gibb,
31.
Ibid,,
32.
Al Tabari,
33.
Constantinople
Arabea
M. Canard, "Las Expeditions
contre
sees
Journal
"
A®iatigue,
legende,
la
dans l'hiatoire
dana
at
CCVIII (1928), pp. 70 and 101,
The Arab Conquests in
Central-Asia
pp. 65 and 70,
p. 40"
op. c t,,
vol. 11, p. 1909.
32
34-6
their
coifs,
swords
hands while
their
bows could,
Such a diversity
(Figs.
of
the heavy
Most of
art.
from baldrics
slung
difficulty,
little
of
long-bladed
spears
The
are,
.y
iconographic
balance
in
cavalry.
on the walls
with
on either
side
Other definite
horse-archers
(figs.
appears
these
are clearly
122).
either
and other
may not,
or
not
evidence
be adopted
may note a slight
by the written
paradoxically,
Iraqi
34.
heartland
helmets.
with
as they
ruler
in
stand
(rig.
warriors
122)
or prince
at
most of whom wear
A great
suggest
that
another
two centuries.
(Figs.
116,122
cAbbasid
of the
119 and
the Umayyad
that
the
stirrup
Finally,
one
some areas
for baldrics,
stirrups
were concerned.
as stirrups
in
saddles
in others
(figs.
use
thesis
the
supports
and while
and 338),
not, cin
of
variety
126),
120,126
are certainly
less pictorial
Al TabarTs
op. cit..
.
be associated
horsemen
(Fig.
sources
preference
sources
to have been
much more of military
later
and 339),
one as for
for
be
need not
or presumed Umayynd sources show
further
will
such sources
with
an enthroned
used (Figs.
sometimes
era was a transitional
would
probably
of
for
except
Such evidence
Subsequent
will
119-122,338
armour
in
that
Umayyad
are represented
apparentryinfantry
0Amr.
Quaayr
no visible
122) warriors
facto
in
appears
and hardly
equipment
a type
of
there
in
portrayed
Yet this
34
aside,
shown on infantry
time
that
In one case (Fig.
function.
also
and 340).
as at
specialization
is
is
armour
be laid
necessary,
equipment
122-124,127,141,339
a major
they
If
n their
lancer-;
and their
as already
suggested
and 124).
evidence
Caliphate
vol. YIp p. 1276.
survives
than from its
from the
short-lived
31d
Umayyad predecessor
by theuse
overcome
the
fact
as it
this
in
that
cAbbesid
from
just
even at
this
came from
adopted
there
early
the east
KhurasanT
illustration
whose name of
a silver-gilt
plate
now in
as hod the lost
to dismount
leader
their
with
case of emergency.
(Fig.
to
that
in
Syria
the
of
that
37
al
cavalry
Western Arab troops
in these early
"The military
35,
Ayslon,
p. 5.
36.
Al Ioborls
opt.
37.
Al Jäýiýt
Raa; lil
of Balra
be trained
a1 Jýhiz.
p. 53.
equipment
late
Umayyed
(Fig.
120).
Early
cAbbäSid
was quite prepared
36
Even as late
to fight
from Syria
on foot
in
and the Byzantine
described
Reforms of the Caliph
p. 40.
His
quoted an Arab military
cAbbäsid decades,
III,
vo1.
=ý
on
in the same manner
infantry
as infantry.
3 ij
Iran,
appears
341).
Again cavalry
defensively
9th century,
are,
al
Gharbt
Our beat
regions.
construction,
Hermitage
Umayyad forces.
as advising
frontier
Arabic
century,
Arab-speaking
from ecstorn
warrior
identical
Hayr
those
any major change in tactics.
and fight
as the early
the
almost
cooperated
still
between
troops
already
6th
late
by the
from
warriors
Pur-i
at Qasr al
had probably
difference
May
Vahmanb be an
Nor was there
cavalry
Thus,
a Muslim
of
in most respects,
horse-archer
were also involved
CAbbasid
Arab
and-forces
traditions.
seized power.
in overthrowing
role
these
Most of
have been little
may well
Of course,
cAbbäsid
the
dynasty
and eastern
many Iranian
available
35
more cosmopolitan
provinces.
some)KhuräaänT troops
N
stage.
and more strictly
iss
such peripheral
despite
areas,
becoming
seem to have plsyad a dominant
("ai9Pnous
the Umayyads, although
partially
only
neighbouring
army was rapidly
did not happen immediately
Arab troops
is
problem
from
of material
the
recruited
This
Syria.
no fighting
el flu'totim,
"
L/
3L g
with
38
spear
or in one specific
case with spear, sword
or TT6etah styce
(tiboten
lenthorb,
This letter
defence was,
of,
and shield,
tker
ei
and dariz nh_shield
however, given to the Arab frontier
al Rash; d.
Byzantine
It proved most ineffective
the
the
Anatolian
Iraq,
frontier
the
of
warriors,
would
they
of
early
riding
aa
Above all!
Piuslim
and their
between Byzantine
Followers.
armies
them fresh
On the East Roman frontier
identities
lances,
Iran.
the almost
though
they
Such
as troublesome
occasionally
retained
by lending
in battle.
on
KhariiT
effective
from
the
at
persisted
and western
as distinct
us©: the bow.
from mules and only
traditions
Arabia
on their
primarily
also
and their
Crescent,
mobility
strategic
iron-
noisy
declined
slowly
and among the highly
fertile
relied
Arab troops
of
who were regarded
bodouins
they
prestige
of power in
rebels
if
had a strong
shield.
Although
centre
Marlin
the sward of his
against
foeman39 whop, by contrast,
dsrq, h
covered
by the Caliph
warrior
.
the original
their
horses
41
there was alresdy
a blurring
of
lords`
Arab
and emirs
marcher
and
Although
this
land
the
Greek
the
of
was
were
most changes of faith and allegiance
42
is also seen
This blurring
towards Islam.
hero Digenes Akritass
from Christianity
in art
of-the
area and crap with
turbans
and heed-cloths
appearing
I
tiu'tmgimj"
30.
Ayalon: "The Military
Pp" 97-"98.
Reforms or the Caliph
39.
üdi,
Al Mnn
vol. I I
40.
Al 3ühiIS
41.
ibn Khngon on, "the Exploits
Al Jntiix, "Jmh12 of B" re to Al-rath
furko
"
T.
in
General,
Co
the
the
Army
Khalifat
tho
of
of
end
Socioty
Harley Ualkor trans. j Journal, of the Royal Asiatic
(Oct. 1915) p. 663.
42.
"The 'Flights
ß. J. H. Jenkins
XXIII (994E3)i pp. 223-224.
n,ps cito
Rn6atil
ni 3, hix
pp. 348-349.
p. 45.
of Ss,manas,9" Speculun.
3 4-q
on "enemy"
troops
196 and 202.
as 6th or 7th
wearing
of
This
in
like
the Empire
evolved
role
they
Ecsontially$
of
light
cavalry
of
local
infantry
normally
stood
a wider
Muslim
and more ambitious
these
cavalry
the later
offensive,
shot
it
turban
he might
be
also
of
Given
similarly
plus
seems unlikely,
Arabs had fewer heavy cavalry
being
more frequent
than
unlike
equipped
that
behind
played
those
of
while
their
for
o2, cit.,
44.
Leo VI, Tnc ticai.
Inst. 6.
M. 3oly do Maizcroi
45.
Haldonp "Some Aspects of Byzantine
6th to 10th Centuries, " p. 27.
an important
Central
Asia
horses
Umayyad heavy
Turkish
hulÄms
in
Islam was now on the
that
the
Unfortunately,
than the ßyaantinos.
Howard-aohnstan,
large
a frontier
as has been suggestedy45
43.
earlier
s involved
the evidence
the fact
43
incursions.
placed
but
known
ruglim
Norse-archers
forces,
44
tactics
tacti
Shadowing
levies.
defensive.
were even more difficult
they
assaults
on the
the border
of
strategically
203).
9th century,
but
acale,
command and by ranks
at
and the rise
constant
stretch
such
defensive
(Fig.
still
almost
His
centuries.
of guerrilla
a system
on a minor
from
and originating
in
harness,
412)
+,
defin,
tely
was
when Byzantium
These were generally
screen
question
an Arabs while
as Shac!owing iw#arfare to cope with
forces
(Fig.
regarded
hauberk.
was an era
to contain.
generally
Muslim-. Ironien
10th
or
is
It
distinctly
the 9th
make him look
a mail
As such,
the
picture
contemporary
equipment.
the rider
him in
place
and baldric
but
century,
border
more northern,
available
Muslim
(Figs.
illustrations
though
the
finest
comes
and stirrups
certainly
biblical
comparable$
in probably
a warrior
saddle
Byzantine
From the
ýQorgia
regions(
of
in
pP. 100-101.
trnns.
Military
p
(Paris
1771),
Technology
from the
350
from
evidence
pictorial
the
however#
Coptic
Egypt
of
art
armoured in a local
cavalry,
of
side
the Anatoli,. an frpntier
/{-rmen(a
09a4 1)
anal
from Georgia (Fig.
to be available
seems only
south,
the Muslim
also
the original
he found
been largely
their
this
7ülün
(Fig.
Arab
largely
had not occurred
the
formed
core
through
beyond,
time,
have still
still
fought
their
of
Aghlabid
still
cavalry
47
largely
been infantry.
javelins
Nubian art
the maritime
played
Berber
(Fig.
A,cthlabid
in their
supposing
the Muslims had their
invaded Sicily
Nevertheless,
could
own fleet,
include
they still
46.
Hassan,, cpcit,,
Q7"
Ibfd
available.
seems to
ambitionsq
calculations.
military
sufficient
rebels.
cavalry,
By the early
they had
Hence
even
9th century
that
AcLhhlebid
the
army
so
and
a small
corps of seven hundred horsemen.
infantry,
thousand
ton
accompanied
p. 165.
this
bareback as
in the 13th century,
by Spanish or Byzantine
they had this
may, at
Such a style
to rely
that
and
164).
of
part
in transporting
still
Sicily
warriors
Spain early
they found difficulty
however,
West,
Africa,
Lien the Muslims attacked
on ships provided
and
survivors
spewss
times.
orientation
an important.
to have
Berber horsemen probably
or large-bladed
had done in ancient
868 ADS
of Ifrtgiym&.
North
century.
be shown in some early
Despite
in
power
in
province
Further
and the Arab militia
the 9th
with
anceatorc
civilianized.
was
142).
tihul; ms. and its
46
that-heavy
style,
Egypt
of
this
and army of
by Turkish
replaced
descendants
bocamw governor
Further
suggests
of Byzantine
variation
known and may indeed have been widespread
Lhon Ahmad ibn
412)X.
largely
ýi
351
40
~" Some Spanish fiuslimo, negrooa.
the
Oerber.
Huwwarah
tribe.
"frorn
49
cAbbäsid huräaänTs
This desire to transport
and
also took part.
horses in relatively
large
numbers during
also applied
to 'aids
for
seventy-three
ruslim
and when they
dascondod
example,
the Tiber
of
they
proved
this
Naturally,
for
at
in
or the
Arab
In nab ADS
ships gathered
than
the Muslim
overseas
major invasions.
upon-the
five
far
made such raids
cavalry
time
the
no less
's
the
August
on board.
Italians
so
to
more important
a generally
Ma.Shhrib than
on 23rd
-cavalry
for
harder.
the mouth
off
coast
hundred
It must also have indicated
contain.
role
to-have
as well
operations
had been the case
conc=uest.
Those few Khurasants. who took part
in th©-conquest
of Sicily
W
might have been the, -first
to change the. military
al fla%nun.
Caliph
representatives,
balance
in al fMa'mün'a coup.:
If " bbd
they were tha'riew
but if
civil
royolution,
they wöuld probably
.. ý-
..
have been cavalry.
cAbb4id
Amin in the
over hie brother
changes.
geno: ally
roferred
itself
to co
but
hurän7anTs,
pFIelcamic
of major military
the work of eastern
was larg®ly
..
have been infantry,,
,ý_
set
811-313-AD,
in motion a series
war of
The victory
was defeated
ün"thpY
almost
would
al'Sa'jr.
Khur ZnTa_of
Al Ma'mün'a victory
was
'
been
have
they could
abn
cAbbäsid.
. ý.
,,,
certainly
that
descended frr-, j those. KhuraianTs
of a. force, which,
the original
troops
the time of the
in Baghdad during
Cn the other-hand,
west during
brought
of a new. wave of Persian
troops,,
epparantly,
conoiating
__,
Sicily,
5icilio,
-..
(Edinburgh 1975)0 p. 22;
vol.!,
pp,
-394-395,,
48.
A. Ahmad, A Hintor)!
ruaulmarii di
Amarif Stärirdoi
49.
ibid.
50,
P. t»1eWO11yni Rome of '- hs nark A2ps_ ý(l, onäon 1971),t p. 262.
v'l
:ý
352
largely
of t3ukharIe,
51
or Tronaoxania.
the majority
Khw razmTa and Turks
Although
coma Arabs
these KhuräsianTs played
a slightly
for
fevorthelecs,
political
fully
reasons.
fully
are still
described
armed in
fought
of 1"mTn, During
supported
for
the final
Ma'mün,
al
roles
they and their
occasion
dire
tdahrs
el
siege of Onghdmd
loan prominent
on this
abishan cuirass,
from M8 Warial
perhaps
equipment
as woll.. mounted cavalry,
hauberk,
Vof bard or
ti
gambeson$ and tacid h
orm-dafencoe, carrying rumh lances and
52
darýcnh shields.
During the some siege a loading Khura'sünT
Tibetan
horse-archer
was reportedly
53
ab oyyddah helmet.
al Ma"4ün's
fangonels
are,
an Qanhdnd,
attack
Yet the
as such.
also equipped with
true
east
not
in
mentioned
in{entry
Khur aaan'ara
not listed
surprisingly,
although
Iranian
a sword and wore
KhuresänTa,
in Qaqhdad, are known to have been excellent
and the
infantry
obnal
and siege
engineers.
Fron now on cavalry
cAbbäsid
0rmiess which they might
docados.
tdevertholeos,
whose defensive
ruined
vital,
relied
generically
referred
new forces,
but earlier
nor did they readily
operated
was on its
or retrcating.
to as
°n
54
cavalry
Persians
Arab and nbrGO units
51,
Ayolonp "The Military
520
cüdT
Al Mae
53.
Ibiä.,
54.
Al : üýiý#
op. cit,
in conjunction
privileges.
with
than an any now
of various
val. VIs pp. 461-462.
Rr+sä*i1 0l Jähi2
pp. 52.. 53.
aortas
of these
did not disappear,
In addition,
netbrma of the Caliph al Muf tasimi"
VI8
453.
va1.
p.
f
some
seems to have
nmý formed a major part
abandon their
in
have been doing for
battle,
in
open
even
role,
although it
when advancing
in fact
they still
infantry
a doo'. iont role
played
clearly
the
p. 5.
353
recruitment
severely
of eastern
troops
YamTnayn, became governor
Unfortunately,
this
period.
descriptions,
that
stating
troops,
hand al Za ij
similar
who could
fit
hauberk of vertically-linked
has a full
belt
typically
(rig.
Asian origin
Central
While these Khuras6nT warriors
ways$ identical
(E336-.33g AD) there
practising
One apparently
while
with
~= horse-archory,
57
the other
pendants of
314).
are described
ass, in various
both being of "eastern"
to the Turksf
Christian
mang the fragmented
scales1
Droops a sword and wears a distinctive
both
56
equipped
of eastern
description.
this
for
references
to that
tamarra
the
aawsaq
Kh
of
al
gani at
are two figures
lüka.
mom
some excellent
gives
long.
hair
monks, had beards and wore their
frescoes
of Turkish
force
the Khur3asanta ware better
wore clothing
to
were relegated
are very few pictorial
there
In the meantime
and superiority
predecessors
by a newly recruited
On the other
than other
of prestige
period
both thoy and their
status
1T'hir Ghü'l
general,
55
Khurasan
in 020 AD.
of
KhurneänTs Qnjoyad a brief
a second-class
government was
onco al Ma'mün's loading
curtailed
in Iraq before
by the central
culture
and
they are also distinguished
that
fact
The
tactics.
by other characteristics
of equipment and
SS
their
may
reflect
during
a charge
Khurasants "swerve aside"
reliance
than the bou or lance159 or their
on the sward rather
preference
for
karr
Arab-style
Tbc MajastY that
55.
Montgomery Wotti
56.
Al 0ohiz,
06
57#
ibid.
pp. 9 and 15.
5o.
Ib idy
p. 45.
590
Ayalonp "The Military
pp" 33-34.
RasäIil
tactics.
Parr
we
at 0ähix
Their
probable
101-f0.
101-102,
pp.
was
P. 15.
Reforms of the Caliph
al Multasiop"
use of the heavy Iranian
hoavy
equipments
Jfoýi;
they
both
These might
seen in
some Coptic
would#
however1
likely.
of
the
have formed
(Figs.
that
Eastern
earlier
khiinate
representation
of
An oven more obscure
item
been rendered
meaning upper-arm
If
it
wasp however,
KhursänT
for
,
thoir
short
Arab rivals
Art
fragmentary
Sämarr
hauberk.
which might indicate
from 9th century
Iran,
device.
with
for man or horse
or at least
60,,
Lombard, Tho Golden Anaof
61.
Now9orodowos an,..
-cli.
62,
Al ämhi2, Rnsäwil
'iolnm.
pp. 19-20,,
the khan nr
some of their
62
of those
and unhelpful
P, t64-i70,
p. 215,
al aähizp
that
curved
They also stressed
the oxcrption
in inadoquato
froscoea,
a vambroce.
to use long felt
though whether
had not yet adopted this
prat,
only,
kübnt maces the tsb rzTn battle-axes,
use of stirrups:
610),
Byzantium and 7th century
These KhurasänTa also claimed
sword and the disc
(Fig.
i* would be of a
a piece of horse-armour,
the k fir
single-edged
Kizil
übrnd
term
b52
the
of
rendering
horsemen
or could be an Arabic-.
in Persians
To those they added curved swords
scabbards,
as bolls
61
could perhaps refer
neck and forequarters
armour which they node themselves$
is unclear.
more
has variously
equipment
it
as
69) and on an
from
cavalrymen
coon in 7th and Bth century
Iran.
Sassonian
eras
I
armoured
century
Char Chad (Fig.
at
or shoulder
misunderstood
type already
or 7th
armoured
of
parallel
been identified
as bRA anti or bnzf
to a form of horse-armour
"
speaker's
6th
of
al
harness,
horse's
Turkistan'
have tentatively
Turkish
and
228 134p 1378 143 and 145).
t-.n eastern
an the opocr-shafts
of
horse--armour
of the
part
35ý
in their
In the writings
to use ti, ]f`f
claim
art
could be reflected
man and boast.
consider
Objects
appear
for
themselves
bolls,
horse
60
(Fig.
313).
CVIII
l
"'
355
there
is
Fror Byzantium,
however,
Iranianizction,
not to say Turkification,
hod boon noted.
"enemy" troops,
Transoxanicn
including
hauovar,
direct
such as 3euish soldiers
characteristics
the baldrics
possible
that
a strong
or via the Caliphate$
Byzantine
military
equipment.
Central
was already
the Tomb of Christ,
weapons all
also appear in this
shows various
Pcoltor
201).
foes
eastern
guarding
(rig.,
the increasing
that
of their
9th century
helmets and armour and carrying
wearing
strong
One magnificent
coma evidence
of which dhow
Earlier
manuscript..
Asian influence,
being Mt
styles,
It
is..
either
in 9th century
356
CHAPTER 5
CAVALRY ANn THE DECLINE OF THE cAE3F3äSiD CALIPHATE
The political
"slave
of the Turkish
role
0Abbasid
Caliphate
of the
hul'; ms made some Caliphs
is well
into
army" in the decline
This nnmluk army of
known.
their
than
more
little
puppets
and acted like
the Preotorian
Less attention
has, howevers been focused an the military
of these troops
whose impact1 political
gar beyond the Iraqi
Unlike
his
al Mu'taaim
successor
Transoxania.
At this
warriors,
adult
included
aJ'ier
many were retained
that
Turkish
growing
hucl ms from the root
and subsequent
were forwarded
this
thorn from the rampant
cAbbäsid
the
court
tried
of society,,
came to accept
Si
nid dynasties
at least,
There
solely
to isolate
his now
not only because of a
of tiardmd# -but also
Jealousies
Although
was soon focused primarily
loyalty
Al Muttasim
as
They even
I'
to f3a hhdad,
in theory
between them and the rest
population
in
reputation.
of established
by the Jhirid
own commanders.
and military
Turks.
by Muslims or follow
Unfortunately,
hostility
of Turkish
warriors
as eleven by al c3a'nün and
they forsiod a new corps owing loyalty,
upon their
was felt
stage many seem to have been captured
governed Khurasans plenty
to the Caliph.
characteristics
from beyond the Muslim frontier
lenders
aristocratic
Rome.
0Abbäeid Caliphate.
who also included
1mn were recruited
hum
Imperial
and military,
of the
heartland
jLhpr`aes`acnT
troops,
these
origin,
Guard of a decadent
of existing
of the existing
civil
in an effort
to insulate
army units.
So, while
the dominance of those
Remarks on the Maralük Military
Ayalon, "Proliminary
in Islrmt$" pp. 51-53.
hulEamq
Institution
357
its
©achdado with
traditions,
own obnäß troops
did not.
For these reasons al ilu'tasim
found a new capital,
in 636 AD.
The court
2
or rather
The transfer
arose between the
Although
Islam's
against
was* however,
prepared,
martial
though now the Caliph
to punish his more obstreperous
the traditions
of
bo regarded
were described
were slower
ware that were now absorbing
almost entirely
In their
cavalry
most
bows plus,
horse. -archery
the Fertile
of Persia,
obedient
Crescent
horses,
and carrying
In general
they
the
Kharnff
than
Arab
armoured
but,
and lighter
with
the lance.
than that
of their
Their
Reforms of the Caliph
weapon
rivals.
they again combined the traditions
"The
Military
P.yaZ.anf.
those
troops
these
of
thefirst
perhaps# a lassoo.
they ware skilled
shorter
shows these
written,
Asian homelands with
in the 9th century
and more heavily
was, however,
role
As such they combined
Central
as having exceptionally
these Arabs,
Their
as merely ornamental.
Whoir original
Early
two or even throe
they
energies.
of the more disciplined
and Byzantium.
in operations
took part
rarely
to have been heavy horse-archers.
nhu
friction
foes such as the Dyzantinea,
traditional
Evidence from Iraqi
like
m
huc
u1
in thoso internal
was crucial
somewhat short-lived.
when possible,
these snits
to
decided
at Sämarre
court,
hul'nma and the populace,
should not therefore
of Islam's
an enlarged
military
to Boohdad in 892 AD and once main
returned
was apparently
3
troops.
and woll-oatablichod
of Iran
a2. P"wOta*im.
2.
Ibid,
p. 4.
3,
CAlT
muhassin ibn
al TanukhT, Tho Tahlo. -Talk of a tio3n otimian
(London 1922 9 pp. 166-168.
trans,
D. S. Margoliouth
#
'juý
359
and Central
Asia,
being able to shoot accurately
4
at the gallop.
the rear while
Little
seemed to have changed by the mid-10th
the
hulnme of Mucizz ei Dawla, Qüyid ruler
into
battle
finest
against
troops
tactics,
forward
in waves, using
attacked
though shooting
century
For hours their
traditional
karr
than closing
arrows rather
when
were thrown
of Iraq,
Infantry.
Daylamite
rebellious
and to
with
tin fnrr
lances.
Men those arrows were spent and they themselves wore exhausted,
a confusion
to attack
suddenly
troops
in
than
their
horses
tiring
ti
with
Instead
immediately
Day. ami infantry.
felt
force
Fatinid
and broke
closed
was "charged
their
old rivals$
with
Ilaanwhila,
occasion
met a
the Turkish
tho Arab KharajT9.
in amour
Alptogin,
lance and sword, rodo a black
mirrors,
the ranks
when what might be
On this
They thcrosolvoo Dodo armourad horaas while
wielding
armoured
5
at Tawähtn in Palestine.
with
ahu17ma
in horse-archery,
huimms of Syria$ led by Alptegin,
hu1nma wore in alliance
alternately
Turkish
more effectively
Much the same happened two decades later
termed the freelance
1jul7ms
second-rate
armour.
indulging
of
"inferior"
ubbah broad-sleeved
as being
foes.
troops
fnf
of
supposedly
wearing
recorded
fresh
corps
Thaw
elsewhere
Daylami
these
however,
the
fact,
reserve
the Daylamis.
and riding
were:
the
horse-archers,
were also
hauberks
of
command led
of
horsy whose bard
" perhaps being of scale or lnmollar,
up on the Anatolian
frontier,
pp. 42..45,47
it was difficult
and 53.
At
Al Jähiz,
5.
Concludinri
The-Eclipse of the 1.W-m idCaliphat
Miakawaihi,
D.
to
S. Mar0oliouth
Ex erinnccýa of the fdatinna
Portion of
1921),
Il,
trana.,
Oxford
F.
Amodroz
H.
vol,
amd
edits,
and
ý
pp. 164 and 336.
6.
Ibn al gtatFUtia3s apýcit.,
Ras; '11 el 3 hiz.
p. 18j Boshir$
and
itss
Q«.
Rs c....
p. 71.
6
Cxx
I
>c
x
cc
35q
to state with
L'hile
who was influencing
certainty
the appearance of large
in Europe might have obliged
Phokac to enlarge
his
equipment In question
Alca,
with
for heavily
to the latter
becauco local
armies locked
"Frankish"
as holding
even possible
that
There in equally
Byzantines
reintroduced
the
onto
offensive
went
cone sources
obvious
particularly
the obvious
heavily
lance-armed
evidence
with
which
Phakas Wass in fact,
cavalry
recorded
0
in contempt.
It
Is
so characteristic
and
was of Byzantine origin
(seePartTwo, Chat
ptfr N/
infantry
Iranian
protection(,
of an
to support
of heavily
influences
221),
in fyznntium's
armoured cavalry
a fashion
(Fig.
9
is certainly
that
the
that
the belief
to the east when Byzantium
in the 10th century.
was, perhaps
persistence
were to
precisely
armoured cavalry
heavy cavalry
indicate
on shields
military
or Crusader:
the Muslim frontier
push against
origin.
Norman mercenaries
In the 11th century
Nikephorus
the importance
Uhilo
of
not renowned
ware certainly
Indeed,
a daveloprrnnt
little
style
wore in direct
the kite. -shaped "Norman" shields
the
European knight
of
perhaps ultimatel}'
the
been of Byzantine
Italy$
region
to face the ©yzantinas.
7
Christendom In the 10th century,
Catholic
armoured cavalry.
be Invited
armoured cavalry
Cmpercr, -Pdikephoruo
such troopa,
of
had originally
namely Hungary and couthurn
root
the Byzantine
those areas where the gyzcntines
confrontation
art$
numbers of heavily
own corps
tochnology.
whose military
for
were still
T.
Naldoni "Somo AspGcts of Byzantine
to 10th Centuries, " p. 29.
$,0
ýdsýº
Ib
9,,
Noward-Oohneon,, ap. cit.
p« 44"
p, 296.
light
mutual.
pseudo-KuPic
cavalry
Military
decoration,
Then there was
in Byzantium.
of Byzantine
in Byzantine
reflected
(rig.
213).
Tachnology
in the 6th
3 60
Above all
is the evidence
as Byzantines,
portrayed
while
the "infidel"
scale
and lamellar,
Oebusites
Heavy cavalry
the 7th century,
of the Muslim assault
by the large-scale
The now offensive
retain
with
fo". iationp, normally
though riding
lance-armed
armoured horses,
four
ranks,
12
11
formation
by flarwän II when
continued
during
devised by the warrior.
armed horse-archers,
lightly
were placed
took station
on either
at the contra,
aide while
armoured horses occupied
used by much troops
The horse-armour
10.
Haldon, "Somo Aspects of Byzantine Military
6th to 10th Csnturiea, " pp. 42--43.
11.
Howord.. Johnaona, op.
12,
ib, idsý pp. 286 and 293-2949
--cit.
Such tactics
What might have boon news however,
power.
mace-armed men on similarly
charges
from the protection
attacks
introduced
in such a formation
cavalry
but powerful
and which apparently
wedgo--shaped cavalry
Emperor himself*
10
but back them up
a rectangle.
those supposedly
cAbbäsid
was a blunted
they wore supplemented
lances.
made their
still
Islam was on the offensive,
the years of
borne the
Phokmo aimed to
tactics
making controlled
maces and heavier
recall
Later
of Nikephorus
of such Turkish
These new troops
inevitably
forces
cavalry
heavy shack cavalry
of an infantry
armour of mail,
employment of pagan Turkish nomad horco-.archera.
the flexibility
and armed with
cuirasses
had at first
on Anatolia.
Oudah,
in Byzantium since
declined
troops
local
the
and in it
leather
wear heavier
had certainly
Lighter
2200),
wear light
all
battle--
This illustrates
Oorucalam (Fig,
of Oudah attacking
naturally
brunt
of the best Byzantine
from the 10th or 11th centuries.
picture
tribe
there
Heavier
sword or
the front
was again of
Technology
277
3,0
275#
and 262-283,
pp.
in,, the
361
layered
and glued felt,
or of iron,
These bards could be limited
the hind-parts
but is likely
faced it
in battle.
protected,
their
Pace, while
14
Certainly,,
in the poetry
is recorded
Naturally,
riders
helmets having
or protect
is mentioned
of those Arabs who
to cover the entire
is
Such
arms, hands and feet*
in those civil
were also involved
to undermine Byzantium's
16
10th and 11th centuries.
wars that
now.-found military
late
Dospito
nobleman was still,
well.
were similarly
rapidly
Byzantino
horse-armour
metallic
avcntails
many wore armour for
heavy cavalry
horse-armour
13
to havo been ram
or lamellar
of nail
to the forequartersj
Some mail
as well.
or horn lamellar.
cuir-bouilli
expected
this
wore
might in the
decline$
a young
to be educated as a warrior
his
to
bow,
lance
in
normal
addition
with
and
armour and shield,
17
that
to
training
his
As
was
similar
cultural
activities,
such,
of his fluslim
this
emphasis an oroador
gentlemanly
Cyzantine
is well
to suppose that
JazTra,
Oyzantinas
Muslims
and
set
boorish
counterparts
in
heavy cavalry
in Byzantine
represented
their
in the making of a
pursuits
cultural
that
warrior
ferociously
their
across
counterparts
in early
art.
of scale
Europe.
10th century
of Armantyah,
Armour varied
worn over a mail
Naldon, "Some Aspects of Byzantine
6th to 10th CQnturiQ3, " p. 38.
14.
in Byznncv et los Arnbasý,
Al mutanabbi
(8ruaaels 1950)s vol. II 2j p. 333.
15.
Howard-Johnson,
16.
Pselluej,
17.
G. 8ucklers
hauberk
Technology
Military
13,
OE!. ciits
from
Nor is there much reason
foes in the Muslim provinces
lamellar
and
apart
medieval
the mid- and later
0Awä iin
and Syria wore vary different.
from a combination
in
facts
It wms,
s
the frontier*
A. A. Vasiliev
in the
trans. #
oQ___cit.,, p. 292.
pp. 35,190,211
Anna Connenn
A Stud
and 214.
(London 1929), pp. 181 and 183.
362
(Fig.
to a simple
208),
heavier
hauberk
scale
again
in Islam,
of military
tho protection
used their
Anatolia
that
array
fact
that
the lance
Leo VI was probably
crushed
Muslim
by Arab sources*
19
proof
what is available
does, however,
effort
century.
is hardly
records
al flutic
0
it
before
foil
limited
offers
The little
Iraq.
315-317)o
of Muslim military
to the Oyzantines
in the mid-10th
the
province,
of
Considering
the strategic
surprising,
heavy
is
cavalry
on
omphasia
nor
an
of those desperate
sent a large
10,
Leo Up op. clt
19.
ü"dTy
Al P-las
opcit..,
20.
Al ICßtitr
jahlz.
n1
Inat.
position
this
in the
0Abbasid
Caliph
In 947/0 AD the
years.
contingent
of
the
to
sword rather
emphasize
seem
There seems to have been a concentration
in Cilicia
periods,
from the 9th
little
differed
(Figs.
weapon
than the bow or any other
both
with
the heavy armour
Similarly,
cAbbasid
The
as in earlier
9th century,
from 10th century
such
In 083 AD.
to be competent
but once again archaeology
to 10th centuries$
while
to the *ulunid
Tarsus
near
of many such troops
and horse-armour
from within
10
the Romans" or Dyzentinee.
referring
were expected
cavalry
and the bow in the late
is confirmed
pictorial
force
a Byzantine
one
Tactica.
cavalry
formation,
infantry
of a rectangular
Instance
seem to,
in a one-way tide
the other
horsemon were armed and armoured '#like
In this
2130).
to the Emperor Leo VI's
According
Muslim armies when attacking
or a
of coursao not to say that
influencing
fashion.
219)!
tactics
of equipment and
which is,
side was thus inevitably
(Fig.
mail
worn over
these features
Almost all
be mirrored
or scale
mail
(Fig.
hauberk
of eastern
troops
from Balkh,
XVIII.
val. VI I I: p. 48.
p. 76;
el f3arLhdädTq 2a cit.,
t.
loc.
p. 53; Miskawaihij,
at
3ähiý
ý,
ý! il
Ins___
Cxxl!
363
Hirätj,
Khwarazn, Sarnargand, Farqhana and IsbTj6b
to stem the Christian
vain effort
wasp in fact,,
of armoury arms and harness,
dedicated
as a city
there
Tibetan
Alptegin
the benefit
for
of Emperor Sohn Tzimiscce
horse-armours,
plus
generally
fragmentation
lances
the
of
their
modelled
good favour
that
agreed
cAbbasid
on those
nerissary
24
cAbbZoid
the
tradition
boforo
One of the militarily
was that
now court
it
hucýl
of
stationed
gear.
states
Caliphate
of
the
in
fact,
Fertile
the
Crescent
Local
Caliphs.
horses
from
energed
the
while
twenty
is!
It
trading
of heavy cavalry
most active
modifications
and local
contacts
declined.
theca
successor
of
and the Jaztra.
a renewed flowering
was the Hamdanide' fierce
23
that
in
area,
of
of
Soto time was, however# to pass
of the Nandanida in Syria
for
famed
was
in this
nhul
lance-play
of cavalry
a gift
and reflected
facilities.
arms production
with
and other
the minor
armies
were naturally
was renowned
the Turkish
to Byzantium,
fell
to have put on a fantasia
to buy his
attempting
items
armour for man and horse,
22
maces and helmets.
shields#
Cilicia
are said
of Cilicia
of various
Tarsus itself
One of the units
in a
equipped with
leather
Even after
This region
the manufacture
while
to war.
was specifically
plus
advance,
known for
already
21
to larsue
resistance
states
Although
this
of Arabic literature,
to Byzantine
,
that is boat remembered. The degree of similarity
expansion
betucen Byzantine
I.
21.
Cnnardj "Qualques observations
g6agraphiqu4
Cur 1'introductian CAdTn
d'AlepA, "
de lb pughyat at'.. 1'aleb de Kanal ad-dTn ibn al
p. 50l,
22.
I bid.
23.
Ibn al Wnnisif
pp. ß5,-E36.
24.
Baawarthp "Armiea of tha Praph4t. " p. 205.
p. 49.
"Continuation
of
the
History
of
Damascus)"
3 V4
and Iicmdanid armies uns undeniable
than that
It
and wasp in fact,
between Byzantium and almost all
could by seen in heavy cavalry#
Such parallels
those numerous Byzantine
Byzantine
(Fig.
troops
art
thcmcelvea
the
of
210).
latter
from
those
the
the
of
frontier,
"Dovecote"
shown in
o-i
of
armour
the
Written
identity
cavalrymen
in
by,
and the role
of
for
Sayf al Dawla
armoured
CavuVin
variety
in
of
to
and scale,
Goliath
{Fig.
armours
influence.
of military
mail
along
of
the
the
Forty
Martyrs
(fig.
213A),
In fact
this
from both
felt
be scan.
evidence
from Hcmdanid Syria
According
of equipment.
merely confirms
have done the some,
for
battle
and sword ware a favorite
scenes with
lance
A. ftmnbrauti.,LtEmpire
p. 421.
p. 435.
this
to the poota1 Vamdanid palace
would probably
-Ibid.,,
For
and perhaps
coes$ had they survived,
26.
In
different
styles
fre
25.
209).
lamellar,
Here the
and
leather,
appears,
frescoes
the unique
Cappadocia.
a spectrum
hauberks
warriors
century
Muslim
turbans
scale
indicate
costumes
some
nre slightly
cuirasses
show strong
portrays
long
cavalryman
and could
in
stylized
"enemy"
archetypal
must return
frontier,
can all
lever
of mid-10th
clearly
probably
sides
at
a great
some of which
fresco
Israelites
church
On a minor
the Philistine
representation
Taurus
are
the
as a heavily
source
first
strengthened
be portrayed
may wall
period.
Elsewhere
most unusually1
this
territory
renegades who fought
shown worn by lance--armed
are
and oven fortifications.
26
Muslim
Uyzantine
tactics
neighbours.
other
eased, and were in turn
probably
the baptism of Arabs within
of Aleppo
its
for greater
Groc aubixAme
Si'P>%clvv(Paris
theme in
1870)
25
3 65
buildings.
various
long
lance
their
Hrndanid
and hauberk3
Byzantine
foes,
Elsewhere this
lost
27
end the
is
general
indicated
retained
his other
in early
14th century
the classic
association
in the
that
poet makes clear
lance was fearful
his
for
preference
of
of Iiutonabbt.
verses
28
so armeds even when he
be the case
The same would still
rurüsTyak
with
archery
an Arab cavalrymen who had
of another
weapons*29
Arab
manuals.
military
such equipment was government 4issue, as it had been
30
CAbbasid
Caliphate,
under the 9th and 10th century
unfortunately
Haw for
remains
Arab warriors
from
that
the
the
of
in
armourers
In those
It
unknown.
, Iamdanid
fratornitya
even within
does seem to have been characteristic
Ftorse-armour
wns clearly
32
Vamdvanid service.
home-archers.
used
at 1crst
These men might,
With or without
of
own weaponry
centres
and specialized
by trades
es specialization
free
as Aleppo.
arma1 one may assume
produced
were a distinct
armourers
craftsmen
manufacturing
no having
that
their
purchased
crmir3
such well-known
towns recorded
seem more likely
however,
would.,
group
of
the metalworking
of
early
Islem.
by Turkish
hucläms in
course,
have been heavy
a 1tn;'dänid
hor, L,-nrnour,
3I
cavnlryrnan's
M. Canard! ".;?uclgucs
Syria
le
de
socialo
at
en
vie
aspects
'27,. Jaztra
do
la
los
dixi
drapres
poe`tvv
cour
me
au
sitcle
in honour of 14emilton
Hondenide,, " In Arabic and ! ohmic
studies
(Lofden
A,.,:n". Gib,
1965): p. 175.
20.
M. Canard, "Mutanabbi at in Guerra t3yxnntina--firabes Tntärät
Mýmairas do
Historiquea
do sea paeaiea, " in Ai-riutnnabbi.
11 Institut
193fi)s pp. 104-105;
Frfmcais de Damno, (Qcirut
in ßhikra 5nif al Dauln A. barmhoudt tr^ns., j
al P'utanabbi
Ts
(pannsylvanin
1975
p. ß6.
29.
Al P"utanabbl,
30.
Bosworth'
31.
Allttna
32.
Al "iutanabbl$
' Dhikrö
"Armies
M. cit.
of
p,
Snif
tho
al
Dx! ln'$ loc,.
Prophet., " loc,
cit.
cit.
60.
in "i3yznncs vt los
lirabo3., " vol. I1f2!
p. 321.
366
own equipment could be so heavy that
a horse in the heat of battle.
33
it
to remount
was difficult
This is not surprising
when one
rands what is perhaps the bast-known
description
of mid-10th
and most comprehensive
34
Arab cavalry in this area*
century
Here the Banu Nabtbo who deserted
to cross into
Byzantine
Namdanid cousins
their
territory,
and rivals
of horsemen armed
consisted
hauberks, gilded
swords and khnttT lances* wearing d
9
These or
awshan cuirasses and brocade--covered ni hfar coifs.
with
Arab troops
other
of Byzantine
lists
forces.
Arabs and Turkish
Muslim troops
to
feature
enough
became important
operating
'
huläms were not,
.
on Byzantium's
when they established
existence
also recruited
as cavalry
of course,
eastern
in the 10th and 11th centuries,
were,
some local
by various
horsemen*36
vassals
their
separate
courts
Kurds were
to the east,
as sword-armed
CtJgaylid
Arab
the Hamdc-nids'
During wars against
in the late
Kurds
dynasties.
Persian
the only
frontier.
reasserting
in the west ',ney appear most frequently
while
in the official
Kurdish
10th century$
cavalry
wore heavier
Persian
than
their
heavier$
Foes
presumably
and rode slower,
armour
37
Such a style of sword-armed heavy cavalry would remain
horses.
fashionable
in this
and perhaps longer$
area at least
until
the end of the 11th century,
by which time Kurds were also serving
in
"
vol. I I,, p. 336.
no. citp
-33. fliallaunih
.,
3'4, Ibn Icwgal, "Kitab al 1iasmlik wa'l, P1ammlik," in Snyf 1
(Algiers
trans.,
textes
Canard
de
m.
edit, and
recucil
pp. 211-212.
35,
Olondal
and ßenQditzs
o
cit
DFuln
1934),
p. 82.
in
5kaddMio(5r
Studies
Ganjray"
tho
V. Minorsaky# "New light
of
,
on
(London 1953)a, pp.. 10-11 and 19-20.
in Crºucaainn Hiatary.
3`7.
Mickawaihis
o2q, cit..
vol. II I!
p. 144.
367
r timid
30
Egypt.
however,
shad light
Arab neighbours
(Figs.
rivals
of
this
is
on the
similarly
(Fig.
to
figure
that
dated
Christian
a variety
unfortunately
and the one most
Goliath,
representing
is on foot,
Note how similar
and perhaps even laminated
mail
Byzantine
portrays
combat, although
the more crudely
of
to its
similar
represented
Philistines
box fron
Sens Cathedral
ivory
209).
Syria
impact
has already
and the
Byzentinos
were at
been mentioned,
in
down by their
to break
the
or near
r
hý
ul,
the Berbers pursued the
was astonishingly
and almost
virtually
Ono exception
ranks
of
of
however,
force,
the
the latter,
fortifications
40
these
Berber
Sidon.
infantry
39
three
no pictorial
Infantry*
evidence
of supposedly
away
Again,
from Syria
suddenly
minor battle
at Hastings,
thousand kilometres
and Anglo-Saxon
is a fragment
fought
When
they were ridden
In many ways this
to another
similar
heavy P.orman cavalry
is
the
to
relation
ding
the
latter
foes
when
sword-and mace-wie'1
turned upon them near a river.
yoars later
in
both
In combat with
unable
hul; ms
free-booting
Alptegin's
of
Fätimids.
first
who were either
there
cavalry
"enemy" armour,
The military
Turks
of cavalry
is
art
representations
that of
which, likeAits
Such Armenian art
mixed lanellar,
warrior's
rualim
Christian
was probably
240 and 241).
to illustrate
armour
in
on Kurdish
equipment and styles
likely
of Armenia.
to the south,
the most interesting
date very little
early
from the mountains
available
might,
At this
ninety
between
however$
at this
10th or 11th century
A
du Nouual An chäa los Fatimid©ag"
389
Canard,9 "Le Procession
pp. 392..3930
39,
Ibri al WalänisTp P-P, cit.
d,
r
4,0,
p. 15.
time.
CXxlll
363
that
pottery
shows the "rigid
a distinctly
Iranian
was brought
fashion
to Syria
recruited
Ikhshtdids
did
last
the
Egypt,
Damascus
the 9th
appeared
in pre-Fntimid
cavalry
has lost
equipment
conotimas
sources
(Figz,.
arrows
saddles
broad
in
143) like
pre--Isl^.
Syrian
Such an emphasis an heavy cavalry
the break-up
cavalry
cAbbäcid
Caliphate
of the
ceased to exist.
in
all
end,
probability,
in many aroac.
small
relatively
The first
which
long
carry
Umayyad
145) and bows and
145) or on their
horse-archers.
in Syria
and Egypt during
did not mean that
the increasing
light
political
to have led to a revival
*T'u`lünid
governor
number of unspecified
the
fabulously
son,
his personal
original.
confusion
a consequent breakdown in ormc-mcnufccturing
seem eventually
capability
hand his
Indeed,
such
backss
recall
(Fig.
infantry
ic
that
(rig.
belts
Backe like
on their
blades
manuscript
Here a horseman's
They also
14).
or long
have axes
on their
(Fig.
(Fig.
of
In
any Byzantine
with
clung
And his
Coptic
of
style
143 and 145)
swards
to invade
later.
a while
service
connection
tradition
with
122),
either
all
have their
be an Egyptian
opaara,
(Figs.
.
hu]rna
Alptagin
show the equipment
might
Egypt
almost
Most ouch warriors
could
which
The
FEýiraids
while
a distinctive
centuries
hul7ms.
the
now rulers,
F5timid
Ibn Tülün
was the unpaid
it
who invited
entered
Iranians,
thousand
fact
these
serving
and 10th
illustration
and in
governor
hul; ma also
Perhaps Ekis style
277).
huI; ms had served as far west as Egypt
likewise,,
thereafter
that was
hu1na.
some twenty-four
Ikhhtdid
of bridle
time (Fig.
as had Yhur s" nis and other
many years,
reportedly
of
at this
by ex-°Abbäuid
Of course# Turkish
for
noseband" style
wealthy
guard from the warlike
of light
cavalry
of Egypt employed a
Arab troops,
On the other
Khum`arewayhIbn Ahmadr selected
Newt bedouin of the eastern
3Gq
Delta area.
These appear to have boon light
to khunarawayh's
The collapse
this
they
than had the earlier
Yet within
than
origins
used basic
cavalry:
badouin karr
seized
control
In this
Although
their
was that
and dofoatod
many of whom apparently
bares-.back riders,
than
of
posts
the HaLmdanids.
Ayzantine
a sizeable
conflict
the Mird"asids
and small groups of light
wa Farr tactics
Such Arab bedouin horscmeni
Arab dynasty
army that
the
bedouin
in 1030 AD.
cAbbäsid
of control
NamdZnid predecessors,
enough, however,
near Antioch
Syria lad to oven
noon to have had more irm odiato
literature]
of
was more obviously
It was effective
force
had their
too ware patrons
extolled
decline
two decades another
Those Mirdasida
area,
bsdouin
armoured negro
of the Namdänids in northern
confusion
authority.
of
of heavily
second guard unit
as opposed
41
infantry,,
grantor
cavalry#
did not employ stirrups.
still
by Michael
described
impact
"43 would make a oimilar
Psellus
"
as "daring
in Ghnznatwid
"dare-davil
Iran
they
known
dTv
nuwär^n or
where
eastern
wore
as
44
towards
the
that
"
It
be
end of
night not
riders.
a coincidence
the 11th century
domestically
their
doclino
the Saljüga
the Byzantine
recruited
41.
extent
Hasson, opit.,
42,0 Paolluat
43.
op, cit,,
cavalry
Arabia
Perhaps one reason for
opponent,
eastern
had failed
during
or no
at least
before
frontier.
to develop to any
the Caliphate,
Hers noot
pp, 167-168 and 170-171,
p. 68.
Ibid.
44.8oawortho
45.
of en obvious
appeared on Cyzantiun's
in couthorn
45
heavy cavalry.
was the lack
Less surprisingly,,
groat
army also contained
little
Thr Ghaznavidý,. pp. 111-112.
Chala:bdoni Los Comnenes. - Etudes sur 1t Er;zpira eyznntin, ý p. 279.
3-70
Warfare had remained internal
traditional
Arab infantry
the Muslim conqueot,
since
tactics
and
dar_ý___ian
h shinldp
using
rm
lanco and anum
the 10th century.
w bow rou inad standard at least until
,,;
°Abbasid
The dcclina of
power in the oust of Islam in the
mid-9th
century
Of coursoi
atatov#
in this
dynasties
9th
governors
areo# including
had already
the Gulayfidn
chcnged, with
donying
cAbbo33d
finding
it
3uzoralntyf
accepting
it
of the
of Tabariotiýn,
0
or Murä3an
5-iänids
as to have little
so ronoto
of Kurdistän
the middle
After
cAlids
the
and the
Persia
or eastern
eatabliched
Thsyo hoWeverj had remained servants
couurnmcnt in faDhdäd,
things
century
5afrarids
various
of independent
to tho oatoblichment
00 i'huräsän.
or
and tho TZhirido
of the central
lad
similarly
only
either
occasionally
on their
effect
the
or
own dynastic
poworf
Not much is
th3
The army of
mountains.
in
which
thomsolves
their
risen.. to prominence
cavalry
and infcntry
largely
Persian
cooking
soldiers
; affarid
46,
Al *iamdanT, 11 IklTi,
47,
Bosworth,
vol. UIII,
south
of
this
47
one of
dynasty
nuttauwi1nh
IF
of SIatän.
lot1
Caspian
4
Recruited
or redundant
Military
had
mixed
from
soldiers
these muttewl'eh
to convert
formed
success and
more of their
Arab and Indian
mercenaries.
46..
47.
42
and
pp.
"The Armies of the Saffärids,
the
raassortod
the local
army.
the 5affsarids
and to recruit
the
traditions
retired
to improve their
booty enabled
cavalry#
forces
uarriors,
the backbone of the first
into
as one of
volunteer
frontier
of
The founder
own right.
himself
and possants
cavalry
which
organization,
however,
woe,
PffÄrids
Persian
native
in
consequent
famed Infantry
based upon the
was probably
first
known about
°1 Id
military
" pp. 538-540,
46
37(
The evidence
however,
cuggcata
identity,
Later
of later
that
forces
in military
also state
'
the
lance,
on
primarily
though lacking
in central
it
is
swords
wield
in
Indian
very
rather
shows a distinct
style
revival
Such a revival
could also have originated
it
although
via,,
spears
of
did establish
the first
chow-piece
and while
ivory
487)ß
the
its
along
cavalry
and have equipment
that
was even more pronounced,
generally
end certainly
detail
story
are clearly
author
pre-Isl
and tactics
orgcnizntion
its
5anZnid armies are probably
in Firdawn! 's St- hhnänah for
more
5m nid dynasty which$ from its
power-fosse In pia Warät , el Nohr, conquered most of eastern
in the 10th century.
sides
tradition.
Iranian
self-consc. ious$ in the subsequent
Iran at the
have come rrom Sind which
in facts
is a large
It
than
armies rolled
source from eastern
where the «afforids
Muslim rule,
effective
cavalry
equipped*
hhul7;
n horae-archers.
armoured
dynasty,
AfZ.haniatan
their
and were thus much the same as Caliphal
might,
to this
Iran
having preserved
Saffarid
pictorial
time of tho Saffärids
from eastern
value and were poorly
that
heavily
Our one possible
did not fall
Arab tribes#
local
had declined
chroniclers
literature
10th century
although
xmic,, details
are likely
described
Islam
in
the elements of this
of military
equipments
to be those of the era irriahich
lived,
to
trained
rides
not
only
a young nobleman was
50
Full equipment frequently
to use the lcssoo and bow.
Apparently
but also
variods but night
includa 21r ih hauberk
khýý
4B.
FirdawsT. ThaEp! te of the Kinraa -, Shý+ý
(London 19G?), p. 354.
v
49.
i'iinhäj
5n.
Firdaºwali
al ATn, M,.
ops
its_
p. 25,
p. 520.
which vos probably
R. Levy trsRs. $
40
372
a padded gsnbeEons tark
rrümi or holnot
of presursod Cyzantine
lancop 2assoos bow and c,
''1
maco.
Lura
style.,
between
Combat styles
remained much co they had been in previous centuries,
52
it was niso mado
using lencoas then sworda1 then macos,
such cavalry
First
that
very clear
were tightened
tho
than
saddle
as in
traditions
ranks
the
infantry
them core
throwing
some
extract,
elephants
a dominant role
to the Arab ti
51,
Ibid.
52.
Ibid, ý p, 429,
53"
Ibid..
p. fa4,0
54.
Ib
p. 85.0
55.
Ib
56,
Qßvar, "Cavalry
p" 291,
stood
nhhu1
others
the
rear
and were
in
this
particular
swards
if
while
as well,
Uar
they were baing employed*
type almost certainly
in Sämanid armies as shown in these sources.
Horse-. armour, known no b ar ustý
identical
In front
blades
iron
up the rear
of the Turkish
the
within
awchen cuirasses,
mentioned
longer
combat,
ware used as pikes.
wearing
long
not
carried
brought
apparently
that
of
battio--array,
Caliphate.
to
drawn
up
was
Although
style
remained
and the
with
Theses rather
The 5ämnid
more infantry
Cavalry
praýbnbly
Holavy cavalry
played
Iran
nuu2 r javelins
they
54
nTzthspears
ranged
khan nrs.
armed with
53
couched-lance
Shähn-amah, aimilnrly
with
the bow.
with
later
Impact.
of
of pro-Islamic
of
Behind
Europoto
strain
in
as portrayed
knees and stirrups
uhile
were slackened
as a harurmen made hie attack.
toots the
clearly
chat
reins
P_f
56
n and probably
frequently
similar
if
not
crops up in rirdawst's
p. 485,
,ý
.
p. 1156.
Equipment and Toctica
on the Euphrotan
Frontiers"
55
373
57
Shahh.
mada of moil,
Sometimes it
S9
is specifically
but elcewhora
have boon of felt
could wall
covered by a award-blow59
was easily
as boing
described
or pierced
and
an arrau.
with
60
Such cuobarsono horse--armour could also be cut loose and abandoned,
61
thus enabling a rider to outstrip
his purauera.
Samanict heavy cavalry
cuirass,
All
and a variety
those nay well
horco-crmourf
for
the cavalry
only one doubtful
felt
(Figs.
or quilt
belt
equipment:
of
cAbb
amours
(Fig.
awahnn
the exception
of
of a bernustuwan
447).
Otherwise
seem to have been heavy$
of mail,
scale,
346-350 and 447).
lamellar
and perhaps
Even when not crmouredf
the
tradition
in
them
same
put
and swords
(Figs,
Iraq
acid
and heavy armour was apparently
356 and 357)
Similar
foot
by
used
some
the3o pictures
do not show dismounted
355 and 440).
The javelin-non
(Fig.
with
representation
of S manid Iran would all
in their
maim
more obscure items of armour.
in
S mZanidarts
appear
though varied
os that
of other
from the 9th or 10th centuries
survives
their
wore xirih
otherwise
cavalry
weaponry
if
soldierso
(Fig,.
mentioned by Firdmst
345,351,
also appear
354).
Much the same traditional
Iranian
or Tmjik
in eastern
Iran
flare there
archery,
cavalry,
formed the care of the chsrnawid
army
(Fig.
355)s
in the 11th and early
was perhaps a slightly
in addition
pp. 23,296:
57.
rirdawaT,
50,
Ibid,,
pp. 106 and 409.
594, Ibidg
pp. 427 and 619
600
Ibidyý
pp. 1222-1223.
61.
FirdaWaT, Levy trans.,
12th centuries
greater
to the mace (rig.
o2.,
-
hug1_ams
and indigenous
troops,
a,,,,
4. cit.
heavy
horse
on
emphasis
364).
sward including
950 and 1146.
p. 362.
the
r xx
i\/
3'7 j
and tipräd short
curved galächür
,
horse-armour
Although
it
cash
clearly
in art.
this
in western
survived
In western
10th and early
Iran
the güyid
Turkish
cAbbäaid Iraq
of
Certainly
64
(Fig.
they fought
their
their
equipment was
those fighting
pre-Islamic'
various
conquerors
the Turkish
that
army contained
during
62,
ßoaworthj
63.
Ib id..
the battle
The Cheznavids,
and although
who passed across
first
the
of
of Darylaeum in 9097 AD
a number of Agulani
Caucasian Albanians
probability,
force
emerge in unexpected
As such they occasionally
This states
with
impact,
area did not make much political
for example the Cesta Frnncorum chronicle
Crusade.
decades
remained an effective
come of them clearly
and against
territories.
sourcesj
we can learn
Here in the Caucasus many earlier
of Iran.
of this
for
little
tlhat
in particular
armoured horses,
survived,
the peoples
the bulk
359),
heavy cavalry,
north-west
force
a balancing
and flalüchis,
Persians
the late
power originally
SFm
the
of
nid cost and the preceding
the sword and riding
traditions
their
sources would suggest that
comparable to that
in the
63
Although
Arabsp
mentioned$
were: as already
cavalry
of whom seem to have boon cavalry*
from pictorial
reappears
Kurdish heavy cavalry
they soon recruited
mam17tkn. Kurds,
later
dynasty hold sway during
11th centuries.
on paylcmT infantry,
rooted
Iran whore it
of course recruited
Arab lighter
area.
spear or javelin.
not mentioned in the Ghaznawid
employed by the Ghaznawids.
similarly
of
is apparently
The haznawida
from just
cavalry
62
who were, in all
or Aghovanians from northern
pp, 107-106,
pp. 111-112.
64.0oaworth,
and Iraq"
"Military
Organization
under the 05yids
153 und 162.
pp. 145,150
of Persia
375
They fought
Azarbäyjän.
1rmt1Iar
only
with
oword3, wore Iran
armour and rodo horaaa with
Some of their
equipment may well
neighbours
and culturcl
416-410).
If
cuch was the case,
of that
bard"a.
construct©d
the GeorOians (Figs.
65
of their
in the art
be reflected
cousins,
would have been of scale
similarly
acalo or
413,414
and
then the armour of these Rghavaninns
and thus typical
and not of lamellar
major Caucasian arms-producing
region
known as
widely
Kub Ai.
It
role
heavy
of
such troops
nomadic
of
the
evolved
Eurasian
while
the
with
very
various
in tho 10th century
and semi-nomadic
the
in helmets.
66
Isolation.
peoples
states
of heavy
scale
and lancllar
scholars
emphasis on the similarities
67
steppe
first
the styles
appeared
of nomadic
another
hundred
horse. -furniture,
armours and, above all,
do, however,
lay
betueon Russian cavalry
£von the tactics
greater
and its
bows
employed, with
the saddle as horseman approached their
The Deeds of the
trano. p (London
area
cavalry.
Slav cavalry
in their
their
in
the
pniC
to reflect
noticeable
north
evolution
within
Clearly
Turkish
Asian
to the south and east for
Some Soviet
being used fron
in
a similar
in Kievan Russia,
European contemporaries*
see the developing
Other
mind.
importance
and continued
to
Central
of
semi-settled
peoples
hauberks,
and Islam
throat
much in
This was particularly
mail
micleading
experienced
in
rise
To the north,
full
Byzantium
steppes
saw a comparable
years,
in
cavalry
horse-archery
cavalry,
be quite
however,
would,
nil
foss,
t4
erusalem
65.
: non.,
R. Hill
66.
from
RUSgif
in
The Ei
Horse
Kirpitchnikoff,
Rider
and
rant of
l
the
MeddiPV
to
9th
13th
Kirpitchnikoff,
133-139;
pp.
centuries,
wr
ý r+
Russian
67.
Gorolicko
Arms.
pp.
Frnnks
1962).
and other
p. 49.
90-91.
"8ronyra Prnotach©skaya"
p. 64.
rims
376
spears hold for
the initial
cxes, macos end various
shock in ordered
other
Eurasian
steppe-lands.
and 11th
century
Is$
Muslim
by contrasts
from
alone
(rigs.
Russia
614-"610).
Kiev
situations
to the
very
in
the
close
10th
mirrored
in
commercial
the
in
This
and cultural
art
of
Among the true
area
(rig.
forming
elite
In the late
guard units
9th and early
Leo VI made dt clear
of the originally
shad light
latter
that
Avar style
with
Kievan
of
that
pot of
on comparable
Kievan
cavalry
courses
Russia
was also
623).
equipped for
close
remained a minority,
10th centuries
elite
such an
types
of
area was$ of
the khan of the tribe
for
Helmets
what a molting
nomads heavy cavalry
uere not unknowns though they probably
10th
Russia
variety
contact
The development
but
the
such artifacts.
may also
Islam.
the
from
rares'
illustrate
only
had becomes but
century,
in
are extremely
chow an astonishing
south
south of the
arms and armour
rich
These not
traditions
in
world
exceptionally
Kievan
traditions
Surviving
and cwordo,
weapons being drawn
close-combat
in the subsequent melde1r0 parallel
ranks,
combat
perhaps
or people.
the Byzantine
Emperor
also used horse-armour
protected
only
the forequarters
the bulk of such nomad Turkish cavalry
70
the lance and bow,
During the 10th century
of the horses69 while
fought
both with
the Turkish
armed cavalry
whose responsibility
light
charge after
to Michael
had such a corps of heavier
Pechenega clearly
Psellus
horse-archers
final
decisive
to
make
a
was
71
According
had exhausted the foa.
it
in the mid-. 11th century,
68.
Kirpitchnitcoff.,
69.
Leo Vi, oes cit..
?0.
I,
bide
71.
üdTp
Ntas
ap. cits
however,
Fzed1Aval Russian Arms, loc.
inst.
award-
XVIII.
v01. IIX pp. 61»62"
cit.
those Pechenegs
377
fought
only
with
spears
Some exceptionally
fine
grave
(Figs.
sites
Further
were the
earlier
had been recorded
they
khüd helmets
ciurasses,
or
KhuräsnnI
8th
horse-archers
and dire
hauberks
The collapse
lands
merely
while
in
led
cAbb;
of
to
the eastern
a devolution
lands
traditions.
indigenous
indigenous
of
revival
Berber
seem to have been relatively
still
changes
to a revival
led
had elsewhere
distinctly
regular
of
troops
to fight
of Oayrswän, although
military
for
ON cit
p. 318,
73.
udT,
Pias
ep. cit;
Vol* ,, $ pp. 10-110
74.
Levy,
to
the
Sociology
immediate
these
the political
that
or to a
was the
were this
of
collapse
the
earliest
among
10th century.
Psellus,
of
and troops
Caliphs
72.
An introduction
for
Rather,
the Berber Kitama tribe
adherents
power,
revival
to the frontiers
in the early
Muslim
central
was no very
Arab tactics
the Fätimid
normal
cAbbäsid
the
For example,
status.
second-class
awshsh
with
institutions
either
These
and military
backward.
those
been relegated
the
however,
military
10th
ru mhy lances
with
in
Here there
result.
by the
while
was a pronounced
In the west,
had a more complicated
cavalry
potitaeal
of
there
heavy
the Transoxanian
in
authority
sid
Their
as equipped
9 somewhat unhelpfully,,
73
war gear,
Muslim
Islam,
wearing
who fought
Others
with
fromKhwärizm.
refugees
heavy
tradition.
contact
century,
described,
were
first
Khazars.
by Muslim
included
warriors
Pecheneg
indicate
nevertheless
cultural
as the
as early
had been reinforced
latter
closer
Turco-Jewish
semi-settled
in
found
was the more accurate.
account
and in
south:
nor helmete.
armour
of helmets
specimens
621 and 624) would
üdi's
at Peas
that
and wore neither
72
74
Islam
and
dynasty's
Such Berber
pp.
323-324.
37'
warriors
for
some time.
also
to
Muslim
able-bodied
the hard
military
core
Very little
Islamic
Sicily,
76
Later
in
Islamic
those
(Figs.
influence
basic
It
to deal
was not
of Fätimid
Apart
use of
the
with
Italian
expansionist
from
spear
javelin.
against
heavy
to play
an important
with
of
negro
Oaylamis,
in
Wars
75,
76.
779
troops,
Turks
d.
ßeahirp
foes,
and sword#
of
hauberks
that
It
Berbers
in
were not
show that
It
had already
were under
strong
in
was also
fact,
a weapon
or bone breaker.
as a helmet
these
who bore
the brunt
role
Arabi
in
Other
by a rival
Oerbers,
Spagna e in
p. 710.
pp. 67-.70.
unable
during
until,
the end Armenians
century.
made wide
still
to stand
they
Nevertheless,
were defeated
and at
Berbera
soon proved
hulem cavalry.
they
op. c it.
than
wars.
military
"Gli
equipment
The mace would,
Arab.
-They also
Turkish
the mid-llth
Gabrieli,
_Ibi
77
structure.
r
''
mail
sources
in use by those
recorded
Islam
warriors.
559 and 567),
armoured
mercenaries
the Normans could
under
seem to have been characteristically
designed
every
seem to have predominated
among Muslim
southern
almost
eastern
the military
although
popular
of
quasi-feudal
art
had been
As such the island's
to that
troops
Muslim
the pace was still
appeared
light
island
armies
Sicily
of
ovS although
forces,
known about
and infantry,
cavalry
uncommon.
is
but
its
with
elites
In Sicily
obliget;
was closer
Fatimid
early
Berber
Caliphate.
Sicilian
of
Andalus
al
of
power once that
had military
organization
to Muslim
the majority
Fätimid
to the new ehici
subjected
both
form
The Arab and Arabized
contributed
formed
to
continued
during
their
continued
alliance
association
Fetimid
civil
such as the 6arglya
Italiep"
p. 717.
ýxxu
37 q
from Libya-and-the
04ilis
seem to. have lasted
of
that
(Fig,
147).
1000_,A0-make it
Perhaps It
,
that.
the 7th
bows by the late
the
tribes>of.,
60
century.
9th
Sahara
army,, only
otyle.
still
infantry
Arab preference
78.
Ibid.
for
cavalry
the
first
Muslim
they
?9
but
even in
Fätimid,
forces.
version
an earlier
which
Berber
charge
81
covered
might,
in
In all
these
that
tactical,
a
armies#
Muslim
all
cooperation
warfare,
however
have been
unlike
the general
by cavalry,
Even in
an enemy attack.
awaiting
and infantry
armoured
characterized
variation
and Arab
the mid-11th
cavalry
of
of
such as the
tribes
mixed
a
the nomad
clearly
equally
few horses
Herber
armies
Arab horses
had adopted
attacke
.-
pp. 27-34.
du finnhreb rt de 1'_Europe
(Algiers
tram.,
and
edit
tloroes
81.9rettq
pp.
around
FÄl. imid. forces,
early
79. - Ibn al FeqTh aiI HFtmadhnnTS"Kitätr
60
rode
limited
that
seem to have-been
would
_One.
from
papyrus
were used,
stirrups
a respectably
and. cavolry
prevailed..
frescoes
horse-raising
field
by later,
infantry
initial
an
in
possessed
the-Fätimid,
including
horsem®n still
even-in
century,
n minority
developed.
between
role
Arong. wealthier
Sanhäja,,. A3ho could
African
ofheavy,
Some Berbers
century.
illustration
on an Egyptian
while
the. situation
recalls
Manhrib,
188).
was a lack
horsemen, to a secondary
further
One interesting
Nubian
that
clear
the
appears
some North
(Fig.
were notuniversal
role
cavalry
Elsewhere,
very
78
longer.
light
and, mightaindicate
bareback
cavalry
rather
such, cpecr-armed
from
Fariass
oo? cit_,
"The Military
84-85.
t
al ©uldäns"
nu ? IIPmIXe
1949), pp.
pp.
Interest
sidcle,.
40-41.
in Description
rl.
HadJ-5adok
810-8119
of
the
Battle
of
Haydaran. "
ago
however,
those
täýimid
infantry
was the role
palace's
military
forces
cavalry
there
Alwah around
10th
Turkish
in
ohm
ulim
Ikhshldid
the
as
cavalry
both
cavalry,
may also
have had an impact
the moon-faced
6orber
on foot
on the
Arab.
or
cavalry
at least
kingdom
its
horses
in
Nubian
art,
and
seem to
1830 104 and 187-189).
from
inherited
in
Syria,
art
clearly
Ftimid
of
Turk
The former,
equipped
while
in
had a
They
and North
Clearly
iscontrasted
Turkish'beauty
gear,
the previous
thinking.
military
of
the
would
artists
recruited
ideal
obvious
or
(Figs.
on Fa timid
effect
or in
for
in
appear
their
those
and those
and rapid
Arab, is
that
well
profound
an horseback
early-Fetimid
was famed for
Khartüm
subjects
the beared
mixed
may have been some Nubians,
such detail
governors
-Here
very
Horsemen certainly
have known their
(Fins.
that
seemed to concentrate
and perhaps
present-day
century.
are portrayed
or
times
as upon the more prestigious
skills
Among such small
with
depended,
entirely
83
training.
Africa.
re imid
in
or hu ra
schools,
much upon infantry
the
infantry
of
a battle
of
to protecting
were limited
cavalry
on whom the outcome
So vital
of
Berber
and other
is
normally
the latter6erber.
a very
different
style
157 and 195).
These 9hul ms must'have influenced
serving
the Fatimid
Alpt©gin'a
after
Sidon,
In 991 AD$ less
state,
l me
-hu,,,
and riding
82,
aeehirs
ont
83.
Tbýs
pp.
04.
id.,
Tbý
p. 71.
cita
53-67.
pp.
76-79.
infantry
near
as wearing hauberks
84
bards.
by ti
were described
horses protected
cavalry
than twenty years
FZtimid
the
down
rode
heavy Fzatimid cavalry
and helmets,
those non-Turkish
132
3 v!
Half
later,
a century
the
and start
horce
took
of
in
part
Egypt's
no such bards
151),
illustrated
from
the
rnal
aq
simple
(rig.
hauberk. of
lamellar
(Fig,
among their
now lost
St,
wore different
and short
drawn lamellar
for
85.
ý pp.
in
long
hauberks
by the Crusaders,
580).
long-sleeved
probably
in cavalry
mail
worn over
those
variously
quilted
clerks
the
for
Paris.
Cathedral
included
Fätimids'
by the Crusaders.
noted
mail
mail
worn by Fatimid,
provided
(rig.
67-70.
again
whether
armours,
the abandonment of the javelin
Ibid.
hauberk
material
scale
knsarghand
worn by the
to that
from
ranges
169) and full
basic
hauberks,
11th and 12th centuries.
It
sketches
that
equipment
Such an increase
(rig.
a
increasingly
mail-lined
or perhaps
is
warrior
however,
of
universally
worn almost
Coptic
even the
were shown wearing
the
It
shown.
centuries.
were clearly
Denis
dito
the period,
of
to a more complicated
Muslim
probably
of
is,
linked-scale
and perhaps
windows
the rider
161),
cavalry,
art
is
century
identical
(rig.
and that
in Egyptian
hauberk
scale
almost
ranks,
"infidels"
long
the
cavalry
equipped.
an 11th
hauberk
Such varied
reports,
of
dam"
every
occasion,
horse-armour
of
the
one may assume that
to mid-12th
quilted
foes
heavy
or Saljüq
those
10th
or vertically
146).
Their
the
a style
Crusader
early
piece
"cut
almost
so well
appear
Armour for
through
187),
Egypt,
Of course,
were not
to
parade
such a ceremonial
worn by the horse
(Fig,
Lower
GS
one somewhat isolated
chamfron
annual
of
cavalry
Although
saint
the
irrigation
was so protected.
troops
bulk
in
New
to
others
shaped helmets,
and ill-
armours
armour perhaps partially
by ratimid
many
identical
while
sadly
cavalry
Such a process had already
accounted
in the late
occurrec(
3SZ
in Western
Europe
Chptalerin
ý.
1284 AD.
of
most thoroughly
in
European
or North
who _
in
Caliphate
armoured
late
m heavy
horsemen
to and clearly
probably
of
in
acting
negro
the
IfrTgiya.
'polite
within
an
formed
In
and
Zirid
cooperation
marnlüks
known as
86
Subsequent
of
little
centuries
information
pictorial
sug9ost
European
publsished
in
North
10th
case wielding
or
chaos
in
is
11th
what might
a spear
the
88.8xottp
op . cit.,
op. cit
Islamic
flared
the Maghrib
century
and a small
p. 92,
pp, 82-85.
(rig.
warriors
10th
of
to
11th
however.,
almost
A few recently
195).
(figs.
hand-hold
means that
does,
saddle
fragments
ceramic
be mailed
the
relief
cavalry
an apparent
plus
era,
from
available
116. F. Cuttin,, "La 'lance et 1' arrQt
XCIX (1965)9 Pp. 79-E300
Chaithj
and declines
One fragmented
and very
was known in
style
illustrate
Africa.
a tall
that
of
interest
archaeological
centuries
ß7.
known come from
in
small
later
appear
will
Berber
s ¬atimid
field
could
dynasty
ZTrid
those
of
a. Shrinking
centuries
the best
the
force
and long
swords
from
the Marhrib
perhaps
comparable
infantry
Here the men wore
aristocratic
and 11th
of
described
elite
Those of Morocco
founders
Here armoured
aQý,
lock
10th
but
context
forces,
the
of
units.
tribe,
cavalry
with
the
cavalry
an Iberian
Sicily.
control
and perhaps
char h lances*87
style
mentioned,
&oo k
1155 AD.
LtArt'dc
last,
was bast
cavalry
in
the
of
and were armed with
African
As already
±anhäja
Tala'ic
vizier
Jean de t"eunts
The equipment
ratimid
ubbah hauberks
and
tribes
(36
armoureds
a poem by the
dir°
in
and was recorded
from
Tunisia
675 and 676),
buckler
in
and riding
da cuirass©! " Archaý.ao1r,raim,
one
3ý3
a possibly
be interpretted
that
horse.
caparisoned
as wearing
This particular
a sleeve
sources
a somewhat later
of
jerkin
mail
of the previous
seen on NTshäpür ceramics
and on Italian
Iass
could also
warrior
(Fig.
century
(Figs.
date
to
similar
352)
56E3,599
and 609 I).
For fuller
Islamic
art
and 12th
centuries,
which
Norman and other
troops
who long
Christian
kingdom.
The most unmistak;, uble
panels
the
of
H and I),
Cappella
to be Muslims
(Fig,
sleeves
art
this
they
that
604 C).
Earlier,
could equally
there
is
every
Italy
southern
traditions
military
Such mixed
carvings
warriors
military
reason
than
styles
Light
those
are
not surprisingly,
cavalry
that
also
of
more apparent
assumed
armoured
Muslim,
though with mail
601),
of courses
indigenous
Islamic
warriors
and Byzentino
Norman conquerors.
the
on
early
shown
in Apulia
12th
century
"enemy"
some
where
(Figs.
Muslim
very
however,
the invasion
604 As pj
area appear as
the
their
576 and 577).
seem to have predominated
among the Muslim horsemen of North Africa.
after
on their
from this
common with
di Bari
stills
(Figs.
have served a horseman (Fig,
to suppose
with
Muslim
Norman
are only
on foot
largely
well
had more in
of Son Nicola
look,
Palermo
They need not be Muslims
597).
those
and mare specifically
non--Norman troops
(Figs
chess-men
tl r'z,
not only
the
of
same source
wear the
because
Other distinctly
of
from
11th
to be seen can the
in
ceiling
the late
of
also
backbone
are those
also shows armoured figuress
hauberks
for
Palatina
horsemen
Other
but
the military
provided
in
illustrations
excellent
warriors
to
Normans cncoaraged
to flourish
provide
the water
cross
Hero the
Italy.
influences
and artistic
facts
in
we musts
and even to southern
Sicily
of
details
This became even
Hilel
Banu
the
of
in the mid-11th
CXXVI
C xxV
II
3$Bedouin
century.
by the
employed
Fätimids
armed primarily
90
frequently
productions
the
crude
art
of
in
provincial
(Figs.
work of
occasionally
(Figs.
portrayed
566,604aß
11th
least
in
the late
small
despite
to an eager
Europe
though
new troops
to fill
the
all
carnage.
Ibidyý
Crusader
wealthy,
ranks
cavalry
out
numbers
its
men.
p.
loss
52,
appear
relatively
not
The Famid
by an en'tless
series
army rarely
meant the
of
it
by intensive
Berber
recruit
constantly
were simply
Generally
back
sent
reports
could
at
armies,
not
followed
the
remained
warriors
Egypt
of
chroniclers.
decimated
a medieval
PP. 86-87.
88.
fighting
and tendentious
Such troops
of
westward
centuries,
those
opj, cit.,
_.
p.
are
bedouin
and 12th
undeniably
Nevertheless,
o
European
the size of Fatimid
and dispersion,
Beshir
90.8rett.
91.
defeat
Sarecenic
they
area
Equally,
by various
or even most of
disruption
69.
11th
victories.
courses
of
91
the exaggerated
Caliphate,
Crusader
to migrate
Even soy their
century.
to have been small*
latter
troublesome
and
predatory
seem to have been encouraged
the
through
604L and 604 0).
Such all-too-often
in
sophisticated
194) to the
of heavier
as allies
the
Nile
cavalry
and 160),
(Fig.
In this
-md Italy.
the
Berbers
from
152,153
IfrTgiya'
lightly
from
provinces
Such Arabs or perhaps
Cairo
auxiliaries,
They seem to
though
ranging
been
cavalry
89
spears,
whole
art,
Norman Sicijy
had long
light
troops,
surviving
Fstimid
of
traditional
to garrison
to Tripolitanin.
and Syria
as mobile
and well-trained
armeds and were used
appear
Egypt
Cairo
of
their
with
have been effective
Delta
from
warriors
Of
available.
destruction
was a case of
but
territories
of
localized
in
the
3S5
Mon,hribp
end the
the Saljuq
loss
for
of
conquests
military
Syria
eastern
Iran,
Iraq
of
F
It
nor by the
encouragement
or even by the militarization
corps.
extent
led the fätimids
a strategy
It
was,
enabled
in
facts
to rely
them, if
numbers of wall-equipped
relatively
92.8ashir,
short
opcit.
notice.
following
recruitment
and Syria,
not
could
amid enlistment
labour
small
up of
manpower.
by increased
troops$
drying
of
be easily
Armenians
nhd th
of
of
a lack
the
of
so heavily
they controlled
troops
meant a serious
compensated
and negro
Egyptian
that
pp. 27-28 and sim.
hptl
h
to a large
on naval power.
'Such
the seast to transfer
to threatened
92
in
militias
urban
troops
slave-
areas at
3"G
CHAPTER6
THE CONTINUED IMPORTANCEOF TRAINED INFANTRY
Infantry
from
the 7th
armies
would
not
Islam,
specific
term
a weapon,
the world
in
of men skilled
though
an important,
importance
increasing
poverty.
Within
forces
to play
had
Asia
who seized
infantry
of most
Such criteria
as an infantryman.
the
forces
were only
a horse.
afford
continued
despite
role
Central
they
any individual
professional
tasks
military
Muslim
all
had been true
even if
not
a horse,
however$
fluctuating,
then,
who could
possess
almost
Even the nomads of
amongst
one to
oblige
in
Yet this
centuries.
war began.
tribesmen
did
of
13th
soldiers
stricken
but
to
since
some foot
to servo
continued
of
cavalry
in most regions.
As such,
levies
8th
or
backward
rif
fight
peaceful
with
muttsiAtah
41 0
heretics
slings,
should
Their
cAbbasid
the need arise.
on many fronts
only
duties
or collecting
for
tribal
the early
slings,
with
Äzarbgyj'n
2
in
who,
naked armed only
of
from
be distinguished
such as the Berbers
peasantry
or pagans, often
order
should
virttAlly
who fought
be disregarded.
keeping
troops
peoples
fought
century,
those
those
1
who would
The local
also
volunteer
against
various
infidels,
a limited
periods
should
similarly
included
be
and
wide-ranging,
could
3
They could, however, also be
taxes.
1.
cAbd
Ibn
ß1 Hakamj, op, cip.
2.
Flinorckys
3.
H. Kennedy, "The Early Islamic City: Self Government or State
Control? " during Callonuium on the Early Medieval City. (Univ.
6th May 1978).
Studies
of Edinburgh', Dept, of Extra-aural
Studies
129.
in Ccucasian Hlotnry,
p. 112.
3S'7
if
a source of rebellion
their
by on insufficiently
offended
to play
would continuo
governor.
were
4
Such warriors
in the armies of Islam,
part
The same might be wild
5
as Phd7th.
The origins
have emerged
elements,
the quarters
of
defend
city
their
fought
majority
in
the 9th
the
Curnt
the
against
the
on foot.
particularly
they
helmets
fought
Khurn6anTn
with
of
and slings
that
gangs bored
duties
the
and Iraq
c
these
r7t
as
mob
a city
and even some success
they
and harb!
the
same origins
of
consisted
desperation
to
ware normally
the 3czTra
in
have shared
upon
some horsemen,
included
appearing
military
distinct
were quite
nh troops
in Bacghdad.
6
if
used home-made shields1
seem to recall
Sassanian or even ancient
traditiona.?
atimids
were also important
where their
10th to 12th centuries
in the face of Byzantine
expansion.
ßoswortht "The ArmieS of the 5af'f'erSd9q"
5.
Cahan,,
6.
Ayal.on, "The Military
Reforms of Caliph
7.
ücIs
Al P1a&
vol. Vli
"n i,ayýh,"
ap
in Syria
from the
development was greatly
4.
8.8eshirg
urban
they
although
to
hmve possessed proper$
seen
nhcGnth who
Such nhd-ath militias
by the
they
al #a'münt
nb nn'
various
military
These letter
arms and armour'
Babylonian
could
of
known
militias,
are obscure,
troublesome
First
they
professional
assorted
Their
cud although
the later
Unlike
including
aochhd d.
and although
ouch forces
a mingling
a town.
century,
of
of part-. time city
of
from
or volunteer
fror
local
pious
their
sensibilities
the Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries.
against
night
religious
a
encouraged
Many such
p. 536.
PP. 504"-509.
Ong-cit.
p. 53.
al Multasim. " pp. 11-12.
pp. 452-4530 461-462 and 470.
'38?'
Warriors
in
broadened
probably
annual
raids
Important
their
military
9
Byzantium.
against
when the First
by participating
experience
The Syrian
oh
h
was still
end of the 11th century,
Crusade appeared on the scene at the
10
and remained so during much of the
Crusading
time
been referred
Perhaps
At this
era.
to ass remnants
we have an impression
local
militias
(rig.
120).
in
Such locals
in other
force
Abbasid tines,
took
one of
over
including
played
the
mentioned,
parts
of
by contrast
levies
Fatimids
in
12.
13.
liaaaaan, onýcit.
14.
Gibb,
During
empire,
citiess
th.
own nhý
unlike
11
century
Gospels
troops
survived
ruslin
eh rtn
Jmayyad and early
lnns
hug,
_,,
as Turkish
Even under
13
the
as they
and,, as already
lack
their
the Tulünido,
of
troops
Crusades,
did
from other
150 and 156),
those of Syria,
although
da not
15
XVI II.
(Paris
iaaadee,
Crn
des
T®mna
du rrNordra. aau
r.
1940),
"
Saaladin!
"The
Armies
He
Gibb,
of
A. no
aasQim
(1951),
EgypticannP
III
pp. 3i]A--320.
._....
it.
ý.
16?.
p.
,
"The Armies of 5aladin,
Ibn al AthTr,
the Crusndoa.
to solve
corps.
into
some part,
played
14 (Figs.
C. Cation, LO Syria
ý+ýwi
P, 195.
Ibn al tZaläninT,
Cnhicrn dlHistoire.
12
Egypt,
Inat.
Syriac
Here a local
camp from
many Egyptian
12th
or part-time,
once tried
ml Din's
....._
..
ý
Kennedy, 1ocý
15.
ill-equipped
role
or
and structure.
surviving
Egypt.
probably
Leo VI,v op, citýý
11.
these
responsibilities,
nppear to have had their
10.
of
but Appears to have declined
MuttCWTJoh volunteers
Sall
the earlier
earliest
the hnwwww_ä11nh
labour
by arming
have merged with,
of
a promihent
most military
howovorp local
the
might
non-professional
provinces
or police
C
they
n inc.
"Al Kä,^ail fT 11 TFa'rTihý" in Arnb Histarinns
F. Gabrieli
(London 1969), --p-, 253.
trans.,
of
3fq
infantry
Where professional
generally
0Abbasid times,
Umayyad and early
grew both in importance
still
Into
16
infantry.
been under
their
(Fig.
half
field
stood
with
the
ram
ineffective
against
two wings$ into
closer
(Fig.
swords
solid
with
behind
by archers
All,
or javelins.
17
days provod
Arabi KhärijTo
famous reforms"
by breaking
or khamias of vans rears
contra
and
These could act in
In many cases
as a separate
archers
units
throughout
(rig.
the
122) seem
be
to
moved
perhaps
heavily
the
those
more
among
of
in support
the
greatest
who were under
infantry
armoured spear-carrying
122,
but similarly
armed infantry
to have been considered
pressure#19
his
cavalry.
timayynd eras the lightly
around a battlefield
141).
kr dus squadrons.
smaller
kneeling
tho
early
ranks of
the fast-moving,
divisions$
cooperation
spears
short
could
(Figo.
men
These were supported
introduced
11
hence
Flaruän
and
five
the
old
up
usually
ranks
I
The clod--packed,
as it
as they had
were simple,
spears.
also carried
By the
Arab tribe
rich
Any armoured
front
h rý
127) or men with
apparently,
tactics
Caliphs.
in
the infantry.
as many armoured cavalry
-'
.,
the C';hidün
shields
During
cavalry
stated,
one notably
example,
At first
123 and 340)
of coursop
Yet they generally
with
cooperation
for
only
as already
and in numbers.
in strict
7th century,
could still
At first,
such groups were the Arabs themselves,
the most important
fought
basis.
on on ethnic
recruited
they were
were eoncornod,
Others could also be spread about as skirmishers.
16.
Al rtasu'dT, op.
17.
t.,
Al yabarT, op
652s 009 and 959.
1o.
tloraaa Parias,
19.
Al IabAri,
vol. V,
ýGit..,
oat
vaZ. II,
op. cit.
p.
140.
pp,, 58,337,
d11y 520f 790,
p. 012.
Il,
vol.
:,ý
pp. 344,1551
and 1708.
enemy
3 c1
Faces of
tho infantry:
kneeling
hold
battle-array
preceded
lino
and then
exactly
the same' even in
regular
Muslim
remained
would
If
it
fire
Ibid.
21.1^ubärnksh
9th
on to
Anatolian
the
as it
cavalry
in
the
passed
passes
army.
remained
and during
plateau
then
through
infantry
such infantry
the mountains
a line
aim would
In such a task
of
and grenades,
tactics
to guard
the
corps
centuryt22
raid,
however,
assaults
the Byzantine
role.
the early
with
bowaj, swords
with
projectors
sieges.
the rear.
21
continued
specialist
Yet the
of
led
to
}aerbTynh heavy infantry
were a small
remain
perhaps
and destroy
20.
their
were a major
a leading
it
if
vital.
protect
and then
incursions
and equipment
by a small
traditional
horsemen
of
groups
and rFrni ah archers
and in
the
from some distance
only
tactics
were soon joined
open battle
in
army$ itself
Very small
These men used Creek
in
spears
Karo a acreon
infantry
troops.
and shields,
swords
naffnTn.
both
elite
of
or Yemen.
entirely
cnbb"as1d infantry
and shields,
their
may be hoard
of Himyar
some Umayyad tradition.
spears,
enemy troops
armoured
and with
shields
Umnyyod tactics
an almost
the wings,
this
their
the kings
of
Early
in
behind
these
An echoof
protected
heavily
against
have been used by
also
20
as pikes.
by a front
115) might
particularly
in ranks
"scouts"
(Fig.
types
various
of
be to
infantry
retreat.
find
played
23
vo1. I I,, pp. 712,912,917,927,956,1809
and 1927-1928.
7hß op. ci t,
325.
p.
_
22.
Levy, The Socinl
loci, cit.
23.
Howard- Johnson, o2,
Structuro.
its,
of
Iolnm,
pp. 432-433;
pp. 225-226.
Leo VIA
3cf1
The most detailed
information
that
is available
cAbbasid
corps in the
what might have been the most prestigious
ThasA abnof were the cenlor
Army.
nhl tanhdsd
or fund
ni
have been descended
cAbbäsid
orioinal
have differed
capital
in
siege
their
Abý1
have replaced
have been added,
their
while
ranks
Although
pahdäd
is
those
Indeed
similarly
the
reason
those
by Fidawsi
in
"picked
26
Although
fight
without
included
to suppose
that
24,r
25.
Al Jähiýs
26.
Ibid.
27,
Ayalonp "Thu Military
26-27
infantry
archerß,
of
27
troops
and 10th
disappeared
centuries,
entirely.
ßaghdad"
These letter
Reforms of Caliph
pp,
often
m
no
the 9th
they
long
or even shield,
cuirass
descendants.
cýl Jnhiz,
by their
were clearly
nbnal
warriors
shield-bearing
"The Military
to
also
seems
mace
non-Turkish,
during
khen nr
seems to
javelin
or
the
hard
used the some
they
a number of
importance
Ayalon,
pp,
spear
country
with
were to be recognized
may have been their
Rasä'il
swords
the
ranks
however
ca;
The
and other
abna'
declined
little
also
to maintain
In attack
short
Such troops
would
in close
also
hand-to-hend
fight
näh,
an
cIMaMph turbans.
and
armoured1
to
in
were they
Not only
trained
daggers.
the long
they
but
to
unlikely
whether
may
the
in
part
is
infantry,
and broad
the mitr d
who took
cities.
were also
aýnäh spears
weapons,, although
of
other
and aiktnah
swords
beards
major
they
earlier,
equipment
cAbbäsid
themo and then
enemy pressed
short
Their
and counter-siege,
25
long
As mentioned
KhursssnTs
revolution.
much from other
and mountains.
with
those
from
or garrisoning
renowned
Pinghdsd.
in Barlhdad's resident
Qiencnt
24
concerns
al 11u'ta inj"
mentioned
infantry
pp. 6.?.
and 52-53.
26»27.
Worms
of Caliph
"
33-34.
al fitu'tmsim,
pp.
0
3qtroops
were described
crkh
crossbow,
the
as using
form of
an early
penetrating
power of
which
By FirdawsP s day, however1 another
had made, or rather
from
Some had,
course,
of
defeated
large
their
long
Islam,
from
infantry
in
in
while
the
of
Much the
the üaylamis
The reputation
appearance,
of
the GTf7;nls
remained
became fervent
of these warlike
liking
for
who similarly
survived
had
c.-
mountain
Gllant
as
served
made quite
never
true
ahis
to orthodox
cunnl
30
folk,
vary large
garlic,
oAbbesid
their
of
Coth peoples
plain,
from
the population
be said
Sea,
Not all
also
culture
some night
although
ono(
themselves/also
Islam,
the Umayyod end
of
the bulk
many areas,
Caspian
allegiance
descendants
pre-Islamic
Caspian
their
warriors
These were
the
of
power of
their
armies
even after
the narrow
such a name for
hirsute
already
of infantry
nation
south
ego transferred
some of
vestiges
29
mountains
to the rising
did
nor
homelands
accopted
Islam
Elburz
as mercenaries
Caliphs,
rivals
the
Sassanians
became Muslims,
in
wan clearly
themselves.
remade, a name for
the Daylamis
served
or
28
recognized.
the
the chýnrkh
with
their
brightly
painted
Tn
üi
javelins#
zh
and traditional
established
was clearly
31
At this enrly stag©,
in the t7u3lim world by the 10th century.
shields
end during
still
fought
the first
solely
phaso of düyid expansion
as mounted infantry,
with
in Iron'
the Daylamta
mules to carry
their
P. 1280.
28.
FirdawaT, oa, cit.
29.
Organization
Bosworth, "Military
and Iraq, " pp. 146.. 147.
30.
Ibid.
31.
MIMinorsky, "rticu light
al TenülchT, cps cits
Persia
the
ßuyida
of
under
p. 149.
Ganjn,
"
the
5haddädida
of
p. 113;
an
pp. 95-969
313
javelins
equipment,
Daylami
warriors
javelin
34
Yet
tucs
painted
a mark of
the
the
This
letter
against
the
of
the
using
seem to have remained
line
unbroken
the
or moving
after
a defeat
was
followed
that
have been similar
might
century
warrior
foe,
Al TenükhI,
33.
Miskowaihi,
34.
Ibid,
vol. 11,, pp.
35.
Ibid,,
vol. II,,
36.
Bosworth,
and Iraq"
37.
Al ©al7ýdhurl,
lore
op.
grew in
seems to have
36
to shoot
37
times.
held
by a 9th
bottle
Gebri-ware
tactics
an
thrown
battle-axes
combat with
to an example
in
were then
Javelins
arrows
Daylami
advance
a steady
by close
short
Such short
awwmldüx.
Sassanlan
on a north-Persian
32,
army
n7sbonkarrow-guide
shield-wall.
the
Turkish
of
brightly
troops
these
of
some, with
to disrupt
arrows
and bows are now mentioned,
been known in
course,
however,
was,
large,
0
had,
while
was his
by Daylaml
known as husb; n or
elsewhere
known as a
nwshan cuirasses
burned
established
Battle-axes
apparently
hauberk,
35
so the equipment
variety.
latter
arrows
state,
this
have
to
Full
dire
dagger
defence
chief
disgrace*
and power,
in
protection
and
ultimata
heavy
men
younger
shield,
slender
mentioned,
Daylemi's
shield,
normally
turs
large
a small,
was also
As the Düyid
grown
the
of
lending
century,
have been the case.
always
as an inadequate
hul7ma,
wealth
might
Some wore very
hauberk
ubbah
described
.
33
By the mid-10th
shield-bearers,
and perhaps
"nail".
sakk or
the
this
now consisted
equipment
2hügin
and armour.
employed
though
or boys,
32
or
10th
(Fig.
344).
of
Persia
cit.
vol. 11, pp.
cit,
161 and 336.
205.
p.
"Military
p. 149.
op.
152-153.
Organization
--cit. ,
under
pp. 362-363.
the
ßüyids
3 ýl4This
weapon is
by a mounted
infantryman,
(Fig.
earlier
fighting
71).
than
rather
by the
Kurds or Caucasian
and tabs
shield
later
10th
cavalry,
usually
was also
apparently
became close
the Oaylnmts
Similarly,
for
tall,
their
tnr
known
as
ricah(Fig.
now
Egyptian
armoury
fire-werspons.
while
in Egypt
Tülünid
DaylamT infantry
op
shir,
F7;timid
This
swords#40
shield-
that
the
long
39
fought
young
shields
; chür
qal
politics.
still
weapons in
ürT
al
with
the Daylamis
turbulent
Caliphate
Other
as
where
and employed
made their
Fatimid
were
Daylemts'
swords,
curved
plus
nt
of E9Ypts
cit.
p. 262.
on.
40.
I bid.,
pp. 67-70.
41,
Ibid.
pp.
42.
"Ib id,
47-49
vol. Iii
and 74 n.
op,
served
and the su,nni
ý,
p.
they
were
the orthodox
c Abb;
in flüyid
also
su_ý__nnli
sid Caliphs#
382;
r.
336
ub; rak9häh,
and
pp.
pp. 47-49.
opL cit.,
Hassan,
42
impact
greatest
and Syria,
Egypt
They had already
governors
Miskawaihi,
39.8e!
closely
A1
elsewhere.
employed
38.
to
sipar
infantry
Daylem!
Egypt
Cairo's
have included
in
Trans
and
and
Iran
in
149).
might
referred
perhaps
Eätimld
or kite-shaped
oval
with
and the east.
Iran
and battle-oxaa,
zhüpTn jnvelins
bearers
of
the
fought
centuries
ms, in
the Turks
of
allies
influenced
perhaps
when cooperating
the case in
to
38
and 11th
ghul
taken
as mounted
cavalry,
end they
axe.
seem to have been most successful
Turkish
centuries
eight
solely
operating
Albanians,
n horseman's
the
During
perhaps
from Daylem had also
These seem to have been heavy
infantry.
with
India
in north-western
Some warriors
on horseback
to one carried,
similar
extraordinarily
210.
167.
3q5
as palace
guards
in
the late
become dominant
swordso
were typical
of
to
gradual
as numerous
were
unemployed
in
Turkish
the bcnners'of
under
in Ghaznawid
an elite
simply
ghul;
infantry
guard
the orthodox
over recruited
in
the late
43.
Ooaworth,
and Iraq"
44.
Ibn H£iwgal,
Wist trans.,
45,
Beshir,
46.8asworthp
ratimid
was in
11th
"lillitary
p. 148.
Egypt
that
that
Organization
than
state,
but
the reputation
they
were again
they
whether
they
not
only
were
48
canturies,
under
the Buyida
continued
but
of
de in TerrQ. J. N. Kramers
Configuration
(Paris
1964), vol. II, p. 283.
be.
Eastwards,
47
12th
and early
rather
power,
though
guards$
Q'C
even formed
the O yid
of
seized
as such remains. unclear.
But it
to serve
fall
to such an extent
palace
they
as
service
and MMirdasids.
India
were
Syria
sought
similarly
the
Daylami
century
and bejewelled
gilded
Saijügs
persisted
recommended as special
and
cUgaylids
After
Turkish
sunni
manuscript
They
afield.
11th
early
and north-west
46
shields,
Daylamia
ma,
with
broad,
encouraged
further
and
Fätimids,
Afghanistan
painted
the
10th
had
wielding
Arabic
century
Iran
44
FErs,
of
decline
fortunes
late
in
361).
political
their
seek
themselves
fashions
military
11th
an early
they
was necessarily
shown on foot,
day (Fig.
their
soon
of
in
though
the province
example,
the warriors
blunt-tipped
The Oüyids'
their
century,
for
One may assume that
mercenaries
DaylamT impact
10th
in,
forces,
police
The greatest
were chid.
where,
and urban
43
left
Persia
and G.
cit.
The Choznwvids,
47.
Nliz; m al Mulk,
40.
Canard, "Le Procession
pp. 392-393.
op,
cit..
p.
111.
P. 67.
du Nouvel
An chez
lea
Fitimides,
"
Cxx
i
3y6
their
perhaps
(Figs.
infantry
Iran,
of
a reputation
their
foot
nor
their
living
utill
cAwjsim
westward
this
of
art
period
siege
in
AntakIyah,
the
The best
late
to open battle
such east
Iranian
nr shield
and bow,
Elsewhere
spears.
and nizah
spears
ucýzar short
variation
had the
and crossbowmen.
49
the province
of
parts
descendants
These people
manufactured
also
weaponry.
of
10th
than
si
with
formed
the
spears
or javelins
corps
infantry
In this
front
case
they
while
stood
with
49,
loc.
CEahen, "0 jar's
of Islam# second edit
50.
Canard, "Quelques observations
" pp.
de in [3uyat
at'-T'alab,
51,
Ibid.
normal
with
with
nih
aurshnn cuirasses
archers
behind
to the rear
while
and men with
them.
of
themselves
were
from GIißn,
and here
as advancing
ar shields1
izah spears and shields
n%,,,
cit
however#
described
rank
Most details
ah.
by spear-mon
supported
of
Shy
to sieges,
are
infantry
Khur; s; nI
century
Firdawsi's
in
soldiers
those
seem to have
as were their
s and other
so
Those KhuräsänIs
frontier
Dyzantine
siege-
51
rather
foot
in
particularly
century*
descriptions
to be found
are probably
refer
10th
Khurasan
of
They too had
as cavalry.
operations.
Ters
to earn
troops
such
and counter-siege,
and other
equipment
siege
the
professional
only
The people
traditions,
in
in
the only
as well
to
the
course,,
in mining
and above all
been experts
,x.,
surviving
own area.
established
who were sent
of
were they
soldiers,
own long
warfare
iron
were not!
outside
were noted
ni
in
157 and 158).
The Daylamle
of
impression
clearest
A third
some cavalry
led
archers
by me
with
; C. Cahen, "*is +r, " EncycloPediR
pp. 469-470.
vol.. III,
cur 1'introduction
46-47.
geographique
3c17
similar
si
nr shields
on Irnnian
a variety
351'
troops
Some such troops
with
appear
centuries.
These show
javelin-men
with
sword and buckler
(Figs.
to
11th
bearers'
standard
and armoured
largo
3430
354 and 449).
All
other
or lesser
large
even the
forces#
cavalry
in
of
mounted
do appear (Fig.
infantry
armed
infantry
the (hürids
them# this
famous
for
its
use of
the
kärw h,
with
stuffed
the
leading
and javelins
a large
cotton,,
late
mobile,
12th
from
sprang
Their
soldiers.
mobile
to be carried
troops*
55
and could
This
to
10th
appearing
apparently
12th
centuries.
by these
were enlisted
camel-riding,
the area,
of
13th
and early
even more pronounced
dynasty
foot
the
the art
in
those
like
javelin-
379).
the
of
were naturally
before
in
their
This
Infantry
487).
as highly
Though rare
to
siege-train.
troops
Indian
fought
54
infantry.
Under
(Fig.
to a greater
addition
perhaps
the Ghaznawids
under
and similarly
rulers
in
who,
53
infantry,
to Daylamis,
In addition
ýaffärids
chess-piece
prestige
infantry
employed
had a sophisticated
consisted
on an east-Iranian
rose
dynasties
eastern
extent..
necessarily
of
the 9th
from
of warriors,
shields$
them.
supported
ceramics
52
like
for!
a mountainous
most notable
of
mantlet
was proof
pp. 1022,1156
long
region
tactic
an the
against
also act as a novablt
the püyids
was the
hide
raw bullock
battle
into
centuries,,
shoulders
most arrows
to
shield-wall
and 1280,
52.
Firdawsl,
opt
53.
Bosworth
"The Armies of the 5affärids,
54.
Bosworth, ihn Chaznauidsm pp. 113-114; Co E. Bosworth'
"Ghaznavid Military-Organization.,
" Der 191sm, XXXVI (1960),
pp. 59-60,
55.
Bosworth.,
and Iraq"
"Military
p. 1510
organization
under
" pp. 547-546.
the C yids
of
Persia
3q,
trap
the
broke
Ghürid line.
cnccay
who
any
Once established
apparently
though
still
The placing
left.
and aura
.
the legs,
covered
long-sword
mama,
plus
axe in
and nächakh
army that
"throwing
aipnrh;
arrows'"
n qsmbeaons, having
and nizah
long
shnmshirg
and k; rdhe
a thicket
them all
long-swords
and
so that
buzuro
long
the latter
he break through
Very little
ranks
cAbb;
with
their
bath
ere,
although
56,
t1aulanä Plinhlij
57.
itubärakshähs
584
Ibid. ý p. 330.
men with
tir
andnzFn
A second
front.
and
nwshnn cuirasses
daggers,
thrust
of
p1par shields
archers,
defended
perhaps
the ground.
into
dnrgah,
also
with
by
Behind
shields$
ahemshir
Once again such forces
noted in
cavalry,
leaving
survives
pieces
al Dina apt cit.
ac,t ciýt
in
longwswordsf
evidence
finest
the
of
one
Muslim
or other
spears,
could manoeuvre and strike
58
the infantry
ranks.
pictorial
sid
Armoured
stood
with
officers
anZd maces.
collaboration
Ohürid
come a rank
of spaced wooden stakes
stood junior
Otherwise
0
ghoshTr
Third
spears$
in
da,bbüa mace,
_,
howover,
hnrrbh
javelins
or small
armour
wouldp
57
short
of men armoured
consisted
khaý
close
fnr7kh,
khnrstanin
full
infantry,
of
ahhZpTn
the centre
have been in any
had a predominance
wide shields,
rank
would
wing,
numbers of men
armed with
seem to have been a new development.
were much as they
in
armoured
troops
large
of
infantry.
to their
on the right
on the
and techniques,
tactics
priority
stationed
camu"d
shemshIrr
high
giving
the Chu-rids
India,
battle
were traditionally
javelin-men
wielding
in northern
as a power
more sophisticated
adopted
apparently
Archers
that
56
p. 339.
wide spaces
the enemy should
from the Ghürid
of Muslim metalwork
pp. 352-353.
was
made in
Iran
3qq
the city
and the
of
Hirt
rids
of
Turkish
wave ofhuzz
the Dobrinski
368).
Ha may, however,
a nal
Delhi,
59
2nik.
in
didhmll
to got
his
13th
roll
the
of
the
cavalry
was a danger
loathed
Turk
the
control
13th
ffidah
fell
city
century.
and the
the
serving
to the Mongols
up his
the
on its
wings,
of being
sagas$
from his
his
of
included
small
and also
outflanked,
59.
Ygr t"uhammad Khini
60.
F9aulänä Minhä j al QTnj o,
61.
Leo 41IOinc.
62.
Anon. $ The Book of Dadc iCorkut
opitys
place
p,
of
cit
infantry
where
to protect
49.
p. 2749
.
p. 145.
62
them in
Equally
nomad states
left
the
on
particularly
down
written
foe on foot.
units
Yet
hero was prepared
quiver,
Turkish
was low.
61
fight,
probably
early
as
armies,
status
to
a Saljüq
and face
battle-plan
their
course
centuries,
skirts
Q era Khitai
in Mongol
dismounting
tats, °arrows
horse,
of
recorded
14th
or early
traditionally,
that
though
own earliest
his
off
bolt,
soldiers
true
a
their
the
in
reportedly
even served
nomad forces,,
Traditionally
in
were also
the so-called
seized
which
the tuslim
Samarqand when this
Some infantry
even in
infantry
horseman.
under
early
state
(fig.
60
1220 AD,
they
Chüric{
a curved
with
two horsemen
role
dynasty
two groups,
rid
K4 i razmsh hs
in
into
soldier
a vital
a new
known as
cauldron,
against
mmmlük
5aljügsr*6f
before
he a dismounted
to play
the fragmented
They were divided
natal
battling
that
the
were reeling
This
himself
continued
of
of much of
Hindu
Afl)hanistän
hürý
sword,
Kings
when both
does show a solitary
perhaps
Slave
a time
nomads.
bucket,
Infantry
at
like
among
there
such vital
4-oo
63
as a herd of spare horses.
assets
a basis
later
in fact
is suggested by the well--documented
but comparable Turkish
The 15th to 17th centuries
a small infantry
the kh
nomad state
Crimean Tartars
domain.
African
troops
bulk of block
of later
in Achlabid
in
, ülunid
naval
This
Egypt
unit
around
helmets,
same Limo block
they
the
Nevertheless,
North African
Such warriors
robes
a leading
took
to
addition
Worn black
their
and among
dynasties
do
perhaps appeared
the
the
of
great
and
northern
at
65
they
later
little
A
are recorded
routes,
where
in
warriors$
as slaves,
Ifrlqiyah
trade
trans-Saharan
were poor in horses
Muslim armies,
centuries.
seem to have been of slave origin.
first
that
were recruited
various
serving
infantry
reasons.
men in the first
i
Khar jTs
the puritanical,
on
areas or from major cities,
negro infantry
They appeared as free
living
villagers
came from regions
both economic and climatic
Not all
steppes.
had, for example$
Islam most professional
were drawn from backward mountainous
for
armies of a
64
L'horvas in the cast of
most infantry
had
on the Eurasian
force raised from settled
personal
in Africa
That such traditions
over
forming
an
decorated
and fought
with
as unarmourcd
role
elite
mukh
iron
swords.
armour:
66
fashion
In
were
also
palace? guards
h
guard.
black
At around
turbans
the
In Byzantium.
67
322.
p.
ý
63.
rtubärakahäh,, ori.
64.
Organization
"The Military
of
Collins*
L. 3.0.
and Tactics
the sixteenth
during
the Crimean Tartars
and seventeenth
Etast
1dd1C
the
in
1'
"
Society
in
War
Tochnolo
rand
centuries,
(London 1975
260.
p.
V. 3, Parry and M. E. Yapp edits,,
t
65.0oshirp
opp* cit,
pp. 30»44.
fG.
Ybý,.
id,
67,
tiQwnrd-Jahnsnn, q a¢. cit.,
HaasanjaPo. cit,
its
p. 171; Rambeudq oey cr
pp. 77-78 and 83.
pp. 419-420.
4Di
the ra imids were later
Although
troops#
on such slave-recruited
numbers of free-born
the region
coming
from
the western
in Fntimid
played
with
r
Other
Surber
al
they fornod
the year 1000 AD.
almost half
70
Their
loyalty
three
first
hundred black
troops
forces
and spectacular
paraded,
69.
Ibid,
loc
pp,
of
and
ncgro mercenaries
at least
another
appooranco
probably
for
as others
each with
a pair
had
some
of specially
bosses, during
and shields with silvered
71
Such splendid infantry
New Year celebrations.
72
in existence fifty
years later.
still
ßashirf
these P1aVmüdeh
by
the
Eý;
imid
army
of
deco%ted javelins
68.
appeared
At the very end of the 11th century
them.
though
Fighting
rosa in importance
Zed the Fä0imids to choove them as guard unite,
done before
speech
the rise
69
ý recruitment.
they and free
remained the backbone of Egypt's
in
of Syria until
troops
Thereafter
imid
Saharans
Thereafter
own homeland stifled
Sudanese slave-recruited
numbers until
CAM.
in the garrisons
in their
they
and spear,
sword
black
belt.
the desert
of
Egypt under Caliph
a major role
the rlurabitTn
century.
Sudan marched in that
969 ADe60
regions
employed greater
from
the Mnýmüdahp who were probably
as infantry
solely,
in
very heavily
Many such warriors
Muslim negroes.
Egypt
conquered
included
they at first
of ZCWTle in the eastern
army that
to rely
the
guards were clearly
cit.
2&-34
and 39-44,
ýdst pp. 39-44; CanArdý, "La Procession
? Dw, ib...
1as Fctimideas"
pp. 392-393.
du Nouval An chez
du Nouvol An choz les
71.
Canard.* "La Procassion
pp. 369-37Q,
72,
UaSmah Ibn Mungidh's ep,. cft#,
p. 9.
Fotimides,
"
(ý02
or not the dark-skinned
Mother
Nubian or Ethiopian
they are,
Arcüf
about
and the
common with
the
Dornu many centuries
from both
north$
people
of
and had much
They fought
Ptia3hrib.
nh shields
bh
hrI
Morocco,
plus
of
Nubia
in
the raja
throwers,
and it
later,
spears
short
in much of
but
spears or javelins
the
may appear
in
similar
Ethiopia
at
this
area of
contemporary
(Fig.
165 and 186) and Ifrtgiyah
(Figs.
area,
used in
widely
191).
In the
time.
were archers
51;zTn and 6nr! ya tribes
?5
living
Pagans
near
used no shields.
the
the source of the Blue Nile
73.
Ahadi
dnra
leather,
medieval
certain
iron
the southern
white
shields
predominated
and javelin
short
in
were rich
of
armour was certainly
Infantry
in
the
century
homelands,,
original
Those
Ahadi
also
swords.
poor
and
quality
74
garmento.
protective
mufnttih&
perhaps ctlilted,,
uoro long,
art
10th
mountains
large,
their
local
or javelins
Quilted
late
inhabitants
with
to the l mt
similar
At
unclear.
can be found
or pagan,
Tibe; ti
in
troops
these
In the
as infantry
only
psi or
to have been Arab bodouin
more likely
Christian
Muali5
Arnb geographies.
in
is unfortunately
mercenaries,
in fact,
Information
Carfür
were Sudanoso slave-troo
73
auxiliaries.
whether
later
a century
archers
and javelin-
CAsgalän in 1099 AD
and at Arsüf
men met by the Crusaders outside
almost exactly
infantry
fought
local
and
solely
as infantry
with
hhrbzh
known
hard
wood
pikes of a
(Cambridge
1956)
tilarfar2,1A97-1193,
R. C. Smailp Crusading
(London
19?
15i
Crusndos,
the
p. 65; S. Runcimans A History of
vo1. III..
Cruýe
itincarariura
Nnrn
rinnruci
56;
Anon.
p,
y
D
p.
67""5$;
f3aha'
n. op,
al
pp.
-cit.,
74.
Ibn : awqals Kit"ab SUrnt Al Ard
75.
id,
Ib_,
p. 55.
p. 509
ins
175.
ina.rn
Cxxix
if o3
a* nurý_
rhn hý7ý
from that
Shields
brood awetheot east African
coast known to the Arabs as Zanj wore also said to be of elephant
77
hide, though being inferior
to those of the Oäja,
aeons to have changed by the 14th century
Little
some cavalry,
Nubian fashions,
from this
with
large
words,
had appeared in central
of Africa
part
tall
spears,
may be on
in
some of
now perhopa
Moat warriors
however, and fought
They also used
arrows.
short
lang javelins.
and# above all,
narrow shields
these
of
relatively
better
the earliest
that
Derber and
Ethiopia.
remained infantry,
bows shooting
An impression
in the ancient
bare-back
riding
mostly
except
Ethiopians
equipped
Abyssinian
78
(Fig.
manuscripts
657).
hogro
troops
and successors
of
in
in
Ifrigiyah,
in
for
Sicily
Known as
but
their
mercencrie3$
as their
as distinctive
mace and buckler
to be recruited
tightly
(Figs.
in Haffid
Tunisia
as 1anawa and fought
in
with
Cn
s
rulers,
did
formed
they
79
Others
a number
must
they
were
Siculo-Norman
art
both
hair
their
weapons,
are portrayed
They clearly
at least
until
sword and small shield.
76,
ib«
i dy
77.
t.
Al MasCÜdly 02,e- 3.,,,
78.
r....
....
ýllramrýý
k
Al
iF3acalik al Aber Pi fi1ýrýý1ý
74.
Qratto
as
continued
Guinean
those
origin
of
whore
spoor,
the
unless
In most cases
curled
lieutenants
Zirid
no they
desccndants,
500 and 606).
by North African
the
infantry.
mostly
appear
and on the mainland.
Sicily
century
served
themselves.
recruited
newly
origin
F`atimide
coma mounted
regiments,,
havo served
slave
the
of
Caliphs
Fatimid
of
the 14th
were known
t}hethar
p. 57,
ooo ci t,,
vo1. IlI, # p. 18.
p. 82.
Amgnýr, Ap" 6 and 25-26.
*D4their
or not
white
in 14th century
rlanlük
As already
great
or national
they
with
would
being
make a wall
thrust
into
similarly
planted
to act
throwers
supported
these
advance
either
line
take
to
such attacks
foe.
men in
the
front
the bases of
with
Their
pikemen.
In attack
infantry
If
their
tall
wore
and javelin-
foe.
archers,
would
the
of
sections
by the
faltering
rank.
such infantry
selected
Cavalryt
uld
a beaten
pursue
S1
of the later
words,
swords that
tactics
Their
Umayyad era.
of large
consisting
r6timid
anl chür.
fsny
iron
butte
that
bows and
javelins,
in
fact
were
infantry
traditional,
weapons were similarly
shields,
,mot
the newer and slightly
perhaps included
those
were essentially
ilj
leather
armoured.
curved Iranian
The long pikes
the
front
in
by
men.
wore used
ranks were
long,
po5'4. bly known as snbarbarnh.
They were five
which up to three
cubits
form a broad iron blade.
they might better
be described
carried
small
could
of naval
troops.
seen to have been armed with
80.
cuoarT,
Al
r op-. cit_,
01.
Oeshirf
op. city
r, ý,
cubits
of
As such
Some pikemen also
Crossbows were known, but seem to have
javoins.
been a speciality
as gloives.
shorter
p. 62,
pp. 76-79.
Some younger soldiers
fur
00
unit
spear-butts
archers
while
with
by tribe,
were arrayed
as pikes,
together
and,
In other
with
from a
the ground.
of any
is unclear.
These were recruited
en masse or by sending
advantage
of tunic
were
a high
they
armourad
a style
as they
imid armies contained
to the end.
In battle
origin,
attacked,
or simply
the r
mentioned,
many sources.
shields
Egypt,
of infantry
proportion
hauberks,
ubbnhs were protective
also
h spears which
cover
4os
could also have been glaives
or bille.
This armoured infantry
reliable
battles
in the declining
there
Certainly
is plenty
timid
Those show a great
variety
the
cultural
origins
153,155,161
The next
to a similar
but
of pictorial
wave of
if
of
not
they
to
are not
indication
140,152,
in Zirid
apparent
ribat
fortification
Rather
of
enabled
course,
they
hor would
recalls
such
tactics,
or atrongpoint,
surabitTn
any
the
warriors
was
and retreat,
obliged
to retreat
either
refused
attack
they
MuräbitTn,
between
Berber
and other
or by cavalry.
packed and immovable,, bzttle--array.
tho
to be seen in
apparently
waýý frýrr
casualties.
name probably
These were the
extent.
century
on infantry
relied
The main difference
commitment,
Their
Although
63
little
(rigs.
conquerors
in karr
indulge
them and then
religious
unusually
in various
of such infantry
with
involved
African
sources.
by infantry
high
though
troops
even greater
and the mid-11th
Their
the
!worth
ruräbitTn
to attack
than
imid Caliphate.
They are similarly
pictorial
either
took part
evidence
of weapons,
surviving
refusal
less
193 and 194).
unfortunately
their
that
era from the 10th to 12th centuries.
and 163).
(Figs.
Ifrlgiyah
in Cairo,
years of the F
in the art of the
of
may have included
living
and mist which,
02
or
the enemy
to advance.
them to accept
pursue
a beaten
they
since
their
of
out
enemy.
made a
own closely
04
had small
cavalry
and camel-mounted
82.
Ib idý pp. 57-70; Canards "La Procession du Nouvel Anchaz
les Fatimidoa. 'n pp. 374 and 392-393; M. Canmrdy "Le Cerorionial
tian, p XXI (1951), p. 397,
Byxaný,,,
Fatimite at le Ceremonial flyzcntins"
83,
UsZrneh ibn i"ungidh,
84.
Marcos Fsriesa
on
°ps citss
t.
pp. 8 rnd 32,
pp. 015-816.
4o6
forces
even in
the mid-11th
tactics
and such steadfast
Spanish
enemies
the
at
discipline
of
little
from other
they differed
armies.
Long spears or pikes
javelin
with
Their
large
use of
largely
in
The subsequent
flachrib
are only
did
rely
not
even they
to the
wars of
early
attrition
rallying
chosen
point.
They themselves,,
of Morocco!
final
could
and the
the plains
palisade,
chained
battle
or small
85.
86.
87.
both
was clearly
from
the
richer
shield
earlier,
Puwahhidun
and rumh spear
for
gave primacy
to
these
to protect
their
and largely
settled
regions
recruited
from
to
the Muwahhidun
appeared
Spain
cavalry,
in
in
the
1212 AD,
have
been
to
seem
weapons
cavalry,,
rumh spear
and sikTnnh
Al pakry
bpscripti©n
(Paris
trans.!
1913),
do 1ýAfrirttQ
p. 314,
swords
that
against
and infantry
in
however,
Nevertheless,
and infantry
cavalry
century
a defence
In addition
cavalry
They,
palisade
This
as
66
contribution
most original
mountains.
and 13th
fashion
was a chained
afford
of warfare,
12th
these
made armour
upon infantry.
extent
both
and Egyptian
them.
behind
illustrated.
of Las Novas de Tolosa
A little
dnreanh
coming
In equipments
more of
probably
the
a somewhat static
soldier.
their
carrying
style
of
better
Their
appalled
North African
shields
tuwahhidun
00
in
these
1086 AD.
standing
such a static
to such a large
fought
foot
lnmt
slightly
In
apparently
elsewhere,
leather
unnecessary
Zollaca
changed
Were used by those in the front
throwers$
weapons than was normal
never
certainly
battle
however,
ranks,
they
century,
khan ar large
dagger
for
SEtpntrional.
infentry.
dagger
67
De Slone
'ýAntar
the Kez7'c,h_and and the
"The Ha.uberkt
H. T. rJarrisp
(1978)s
IX
Society,
Armour
Arms
the
Romance.
Journal
of
end
*"
pp. 9£3-99.
cAlT
"
tho
"History
Alnohsdes,
naidh3g,
5anhäjT
Abü Sakr Ibn
of
al
al
d'Histairc
in ßacunenta Inedits
Almohades E. Vbvi-Provencal,
-pp.
(Paris
trana.,
124,172,177,194
1928),
edit,
nnd 199.
end
4-07
There
is
little
interchangeable
shield
but
between
by the
12th
in
Spaniards
first
century
(Fig.
century
A possibly
its
with
the kingdom's
leaders
of
seems likely
forces,
that
the
Christian
probably
It
has also
Varangians,
early
with
Since
operation$
by the
is
perhaps
from
the late
Sicily
a fleet
leather
Norman Sicily,
in
the
or
Their
the 9th
century,
clearly
fought
the
invasion
this
the banners
that
some Armenians,
of
to items
the Muslim
which
should
a number of
captured
doi Fsusulmnni di Sicivol.
A large
conquest.
this
and
both
were then
perhaps
not
also
also
was not
Egypt#
enter
It
foe.
Sicily
of
their
making
most references
the Byzantine
Amalfi
largely
the enemy into
years
Sardinia
such participation
who were
century.
Fätimids
from
in
perhaps
troops
the
population
following
shield
12th
won from
helped
been suggested
plus
small
prove'<ing
In those
booty
cane from
this
this
drawn up beneath
deal
contingent
in
soldier
During
by cavalry,
Be
Christian
rule.
of
in
style.
demilitarized
immediately
foot
had
version
and it
Margo
warriors
Sicily
CAbbasid
attack.
leather,
be adopted
Arab and Berber
originally
and covered
equipment
t+uslim
version
most dependable
infantry
first
as the
top may be seen in
those
traditional
involved
the
earlier
who conquered
ancestors,
later
would
a Muslim
of
been of
always
dnr
as the
532).
indented
the hands of
This
As for
kidney-shaped
a specific
the hands
such weapons were not
and horse.
Europeans
and other
that
had almost
the Ma1hhrib.
seen in
12th
foot
this
was concerned,
appeared
in
to suppose
reason
took
be too
under
part
89
surprising.
Russian-Scandinavian
while
serving
under
I, p. 397.
80.
Amari$ Stnrit
09.
C. Csahen,, "Um, texte peu connu reletif
au commerce oriental
Provincn
1e
ätorico
!
d' Amalfi au Xe siecle#"
`ýrchiv. oper
XXXIV n. 8. (1955)-, pp. 64-65.
NoDOlotnne.
the
cE-o8..
ßyzcntine
flog
during
their
would
almost
in Sicily,
conquest of Egypt.
of the lost
the warriors
suggests
that
infantry
and cavalry,
oliphants
that
decades
illustrate
various
shapes,
little
of this
island
in Sicily
were very mixed$ both
armed but there
Most were lightly
infantry
but
almost
impact
Muslim
true
on its
a long
was also
adult
time.
and cavalry,
Muslim
led by their
although
adis
own
under the Normans and their
Thoy provided
the available
engineers,
archers
opparontly
increased
troops
in
an emergency
tho
Harman
state
ns
appears
the paid Muslims
military
immediate successors.
and fought
Their
and heavy infantry.
it.,
unda provided
remained the real
backbone of Sicily
half
where
and Christian,
Nevertheless,
obligation.
had at
seems to have
this
territorial
Existing
male population,
to have had a military
and,
of
/ndalus
al
Sicily
of
organization
were concerned,
Norman,
heubnrks
in Muslim
paralleled
all
from early
or
or scale
mail
military
infantry
with
these,
The Norman conquest
infantry
for
undo
wearing
and 607).
the now rulers
of tho
decades of Muslim rule
have come from
might
597-602
the entire
operating
perhaps
minority
or cuirass
remained
of such troops
while the heavy hauberk
of armoured troops
92
Nurnorous carved ivory boxes and
was not unknown.
n substantial
indigenous
The. majority
91
The evidence
first
90
imids
r
by
the
employed
have been hoavy infantry,
certainly
Infantry*
as mounted
(rigs.
were later
as siege-
importance
also
grew more centralized,
39.
900
t3londa1
91.
Jbido
929
Gabriali,
93,
Normnnde. (Paria 1940),
Co Cahen, In R60imo Feod31 do i'Italio
(London
Sicily,
1912).
863pr
76
118;
E.
Curtia,
of
pp.
and
and 8onaditz,
p.
o2.,
--
p.
47.
"Gli
Arabi
in Spstgna e in Sicilia,
" p. 710.
da
la
Domination
371-372;
Niotpire
F.
Chalandon,
365
and
pp.
(Paris
Sicile,
Normande on Itplie
1907), uol. Il,
on
p. 535.
nt
4v -i
Co hJjhly
infantry
regarded were such troops
archers
Records
though
not
only
their
they formed a guard a?
94
the Royal Treasury.
for
their
in
princes
or. well
as cavalry$
troops
certainly
who fought
to
those
677,560,603,6045
Sicily*
warriors
of Norman rules97
mainland
Even after
the
of
and carry
from
infantry
to identify
were involved,
but also in attempto
the aubovquQnt HohenstziuFen destruction
98
and carvings
equiment
these
with
certainty
606 and 609).
Regular and auxiliary
the collapse
Yet f°uslirn
as both heavy and light
wear costume
Thus they may be impossible
aemo erase.
Africa.
Christian
of
95
may have been included
96
Such varied
only for booty.
Many may$ howeverp
were identical
or the Balkans,
others
on the paintings
appear
Norman kingdom.
while
are numerous,
warfare
Italy
in forth
co-roligioniots
Luang those volunteers
(rigs.
siege
also served in these war-zonos
infantry
that
in
achievements
Christian
against
against
Sicilians
of
that
recruited
by their
cro, sbownan of Lucern being particularly
This weapon had, of course,
in
to resist
of Isicm in Grestorn
to the Italian
the Muslims waro exilod
they were still
not only
new masters,
highly
regarded,
long been known in Sicily
funt, niua of Sici2
the
99
where it
(London 1957)0 p. 39.
94.
C. 3articons
95.
Gabrielij.
66-67;
F.
Ah,ind# np. cits
pp.
Studin I-11amica
des Normans do Sicilet"
964,
"Chronica
5lsvarums"
Lübecbcp
3761
Arnold
or
ßuckleri
p.
a2; citt
J2i
547,
I,
II
di
Sicilia
p.
val,
in Amari: ; tnrin dni f"usulmani
97.
Jwioonk
9¬3.
ývi-Pravenral,,
Mu;uimane
'iino heiraino do is resistance
E. i,
riaderna
Drionto
XIXIs
du
debut
9icilo
oiecio#"
on
au
xxxiv (1954)3, p. 286.
99,
ý'fh®nrfsa
a.
Admiral
citt
"Le Politiquo
Arabv
IX (1958)! PP, 92-93,
P. 114.
cit., ý, pp. 105-406.
L-lv
was used alongside
of Muslim
of
Egypt
n variety
Christians
ti'hile
Hot all
traditions.
Although
many accepted
faithful
to Christianity
their
but
Armenian
century
of
when they
would
formed
in
el
rulers,
100.
a quarter
in
of this
Armenian manuscripts
small
the
from that
Thereafter
100.
of almost
a groat
of
reappeared
period
Christian
in Hamdnida,
op
ulünids.
101
all
Armenia in the early
cits, ý, pp, 49-51.
MMirdranid
Some early
itself,
was
which
of the neighbouring
many Armenians,
and Fuslim
been
to
have
show armour
mostly
do in
of courses
Muslims (fig.
11th century.
".Notes cur lea
" Annolcýa do
rncuit6
242).
the Dyzantine
perhaps soldiers,,
Canard,
51;
49,.
M.
Qechir, bn, cit.
pp.
EgYpto
lf+ýpc)quo fatiniteý,
Armwiniena on
Bvatiir,
9th
when the Armenion mountains
queni-independent
Oriantalna
i' Inntitut
dfftudea
(1955)s pr 144.
d'Ac¬ý. rg XIII
901.
later
known as
capital
A major change seams to have taken place with
occupation
distant
century,
numbers by the
the Egyptian
of the F3yzantines,
not so different
10th
until
apparent
the
under
the
and among the E3yzentinen,
forces,
FFatimid
and
similar
in Muslim armies.
until
In the 10th century,
troops
few
Armenian
a
to that
very
nation. ýremoined
time
been
MMMuslimp
to
have
at
one
and
soon
between various
were divided
Caliphs
wore employed
Most such troops
?usnynlymh,
the
were not
mercenaries
a militia
had not.
of this
remained
which
to
10th
most of their
time lost
the majority
own region
those
communities were,
even when serving
control
effective
Islam,
armies
one in
from, the
The Armenians$ by contrast,
military
Outside
Christian
flany had by this
involved,
of course
eastern
the
in
an important
s"Nuolim"lends
central
610),.
role
a small
played
certainly
and the other
13th centuries.
have played
might
they
Sicily,
(fig.
of bows and slings
don Lettrea
4HI
to Fätimid
migrated
Egypt whore thoy formed an important
which was best known for
contingent
the bulk of such troops
their
Christian,
the limited
thou
shields
Cadr al
of
fnýimid
Caliphate
dominance
Oam lT,
even larger
to note
the
that
numbers
(Fig.
appears
troops
in
to
leaders
the recruitment
interesting
this
period
show
pseudo-1 i-fic
end other
eastern
104
of eastern
limited
in the late
With the Crusader occupation
and
from
of soldiers
recruitment
to be severely
Anatolia
11th
of the
in Looser Armenia in 1109 AD, however, many Armenian
apparently
offered
their
services
There they were to form the bulk of the
leadership
with
Coptic
and Crusader conquests
coast caused Egyptian
plain
of
Their
It
of around
variouz
politics
246)o
and 12th ccnturios.
uarriors
in
large
encouraged
103
shield
with
Armenian
AD.
1073/4
countrymen.
manuscript
itself
The turbulent
those
or
Unfortunately,
infantry
and thereupon
of his
the Armenian heartland
Cilician
in
Cairo
kite-sheped
also
The Saljüq
the Syrian
in
102
Armenia
illustrates
oven enabled
one Armenian
that
decoration
from
243).
became vizier
ss mo flat-bottomed,
sources
(fig.
pikes
military
it
Whether
archers.
was Muslim,
material
Rather
archers.
infantry
as would seem likely,
certainly
pictorial
end perhaps
the later
seize
leadership
available
does not
were Muslim,
its
military
Armenian,
of a Christian
became the Coliph'o
vizier.
105
to Fätimid
iashi
troops
u
Egypt.
under the
Bahräm, who subsequently
In fact,
most such Armenion infantry
102.
d
1'Epoýuca
Fzatirýido;
Uizir
Chr6tion
"Un
Ibýid. ý M. Canards
tudes
d'
flricantales
Institut
1'
dtý
Annnles
E3ahrrýtf"
1' Fircaýnian
(1954
&
WI
97,
KII
tiottros
p.
don
In
do
Fncult6
i
103.
Canards "Notes sur lea 11rr.
i6nicna
ßoahira, 10cs-citz;
m 1' 6poque Fatinites"
p. 145.
104.0o
105.
, hirs, 1oc, cit.
Canards "t1n Vizir
Chrction!
" pp. 94-97.
on Egypte
4-12
in Egypt were now apparontly
archers
These Armenians were clearly
for
employers,
they
where
serving
fought
often
The influence
In
manuscripts
Byzantine
persistent
century
while
Frankish
(Fig.
654).
had retained
as occasional
before
in sono later
role
cnd light
retained
infantry
allies
tho Franks arrived
in Crusading warfare
P"uslin
states
groat
degree,
samm time
there
opposing
a result
of the Franks'
Crusader emphasis on close
1318 1,D
East
they
the
Armeninnn:
are best
probably
remembered
served
The partially$
or
who played"such
consisted
of both infantry
Crusades.
cooperation
an
seem to have been crchere.
was a revival
the
dated
cries
they chiefly
On foot
they
in Syria.
Syrian
cases wholly,
cavalry.
At this
of
Crusaders.,
13th
250 and 251),
like
They,
107
into
the Maronitoc
although
and although
archers
or
as
in the Middle
communities
an exception.
the
248'
a manuscript
traditions,
Snljuns
as well
mid-
various
in
obvious
Christian
such martial
were effective
iiportünt
is
and wider
states
and the
Muslim
(Figs.
Armenia
siege
employers nay be reflected
warriors.
in
testes
Crusader
lards,
otn
ninglo
styles
influence
of Mount Lebanon
locally
showing
Few other
the
Shayaart
of those varied
from ocstern
sources
in both
Syria
their
under
106
of Süm.
Arncnian
of
in their
catholic
Nur Al DTn of
the rungidhitos
oporationoi
Christians.
Yet
of
this
infantry
in
was not,
to any
own reliance
those
on heavy infantry.
between horse and foot
106.
ibn
Munqirl,,,
733;
t)sänah
Elisa6Qffs
p.
op. cit.
ýhfl*ýý
3rs#
"Byzantine
ldryanis
S.
47;
itw
Smails
106;
p.
ari
p.
in
their
Turkish
Societies
of
manpawvrj"
sources
and
and
J.
Enst
V.
Parry
is
the
f4idd.
in
Socis±t
Usr Technolo
sand
(London
141.
1975)p
Yapp
4l.
E.
p.
edita.
and
a,
107.
Smailsa..
108.
Usamah ibn rungidh,
p. 51; Smail,
orLcit,
p. 112; Arnwars ap, cýitw pp. 340-341.
cit.
pp. 52-53.
o2, cit,
lps
413
in open battle
ccployed
of
3azlra
by both 3yzantinea
earlier
infantry
in
from
thoco
the
minor
was more a revival
nomadic
tribes
of
depended,
In addition
the Zangids of the Jozlra
crossbowman,
infantry
with
in
warfare,
siege
cmployed urge
shield#
apoar
mentioned
Din chose
such
foot
again
face
soldiers
Comparable
infantry
spears$
rdfyoh
.
hauberk
the
Usämah ibn
rungidh.
in art
"enemy" warriors
267).
Cahons
110,
tÄlissnafi"j
111,
Ih.i äs
112,
llsaMoh ibn
mentioned
they
or small.
or figures
"UpYý
11ZgCS.
oes-ci.,
_.
in
probably
done#III
daggerp
a mail
with
served
of
in most
may also be
particularly
where
the Sins are concerned
almost certainly
to be noen in
Cit.
pp. 733-735.
p. 742,
i"unqf d'. s
,_1_4ýit,
c jnt-)rT
tho memoirs
Such infantry
symbolizing
however,
h
nikn
apparently
from the Crusader states,
They are,
1p0f
all
In factlo
areas isms
armies of this
reflected
112
are
helmets
manners
tc rs shield,
sword,
41hon
battle'
set-piece
had long
of naptha*
and khüdh :n
110
a traditional
as they
cavalry
grcnades
face,
in
specializing
notablo.
in opens
fought
armed with
garrah
across
avantail
enemies
their
with
mail
his
seem to have
cooperating
or ruý,
(fig.
to
and heavy
Aleppo
were particularly
Gur al
abovo3
numbers of archers,
and man from
KhuräsanTa
SaljUqs
109
frontiers.
Anong those
and piko.
12th
as those
napthat hrowers
12affatTn
the
in
occurred
such as those
siogo--angineers,
and the
upon whom the
horse-archero,,
Armcnians
Syria
Saljügo
It
tke
tcT
* were rele-gaEQcl
to
The revival
over
Great
tradition,
of
Turkish
took
or the
empire
to thoso tactics
and Fatinida.
that
states
crumbling
contury
had largely
no different
was ossontially
74-. 75 and 124.
Pp.
s
ah
4-I4
many pictorial
from the Muslim side of the t'rontieri
sources
and the Caucasus to the ioztra
from /zorbeyjZn
renging
In most cases their
is traditional,
oquipment
(Figs.
ci'ordo now shown more frequently
386' 420,422
423).
and
Infantry
remained
They nay#
Ayyübida.
on the
offensive
DTn'o
armies
included
plus
h
Junior
mnm
as mounted$
Syrian
various
and Mosul,
Aleppo
Open battle
avoid.
still
plus
behind
except
existing
that
114.
of
infcntry
that
highly
regarded
siege
militias
troops
of
men
specialist
113
infantry,
facing
facing
cavalry
both Franke and Ayyubids tended to
to al jcrsüsT,
Muslim foot
spear,
soldiers
were
the
in
of
cavalry,
ranks
ahead
up
tall
it
as
remained
javelin
more than marely theoretical
Thereafter,
shields.
had for
centuries,
nrkh crossbow to their
the
could now add
of sward,
on foot'
and local
anuiAºah and tares h
the infantry
times
confederation#
levies,
between horse and foot
arsenal
were clearly
113,
with
Kinanch
tribal
recorded.
to drew themselves
a wall
cooperation
,
Ca1 h'a1
to fight
trained
relied,
the Fatimid
from
some
comparable
--
are all
according
trained
the
cities,
was an issue
Yeti
other
that
was
at different
but
inherited
Islam
castles.
the large
of
were also
while
from Lhurýasän itselfj
cavalry,
troops
and other
states
massive
constitution,
and cavalry
373,376,380:
now that
of Crusader
their
of
curved
Sa1nh o1 0Th cnd the
have increased
their
Arab infantry
Caliphate.
fron
in
though with
310,372$
under
a string
defences
varied
cenil
as wall
indeed,
against
an the
above ally
important
itself.
and bow.
114
Such tactics
and cocm to have been
Gibb,f "Tha ArnioS 'Of Golmdin e' lococit.
144,
Ii
22
vo1.
nnd
op.
pp.
ý,
_cit,,
Al »crsüaT. pp cit,,,
125-126,
pp.
o
j
cImäd
öl Oln,
4-15
used by ýalýý
DTn's
al
Comparable troops
be illustrated
may well
Those Muslim
during
116
infantry.
battle
open
Arabic
place.
involved
in
such trained,
'
and
Latin
sources
agree
fighting
varied
greatly
equipped
infantry
the
"nong
items
nrTidah
Zirürnh
flano--throw©rst
bogs!
forms. of rncntlet,
fact
fron
just
some of
equipped
Itinnrnriun
appear
in both
Pornprinorun$
Anon.,
1160
ttunciman,
117.
[3ahä nl DTn, °pýciiý
p. 77; anon.,
mad al Dln, a_ts.
AP. G4 and 78;
150,164 and 191.
cInxd
1113.
o2,
al Dln,
"
dir
vol.
on, citsa
III,
pp.
p.
p.
h
haubprks
plus
other
an e 'fvc'tive
11'
mlall al
: fn's
troops
spear
Christian
cros3boWf,,
clhu}n
to build
siege
double-
'gtu"sas'° or
narýthn
s, ýl.elds,
a short
115,
cit,
Irkh
lances.
the best
with
horserien.
spears,,
shiolcc,
after
armour,
protected
doggcrst
zarEZL
used
and
swordss
These, various
shows an infantryman
troops
arms
become trench-warfare.
virtually
where
their
ormoured,
untnri,
often
troops
fluslim
heavily
are
lorz : her
large
117
in
source
the region
recruited,
Similarly
ati11
hauborks'
were
One pictorial
from
and
but
grenadosi,
nlnb
shields.
in what
shield-wall
naptha
hah nail
leather
and n< an
to
raacoa, light
or knobbed
turn shieldoý
... ý....
snbi
warriors
a Fortiriec=
of
the
in
nenn
could
blockedo
that
mentioned
equipment
of
or
siege
and dismounted..
edged axes,, winded
spearsp
the
professional
infantry
Ayyübid
of
course,
of
.,,
during
such
lightly
thnnIßh
This
the
who opened
the role
however,
to siege-warfare,
was limited
sortie.
166).
cnc( javelin-throwers
archers
Genorally,
one major
115
in a Coptic Gospel
of Arouf in 1191 AD may have included
battle
from
at
Ayyübid Egypt (Fig.
from early
.
garrison
oºýkkmh
c1ýý 'ýj
were
(rig.
"r)A).
and
slim,
,u
nrt
26.
56.
t'ßroý..rinorurr
Itinnrüriu^ý
75,4':
'1-#
pp.
,
ý
135 and 191.
If 16
of
this
that
area
these
the
in
men and their
century
indicate
and probably
lasted
reputations
(Figs.
invasions
flongol
following
2013,, 2139,292,294¢
the
up until
right
296r-299,302,305
and 306).
Puny of the same troops,
continued
to serve Salnh al Din's
to appear
in
also
cuirasses#
by bare
Ayyübid
feet
are
they
certainly
of
also
seen to have been infantry
which
specialized
even in
siege
Europe.
engineers,
Oyzentiun
extent
throughout
skirmishers,
and heavily
Most would
javelin
probably
period.
throwers,,
infantry
would
area
first
in
emerged,
infantry
or
to fight
120.
Al HarawT,, "Los Conaaila du
to a great
divided
into'light
(Fig.
20G),
in ranks (Fig,
199).
or archers
slingors
XVII (1961-1962),
the
forces
They were early
Saurdal-Thomino
Christendom,
like.
the
and
archers
on its
from
have been heavy
'T1ufarrij
JaraFalal DTn Ibn ttasil,
of tha
Ayyub, " in Arab Histariana
p. 235,
Drientalae
most seem
proportion
troops
Mercenary
119.
J.
change.
horsemen.
course,
was,, of
which
trained
men
armoured
Ayyübidas"
siege
177) as indicated
troops
larger
Much the
crosabowrzen,,
this
and
not
on foote
(Fig.
attracted
professional
was relying
did
spears#
puttee.
of
Islam
of
to be dismounted
infantry
sworde,
tärinsh
variety
similarly
and
equipment
of
_irnuwTynhv
and a great
and foot-wear
and Catholic.
Orthodox
turd
shows many warriors
art
Their
same, consisting
and training
and a sort
The armies
both
tactics
equipment
rarely
the
houborka,
mail
Their
later
by their
Only
art
Ayyubid successors#119
170 and 172).
bows, crossbows
$
shields,
equipment.
Uhilo
(rigs.
seems to have remained
kr burn
other
Iyyübid
the ex-raa imid Kinannh,
including
s31 Kurlib fl akhbär sani
Crunadca, Gabriali
Qdit..
ýyrý
äl Harawl. `ä un princEa
trans.,
pp.
Guilvtin
232-239.
d' Etudcr
120
417
Even during
heavy
Cyzantiumic
and light
infantry
provided
a secure
charges$
while
an offensive
constantly
in
appear
(Figs.
and heavy
included
by the
Anatolia
lesser
the
the
infantry
it
does not
frontiers,
included
also
the
combat
those
of
of
such
name tactical
limes
provincial
frontier
Following
regions
to
limes
the disasters
far
123
in effect,
of the Saljüq
among
weapon.
In
infantry
tight
the
art
207 and 214-216).
invasions
sought to revive
central
infantry
to be seen in
(Figs.
from
troubled
up by powerful
persisted.
as Cappadocia
the
was'
popular
are probably
in
regions
numbers of heavy
concepts
recruited
and to a
casalr'y
were backed
large
certainly
effectiveness
from peaceful
of
and 2200)
122
century.
became an increasingly
whom the battle-axe
211,217
seem to have applied
troops
Such frontier
that
forces
levies
Once again they
were almost
aristocratic
More a now system
provinces.
up.
set
local
also
121
military
its
as skirmishers
and mercenaries
the 9th
Byzantine
of
deliver
could
(figs.
prisoners
The fornor
role.
fight
Such troops
during
a? foctod
to
light
art,
Byzantine
decline
chiefly
extent
border
Byzantine
Egypt
of
the cavalry
continued
212 and 220A).
Tülünids
a vital
in broken country.
role
among those
Mile
from which
infantry
and play
to play
continued
square
light
phase in the 10th century,
offensive
its
during
infantry
the
forces*
later
11th century,
121"
Howmrd-4ohnson# ap_.: Itap
122.
Oosworth,, "Armies or tho Prophvt, " p. 2031 Hassanj a
p. 168.
123.
Fsollus,
144;
142
Howarsi-.Onhnsaný a. cit.
and
pp.
ý o,
ý cit, ý
"ßeux
tdarmands
Chefs
Schlumbargerg
G.
30,4?
141;
pp.
and
des Armees Dyzo,ntines au XIa 5ic cles, " Revue f iiatrarinups
XVI t1ßS1)a
124,
Byzantium
p.
pp. 202-206.
299.
Chal+endon, Leo Cmmnenoo - Etudna our li Em ixa
vol.!,
pp, 279»279 and vo1. II, p. 21.
Q zantin
cit.
124
GX
>< -><
C xxx
I
418
Again
light
though
and heavy
former.
These troops,
the heavy with
clearly
enjoyed
siege
however,,
than
warfare
domestically
throughout
its
Such troops
long
was infantry,,
231,233,2370
Dithynia
and the
now frontier
against
of
by those
to appear
in
skilled
Saljüq
sultans
or as
rnd7r'gunrds
mountainous
The 5alJüq
of the ruler
no had earlier
Iran,
of
rulers
almost
provinces
troops
15th
in Turkish
style.
centuries.
twilight
(rigs.
No doubt
guerrilla,
üyzantium's
along
recruited
a horseman,
In general$
troops$
been
to
havo
armoured
seen
the
and siege
engineers
Some, however,
seem
and 262).
employed
fought
it
warfare
who chose
257,250
Rüm also
age
to serve
himself.
apparently
heavy enough to dismount
lcssoo
to
with
cavalry,
mercenary
Georgien
boon recoirim,ended to the Great Saljüq
Some Georgian*
seem
though
and 656).
Most were captives
to heue been mercenaries176
skilled
who were now so eagerly
Rüm as garrison
of
would
of this
art
defensive#
the Turks,,
same Turks.
the
in
cýntury.
less
Byzantium$
12th
230,655
the
other
in
the
during
12th
This
shield,,
shield,,
itself
and foreign
recruited
continue
223,23Db
foes.
the
in
125
situation
decline
or small
now found
its
many of
an the
bow and small
large
success
Byzantium
the military
additional
of
222 and 225),
a concentration
armed with
a good meacura
to have remained
(Figs.
the light
axe,, sword and either
Paradoxically,,
in
corps
seem to have forcod
circumstances
(figs.
were organized
as infantry
Others fought
127
troopss
of
rulers
javelins
using
with
bow and
however$ these 'Georgians
mostly
mounted, but well
able
620--622.
610-619
and
Pp.
125.
ib id, a, vol.!!,
126.
(London
19613),
230-234*
Turkey.
pp.
At#.
C. Caheni r.Pro..
oman
r
*
r
*
r.
1270
Uryonio*
loc.
4-tq
to fight
on foot
when the need arose,
to have had more in 6m. on with
than with
noighboura
(Fig"
apparently
but
Slav
acquired
and were trained
homes.
and r
inid
perhaps
as slaves
and Kurdish
there
from in
Fä»imid
close
Venice
They may,, in
131
.
to
fact,,
recorded
troops
CawCp comparcblo
and elsewhere,,
of their
that
0Abbäsid
now
as early
Iraq.
as the late
have been numbered
in
may also
Cairo
in
of Italy
of tho ruslim
that
East,,
11th
among rum n1
1005 AD.
have werved_in
many
republics
the Middle
with
129
mercenaries,,
maritimo
contact
Tho infantry
,
They were
styles
European
Italian
at least
Egypt
and
Franks.
commercial
is ^h mercenaries
not dissimilar
Spain,,
those
or around
are known in
force'
origin.
via
the sn nlibnh
included
more varied
Ifrlgiyah
were the
in
century.
Islam
served in the armies of both julünid
Achlcbid
were already
trios,
seem
Turks or ayzontines
from youth in the military
Egypt,
130
in
serving
probably
Such sa nlib h
Finally
lulunid
Arab,, Persian
the more specialized
troops
foreign
supposed
s,taz
u
their
As such they
421).
Other
of
120
In this
Namdanid and earlier
was, at this
time,
side of tho r"editerranean
560-.562,, 565,563. -571 and 574),
do
Gýorgie
"Los
Rcinco
39
M.
1213. Rsolluo, Q2. cit.
Canards
p.
in
Revue
Ia
legende
Mans l1hiotoira
n
musulmanesi"
et
Rustýhovali,
17;
1969
op.
Etudeß Islnmi
p.
xx>cV1I
en
a
_cit.
ans iri.
129.
Caowarth, ººRecruitment, fluster and Review in rmdiova2 Ia1a;ýic
63-67;
34-38
Veahir=
6C-57=
end
Arniosi"
ciý
ý,,,
p,,,
pp.
) with Iraqi Pvrsiai
Imanuddin, "Cn.-mmrcial Relations cf Spain 7,
Khurosen, China and Indin in the Tenth Century AC. " p. 179.
130.
Canard, ººLa Procession
pp. 332-393.
131,
G®shir# ap
du 14quvol. An chex lea F'otimidc+si n.
pp,, 51-52.
_.
4-zo
the confusion
After
of relatively
fixed
Christian
both.
warriors
those of the 12th century
Vhcthcr
Others may also hovo oorvod in Ayyübid Syries
which
thaw
were,
in
released
in
12th
Crusader
prisoners
adventurers
Curopoan
high In the Saljüq
after
134
Iran
r in134
while
sultanate
locally
junior
Unlike their
dismount
also
ahd fight
information
recruited
on foot.
fought
sailors
mercenaries.
Such
their
state
the
first
from
comes
Their
numbers were
the Mongol invoaiunsp
for
the 1lkh7ns
of Delhi,
of
135
seems to
the
from
drawn
ranks of
or
Frankish foes, oven the
and indeed trained:
preparod,
!lost
homes in many
in Egypt and Syria
aristocratic
wore quite
mr,#,
before
the Sultana
of the ttanlük
haue been either
most senior
from
particularly
57gß 502 and 5ß7)o133
and perhaps even for
nrnm
for
serving
dato others
The infantry
others)
from
recruited
centurios,
Italian
apparently
(Figs,
this
13th
end early
were already
armies
though theaa
by their
the lots
were
included
as renegades
co-raligionists
reason,
ý6r_so,
Rün,
Some of these latter
"1eXwere not.
Sal jüq
and crosabawmen,
soon
is unknowns but they probably
have boon regarded
uhilo
132
service.
would
quite
Crusade and the establishment
west Europeans F'rankisht
or infantry
were cavalry
First
between the SalJügs of R-um and their
frontiers
neighbours,
appeared in Saljüg
of the
of the earliest
half
that
to
supposo
reason
available
of the 14th century,
there
to
but
there
is little
132,
"An Account of the Battle of Nattin referring
J. Richordi
ýiosý.om ýtateaý, " ýaS
to Frankish iaorconarioa in Oriental
XXVII (1952)j pp. 169 and 171; Cohent Pre-Ottoman Turkey.
133.
Richord'q
1340
Tbid,
1350
Yar ruha { ad Khan, o
on-j- cit.
pp* 172-"174,
p. 174.
ci t-ý
p. 22,
uarcteny
major changes
1oawý,
cit.
4z1
during
the
Some of
first
the
first
be superior
and that
in hostile
these
the
former
were infantry
encounters,
with
an
A great
deal
always
for
13
their
protecting
in both
advance
sources
that
infantry
earlier
list
sources
drawn from
archers
the
in
in
acted
settled
a great
of
variety
sworda$
axes$
Syria,
of
communities
or for
were small
Palestine
dnra nh and larger
In attack
cavalry.
dabbüs al muhnrrafah
nacass
winged
described
there
are
bowsý
pp, 3-X5 and 336.-33?.
136.
Al AgsarosT,
0
137,
ctlmar
130.
Al AnsarTi oaLcit,,
139.
107;
104-105
al Agsarä'T,
Al AnsarT,, op__cit ,. pp.
and
pp. 325 and 337-338,
op
140.
palpstind
in EgYpt, Syria,
Feudalism
A. N, Poliak!
pp.
(London 1939)s
11-14.
l. ßbanon, 1250-190tI,
op, cit.,
these
arms and
though the armour to be worn 15 rarely
taý,.,
br
in
as they
tenrinnh shields,
as specifically
infantry
recognized
For defence there
infantry
cooperation
from hostile
and Lebanon*140
for
such
and pursue
scatter
as effective
quite
or
been
to
have
seem
of
many
whom
to be used by infantry,
armour
and how
139
centuries.
These various
check,
in
given
defensive
was, however,
were no longer
136
the latter.
against
own cavalry
It
and defence.
is
attention
apparently
still
warfare,,
and cavalry#
tb"
to
encampment while
to be on the
were expected
they
of
infantry
considered
Similarly,
horsemen,
had been in
they
army's
themselves
defend
infantry
or defensive
to defend
to combat between
Mamlük state.
declare
still
in "cautious"
137
can best
the OahrT
of
manuals
vital
were
territory,
works
cavalry.
furl
to cavalry
they
century
war-torn
ibn 2briihim al AwBT al AncarT,
TndbTr Al Nurüb. A t"uslin iinnunlofUer.
(Cetra
1961)9 p 87.
Tnfffi
Agaarä'T#
72;
p.
al
al. Kurüb fT
G. T. Scanlon trans3. #
lnrcz, cit.
ths
4z.z
rumh spears,
Crusader
infantry
to be as varied
312,649
they
infantry
mobile
role
even in
141.
cavalry
their
in
of
swords
the areas
13th
that
including
14th
and early
equipments
the period
and
(Figs.
from
Muslim
century
offensive
or defensive,
274,301,3119
273!
and 650A).
Whether
major
of
shows late
states,
as were Muslim
khan ar short
the art
Similarly,
macQat141
the
javelins,
znrig
and
farces
to play
the tiamlük
Al Anaarls
participated
o
primarily
infantry
in open battle,
in Muslim
state
cit.
of
warfare
in
troops
as siege
the
late
clearly
13th
or as
had a
century,
5yt id and Egypt.
pp. 107-108;
al Aqýsra'ý.
loc. ciý.
,,
3
ý-z
CHAPTER 7
EUROPEAN INFLUENCE IN AL ANOALUR
Cavalry probably
throughout
the
to north
this
the
had long
area
in
poor
of
and in
and Berbers
during
the
first
phase of
is
importance
horsemen,
an important
while
the
827/8
AD would
Andalusian
earlier,
littoral
than with
in Spain.
yet
to rise
Christian
could
their
cldärT
3
Cultural
very
feel
of
Histnire
the
been
such
long,
in
both
infantry,
mounted
Muslim
numbers
raids
enlistment
8th
the
This
more in
common with
in
must
had, of
As mentioned
Mediterranean
Arabs
though Christian$
dn 1tFsnnnntý
trend
I
of many indigenous
height.
century
the Pyrenees,
Sicily
of
barriers
and religious
seem to
of
norT
to the conaueot
to any significant
near-barbarian,
Lý"viýProvenrýal
pp. 53-G5.
in
by the rapid
rulers
still
invasion,
their
seen to have been mounted.?
also
in
had themselves
increasing
least
or at
part
and
Islam.
contribution
have been reinforced
courser
in
elsewhere
Certainly
warriors
were already
neighbours
conquerors
to have persisted
unlikely
its
peninsula
in horses
Muslim
Arabs
as cavalry
have taken
on its
the
affairs
particularly
been rich
Although
cavalry
a state
in the Iberian
Compared with
Ages.
was bound to have an effect
Bth century.
1,
Dark
so-called
and south,
to flourish
continued
and ferbors
Frankish
neighbours
fylusulmrýne, va1. I!
Ibn al
"Al f3ayan o1 f'?aUhribg" In f3yz. nce et les Arnbes.
(flrusa; ols 1935)9 vo1. I» p. 374; Amari,
trano.,
A. A. Uasiliev
marin rtci Musulmýani di 53cilin.
pp. 394"395.
vol.!,
......
.
..... ....
nchez-Al,
3.5
bornaz$ "El Ejecito
y la Guerra en ei Rein© A3turleone-cy"
? 16-1037.
301.1
p.
t"
2.
ý-zrL
to the north.
to have felt
unlikely
mercenaries
this
Hence Flaurontiua,
many ethical
his
against
time
the ftarrhrib
and many Christian
5th century,,
foes
in 736-739
converted
thorn
flourished
still
ADo4
to
is
Muslim
enlisting
engaged in a slave-trade
apparently
At
Islam
in the
between europe
5
were first
enrolled
a[
Tr
in at Andalue by the Umeyyod n
Hak= I in
as mal; k troops
8th and early
while
of Provence:
about
to be fully
had yet
Slaves from the north
Islam
qualms
Carolingian
communities
and the Muslim world.
the late
the Patrician
and Spanish captives
9th centuries.
some ware not.
Spanish
to
Soma were converted
mercenaries
similarly
employed
al
by, Hakem's successors almost certainly
retained their Christian
6
ýaith.
highly prized in the mid-10th
European mtm,auks were still
ý,
century when they were described as heavily armoured cavalry
carrying spears,
Wearing helmetas both hauberks and cuirasses,
7
item does
The latter
horna.
small shields and gilded buffalo
appear somewhat later
or this
There in,
at
in facto
of the north
Traditions
many types
being
Coolers
found
op.
time,
though
south
the
of
with
finer
religious
is hard
the Christian
wealthy
of military
genre
throughout
identical
almost
were probably
this
at
that
to suggest
the rest
Iberia
throughout
were poor in such armour, while
and otylea
the peninsula
equipment
evidence
was known to manufacture
Andalus
but whether
art,
the ideal
equipment reprocentod
to nay.
states
in Asturian
and more abundant
divide.
p. 152,
S.
F. E. Engreen$ "Pope John the
XX t195Q39 p. 321.
60
Levi-prQvangal:
pp. 71-16.
Nistoire
7.
ibf d. s vol. Ilit
p. 196.
Eighth
de Ms.
and the
Arnbs, " c elýý
a, no Musulmane
vo1. iII,
C xxxl
I
C xxk
11t
425
Such a degree
in
proved,
of
a variety
and fluslimo
of
10th century.
though
tradition
of
in ruslim
tier
homogeneous
in
centuries.
Asturin
rest
of
their
Christian
traditions
in
al
this
may only
Subsequent
Spain
would,
Navarre,
largely
Christian
infantry
warfare
make such
to
establishment
in the 9th conturyp"
decpiýo
France,
for
more important.
even when other
on arena
France after
the
Spanish (larch
though temporary
90
Ibid.
10, Cooler,
ap
pp. 1513nnd 165.
for
and Catalonia
11
foino
Guerra
"El
to
Ejecitu
Sa.
el
on
y
nchez-Albarnoz,
710-1037, " pp. 299,E 301,303--304 and 331-333.
"La Ccba2leria
elites.
in medieval
9.
Senchoz-Albornoz.,
similar
military
Aragon
short-. lived
a noticeablo
with
in
remained
by southern
the
Visigothic
dominance
the mountains
By contrast,
of the Carolingians'
to
influences
to push south,
influenced
off
aristocratic
French
throughout.
from
developments
and military
limited
cut
seem to have been
Leon and Caatilet
their
however,
and 11th
by contacts
political
started
to
be greatly
were
Visigothic
the 8th
true
remained
by military
being
states
a
were not,
states
reinforced
have affected
however,
of
were virtually
and thus
Andalus.
CastilivEn
persistence
between
styles
probably
influenced
superficially
but
military
Europe
a feature
indicate
Christian
of minor
and Gnlicia
tradition,
probably
Cordova
unconscious,
medieval
Andalus.
al
The northern
cavalry#
tradition
the early
in
Asturin-Loon
in
course
Christiana
to Visigothic
clinging
any such similarities
comparable,
that
hardly
as spears and swords in the early
Christian
of
though
plus armoured and light
Since a conscious
Was characteristic
period,
on infantry
bows so well
some of whom carried
indicated,
These suggest
sources.
both relied
0
is
similarity
Visigodn.
" p.
influx
Aoturleones,
10B.
of IuSlin
influence
the latter
during
half
of the 10th century
at a time when French power was at a singularly
To come extent
variations
such
may have been reflected
Building
upon a Visigothic
Christian
and
.
true
of
Spain
lacked
.
h; zin
of
elite
almost
a greater
number of
full-time
and European
in
cavalrymen
non-noble
The military
troops
time
by foes
being
despite
as were
and their
Europa,
of
11.
the
of
and outside
feudal
these
replacement
levies
levies
qualities
for
organized
much lower
warriors,
quality,
frontier,
the
from
both
North
and for
Africa
Here,
opinion
in which
Mu3lima1
particularly
more broadly
full-
The gradual
Europe.
of
by other
the
these
The rest,
side
poor
was
forces.
of
Europe,
the peninsula.
such an inferiority.
were hold
Iberian
on the Muslim
the generally
armies
were experienced
throughout
by mercenaries
must have reinforced
tribally
elite
male
obligation.
feudal
such
feudal
bore
of
capabilities
scars to have been of
mounted,
one reason
fighting
greatly.
inside
comparable
downgrading
As in
and professional
aristocratic
respected
lies
differed
an army
warriors
military
occasional,
those
characteristics
the rest
while
warfare,
of Muslim
structure.
produced
nevertheless
though
between
the states
and economic
of professional
continuous
The main difference
various
divide
and muttnwwicrh
a quasi-feudal
social
but
had a real,
also
foundation,
the essential
feudalism
a small
the brunt
society
frontier
soon developed
many of
European
in which
among the
tho religious
of
of Islam to the south.
volunteers
Thin
north
low ebb*11
and
perhaps,
Andalusian
those
war-orientated
French and Cntnlan
The ßevela mnnt or southern
A. R. lewist
7113--1050 (: ustin#
Texass 1965)0 P. 1910
Snciet
4-z7
12
flanhrib.
Of couroes religious
but these were again inexperience
armies
who served for only
the
hnz n participated
howovers
have been "a society
for
internal
its
organizations
against
the
of
similarly
for
warlike
Straits
forces
fron
Christian
Franks
Even within
Spain
Into
0th
hundred
face of
very
large-scale
fewer
far
,
development
occurred
when the kingdom
Couroa
be revived
levies
thus
and its
proved
professional
troops.
the very
of
at
Asturin-Leon
of
a matter
generally
enabling
armies
its
start
against
French
hands
is
this
of
were
in
raid
tradition
three
in
the
important
period
static
Visigothic
the
and reprisPil
The host
seized
to mirror
for
ineffective
the plaino
once again
6th
organization
changed
was generally
batter
was established
territory
little
and
14
of military
Once a frontier
Uarfare
yearn.
forms
tested
as the
and southern
France.
northern
such
successful.
century,
in which
of
for
fared
¶panicrds
of
the Pyrenees
Even as early
(ndalum
al
was organized
were rarely
of
north
13
may indeed
Spain
it
was$
the effectiveness
and equipment
Gibraltar,
of
main^, t the
notably
but
wars"
neighbours
bast's
Medieval
In such struggles
organized
not
river
organized
experience
r1uslim
century,,
then
issue.
conflict.
equally
south
separate
in which
fighting,
on a much more long-tarn
an entirely
of muttnwicah
C4 consisting
Frontier
one campaign.
big
could build
enthusiasm
the
north
of
of
cavalry
those
of
to
Muslim.
12.
Ga.briali'
"Gli Arabi in Spagna e in Italia., " p. 711; Lovif7-68.
IxIý
l'Csýaoncý
Histcýircý
pp.
dn
("usulnanevol.
provencalý
r
13.
"A Socioty
Organized
L. Louria:
Post nnd Present
XXXV (1966),
,....... _..ýý,. _,
RA.
Lawies 'The Devc*lo r,*nt
15,5e©1ars
opip. c itt
for Vor:
!! s9in.
of Southern
p. 162.
r-odieval
Spaing"
Frpnch and Cntnlsn
Societ
al
1+zý
Andalus,
states
A comparable
the
of
Pyrenees
Ebro were reached
of
that
course,
of a distant
did
the
in
the
Visigothic
of
sources
(Figs.
the
those
of
Andalus
cl
(Figs.
century
One might
(Figs.
the
494 and 507).
506--509),
art
the
the
fact
10th
its
in matters
regions
adopted
account
the
newer
of
nature
the cavalry
been slow to adopt the stirrup
continued
16.
Ibid,
to ride
Visigoths
styles
tendentious
Umayynd Cordova,
the
without
pp. 165-166.
from
of
10th
warriors
like
equipped
and as con1an,
495,496,504
of
legacy
and
Europe.
gave the
Iberian
it
soon seems to
elsewhere
in
the Muslim
may have stagnated,
and equipment
to
cavalry,
of
In fact,
styles
the
of
art
the rest
Visigoth
seem to
similar
illustrates
from
by developments
Andalus
the
(Figs.
have been overtaken
ei
be very
are as similar,
century
the
of
co-religionists
and were probably
divorced
that
a head-start
peninsula
in
art
Infantry
and are equally
Despite
Other
or Muslim,
of
shown here
They may, however,
appear
the
in
Christian
century
their
common with
504 and 507).
surviving
16
be traced
in mid-9th
The warriors
who first
who may be Chriatian.
both
in
those
see a celebration
almost
cavalry
Europe.
of
was then,
than
rather
to some degree,
can,
nothing
rest
France
the
of
It
centuries.
of
Christian
the plains
until
and 12th
502 and 503).
have virtually
among the
cavalry
occur
styles
Asturo-Leanese
revival
in
11th
of
past were to come to the fore,
the peninsula.
of
not
cavalry
Such developments
art
revival
clinging
whereas
Central
Asia.
Ibn hawgal's
to the
world.
riding
the eastern
Islamic
Even taking
descriptions
4
into
of
of Umayyad Spain do seem to have
flared
the
and
stirrups,
using
flat
saddle.
saddles
Many
that
were
in
CXkx
ý/
little
mare than
course.,
padded
Flat
saddles,
true
loop
and true
stirrups
(Figs.
period
was merely
Iberian
all
exaggerating
the
10th
was not
the
11th
Christian
Yet even here
(figs.
or buff-leather,
17.
Mnnhhrib.
the
indicate
or rope
art
in both
the
of
that
north,
only
bit,
Ibn Hawgol
.
parts
the
of
Europe
and not
this
the
in
494 and 507)19
full
the
or
helmet
On the other
and even possibly
5ürat
so true
al Ard
century,
the
until
nl
Andslus.
dedicated
frontier
of
in
and heuberk
hand armours
quilted
12th,
armour and helmets
lack of metallic
was not
who immediately
and Sicily
Spain
adopted
of
the
10th
felt
ormours may not only
p. 113.
"E1 Ejecito
10.5änchaz-Albornozy,
y in
änes$
718-1037. q" p. 334.
t,sturl
Guerra
en el
Reino
19.
303-.
304;
Ibn
flaiyan!
Mulük,
Sir;;
Al TurtüshTy
pp,
al
"Ejecito
in Sanchez-. Albornozp
F. todera tranav
y in
334..
335,
718-1037a"
Asturlvoncss
ßoina
pp.
el
20.
"Gli
Gabrielis
tvvi-Provenýaljq
pp. 9()--112.
Arnbi in
Nintoirp
ý w.
w.:
by
either
10th
the
at
(Figs.
0th
the Maohrib
outside
widely
elite,
a full-time
Ibn Hswgal! Kitab
from
greater
use from
introduced
certainly
for
gave a rider
in widespread
by the 0yzantines
18
to the horse's
apply
which
or by traders
to have worn
20
however,
had been known since
was a definite
was likely
century
in
of
are,
leather
stirrups.,
might
was probably
western
century
there
curb
was almost
Adopted
known in
.,Bile
the
century.
then,
preceded
nh,nTl
Berber
backwardness
not,
It
themselves
the P°uslims
the
This
did
animal,
492 and 493) when it
in
the
together
appear
a real
Spain
his
over
until
of
Such styles
peninsula.
control
it
in
a lack
496 and 507).
Throughout
least
saddle-cloths,
saddles,
Such backwardness
bit,
17
known to have persisted
also
I-z q
Spngnm e in ItaiiaA"
pp,
da
l' £spaqna
f°lusulmnne
sww.
wrw
w
+.... w. ý. rrr
ý"uktabisp"
Guerra on
709-711;
vol. II I'
430
have boon common but
have remained
century.
Such armours'
even in
the most detailed
Iberian
courses.
stiff
on the
secondly
(Fig.
others
495).
as rare
when fighting
This
their
is
but
of
shield
(rig.
long-hafted
of
the Fiddle
Fast
504,507
and 559).
the
major changes in the military
survived,
a massive
tide
an increasingly
21.
of
when that
warriors
or
time.
P large
barbarian-infantry
Spanish
manuscript,
may have been mounted
in
10th
3rd
strongest
technologies
Indigenous
Rome, continued
century
in
^'uslim
was the
Spain
century
betýöCe re-emerging
of Spain.
states
certainly
feudal,,
the
those
parts
influence
military
from the 11th to 13th centuries
The period
a period
it
504 and 507).
century
they
known in
although
were under
the Christian
spears
appeared
that
Europe
(Figs.
in
a 9th
cavalry,
502).
mace which,
to be used
in
or buckler
abandoned
Europenn
among
horsemen
weapon that
Another
at
of
are almost
though
(Figs.
countries
and heavy
such shields
infantry
troops,
saddles
normal
style
by two unique
carried
with
on their
in most muslin
the
and
appearance
shield
may have either
spear,
shields
was normal
round
The small
and 506).
the
with
have slung
cut,
raised
helmets
to have been used by all
seems, however,
506)
Possible,
494,504
some
on the
(Fig.
similarly
13th
to identify,
firstly
some tunics
though
the
may be shown in
based
is
of
heavy,
very
(Figs.
judgement
collars
they
but
art,
into
well
difficult
are notoriously
This
and apparently
fashionable
saw a series
of
of both cl
Andalus and
Andalusian
traditions
but they were in many ways swamped beneath
French
southern
of
class
from
the
important
LaWia# The oevelo
pp. 3Q2-3aä.
rather
professional,
French
role
ment of
This
Influence.
ilidi,
the
Southern
than
new milits
in the Christian
French
was,
incidentally,
strictly
played
Recongiste.
end Catnlen
21
Snciet
k31
Such a tide
influence
of
followed
of power away from Muslim
state
Castile.
of
There
waves of norcenaries
a steady
towards
Andalus
el
were,
of
course,
and conquerors
in
shift
the balance
the expanding
also
washing
Christian
Berber
of
a series
the peninsula
inh
from the south.
The most obvious
of
a relatively
having
tho
doopite.
parts
to
Andalus
the
the Muslim
of
innovations
Catalonia
proved
quite
importation
Chriatinn
numbers of
to withstand
even they themselves
while
guerilla
uerfare
nlso
horsemen,
noble
terrifying
roar
cavalry
of
French
had other
recultn,
and non--noble,
to achieve
23,
Louriet
24,
Beelers, op..
25.
Moraes-Forißs
p. 73.
P. 172.
p. 817.
were raeardod
or were their
of t! ur; bit,4 n drums,
that
professional
horses
25
in persistent
Muslim nh xis were hnrdier
22,
PPito
24
seem to havo admitted
NoPPmeyers Arms and Armour in Spain,
_.
these
heavier
the Spnnicrds
In fact.
along the frontiers,
op.
its
be expected
hardly
and disorganized.
the
light
ether
lnrprly
they
by
now
normal nmong
of discipline
undisciplined
Furopr,
towards
the
fashions
could
and otherwise,
these
from
observers
with
coping
took
in western
for
22
cnntln.
ever
nnddle
23
french
and mercenary Muslim forces.
trained
of
capable
of
as notably
certnin
a disadvantace,
This
the stondards
of
adoption
a high
with
Nor was such caution
world.
13th century.
experienced
Spain
seen elsewhere
faea in thh early
Such ;large
position
Christian
nor
remarks
neceacarily
was the
pommel and n supporting
extremes
astonished
on tactics
riding
protective.
Muslim, al
developments
impact
straight-legged
a raised,
foithvr
french
vol. T# p. 140.
4-32-
than
and more affective
and Castile
horsemen$
only helmets,
dovelopm2nt
first
elite
en
at
only
new French
tactics
be reflected
in
in
of
11th
the
face,
feature
about
the
was
fact
atylo25
(figs.
spear
or
in
aeon
in
the hands of
Africa
or
mail
26.
Lourios
27.
Ibid.
this
net
carried
a bow in
there
had
houberka
of Europe
those
from
traditional
was the
Arab
adoption
Earlier,
but
before
its
With
cavalry.
pikes,
hiding
the only
In fact,
of lance--ploy.
al
and in
coifs
29
Andalus
naturally
country
mail
and small.
them apart
in
by these
and scale
shields}
European fashion
hauberk as a top layer
with
it
*
in
was now
being
so seen
East.
the Middle
Another distinctly
the
Andalus,
influenced
in mail
assorted
style
horsemen
al
Andalue,
by Andalusian
European
in
of (Muslim el
nn*nh had been an infantry
this
North
rf'ýn
in
Jtnata,
would
Above all
511 and 517),
many more
Such an elite
large
come still
a la
place
were
fought
that
and trained
a great
were things
clearly
ouch cavalry
presumably, p came a,
the eastj,
poetry
swords,
armour
bride.
was taking
and helmets
that
the heavy
of
with
heavy
Aragon
27
and pacts
elite
The
Catalonia.,
cavalry
minority
courtly
courts
types,
various
most of
the
While
seem to have fought
light
and equipment.
century
abundance.
in
still
lances.
and
shields
A comparable
though
the
in Leon,
as unarmoured
style
in
cavalry
lance
a couched
with
particularly
traditional
awn men,
numerous
equipped
them to fight
their
26
of dress.
was the wearing
of a
This was also noted by one
65-690
i-t-w
RP«
oA,.,, G,
r, _,
68-E9.
57p
PP"
21.
H. Perdsp PoFtie
pp. 350-359.
29.
Plonroas
op" c t_ý..
Andalouae en Arabs f;lnaai
aoain.
(Paris
1953)#
C xxx Vl
C XXX\/1
l
ýXXký!
Iýý
i
43 3
Jowich
poet
elite
in
the
of
this
the Middle
it
faces
do appear
and in tlozorabic
and 517).
Spanish,
cavalry
however,
have worn
seen in
a r°ozarabic
made of
these
would
10th
is
pieces
illustrated
sources
may show Andalusian
light
cavalry,
in
and indeed
for
Mere it
almost
even here
from
in
soldier
(Fig.
517),
Yet
rthers3
which
illustrate
certainly
elsewhere
description
of
unarmoured
be hidden
could
fashionable
to
similar
seems to be
clear.
a hauberk
of
and 514),
worn by a foot
together
in
beneath
(Figs.
Islam
490 and 510).
The most unombiguou,
the
Paco in
Christian,
pact-king
of Znllnca
the
32
late
10th
A more poetic
ml c"uctonid
in 1006 AD.
century
but
concerns
lens
by the
description
warrior
Here n face-covering
across
to a
refers
specific
n muslin
ventail
a mail
unfortunately
during
niný
the battle
was worn
30,
in
"
the
Qeni
Abbad!
"The Victory
Samuel Ha-Alagid,
over
(London
tr. ýnv..
r3, Goldstein
The 3ewlrh Ronts of Snin,
ý..
_.
__..
,.'t97tp.
..,....
_.....,...
___ý.
__.
62.
39.
ln
Tab
Andalusýi
Muhammad ibn Hani'
al t1nýn3'
al
cA1T
(Cairo
9934)!
zahid
Ibn
Hnni'
edit. s,
ciiiýrrn
6ß E'}»6ß7,
320
Al Turtühf,
pn.
p0 3090
"
They might,
a style
of
"enemies,
(rigs.
and cavalry
period.
remain
a style
across
of
497,499,511
stitched
warriors,,
although
garment
another
crudely
this
and
to hide
ventails
illustrations
armour
certainly
from
mail
Andalusian,
(rigs,
century
Africa
have owned hauberks.
or leather
almost
In North
more normal
infantry
of
not
still
felt
manuscript
large
Spanish
northern
ö courtly
31
or without
with
The majority
the
One such armour
or burud,
worn by both
art
499,515
that
in
30r'
was apparently
a surcoat
Such mail hauborko*
the
q mombcr of
Reyes do Taifna.
however,
beneath
himself
centuryo
the
age of
East$
a hauberk
11th
PT Shnrkh
vol.!,
pp.
43 Lý
a dirr33
with
This procono of Frenchification
century.
To varying
peninsula
and wasp above all,,
in
areas
Catalonian
nerconariva
as
indigenous
military
under
a layer
of
Berbers,
of
Caatil.
In the
12th
form
political
and persistent
these
"enemy"
figures
521 and 530).
Christian
though
nail
with
ventaila
the
that
early
core
certain
specifically
and fixed
all
visors
Aragon
the
of
art
parts
E
many
(Figs.
of
cavalry
.uslin
characteristics
519,520,
a
and Barcelona,
for
century
from other
section,
Iberian
(Figs.
control,
neighbours
European style
essentially
to be seen in
political
inspiration
12th
Comparable "enemy" figures
Spain suggest
and infantry
Navarre,
to have provided
of
c.nd.alus,
untouched
the nearest
Being
Christian
works
ei
managed to preserve
such a survival
various
end
apparent.
was similarly
of
French
almost
and euuatýýidun
1=urabitin
of
and
even
In ruelim
survived
in kdüdid Saragossa.
in
35
guardsmen,
institutions
century
are likely
Iberian
military
by a recruitment
elite
antagonists
Hudids
the entire
of Castilian
a result
control,
whore
the influence
in the 12th
It may also have been rainforcod,
Nr'ýbitjýn
under
influenced
degrees it
dominance.
political
illuatratedf
better
pronounced,, and was certainly
34
seemS` to grow even more
522-5250
frontier,
such as
S36.53C
and 540),
Unfortunately,
centuries
the Arab-Andalusien
are not very specific
Rather they drown their
33.
perea# loc. cit
34.
Dealer,
ýS.
Lävi-PravonCo1
pp. 71-76.
op. cit.
when referring
subjects
p.
poets of the 12th and 13th
beneath a flood
to arms and armour,
of poetic
allusion,
168.
Niatoirn
da 1tErpnnoe Muaulmane., val. ItI!
Cxxxºx
IN
1+35 Tho sudden cn1lopso
however,
to hove inspired
^nolytical
a very
final
failure.
of
those
of
accounts'
in
hor>cman
impression
^hriotian
for
a rc, vuloion
the
14th
the
; ^t'7rrrd
I ^nce
iýht-1r,,
and str-
of
it
their
-'rom
,;+.lopted
foes
uslin
thnse
thocc
The "erber
36.
in
ions.
Wili,,
.
in
exact
perhaps
replica
partially
infidel
adoption
of
rranadn,
but
"irnpe7n
styles
ý;, r,rS.:, ýncr! horse
This
rindrilo
19."etimos
irn
of
wnrriors
copied
h.-,dl t', i:-rr~, ipon `icen
3fi
r asly
hnOs to
that
vnrious
11th
late
on milit<
'^ýridsp
14th -.entury
nrsti been
^nme extent,
uhra r.n4rnnnond
onrriorr
and erirly
14th
century
152 end 659).
501,541-546,548,55t,
influc'nce
a high
ýc rh ; iý:s hnv. inn
; ur, coat,
^yria.
"nr'alusian
an
with
Ibn '; a0id's
',,o dc.ýocrihed
chown In
(Figs.
that
this
;, E=rhanam on n ; ijicýem,
alunrýý
th?
hefore
carriE? d a j)articularly
!, ýuberk$
dire
under
Liritinq
illustrations37
moment
the
Fr%od
tJ'~on
even
,
Lb4nc'oned by the ^uslins.
rxictly
their
".aCTd wrote
position,
u+ith
Ibn il
to
or
of
Ibn
shield
ýed riding
by the
re-adopted
rocal. led
early
turn
hnd 1.týrýciy
`'urope
~ources
This
the
"asrido
-irmc,ured
and
coi ncicfod
course,
and
Thrice later
arms at
adveroarien.
c,n of ttr3n nrmnured
and rodo
years.
against
seems,
century
oaul-searching
of rrurlira
minmentun:
ums hrnuily
ruh
of
13th
century.
under
hnd
fnlTnuinr,
the
They seen to have been on almost
their
'. riting
revu2oion
o good deal
the
clear
of
heavy
in
writing
do give
habits
Therican Ts1: m in
of
ry r rvnln
mc-nto in n1 "nrfllu3
L'r: spnr1nR i?usulmanc+
In E. Levi-rrovengal'
Scýý'd nl f',anhribi0
ýrar.
h
Xýýrcý ýicýcle,
fs 1932}s pp. 1ý1ý 146, E. "orc'o, r'oari
,u
(London 1963)i, p. 118; i'. Arius "^uelquvs
remarquas
Spýin,
Ibn
}eripJ
des
d''s,
dc+o
lo
nu
7nrne
nres
muculm
cur
castume
XII (1965)p p. 245.
Arabica
37.
Ibn al Ehst*fbt
p. 246.
in
Sordo,
ap.
_cit:
a
p.
135;
Arias
4P. cit.
is
more difficult
degrees
it
Barbers
had,
to chart
merged with
in
then
the
surviving
fact$
formed
Curopecn
bulk
conquered
Visigothic
influence
seems to have boon minimal.
as mercenaries:
first
only
36
north.
for
specific
This
process
nppaars,
they
would
once they
the
forbore
of
lances
by the vizir
divisions
cavalry
the flaohrib
and suordc*
relatively
reliance
described
though
flarinid,
from
by Ibn
Farber
extinguished
there
horsemen
is
serving
FKatbiro
i
wring
this
with
horsemen,
ibid,
40.
Ibn Darra j oa. G1aata].ITf
40
three-quorters
as they
The Berber
13th
century
to
fiuwahhid
1269 ! D.
do I'Es
did
cavalry
wore probably
differed
suppose
that
they
dynasty
that
was finally
Few such Berbers
a. no Musulmnno
possessed
loit.
pp. 67«.686
39.
voI. III,
in
style
corm to hnvo had a
developments,
reason
the
Yet even
and their
on infantry
civilization.
little
at forr-Bknnh
313.4¬viý-Provenýa].
styles,
the late
Now,
The Muwahhidun are likely
..
on military
Sa°Td in
and very
primarily
flndnlusirn
12th century$
Andalusian
of
the
and Tanh7jn
7anata
of the southern
occupation
to have had more effect
39
seem to have fought
impact an Andalusian
aspects
dominant
their
with
9th
Andalusian
of
at
of
recruited.
new leaders*
trcditional
chart-livod
on other
equipment
much as did
of nl Andaluc in the early
minimal
the
also
The flurabitin,
the into
were being
by their
of
Christians
el Mansur and his con.
seem to have been given
light
recruited
though
centuryp
the
in
their
were Inter
as the 9th
that
armies
Thereafter
Barbers
against
traditions.
Muslim
13th century.
was accelerated
had been enlisted
period
the
as early
tribal
uholo
in
campaigns
10th centuries
early
it
least
at
Andalusian
thooe
of
to n great
sinca,
non-Crench$
the
Iberia
L4-36
in Monroop op
pp. 141..151.
14-37
hauberk.
a mail
spear
lower saddles with
late
41
14th
(Figs.
532,545,5470
549,551A
Muslim
representation
earlier
ceilings
illustrate
influence
Berber
infantry
in
traditions.
to receive
four
varied
origins
the shock
Christians
in
country.
"
Infantry
our
resting
on the ground
shields
thrust
into
while
behind
the
earth
the
12th
them stood
cavalry
a part
long
Some also
in
Heavy cavalry
41,
Ibn 5nPTd nl Palaohribý, in Lvi-Pravangals
ý
laýSt.
nu Xýmn 5iAnla
42.
Al 7urtüshi.
..
aojtýý,
pp.
30ßy309.
ranks
serried
forces
of
their
were described
practice
large
darn
ah knmil
runh
spears
mixg
Next
awn infantry
inportnnt
style.
normal
hold
support.
ruling
1086 A0= although
as being
with
were to remain equally
in the 12th and 13th centuries.
in
through
tactics
century
r"uslim
broke
the
at
charge
enemy as their
who would
Light
their
in
and their
archers
of
and
11th
7allaco
their
Alhambra
cavalry
The combined
century
no
to separate
so at
knelt
as pikes.
526).
the later
foe.
Identical
early
Turtü hT
by of
(fig.
and stood
cavalry,
did
century
traditional
in
an advancing
kingdoms
the
occasion
of
with
the
day.
won
and almost
line
"in
of
cooperated
such petty
on this
states
very
14th
light
The minor
the
as do Andalusiens
art
difficult
Andalusian
seem to have fought
still
Hero infantry
equipment
often
in
Unfortunately,
surviving
despite
Andalus,
al
dynasties,
of
from
is
it
m.
ndalusian
as frequently
the late
than
rode
than did their
and 659).
such military
above,
They also
Spanish
century
a lighter
a sword,
shield.
in fact,
appear,
and early
with
leg position
a shorter
As mentioned
only
daraaah
Such troops
13th
12th!
fought
leather
and a smaller
neighbours.
they
Rather
similarly
javelins,
came cavalry
wheeled aaide,
in Christian
d2
Spain
tended to be found
!. IEs a ns Plusulrýaný+
-ý
C xý;ý1ý
'
u, u 6ýý
f6c`ý.,
re.
ý.
u ahýce.
F
... xI
fý"ir
;i
ýýý:ýca, e.º.,
Gý, ýen.
l'
r'n, pýýcýeerýýýiuacuýnº......
ý
ý_,
" --
f+ttn. rt
1dt(:
C
I
asqlcýotfft ft-
{.,N"retm
n+af ftlfri71
c"'IUaI
ý1ýýý`'
'
cntTlt
riýaý(ýlýrý{wnNfPtlýts.
qut
C
wý
tt.
uettllnF.
<
p{(ý
rncf"i..
cxýl
ý«..,
rAýýýy
ýýoitýAreý
II
` UIK
manlawt
1CUý1)u,
: p14ri,
tor`,
IAftoW
at, ý: ýýcýAývntrT
i
ýceqýty
rn.
cee. hlais
i(
"- ý
{ý16..
(cf
Mi
tZMer,..
ý(ýer
1
zý°taKuffNh,
ýýýcr
r
.
ý38
immediate retinue,
among a ruler's
Orders founded in the into
Military
imitation
frontier
of Muslin
Such written
this
manner,
Andalusian
incursion
the
into
Spanish
art,
variety,
as they
in
much Spanish
both
appear
the best
(Fig,
(rigs.
of
these
was in
531),
close
The revulsion
equipment,
already
44,
450
late
against
noted
in
of
and as
opt ciýt.,
made
when that
1'd
al
as common el
!`4ndelus46
cwhcrc
and 552).
written
E.
470;
ourioi
p.
cavalry
sources,
religiously
_02s
tactics
citto
and
was not
committed
quite
and
P" 68"
ait,
E3eeler! oý,
cf
ý,
Roview in rcdieval
0uchcr
45,1~.
197O),
They
among
century
with
heavy
art,
perass laci
to be
Pamplona Bibles
course,
European
fa; rid
also
Faragut,
giant
12th
contact
Yet even those
in
so noticeable
43,0eoler$
the
534x, 543,545
510,526-530,533:
century
philistines,
the
and
in
are,
13th
illustration.
the
splendid
troops
Similar
in
are
cavalry
are
and friendly
of
543 and 545).
the
Navarre
first
probably
appear
century
including
foes,
sources
Sancho of
King
kingdon
as Saracen
"eenemies`º such as Goliath
assorted
for
and 13th
12th
their
n during
and light
infantry
by some
Ghuzz horse-
horse-orchere,,
(Figs.
archery
at rest,
Turkish
nomadic
infrequently
earlier
of
have been used
while
by the Muräbit
still
did
mention
apparently
Arab style
45
1086 ADO
in
Compa'nable heavy
found
the
onployed
Spain
Andalusian
howovor,
A numbor of
cavalry*44
were also
archers
in
perhaps
43
make no specific
Down would,
and those
in possible
12th century
riýo.
sources
from horseback.
in
the upper aristocracy
Recruitrnentf
t3oswortht
173;
p.
Islamic Armic^a, r, p, 53,
The Pamplona E3ibleai
týuster'and
(Nevi Havevt'
1997.. 1200 A0!
probably
propagandist
army of
14th
early
partas
"improved"
spears
shieldsp
and rode
A la bride
arms in
with
in
traditional
Christian
contribute
various
European
Berber
tionm.
tred
Not that
The Marinid
force
at
in
Eoijo
their
before
in
there
cuch A,ndalusinn
modified
given
Iberian
Nasrid
6
knrr
to the
success
bin Parr
repeated
at least
that
the
cuaited
40,
49*
cAll
L.
in Ialnm'o
to ancient
weapon had been known
and it
was now
troops
136; Harlota ben CQbexip
XU (1942)i p. 136.
Roudh al Partßs:
Histoire{
1EI6D : pp. 4S4.455,
In Pnrurn den Cnvnliers
f'leýrcter
48
warfare
That such Grenadine
Ci
Ibn Abl Zar
A. ©eFaumi©r trans.,.
(Paris
du Plaghrob
&n Souvernino
charge
had to be
of reversal
Ibn al Khatlbp in Sordos oeý cp.
'rCspadro N1apsnct--Araboasr' Mourptrºnin,
deý Protjx,
Christian
tactics
tho mid-. 19th century,
ibn Nudhayl al AndaluaT!
Mere the
of the crossbow in
This
49
difference.
CnatilLzLnj
counter-charge*
of mountain
tactics.
of
tnctics.
traditional
and North African
shack
deal
a large
defeated
and archers
used on '{oat and from horseback.
I' 2nsigno
Spanish
of
Arab-Andalusian
a great
Even the popularity
sinco
centuries
so much an adoption
earlier
of
Granada seems to have been a sort
In Iberia
47,
and 15th
was necessarily
tho constraints
bastion.
14th
made a devastating
Naturally
last
a revival
1275 AD employed
own cavalry
would also
cavalry
Granada were not
rather
spearmen
than
wars.
army from Morocco
infantry
Muslim
but
styles,,
deal
a great
wooden
rather
_lineta
Light
the
during
north
Such developments
of
47
than
rather
a' la
style
now
lighter
hauberksj,
leather
the
two distinct
into
The latter
smaller
bladesp
narrower
later
and would
including
that
clear
Andalusian.
in the European ?oshion.
to the
return
and local
equipment..
helmetsp
make it
did
works
Granada was divided
century
Berber
mercenary
used
written
IF3y
trans.
s
(Paris
192ý):
eat
pp.
25-52.
Cx
1-111
CkLIV
4q-o
were both
is
Indicated
Morocco,
in
Again
and were also
cavalry
and different
offactivQ
recruitment
by the
these
croaoboumen
were both
14th
the
In
Alhambra.
with
Hence they
are equipped
as light
leather
d^r
perhaps
a stray'norcenary
Turks
50s
51.
serving
CUmarTs
Al
°p.scitu
"ý°3asa. 4k al Absar, "
pp. 131 and 135.
CUmarls
1nc.
Al
ýcit.
quarrels
cavalry
',Sultan
Christian
One true
from
whether
50
Andalusian
fixed
spears
to
their
51 (Fig.
of Morocco
coddles.
Gthora
mounted.
while
and kidney-shaped
horse-archer
anong thoso
in
soon, to be mounted
have shot
with
mercenary
though
distinctively
troops
of
invariably
this
and on foot,
can be ceen on a fresco
Granada
for
5hie2ds.
the
of
the majority
must almost
mounted
Menhrib
of
sultana
by the MarTnids,
illustration
quivers
r^arTnid
In hrlctn is unclear.
army of
Here
the Derber
of
battle-axes.
recruited
or
_iinata
century
croosbowmen
tnharzT
armed with
An unsurpassed
early
those
their
were similarly
they fought
from
also
thousand
oppearo,
or so Ghuzz
651).
ýl9marfis
Ibn Fndhl Allah al
pp. 146-147;
5auvaget trans.
in Nistnrir? ns ; trpbps.
'
14-q-i
CHAPTER 8
NOMADHORSE-ARCHERYAND THE
CAVALRY or
Although
the traditional
nomads had an influence
it
centuries,
was relatively
Turks entered
to be trained
the
the
true
the
fringes
the cultures
the
pattern
for
either
of warfare,
the
did
Parthiana
a thousand
as memmOks
tactics.
a people
been contained
Turkish
the
Ghuzz
of
who were part
by first
defeating
their
families
conquararc,
With the Saljüq
and flocks.
tribal
Spreading
Turcoman nomads brought
not only
for
warriors
carne Saljüq
their
own culture
their
of Islam,
of recruitment
rather
but also the
than remaining
from beyond the Muslim frontier.
political
these
a new and self-sufficient
element within
impact on eastern
clans,
own ranks over numerous
the world
the Saljügs
Isla.
they were occupiers
however,
The Turks became, in fact,
Although
people,
across much of the land,
moons whereby they could replenish
generations.
on
Ghnznawid employers
and than going on to take over hugs areas of eastern
no wall.
Even the
area.
settled
They were not merely
from within
influence,
had in reality
victories,
of settled
or ca mercenaries
who used different
zone have a more widespread
The Saljügo,
broke this
that
warriors
of
Asian
from the 8th to 11th
had upon one another
other
their
of
of the Central
Such a process was merely a
minor.
the armies of Islam,
expansion
nomadic
despite
Huns,
horse-archery
in Muslim traditions
alongside
Not since
,
CENTURIES
an the Muslim world
Iran and nomadic Turkistan
to fight
11th_13th
of those mutual influences
continuation
years.
ISLAM
were to have a profound
a source
cultural
Islam in the 11th century,
and
they do
C XL. V
not
first
at
to portray
continued
can be linked
to
At this
archers
of their
tactics
a great
distance.
of
these
evidence,
the dropping
interior
to
of
probably
The Byzantine
from
close
maintained
that
used from long
the later
Unlike
have relied
weight
of
hnh
Is
278).
q armies,
ranges
they
range
and the effectiveness
of
accounts
for
by those nomccAhorso-arches
1.
Anon.,
CASta i'rancorun,
2.
f aris
3.
E3ucklnri op,,,. cit.
4.
Srnmil,, aps cit.,
5.
Ibid.
some otherwise
contradictory
that
power,
3
presumably
a marching
the
and regular
effect.
Turkish
composite
tensions
of
shooting
p. 423.
80.-f32.
of nomad horse-archery
49.
p. 132.
horses.
bow may
than
rather
was, holdover, agreed by all
p.
when
foe or wound his
The rate
Turkish
presumably whon
powers4
and Clmprs on, cit.
pp.
according
penetrating
feature
Another important
shooting
chroniclers
long-bow,
its
their
Crusader
to harass
for
on the part
A willingness
various
whereas
on more powerful
a designated
Anne Comnenaj claimed
ponetrating
lacked
within
arrows
2
style
writers
European
an arrow]
of
a castle.
the
vary
arrows had extraordinary
shot
Malik
those Turcomans who were true nomadic horse-
or
warriors
to circumstances
that
is well recorded.
Their arrows clearly
carried
1
This, for example, enabled them to indulge
shooting!
such as the
area
riders
shields,
spears
The one source
q sultans
(Fig.
formed the bulk of Salj
still
"zone
armed with
Salj
early
and not
stage
cavalry
363s 387 and 419).
a specific
horses
shows only
in
a mixed
(Figs.
bows
and
swards
sources
This
an pictoriäi/.
to have had much effect
appear
44-z
the
achieved
observera.
in the 11th
5
443
was the widespread
and 12th centuries
nwäldü2 in Persian.
or
by the anonymous author
the Gesta Francorumv were noted at the battle
Such darts
wore again
recorded
chronicler
at
the
of
almoot
also
arrows
knowledge
of
demon either
just
magical
have been regarded
by their
Soljüq
it
than
were
brought
rarely
Dyzantine
Croat saljuq
taking
a final
sultan#
describe
charge.
&
Anon.,
7.
U. F. Paterson*
of Archer-Anti
that
a,o pucklcr#
nes
his
269).
Turks
seem to
so more chivalrous
8
Although
the
in battle,
charge into
or trappad,
close-
be the cnse
rluslim
sources
in 1071 ADOwhich was won
than Turcoman army of the
as putting
ruler
on coif
Crusader chroniclers
"The psttle
VIII
arias
(Fig.
Seljüq
Crusaders.
rather
Gesta Frances rm, loc.
these
defeated
of tlonzikert
mace and sword and putting
9
seems to give
This would similarly
also needed.
lacking
presumably
own and a final
on its
by the professional
primarily
the ;
tendencies
fops
such short
was very successful
the Turcomans were themselves
concerning
g.
noting
test-European
.
victory
the battle
Those were
enough,
artist,
that
use of nomad horse-archery
combat was generally
if
Christian
or' suicidal
powers
may also
and civilized
Interestingly
how such hum
sabn were shot,
be worth
It
7
of
6
Frankish
later.
a century
used by a demon on one of
Hera the
capitals.
of Dorylaeum.
by another'anonymous
Arauf
hus,
bän.
shown being
are
Nazareth
battle
certainly
those
"darts"
shot
Such a device probably
from javelins
distinguished
which,
n
known
in Arabic
huus-sb
arrows
as
to shoot short
arrow-guide
use of a nöwwskor ma ra
bow,
his
aside
and helmet before
agree that
before
such
coming
cit.
Journal
Arsufp"
of
(1965), p. 22.
of the Society
p. A21«
d'aprýs
C. Cahcn,t "La Campcgno do Mantzikortp
(1934)0
IX
tion,
p. 6340
r,usulmýncs. " ßy+
lea Sources
4 Yqto close
these
the
combat
Turks
weapons on their
themselves
Such warriors
also throwing
their
light
By this
time,
of
been relegated
to
turbulent
politically
CAbb'asid Caliphs
to the
which
included
stretch
of
The state
Saljüga
even further
as had the
before
them.
In such
frontier
as .
by the
of their
west,
of other
Middle
throughout
militias
Smaili
11.
Cah®n# r'playshý n inc.
12.
T. T. Rice= Tha Sel uks
Taurus
continued
Anatolia
to the Great
own which
a troubled
and Saljüq
in Anatolia
turn
frontier
territories.
army similar
to
Turcoman
Nevertheless,
than elsewhere,
and captives
converted
from east and west and local
origin,
13th centuriee.
grew in importance
12
The varied
pp. 62-83.
10.
regions,
Soon, however,
a professional
of mixed ethnic
the 12th and early
-cit.
op.
cousins.
of Greek slaves
mercenaries
Arabs
They in their
Eastern Muslim states.
although
Fluslim ikdtsh
Rüm in
allegiance
between Gyzantino
the Sultan's
plus
of
Turcomans into
warriors
foreign
Saljügs
their
dynasty
of
a
built
as
äxis11
hý,
any real
remained more important
to Islam,
Turcomans
hnzi province.
eastern
force
had proved
the mountainous
these
frontier,
energies
they themselves
Meanwhile,
that
leaders
to push the true
then tried
belt
Saljüq
rum and at least
they
shock.
had largely
their
established
that
Turcomans
a final
to
of Iran and established
long outlived
before
zones because
Um
threw off
P
of
the Soljügs
as javelins,
the nomadic
such a Turcoman
was originally
of nomadic
frontier
Anatolian
martial
by hanging
bow-canes
using
as ma. luke instead
lances
the new Crusader
to use their
than
though
would than take macs and swords perhaps
course,
the
bows aside,
rather
shoulders
they seem to identify
Turcomans.
their
put
cit.
(London 1961), p. 81.
#
10
C xL\/I
I
445
character
Saljügs
these
of
Rüm and their
of
(rigs.
Dänishmandids
neighbours
on a coin
from late
equally
and fencing,
archery
off
in
by the
and sword,, saoms to reflect
to Middle
reverted
the 5aljüg5
of Rüm still
Yet at Erzinjan
of the Jazirah
the Saljügs
the
of
more slowly.
with
example,
the Ayyübids
by the Mongols at Koss Da I In 1243 ADS
nlmoet Byzantine
in a traditional,
14
style,
reason
ovary
The Sol_1ukcv loci
Cohan, Pro-OttonRn
In
and uhen they
the Khwärarmhnh$
melting
to suppose
pot
that
were generally
cit.
Turkcy,
2-30'234,
p,
,
that
and
influences
was Anatolia.
relations
Byzantine
Enperor
the
recruited
morconariea,
14.
Tactics
on Turcoman tactics.
primarily
many ex-Byzantine prisoners
Rice,
13
relied
at Myriokephalon:
13.
spear
in 11?6 AD, for
Rüm and the ßyzantines
the 5aljüge recruited
in
to train
at fyriokephalon
cultural
that
as
such
clashes,
Saljügs
in
is
there
12th
were creamed
Muslim customs.
rather
of
in horsemanship,
continued
of Rum fought
In fact,,
were mutual
rest
including
the late
an Mite
that
Correspondingly,
and tactics
training
fact
tradition
they defeated
non-Turcoman,
certainly
the
example,
states,
Rüm in
in 1230 AD whon1 in alliance
defeated
were
thensolvoc
of
traditional
Eastern
the Dyzantinos
defeating
the
the
426).
the organization
A warrior's
while
(rig.
Christian
SaljUgs
added to
as horse-archara
the
to the east,
is seen, for
It
Georgia
century
13th centuries.
and early
both
impact of these Turku upon their
obvious
the now army recruited
of
art
and 264),
is also apparent,
13th
the
neighbours
such long-established
of
is
immediate
and military
Christian
the influence
in
apparent
252-256,260-262
The cultural
Byzantium,
is
armies
b©twean
amicable.
Despite
the
Whereas
and also Greek
captured Turks and
4-q6
Arabs,
among others'
Saljüq
and non-Saljüq
Turkish
apparent
origin
distant
of 13th century
Serbia
Traditional
of
probably
late
included
many-coloured
13th
by their
noise,
aaljuq
influence
did
in
archers
mercenary
emphasis
Byzantine
style.
recruiting
for
corps.
an lance-armed
a variety
The depression
also hindered
17
for
By contrast
provided
there
was,
of
relying
regions,
depopulated
recruitment
of horse-
and all
by Turkish
fact,
almost
Empires
an
Frankich,
main Anatolian
on the only
to combat the various
the
Prey
peasantry
much
of
of
internal
in
European,
the
of reasons heavily
l6
those
of
Most frontier
daggers
mean a revival
a loss
the
lances,
cuirassaa.
of
cavalry
in
quivers,
rather
Turkish
Here equipment
long-pointed
Iamellar
except
now available
Byzantium,
Dods Korkut.
however,
not,
634).
described
bows and arrows,
iron
heavy
among nomadic
and are well
and the necessity
grounds
(Fig.
persisted
swords,
reflected
perhaps
type of cavalry
facing
armies,
or allied
This
styles
shields,
and, judging
They, or perhaps
them among other
inspiration
Anatolia
helmets,
of
were also known to the illuminators
anonymous Doak of
hauberka,
long mail
Horse-archers
233-235).
who could place
Turcoman
in many parts
tribes
(Figs.
Byzantine
of obvious
cavalry
I5
various
commonplace to many Byzantine
were clearly
Pecheneg cousins,
from
contingents
of Anatolls.
rulers
in the 12th century
craftsmen
their
"a"Ilied"
plus
throats
east and west, were
in the 12th century.
into
servitude
those reasons conspired
Op
%k
Los Comnnnem, Etudas our 1' Cnpir® E3yzPntin, vo1. I Iý
15,
Chalandon,
61?.
611--613
and
pp.
16,
Anon,,, The Book of Dodo t<orkut
17.
Chalandant LesComnenpp, = Etudoa our 1ýEMirp
p. 237.
-
pp. 920 94,v 145,157
Byzantin,
and 166.
vo1. II:
4-0
to force
large
Cavalry,
mercenary or indigenous#
light
The latter
or Pecheneg origin.
kite-shaped
lances:
Serbia
of a heavy cavalry
from,
that
of
Mails
enjoyed
(Figs.
western
an even briefer
in the Middlo East.
chow the devvlopmemL
though distinct
to,
and the Fertile
Although
to various
successor
the saljüq
this
the late
system within
would already
be quite
as Turcoman.
Saljüq
These did,
their
.
forces
were early
caasknr,
iurcomana were the most effective
1ý.
Ibýid
vo1. IIq
pp. 611-61B.
19.
Ib
vo1. II#
pp. 619-620.
larger
areas
however,
Yet it
military
into
generally
traditions
two distinct
of c. c 1üks or mercenaries
who owed allegiances to whichever ruler
eleinent of tribal
divided
of
control
armed forces.
wrong to see such Saljüq
a small professional
them, and a larger
retained
12th century,
dynasties.
even before
the Crusaders appeared
in fact,
dynasty
supremacy.
to fragment
started
before,
Crescent
and military
era of political
of Iran and Iraq until
parts,
areas such as
226,227,229,231,232*
those of Iran
influence,
continue
illustrations
the Turcomans of Rüm were downgraded in the face of
the and of the 11th century,
fell
peripheral
whose equipment was akin
large
carrying
and the Crusader states,
Europe
Arab or
12th and 13th century
The huge realm of the Great Salj qs
parts
of Turconan
to coifs
helmets laced
related
into
and 634).
236,271,275
Byzantine
certainly
Various
from Cyzcntium and culturally
Cyprus,
rode larger
maces and swards while
19
shields.
Bulgaria,
to
have been divided
seem
wore mail hauberks,
Hungarian horses,
with
upon Byzantium.
the former perhaps being horse-archers
and heavy,
and fought
mercenary troops
numbers of foreign
18
or local
auxiliaries
elamont.
governor recruited
of whomthe
°naý
the
Uhile
.
CxLVlll
44-g
formed a standing
and porsonal
for
the auxiliaries
guards,
a specific
campaign.
of the Salj
history
the Great Saljüq
20
Iucjhril
Sultans
process
his
started
upon
soon in the
from the fact
may be inferred
q state
troops
garrison
would only be called
That this
as 1054 AD during
as early
and infantry,
army of cavalry
that
Beg, was using ßiagv engines
first
attack
unsuccessful'
on
Manzikert.
The varied
illustrated
(fig.
Other sources which may also illustrate
to be found
are
in
this
12th
The best
heavy0 including
holmot0 coif
12th century
manuscript
correspond
text
(rig.
with
minor variations0
(rigs.
422),
377,3700
that
inherited
while
in most points
to its
11th
or
Soljüq
12th
century
in other
Iranian
Javelin.,
include
slightly
Such equipmeriý is mirrored,,
either
earlier
exactly
and neighbouring
or
sources
3050 424 and 425).
or "senior
officer"0
so much of the crumbling
Saljüq
Zangida of Syria
perhaps the most active.
In the history
as
of
WFrka wa Gulahnh
of this
the 12th and 13th century
°Imad
367,360,
armour is comparably
22
and full hauberk.
or avontail0
illustrations
those nt7abe
Of all
to
Here the usapone
t;tarka on Gulshäh.
spear., sward0 bow0 mace and lascoo0
The late
description
referring
profesaionnl
(Figs.
Iran
century
case probably
is probably
21
canknr.
than to an
is to be found in the
Turconans rather
romance of
in
and 301-303).
370,371,374
equipment,
regional
carved gateway from 5injär
13th century
on an early
260).
C
equipment of a Snljüq
Cam
Or
Oln
Zongi
hin
son
and
al
21.
AYYuqT:
22.
ibid _. pp. 38-39 and
op. cit,
al Din Maternd
pp. 6-6p 27«23 and 29
n5nim.
that
empires
of
of the Crusedea such names
pp. 66".67.
Small'
states
and the OazTrah was
r"
20.
successor
loom very
44q
large
indeed.
limited
The Zangidas of courses had to recruit
area than had their
be said of(
air ßurid
and Artuqid
Elakr respectively.
in Damascus and Diyaar
rivals
a foot
carry
an his horse's
crupper*23
Some decades later
al Din
would
judging
tho
largely
consisted
of
from
numbero or auxiliary
from the Arab bodouin
triboa,
as those of the Yarugi
tribe
in the mid-1120s1
region
origins
hul
plus
r
25
outside
Islam.
Like
Similarly,
legal
though living
of the Roman tmpirat
system of customary
known, was not officially
senior
menu have
and heavy
archers
traditional
style.
to the Aleppo
26
as auxiliaries.
within
who earlier
intents
and purposes,
the world
of
took over the
these Turcomane retained
law1
This
sn
as it
was
Nur el Din obliged
27
to adhere to Muslim law,
and such
abandoned until
ölito
his Turkish
military
a situation
wcs bound to help prosorve
23.
"mails
apt citýs,
24,
E2tsoeaff,
25.
Ibýj
26.
p. 722.
_
Y©sa upon
A. N. Poliakp "Tho Influence
of Chingiz-Khän's
Stotea"
f,ullPtin
the General Organization
of
of tha ¬Nomluk
(1942),
Ms School of Oriental
Studies
X
African
:
and
27.
729*
722
pp.
and
p. 7300
Ibid.
pp.
the Turcomans' ceparote
P. 76.
itsp
ops. C,,,
862-663.
24
many Turcomana such
were, to all
those German barbarians
battle
were also recruited
could be regarded
Muslim civilization
regions
its
in
into
the army of Our
who were invited
time such Turcomcn tribes
a separate
ma trained
cavalry
At this
wcatorn
of
armies.
°Abbäsid
soldier
and Kurda. # horse
Turconanc
respectively*
Largo
in their
reflected
from Damascus even used the old
of having each cavalrymen
cavalry
The some may
predecessors.
This was certainly
In 1126 AD a force
tactic
Saljüq
from a more
1ý50
identity
in military,
Turcoman tactics
Certain
professional
Crescent.
as in others
a final
decisive
around the Fertile
minor dynasties
techniques,
harassment of the foe until
even in the
persisted
armioa not comparably trained
regular
use nomadic horse-archery
that
similarly
vsknra of various
Men facing
matters,
this
meant a constant
he was so disorganized
charge could
the Zangids and others
used against
were also occasionally
prepared
to
or demoralized
the struggle.
conclude
the Crusaders,
to meet their
This
they
although
fame in a set-
piece battle
of organized ranks and, of course, to enga3e, in
23
Another fundamental tactical
siege warfare.
change that might
Turkish
betray
of infantry
Sal, uq influence
was the placing
In earlier
the reverse
centuricc
As for
as the
general
equipment
and the 3azTreh was concerned,
because of an inherent
turbansp
trk
in connection
the case in the art
atabe
of the period
Syria
may,
surviving
than the newly arrived
is much more emphasis on swords,
though the latter
with
in
case.
bows
than
h
upon
rumh and c n'r spears,,
helmets
in such verses
cavalry
tend to reflect
rather
elements
there
Certainly
of
to have been the
the poetry
conservatism,
Arab and perhaps Kurdish
Turcomans,
appears
ahead
29
territory,
hostile
as an army marched through
of cavalry
Nt r al Din's
of nt be
are$ for example,, mentioned
30
is
The
very much
acme
army*
Syria
the
aaztrah
and
(Figs.
270
and 201-20»).
Houevor real
night
traditional,,
such a
have been of certain
2E3.5mail,,
asait,.
pp. 78-80;
29.
Elisissot'f p apm cits
30,
Ghaiths
opfcitj
bt
nt
non-.Turconan,, character
states$
Elissosf
it
f!
was certainly
aR, cit,
-
true
pp, 740-"743.
P. 738.
pp, 34j 43$ 89,v 106i 125-126 end 137,
451
of Arab hayzar
in the early
upon this
centred
and mid-12th
UsZmah Ibn flüngldh
ca3tla3
equipment co a kn2*;nhand fabric»coverad
helmet,
chiold.
lance
thrusts
to turn
Far examplte# he devoted coueral
fccred
he recorded
if
they themselves
no using
was known# though
not
that
short
a apear.
Horsemen also
of exceptional
rrcnkich
neceacnrily
Other warriors
length,
couched-lance
ucodi
widely
an military
32
technique
by, the t"uclimo.
of cuch 2oncd tachniquo'
ruunntärT nh weapon with
in ni Iarsüs! 's treatise
for
the
description
R somewhat garbled
feared
had only swords.
compound lances
indicated
tisomah further
a khüdh h
pages to notable
horsemen particularly
backs on a foe armed with
a lance
a relatively
that
and explains
their
mail hauborgoonj
a ruambspear and a turn
'IF
of the lance is also made clear by
The Importance
Ucämah elsewhere.
a horsraman'a
listed
from a baldric,
a award clung
31
In his memoirs,
century.
33
using
a brand blade,, appears
natters.
This was Written
Sasäh al DTn about the come timo no U97mah wrote his memoirs,
.
: are ci Din began his career as Nür at DTn'v governor
With the death of the last
in Egypt.
in 1171 AD, however,
the country
from shtd
a now army loyal
f "a imids
he not only
Caliph
of Cairo
changed the official
to cunnr Islam,
to himself
Týirnid
rather
faith
but set about recruiting
than to the memory of the
Ur
;
the
Zangido.
to
N
Din
and
ci
or
Such considerations
from
Din
on oven wider
Saläh
recruiting
cl
necessitated
10
0
rat
imid force that
had
inherited
lie
than was normal.
a
spectrum
Included
both
Arabs$
Sudanese
Armenione,,
thousands
and
regular
of
navy
p. 85.
31.
ll4m, ahj a,pg rcit,
32
Jbidt
92
7fi-.
78$
900
131.
500
48..
87S
410
and
pp.
33.
Ibirfs
pp. 41"42w
34.
Al Tfº7C`:
us3T) atl
t,
113.
pa
ý
of
and
34
4 5z
auxiliary$
plus
Kurda3
hucýullmmo
and Turcomana brought
by Sala* al DTn'o uncle
power grew, however!
most of the Fatimid
during
to Egypt
35
the Zcngid takeover.
An his
Sal; h al Din downgraded, destroyed
forced
or disbvnded
those Zangid troops
but retained
to be loyal
to him rather
than to Or
Fie also continued to recruit
an increasing
number of froo yurdish
who were willing
tm,1 !
Turcoman horso--archers
heavy cavalry,
took control
As Sa1; h 81 DTn gradually
tha Jazlroh,,
into
his own loosely
ýýiCnh volunteers
bo added.
could alto
spectacular
the admittedly
Crescent
cavalry,
in ß187 AD.
role
troops,
the conquest
as they did during
of talon
40
0
in the late
The most successful
may now have been as raiding
force
These troops
not
seen,
in the warfare
12th and early
into
they zoom to have degenerated
In fact,
one of two sources of auxiliary
Arabs.
if
in the armies of
minor role
a relatively
the
Fertile
Egypt
and
of
bodouin
picturesque
Ayyübid successors.
to have played
13th centuries.
of these regions
those who have interpreted
or at least
of Turcoman horse--archers
Saläh al Din and his
however,
h militiasl
and Arab bedouin auxiliaries
36
them, tend to overemphasize
and
of these areas
army, to which the nhd
knit
Crusader chronicles,
role
I'iklgm
'
and mnnlük"-
of most of Syria
the mixed forces
he incorporatod
al Din.
the other
for
riding
being
the
ouch Turcomsna
ahead of an invasion
of Palestine
after
the battle
37
The moot effective
horse-archers,
and in fact
the
most
of
,r
35.
A. S. EhrenkreutY,
Gibbo "7ha Armiao of Saladin, " lnc, cit.;
Snlýnýc9ina(Now York 1972), pp. 51 and 73-74.
36.
lbid, *
37.
CInnad
al Dln, 92.
r,it
p. 33.
ýkL1X
C. ý..
ýý'"ý'`"""'"'r::
ý
CLI
4 53
troops,
in
ks
irr. n1
_.
Saläh
Thoy,
Di'n's
al
however,
same way as had lang
perhopo,
with
been traditional
ahead of
Such behaviour
rangy
in later
advised
a horse-archer
but wait
until
before
shooting
shot.
If,
furüsTyyn
to fight
a n"nuk
ccouto.
of
with
39
38
drawn
If
thoir
unhoraez(
bows
training
their
Al Tarvüs'i,
for
with
as
and,
exrinpla,
a sword got very close
to miss with
th%s mounted foe were charging
arrow-guide
and hum
his distance
shield
himself.
to
defend
ready
a Dance was considered
first.
short
least
or at
Generally
horse- rchcra fron tho later
onus
with
first
a lance,
horse-the
arrows
have sword and
speaking,
the fooman
the most dangerous and the one who
41
Oddly enough there seem to bo r,ýora illustrations
38.1h
could(
of al Tarsts!
treatise
as one could not afford
with
guard
at
to aim at the horse of an armoured foe
should maintain
be
dealt
should
first
with
manuals.
archer
with
not
40
an enemy cavalrymen
however,
though,
east,
on the move it
and accuracy*
would be in line
indeed,
the Vuslim
and shoot at a fov while
in the Ayyübid military
reflected
or with
groator
swords,
bows in much the
such mamIT;k horse-archers
to dismount
with
their
as an advance
thoy would continuo
and at tho lost
in
to cheat
foot
each battalion
to achieve
ranks
in battlo
tendency
Armed head to
Others were trained
up in
seem to have used
a greater
the gallop.
be sent
0
army were now the more disciplined
of nnMIZ;k
Ayyübid eras in the 13th century,
dyy p. 190
39,1". non.,
Itlnnrscrium
parlnrinorum.
p. 92.
QD.
8shra at DTn' o2
41.
A 1lEtude
A. E3oudot-taraotte trAns.,. Contribution
A1 jorsüs'r,
do fArcherie fi",
urulm<^.nc. (Onraosctis 1960)s pp. 142-.144.
.
_.. _,...,ý. ý
cit
pP. 91-02,
45y
than
from
would
the days of
to
appear
heavy
wearing
Saläh
have been fairly
armour
129,291:
such horse-archers
appear
Granada,
century
caparisoned
varied
Kurdish
or mnmlük cavalry,
charges
of probably
tactic
cures
their
itself
that
flanke,
siege
to
of
many Ayyübid
drawn
oäkkch,
of this
helmets,
of bows"43
of
Muoizz
an; h lances
and tarik
287),
horsemen,
delivered
by an
was covered
earlier
This
elite
*come to
Arab karr
the Dyzantine
supported
heavy
the
from
the homeland
Zangid rulers
with
CAn
Shu
wo farr
system of
by defenaorpa
to protect
cavalry,
those
excluding
own mam1Z;ksa seem to have been numbered
ruler's
contingents
close
archers
(Fig.
42
A great
the
horses
known as abtnl.
perhaps reflected
chock-cavalry
the latter
and crossbowmen,
of the
an elaboration
14th
heavy and light,
withdrawal
horsemen
and
Clsewhere
early
with
or barded
cooperation.
their
while
armoured
have been
as in
Those equipped
the horse-archers
bards
and 651).
to use crossbows,
in close
a minority
%4;N
possibly
heavily
including
controlled
horses
equipment'
-with
300,304,307,308
or lances.
seem to have fought
perhaps
Their
ride
weapon often
This
himself.
standardized,
and riding
(Figs.
chanfrons
at bin
JazIrah
the
al
free
pin
and swords,
the sultan's
taw.
Sinjar,
one of
wearing
with
Even Saläh at Dins
of Tagi al Ain,
Kurdish
led a force
region,
possibly
of
area.
This
from
emong those
was,
of
course,
the
surviving
of horsemen armed
jubbah
mail
qawahinh
crests,
the
During
but with
foes noticed
that
houber kS,
no mention
the cavalry
nephew, were not horse. archers,
44
42.
"Cavalry Equipment and
Al 7arousT, op.. cit.;
p. 126; 8ivar,
Euphrates
Tactics an the
Frontier, " pp. 288-290.
43.
cImýd
44.0
Anon. j
al DTn,* op, cit,,
Itinararium
P. 254,
Perecrinorun,
p.
94.
455
On the other
hand, the lost
3azTrah may have retained
45
Turcoman forebears.
of Hien Kayfä in the northern
Artugids
the horse-archery
The late
of their
techniques
12th and early
13th century
art
of this
area shows warriors
and equipment as mixed as were the
origins
of the troops
it.
could carry
a variety
Iranian
(Figs.
ways
(Fig.
of
heavy
is
equipment
lu ti
the
(Figs.
of
quillons
use their
and also
Kurdish
specifically
as wearing
leather
convex
Ayyübid
fought
291)
' described
occasion,
over
(Fig.
style
armours
spear or sword
265),
206,266
their
and 306)=
swords
lances
in
wear
in purely
many different
297 end 303).
Those of
very
and lamellar
forefingers
style
Those armed with
Byzantine
of purely
shields
of mail
have their
using
slab
in
described
GAkkah
outside
shieldc.
with
46
an at least
the origins
their
although
so specific,
one
large,
and carrying
Elsewhere
horseman
The ku ma , or "veiled",
47
In such actions,
using swords'
swards.
detail.
they were clearly
maces and spears,
are*
hauberks
dire
are not
cavalry
origin
quite
capable of unhorsing
heavy European knights#40
It
is
rare
in
to be recorded
happened
during
for
with
the
the battle
head earlier
one minor
both
and one individual
incident
Arab and Crusader
death
of
the
of Qaisarlyah
been described
450
f3ubärakshqhS op. cit
46.
CImad
47,
Bah; al DTnt ops,, citq,
48.
CImäd
49.
c Imäd
al DTnf ap. cp.
Ayyubid
champion
an 30th
as fully
chronicles.
August
Yet
Ayaz the
1191 AD.
warrior
this
Tell
Aynz
armouredQ9 and whenp during
p. 268.
375.
pp. 90,-91.
DInt
trans.
Dahm
DTn$
267270;
al
o. cit
pp.
ol.
Drusadcs,
202.
tho
in Arab Historians
F. Gabriali
p,
of
al pino
cf t l,, P. 3Q4.
-o-o-,
C ýI
C l. tt{
Cýýý
It 5G
this
battle,
being
he was thrown
to remount
able
The rest
from
because
his
included
down before
he was struck
the weight
of
of Ayäz'e equipment
horse
iron,
of his
a bow, quivery
armour,
50
sward and a
spear that
was heavy enough to be noted with astonishment by his
51
Comparable equipment, including
slayers.
mace end swards
Frankish
used by Ayyübtd m mlük regiments half a century later
52
uk
Such heavy cavalry,
at rlansurah.
rna
or otherwise,
plus
was still
ito
nppooro in much art
oquipmont,
161,173,174,300,301
that
heavier
of
described
as
for
employed
Wore often
cavalry
troops,
nrTdnh
rapid
whore
outposts
and 651).
light
Ayyübid
Turkish,
also
act
51,
lb-id,
52.
Ibn Wisilp
Crusader
was an attempt
Such troops
speed and
foes
as despising
to escape
Other comparable troops,
one's
Arab or
with bow,
56
Indeed
spear.
equipped and fought
lightly
dagger and light
winged or knobbed mace, sword,
Ibidsp.
their
isolated
in ambushing enemy convoys.
by their
it
day of doath«55
were similarly
or to hold
as infantry.
who, noted for
that
and were
equipment
53
as
Those
abundant.
enemy territory
described
were
50.
lightest
were vary effective
on the grounds
predestined
into
could
less
naturally
the
carried
raids
they
nanoeuverobiiity,
crraur
though
as varied
was
equipment
Arab auxiliaries
These warriors
(Figs.
the
Ayyubid
of
era
381.
4non. p
;Itiný
ogo citl
perPgrinorun.
r3um
p. 84.
pp. 289».290.
locq cits;
°Imad
at DTn,
53.
Gibb# "The Arcaiea of Saladinj"
p. 399.
54.
ßaIZ at DTn, o
pp. 161 and 342;, Rnon. s Itinororium
ait,
Peregrinorum
pp. 131»132,
55.
Norrisp onýci,
56.
Anon.,
Itinerarium
99.
p.
r,
poregrinorum,
p. 78.
54
4-57
the light
spear,
13th century
India
Illustrated
Egypt
both
identifiable
12th
Crescent
upparentlylºrab
Turkish
the
of
and the Fertile
probably
A camparabls
(Figs.
(Figs.
(Fig.
origin
took place
fragmentation
of the Saljüq
dynasty
farted more for
of
empire in the mid-12th
such troops
course,
soldiers
At this
by the end of
on horseback
fought
regions
than for
infantry
did have an important
12th century.
while
in the second half
their
part
so
that
with
The
their
in A,f2hhaniat7an, t
cavalry,
heavily
New they were apparently
of
troops
were
yet horse
saddles
may indeed have been known in the earliest
centuries
59
generally
similar
to serve
in northern
the long shanahir
they kept in scabbards beneath their
armoured,
from
continued
"Slave Kings"
noted for
Who overthrew
loaders
Ghürid
is
khal
and
iks
rids
been
to play even in the early
Mounted
spears*60
century,
of the 12th century
at least
century
the
had never
time some were clearly
the subsequent man11;
u dynasty
that
of nomadic Turcoman
in the oast of Islam following
more than one element in a mixed army,
latter
or in
no particularly
or of
in the importance
horse. -archery
this
troops,
equipped
and 325)
162,310
290 and 295)
from
centuries
329).
decline
state,
13th
and early
Dhow many lightly
costume
dress
In the Ghaznauid
even in early
57
weapon of the Arabs.
as the typical
sources
in
of bamboos, was regarded
often
India.
swords
a fashion
of Islom.
that
61
an, cit. a, pp. 260."269.
57.
Mub; rakahÄht
58.
l3asuarth*
59.
t9ou2cnä Minhä, ý al DTný, on.
ýcit,
60,
Ibwid,,,& p. 461.
61.
Mubärokahähs ý
Ibn Ioraqs ap ci, tý.
The Ghaznavida,
pp. 109-110.
p. 351.
p. 259; Ashgors o2a cit,
p. 153.
pp, 137-138;
ý-558
Such saddle-swords
been
illustrated
have
may
Turkish
(Fig.
Iran
ilzarbsyjrn
(Fig.
but
in eastern
(Fig.
India
(Fig.
regions
to
11th
possibly
seem at this
Islam
13th
that
from
a bowcaae on the
uncertain
in
saddle
during
sub-continent
rather
's
used by these
mail
of
63
armour.
the
of
of
siege
an unprotected
the central
of
foe'
with
how,
by the
is,
north,
fact,
deigned
¬
Ashgar, ac. citt,
-
63.
Mubcrak nsh,
np. citý
a hinh
point
nrrowheadS
to
were uced
to
either
to slay
mode horde-armour,
a man wearing
to suppose
heavy
that
Turkish
and Qangalie
who together
op,. cie,
iron
such
mnmlllk archersy
Turcomans.
originally
P. 241.
Sultnnntr.
the long-distance
was not normal among all
p. 35; Digby,
mnmOks
javelin,
of
ethers
or in
no reason
among those
the
aprcifically
nwah^n.
tribal
the
among
Qipchngs
62.
variety
great
or similarly
in
in
shear,
more were designed
Still
n
style,
had reached
or be used against
though not necessarily
nomadic
to
archery
of
shotfc
which
the Delhi
vital
cone or leather
a degree of sophieticatko'h
and still
That
lamellar
wood,
khsft
were
Some i.iere
warfare,
There
Further
to those
eastern
Vet horse-srchers,
fought
suggested
a quilted
pierce
62
uunrrioro.
shields
archery
of
cavalry
of horse-archery
centuries.
troops
and sword.
of perfection
against
nrisaa
at
pro-Islamic
almost
early,
Turcomans,
arrioured
lns^oo
penetrate
those
nomadic
Such heavily
mace!
on a corvinq
at erisce,
carving
seem to be no representations
than
the
century
northern
date
century,
to have been similar
time
12th
century
appears
Elsetif, ore,
491).
late
359),
Apart
there
13th
and early
Such a weapon certainly
391).
of uncertain,
422)
in
mares
formed
pp. 15-16.
ý5q
the
backbone
apparently
were
succeeded
of
to
fail
in
destroying
the
armoured
been
have
The
been
of
art
the
illustrated
than
rather
a major
late
and
They
rarely
Such
an interpretation
in
appear
the
13th
recently
scan
would
to
armour
early
true
particularly
In all
Khwarazmshahs,
appear
with
the
(rigs.
one unique
the
reginn
century.
65
13th
were clearly
the heavier
use of
characteristic
though
OTnj, op,s cit.,
cavalry
rather
of
later,
rubärakshähf
66.
(London 1965), pp. 114-115
A. T. Fiice# Islamic
Art.
E. D. Grube., Thf? ;! orld of Is1; im. (London 1966)., pp.
cit,
pp.
manuscript
262.
65.
p.
the
horsn_arnnur,
t"aulänä
02,
seem
263,390,392,395-397,400-
west-Iranian,
al
most
century,
64.
f''iinhsj
is
century.
armed,
variously
and
This
rhähnnmohs,
or mid-14th
in
though
probability
their
early
earlier,
who,
tradition
Sal jüq
406 and 645).
in
from
cavalrymen
the
within
date
this
by arms
hca suonortnd
Red-Ground
so-coiled
c
mid-14th
i11wr+inotinn.
manuscript
from rather
sources
to illustrate
the
of
probably
of which
Iranian
I1-V, hänid
wood
cnnnuernrs.
4
in
willowy
genar^11y
of
the
until
of
Iran
rongol
arrived
Many may also
troops.
enuipnent
occasion,
of hnnvily
spear
century
sources
such
nTznh
vanguard
64
horses,
amon-)such
military
the
of
could
On this
consisted
armoured
weapon
traditional
that
Khitai
Chinese-influenced
army largely
equally
that
dynasty
The rare
although
mid-
Khitoi
warriors
pn they
1212
was so soon to .follow.
horse-archers,
to
seems
Qar;
as a very
that
in
cavalry
These
century.
but
Turkist7n.
Muslim
riding
Mongols,
heavy
similar
13th
Buddhist
Khwärazmph_nh'^
cavalry
army,
early
the
have been regarded
however,
the
the
the Mongol horde
have
in
against
much of
over
indeed
Khwarazmahäh's
predominated
soon
ruled
the
of
260.261.
nnd 122;
103--104.
C L-\/
C ý_v i
1ý6o
known as thr'
is
Kitnb-i
a devolopment
probobly
(Fig.
Smmnk I\yynr
both
of
perhaps
grown heavior
through
Central
Asian
horse-archers
nomadic
Interestingly
was once again
to the
occurring
same threat
By now,
of
who were
8ulnhär,
with
confluence
of
Russia
and the
the
steppes.
converted
their
it
to
primitive
the
Kem
In 12th
the widespread
and life-like
and to
nnc$ 13th
the
of
such developments
equipment
equipment
that
surviving
may well
Russian
In a second
states
long
sabre,
anpear
Syria
developments
sources
area
(Figs.
that
I. Hrbak: "Oulgh: arS " Encyclo
vol. I! pp. 1304.1300.
din
of
between
squeezed
nnmariz
to have been
century,
while
to
the
ýýýý.
hpnv1 r rpvnlry
helmets
werr
nrnnur,
rir! id
'Ath
the
chnmfron,
and heavy
all
eponrent.
a great
deal
622,625,636
to the
of
and ('; 7),
judging
south,
626-633).
bordered
and Palestine,
thra
at
nninhhoura
in
(Figs.
of
and °Pnnali
of horse-archers
corps,
"lovrin
state
and in pnrticulnr
area
mirror
art
(rin.
posed,
industry
or mid-12th
are roflectrd
this
Christian
in
fact,
itcrlf,
separate
from
in
Kiev
separation
into
cavalry
Muslim
^ipchan
13th67
century
of
was beinn
early
horte-armour
the
Christinns
forest-daxrellinn
by ttip
adoption
surviving
the-Crusader
the
Finno-Ugrian
some extent
Once again
do,
in responns
steppes,
horse-archc--Ics
rivers
animist
in
Christianity
the
process
comparable
armaments
comp lulýhnrs
visors,
close-combat
67.
largely
still
exactly
nomadic
Volpe
against
Turkistän.
The isolated
well-established
and
in warfare
the Eurasian
only
its
wers so convQrted
north
from
waa not
styles,
and earlier
in
of
Turkish
Were the equipment
experience
an nlmolt
threatened.
so
Ssljüq
long
north
that
course,
Russia
of
enough,
641).
the Muslim
there
wworlr+,
seems by contrast
Isi. '2m, second
edition.,
461
to have been almost
changes
first
offensive
in
cdsquate,
while
generally
forced
for
from
thA
to
the
the
other
placing
of
either
cavalry
at 1paot
the '-amlük
Ulhile
the
r-lso
Franks,
foes
of
the
refined
in
troops
of
have
to
nomadic
part,
of
Arab
mamluk.
have
ranks
been
or
comparryble
or
as light
alongside
tha
_ven
71
infantry
of
learned
concept-,
Turcoman,
in
occur.,
been
272 and 275`).
packed
Ibi d,
pp.
70.
small
opcit..
71.
id,
pp.
c:gy; at and Syria
Cast,
developments
the
13th
tactics
they
tactics
111-112;
pp.
156-157.
successfully
century,
having
technology
Their
defected
lesser
numerous
among the
were clearly
superior
and discipline
tradition
these
: rusaders,
in military
and overcome
the known world.
a military
the
against
the Mongols
pp.
op,
69.
^Ib
and of
ormaraents,
foundation
of
offensive
the Middle
logistics,
68.6maily
state
lyyUbid
confined
within
successful
Ayyübid
Oy the
and tactics.
the
(Figs.
in
no did
and skirmishers
closely
outside
bows
seemed
as scouts
troops70
the
little
farces.
by Zangid
",mnlüks
primary
left
as original
in
horse-archers
role
may be e reflection,
concluded
developing
Their
Frankish
mounted
than
were
that
seem to
the
proved
rrnnks
warfare
turcopolea,
carried
who fought
the
years
many may have
style.
cavalry
not
During
Such developments
of
rrther
were
though
Oyzantine
defensive
as military
techniques
on counter-siege
recruitment
The turconoles
Europe*68
existing
innovation.
, yzantinea
tradition,
later
insofar
except
in western
ph+ise,
rely
tactical
including
stagnation,
developments
reflected
Crusaders'
scope
complete
patterns
were to provide
upon which
later
113 and 116-1113.
Vryonie,,
110-112.
op.,
s pp.
most
133-134.
°^amlük
69
Ii 62
and Ottoman
the role
cavalry
superior.
Even if
by a fan
surprised
outcome
always
primary
Purüs1yyn
lance
Egypt,
it
same was true
show that
It
presumably
and also,
armoured
perhaps,,
an training
archer
73,
Al RgsaräOT= np.
74.
Al t,ns5-rTj
75.
lük
Men,
the
N. Robiep "The Training
of
J.
V.
in
the
En
Sncinty
!
"Iddie
st,
and
edits.
75,
o}-
c9.t,
(London --------1ý75
s
Ibi d, p p.
158.
and
P.
.
I,1ar
325;
the bow.
ryri^
75
and
p.
al
1'.athrar
it
crbbr)üid
up his
rolled
the bowstring.
Scan2ons
p.
the use
to bend his
easier
72.
Mßnunl of
"ýms
more common than
in Europcan trcvcllprs'
cit.,
in
from
ryzsntine
was exactly
A Muslim
final
most tiamluk
Turcoman style.
this
paralleled
the
such furüs iy_yv manuals
fienlük
snagging
when
and r)48).
to make it
avoid
that
Mnmlük ort
earlier
the
sleeve
to
the
speed,
this
Since
find
are generally
in
of
': hen shooting,
74
to
described,
was not
seemed to be a development
traditions.
battles
woepon,, even including
1E0,647
of
their
sat-piece
cavalry.
in enrly
,.'ar
in which
infantry
emphasis
sind swords
175,177,17f,
the brunt
on its
surprising
greater
t_ven where archery
clearly
nor
on any other
where spears
bows (rigs.
is
mid
than
Very much the
upon `'amlük
infantry
weapons were considered
up in
or when droun
role,
manuals
their
an army had to rely
deponded
bore
manoeuvre
of
tradition,
military
Although
horsemen
important,
power and the weight
73
refined
paramount.
and large--scale
warfare
striking
the
constantly
won clearly
considered
offensive
of
new but
not
of
were still
their
to
be built.
were
successes
In this
72
76
arm
r'ithough
descriptinns
29"
P,npiirij
qpj
cit. ý p.
72.
10?.
pp.
156-157.
Fsrin,, 11 in War Technal. 2LgyParry and t.. E. Yrpp
463
of
the Mongols,
it
lnmollar
t.ot
amour.
tiro
on archery
no more then
was surely
to be undortnkon
precaution
th
77
by nil
knonlingo
while
such works
seemed to be more concerned
end bow in
shield
it
century
onto
the
this
to draw up in
mnnner
by the
than
shoot
each
rank
protected
the
rrchero
ticre
foe,
if
horsebockD
no the
known
uns, prncticir-d
the
ovrr
nrchery.
for
the
it
qnnnrnlly
In fact,,
or
in
thr
nuivors
kn; 'elino,
from
ahead
8a
In
nab? n.
in
the
61
in
^vnn
inhn
These were
Rather
oppenrnnce
they
position,
being
of
to
overrun
shot
not
shock
crossbows
hr! vn hnon
rionn
n: imn or
typc
IjPre
this
and
the hands of
"Mongol Archers in
of Archer-"nticunriea
horse-,
-rchery
lryv on
virtually
my
rnd
of
account
at leýýt.
the
on
frnn
techniques
hrrnssmont
tnctics.,
in
ridor
donn
nxnz^cisn
th-n, tFroet
ns the
at
of
from
, hoot
wns
onP furüsiyy?
exPrcioc.
to
',1hnn this
closer-rnnne
clearly
were
n1so troinec!
st-nms
and wes ,+ppnrently
around
it.
use of
archers
s snuntting
directions.
nll
as : dPmonttrnted
rongn
close
bc, in
need
however,
nave,
",ost
empty their
one
horseback
79
Such flaMlZ< nounted
the
from
and
ground
78
rnrllük.
dismount,
ranks,
from
the combined
battles,
of mounted
ar uslim
or sitting.
about
and acct-piece
tho practice
was napnrc+ntly
14th
In
sieges
wore wonring
did
on shooting
sountting
rntherthan
stnnding,
they
century
orphnsis
greater
put
if
nrchern
the mid-14th
until
n conrnon-spnsP
one
Thirteenth
`"!? '1^73;,
Century
n. 21.
77,
G. 0. and A.. Fl. Gaunt,
iournnl
Society
of the
70.
Inc. cit2*0
"Horne-Archers
Latham and Paterson,,
of Islam"
Saracen Archery,
J. D. Latham and º:1. M. Pstorsan,,
an, F:nglish
cn
of a ilnmeluka urark on archer
vorsion
and ox oaltion
(London 1970)v p. 101.
A. 0t 1360,
79.
Ibn Khaldiin,
Prophet"
p.
CO.
"totes
Ayolon,
on the Furüsiyye
riiamluk Sultanate"
Pp* 55-5(9
Cl.
Latham
"Mugaddimahý"
205.
and Paterson!
in Bosuaorthý
Exercises
"Horse-Archers
of
"The Armies
af' the
and Gnmes in
Islan",
lnc. r t.
the
"
4Gý
such Mamlük horseman
illustrations
from
Syria
the flamlük
cavalry.
Some acted
neither
bow and arrows.
only with
(figs.
177 and 179).
have been tribal
tribes
bedouin
and Egypt.
in
art
of
that
possible
bedouin
later
the
centuries
Finally
though strictly
era
some Turcoman
from
(Figs.
there
their
fellow
nomads in
above all
else,
although
warriors
is
it
also
those
adopting
them virtually
these
regions
in
642).
and
133,311,639
the scope of this
impact upon the Middle
Sinai
Syria,
of
themselves.
Mongols
the
are
outside
of
Arab
auxiliary
were to render
that
frontiers
the
although
real
many Turcoman
for
were already
to Chinese than to Muslim traditions,
profound
the only
the borders
recognizable
tribes
would
Comparable
invasion.
to be Arabs,
appear
and dress
majority:
to protect
be armed
nsm__,
_lüks
were probably
a great
to watch
The most readily
customs
indistinguishable
from
would
but
shield
horse-archery,
were paid
were engaged
63
which
Here one may find
nomadic
employed
also
case they
a turn
carry
perhaps
and Lebanon
Palestine
the
tribes
as Kurdish
as well
Syria,
Asian
in
Such warriors
auxiliaries.
Central
of
survival
nor
Others,,
hooves
horses'
and Syria
in Egypt
as scouts,
82
seem
some certainly
and 652).
state
hauberk
horse-archers
century
almost beneath their
Of course
dire
14th
Anatolia,
1788,309,6500
wear the
Among the many other
source.
and early
and southern
131,177A,
light
13th
at targets
to be shooting
(Figs.
late
of
Egypt,
from a Syrian
Their
study and outing more
were naturally
East.
weapons,
to have a
Mongols were nomad horse-archers
they were competent in all
forms of warfare
80.
P.
.
82,
Al AnsFrT, opt-cit.
t
83,
in Et5
Veudalism
Poliakl,
1250-190p,
pp. 9-10.
rin
Pn1AStinn
and Lobanon
VII
465
including
Various
sieges.
were noted both by.
at equipment and tactics
travellers
-European
for example,
warriors$
features
and Muslim foes.
were said to use shields
Mongol
of wickerwork
or cane only when on guard-duty and not while en aj n9 in horse84
They or their'Central
archery,
Asian allies
also carried
large
bow-cases
archers
apparently
sliding
their
using
other
from
slung
did
light
r'
two bows,
lassoo.
Richer
warriors
and rode
horses
protected
were of
could
leather
consist
the art
saddle-girths
three
curved
Iran
however,
would,
until
the
continued
style
for
to make new forms
14th
to manufacture
local
71 Khania( suzerainty
shields
dynasties
6T
for
the rider
and a
of
(Figs,,
did
industries
new masters
Say. they
and various
survived
410,638,639
their
other
in
Nor, according
armam its
armour ' för
which
appear
by the Mongols,
Even when they
century.
those
horse-armours
aventail,
immediately
not
of those Muslim areas overrun
learn
Other
86
to Rc hTd al Oin, would the woll_eatablished.
of
swords
crinets
Protection
a leather
with
an axe and a
peytrals,
cruppers.
thick.
as-carrying
single-edged
or lamellar
layers
helmet
plus
of
when
described
are
quivers,
apparently,
lamellae.
These styles
three
had a habit
also
Mongols
by mail
a metal
of
their
used slightly
not,
up to
of iron
cuirass
than
no less
most Mamlük horse-
which
troops
beneath
Elsewhere
one or
though
belts,
Mongol
not.
lances
weapons.
and chamfrons
their
also
items
under
apparently
in
Mongol
traditional
and
and 642-644).
84.
Gaunt$ loc. cit.
850
Al Agsarä'T,
86.
P. Komroff,
87.
"Oriental
Armour of the Near and Middle East from the
Gorelick'
fifteenth
the
in
to
as
shown
centuries
eighth
works of art"
14c. cit.
op. cii`,
pp. 328-329,
Contemporaries
(London
47-48.
Palo
1928).
Marco
pp.
of
p
466
Nevertheless,
capital
city
prior,
later
f
local
an existing
had, for
In north-western
greatly
Iran
encouragcdthe
arms manufacturing
example,, apparently
the presence of a now Mongol
further
industry.
been rudimentary
88
development of
Sword-making
in this
region
to 1300 A0.09
I
60.
Allnn9
69.
Ibid.
op. cit.
p. 67.
467
PART FOUR
Conclusions
4-6 8'
MaMtt SIara!;
..__._ý
Difficulty
in the dating,
of source material
does not,
should
however,
Many such
conclusions
around
cultures,
of military
or technological
history.
Military
Enui
uncovers
of Islamic
and seem, likely
more surviving
the study of medieval
number of surviving
Clearly
questions
and appearances
Surviving
if
Important
features.
Arabia
to surviving
limitations
Iranian
than
in mind,
equipment
military
influences
were
those
changing
fashions
help,
pieces.
the study
were probably
the
the
But they must
does suggest
from
all
or otherwise.
sometimes greater,
naturalistic.
alternative
these
of Muslim
In pre-Islamic
military
can be a great,
answer
alone,
development,
they aro reasonably
Even bearing
where Roman arms are concerned.
cannot,
be it
any artifact,
of an increasing
Comparable clarification
of equipment.
the structure,
remain as a second-best
terminology
by the recovery
terminology
of
Illustrations
particularly
archaeology
The same problem plagued
artifacts.
pieces
to
of
fields
European arms and armour but hass to a
a study
relating
and if,
to remain so until,
been even more dramatic
has, of course,
the immediate
aspects
equipment remains for
military
been clarified
extent,
substantial
on broader
rnt
The terminology
from clear
flevertheless,
light
beyond
or
be preliminary,
will
a useful
and neighbouring
Muslim
cannot,
qualifications,
Islamic
of
conclusions
conclusions
'throw
may still
difficult.
similarly
useful
with
technology
military
conclusions
mean that
be hedged
and most will
these
definite
be drawn.
not,
ruslim
concerned with
nake$ the draw., ng of
This
and in many cases even the provenance,,,
of
the known
certain
much stronger
Hellenistic
world.
4 6q
This
true
remained
Muslin
period
Asia
of
both
although
the
grew in
rapidly
the
arms and the armour
impact
Such Central
strength.
may have begun to predominates
Andaluss,, before
and al
culture
following
Asian
technological
they
reflected
Saljüq
conquests
nomadic
influences
the
settled
regions
plus
those
of
that
concepts
of
communities
the nomadic
of
Turkish
11th
century.
did
the
of
the advanced
of
predominated
as the absorbers
merely
North Africa
material
During
culture.
expansion
of their
metallurgical
provinces
probably
influences
as much as they
the northern
themselves
shores
of
were
If one excludes
aides
provinces
themselves
were concerned.
of Islam
provinces
innovations.
fiddlb
Ages with
a noted
under Islams these
Christian
neighbours
by those
equally
countries
the Central
influences
and
Muslim regions
Asian styles
frontier,
bordering
that
then there
would also seem
fyzentium.
were adopted on both
seem plenty
of reasons
the early
Muslim Arab$ Kurdish
and west Iranian
were influencing
the Greeks at least
as much as they
that
were being
along
the Mediterranean.
of central
of the religious
to believe
extent
of a wider Mediterranean
influenced
Such a two-way flow of ideas
to have been true
advanced
the Marhrib:
influences
industries
their
highland
regions.
and technological
the early
techniques
Asian
these
in
where external
and Muslim Spain were part
Rather
and various
metaltiorkers,,
of military
the
reflect
Central
however: be wrong to see these western
It would,
Central
steppes.
To the wests in al Andalus and to a lesser
Europe naturally
not
Africa
military
metallurgical
various
had been developed
North
except,
the
of
Central
influences
Asian
impact
civilization
a combination
and Turkish
regions
all
and stylistic
of both
tactical
in
the more dramatic
the
backward
supposedly
Irnninnized
of
the early
of
influenced
by Byzantium.
47 0
Certain
aspects
of military
influence
more than
one source
of
technology
was probably
an 4reb swords
Central
the curved
period
during
of
places
were
in
turn
fast
influence.
of khan
nr.
fuslim
long
this
either
as booty
is
sabres
eastern
however,
in
the
gradually
the
more pointed
Islam
in
origins
Turkish
to show that
arrived
as the existing
From the
Into
11th
century
although
similar
front
resulted
Islam
the
that
agree
and was not
of the 11th
which
weapons,
imported
numbers$
small
of
Turkish
of
mercenaries
course',
the central
swords
had
Islam
into
very
throughout
in
sabre
n,sin,
onwards$
straight-bladed
weapons
have been varieties
Central
in
relatively
single-edged
equipnont
came to predominate
f'Duslim lands,
non-tapering,
I would
were
peoples,
in
differing
widely
the Sal.jüg cangijest3
after
They probably
or
of
and straight,
varied
the curved
tiUiile
cuestion.
From the
'probably
and
appearance
considered,
blades
their
of
demonstrates
light
shorts
however,
eastern
evidence
time.
or captives.
weapon.
reflected
been known among Turkish
before
a thrusting
probably
debated
use until
there
being
These straight
were,
in
had its
in widespread
century,
the end of
hopefully
blades.
and first
a hotly
sabre
thesis
Most such weapons would
The origins
still
Clearly,
the centuries
Shorter,
uldeopread
Iranian
is
Indian
most obviously
towards
most had relatively
variety,
also
Islam.
of
reflected
influence
external
themselves
this
than
rather
origin.
blunt-tipped
in
throughout
centuries
which
outline,
decades
mnnife56ing
double-edged
single-or
first
assembled
a cutting
to 11th
7th
the
the sword was,
primarily
For example,
clearly
review.
The evidence
that
others.
came to predoninate
sabre,
under
culture
the most important
fashions,
Asian
material
did
curved
and
not
471
die out.
entirely
Tho small
of
a short
of
naro
in
It
combat in
used in
often
in
perhaps,
the
during
sword
a problem.
Many were1
from which
daggers
Uns would
armour
in
Islam
in
the
the 7th
forces
their
expect
This
13th
and to
mentioned
the
regions
the
forms
The fact
that
both inherited
of military
equipment.
evidence
pictorial
extent
most common
with Umnyyed
these troops
known wealth
case
suggests
also
of mkce--head mostly
had
they gradually
Europe, perhaps
and Spaain.
commonusage from
uaar--aree, which only came into
onwards,
had
to
have
eastern
seems again
bihaah and the n cchak cans however,
to Armenia and India
weapon in the Arab world
by the nomadic Turks,
All
origins.
be pinned down
respectively,
regarded
throughout
Iranian
high
among
as
was almost
on horse-archery.
in
cost.
in conjunction
The lance was traditionally
not neglected
weaapon1
the mace is
as Christian
more precisely,
tatus
it
to find
as far
the 9th century
being
use may be
widespread
Thereafter
The r uslim
reliable
its
in Iran or Turkistän.
Sicily
Only the l6
of
that
a lesser
spread wcatuaard, eventually
via fuolim
something
only
helmet-breaking
where
centuries
and more sophisticated
origins
knives,
seems to be precisely
provinces
the Sassaniona'
Coth literary
later
generally
indicate
may similarly
and enlcrge(
that
of
to
the mace is frequently
was
illustrated.
purpose
limitations
and Turkish
Iranian
poses
review,
rarely
an armour-and
was abundant.
from
fir which
emergency.
and so the geographical
where
the kht'n
under
but
general
The mace was primarily
significant.
period
mentioned
reality
a dire
I exclude
Its
our period.
warriors
despite
most
as a warrior's
their
aand it
primary
was certainly
reliance
these peoples used the weapon in a variety
472
and did
of ways when mounted
lance,
as most of
Muslim
cavalry
infantry,
their
spears
which
later
This
fighting
was later
The
use,
started
the
and stouter
innnh, the
generally
used
infantry
disciplined
longest
'M'uslim
amonq whom it
userpon
was contrasted
'7omcno-ryzantine
was of
ah which
the
of
infantry
an
as
out
nuntnrT
those
latter
presupposes
by some horsemen.,
adopted
the shorter
with
turn
ranks.
to be in general
spear
but
in
in
that
came to do.
foes
than
shorter
indicated
probably
an the couched
European
medieval
were normally
such weapons as pikes.
formations
depend solely
not
origin.
for
Role-arms
infantry,
in
are perhp. ps the
Islam,
classical
the earliest
from
their
the
importance
Sub erjuent
.
Muslim
on unclear
continued
role
of
Muslin
javelins
elsewhere,
large
both
against
the
case,
out
of
then
traditions
the
lived
recognition,
much as they
did
armies of western
cavalry
archery,
in
the
and other
on in
armies
Europe were little
could
the
forces
Byzantium
of
would
who used
this
was
modified
a time
perhaps
Islam
classical
at
seem
continuing
If
Ronan legion,
the
reflect
suggest
infantry.
in many
soldiers,
this
the world
of
Their
similarly
although
could
the
,
foot
of
infantry
of
of
armies.
on javelin,
reliance
It
and disciplined
despite
infantry.
factors.
it
fact,
evidence
form
case
or
They existed
and this
Islamic
the
infantry
of
to be contradicted
of
in
may,
a number of
development
importance
continuing
weapons
staff
further
early
in
indicate
limited
in
is
again
the is"uslim world
similarly
forms,
or
used by
rurope.
however,
forces
documented
of
in medieval
though
use,
A clearly
of
forms
clear
are
sizes
invariably
almost
centuries,
infantry
of
the
reinforces
least
as they
uncertain
as yet
parts
and thrust,
cut
when the
more then a rabble
of individual
Warriors.
The popularity
t"onhrib
of
province,,
The
of
'robs
Iolart,
this
but
the rertile
Islamic
to
to
those
that
the
Iran
of
as infantry
size
of
their
tactics.
Meanwhile,
increased
in
of
a precursor
However,
myths.
The true
China,
It
too
thereafter
and
and Iran.
at
the
evidence
come from
before
the
applied
to
tribes
the
of
no further
east,
and
body-armour.
some ways as
various
the
from
than
in
history,
itself
arrows
east
Thereafter
conaucat.
rgypt.
Islam
originating
as
in
in
V th century
known in
of
rndalus
European
origin.
to be recorded
a Christian
n
despite
west
perhaps
influence.
hions
Islam
the r"uslin
nx chrry
with
of
in
thecae
predominate
Turkish
entered
either
the
fn
origins,
unclear
ntinr^
came to
arrows,
thvt
together
of
'rat;
Turkish
strong
be regarded
could
time
" yz
by
of
Frirly
of
suggests
effectiveness
growing
has
cower
military
weight
the
cominq
or Yenen.
ºRijz
provinces,
Turkish
seams first
indicate
foes.
archers
coon
Out the weapon was also
could
in
under
has a more complicated
crossbow
elsewhere.
the
itself
weapon seems to have spread
this
Iraq
which
certainly
Iran
or was known in
the
to
crossbow,
it
more
various
The arrow-guide,
the
such body protection
influenced
`,'uslim
however,
response
in
foes,
Iranian
influences
Asian
of
the
of
of
javelins
and penetrating
was
which
adoption
widespread
the
central
and
eastern
then
introC'uction
')pvnish
probably
were
Central
Nevertheless,
in
f`; ned
tribes
Arabian
by
than
among its
rather
references
northern
least
reputation
Crescent
compared
when
were
in
increace
the
lack
a relative
infantry
armour-piercing
a steady
or at
as the later
in
horsemen
reflects
certainly
just
regions',
charts
among ruslim
javelin
almost
mare specialized
Andalus
this
these
in
armour
heavier,
al
Andalus
and al
the
of
where
': f course,
474-the
hon6-hcº1d
In late
"io.m.nn Provence.
the
throughout
Europe
ei
medieval
: urooenn
indicate
that
The existence
the
in
both
in
Byzantium
bearing
not
by Muslim
engines
is
easier
been
Cast..
could
during
a word
that
Plate
armour
and thereafter
therefore
demand for
protection
from
in
speed,
armours
in
century.
.q
whether
any certainty
with
the
to armour
chnnnr'd
the
`ýenrarnlly,
first
entirely.
late-Roman
reflected
have resulted
Flexible
first
R
16th
otudiod.
disappeared
from
: nowhere
greater
Ln have
ser'no
invention.
rare
uns very
probably
process
nannonel^
trend
meaning
to he used
century
of
'uch
armours
passed.
discppeared
similarly
ii. rce. -
trebuchrt
had a specific
originally
The orac+uni,
nc-nin
the
in
c4 ie
hats o direct
wvnoon.
relating
being
period
time
as
more loosely
its
terms
of
meanings
have
counter-eight
to state
chin
tc
nongonel
orohably
impossible
is
the
the
but
of
to
continur
counter-poise
of
The man-powered
its
torsion-powered
such
tke
crossbow
siege
hand-held
favour
in
origin,
it
The exact
this
of
armies
Zslcm or Byzantium
for
was
abandonment
the r'iddle
in
however,
slightly
of
stary
no evidencrr
and
seen
not
. L..
Tslan.
vin
worlds,
does
the
chart,
Chinese
of
emerged
yet,
to
Islam,
is
frame-mounted
large
development
entire,
which
nnc4 ":onsn
then
and
on
though
the
of
there
Thristendon
"elleniotic
the
in
the
suit
'4edi'terronc-;
in t'nrly
'"°nrk ^rars to reenerne
could
upnrrnn'
in western
survived
! uch n scrnnrio
reached
ns o hunting
least
3t
it
So perhaps
crossbow,
it
known,
so-called
'.ndalus.
medieval
boon
hnd
crossbow
and
erk
decline,
military
lightness
it
must
such as a
needs,
and manoeuverability.
been
to
have
regarded
seem
the military
had
^s
rage Europe.
a technological
changing
Islas,
circumstances
of
na the beat
the 7th
to
13th centuries,
r,
475
in
as in
Islam
necessarily
Curope and the
very
of
prsrsislarity
a local
oovorty
tactical
a current
It
is
flexible
also
though
missiles
not
bullet-proof
course,
in
though
armour,
continued
which
armour
had been widely
of nail-dominated
the basic
the most common type
the
until
but
had become for
it
Asia
and Central
spread
the
its
domination
two trends
Mail
than
towards
back
spreading
these
by the
form,
a penetrating
even n 'ter
lamellar
the greater
won, -2ivr n in
arnourr,
probably
in
originated
the
of
more characteristic
time
place
of
of
Muhcmnad.
o1 origin
Turkish
the
protection
best
and was,
Its
of which
remained
'ualin
region
that
against
of course,
ancient
Yiddlr
anatern
Iran
cubsonuent
so closely
troops
be denied.
blow
in e'rly
tern
wer
and
central
can hardly
remained
popularity
t.'i-n
scale
dust
centuries.
certainly
almost
-irnour,
ýPiere
oar: alleled
warfare
curnne.
in
mour
n
or even 12th
11th
Lamollar
east
of
Its
the gnat,
was the most widespread
dire
tank
of
nail,
provinces
Islamic
western
of
nhock-,
rac'ºieted
generation
unlike
the western
in
Today,
armour-,.
protection.
readopted
,corii.nat
fora.
but
in
inn
irotFct.
ranee
latent
lamellar
to archery
given
emphasis
on the
sophisticated
in
ng
circuns'tancen,
bptter
plate
rigid
the
shock-absorbing
such graduated
hetrny!
seems to hrºvo reftecto^'
most
provided
did
So does
like
some provinces
under
operate
a som¬^whnt more
"cale
Islam,
than
vests
principle.
absorbing
that,
armours
as arrows
such
The widespread
on speed of manoeuvre.
noting
soft
quilted
were.
genernlly
resources,
enphcois
worth
in
were not
felt,
of
normally
although
in petal
Such armour,
armours
leather,,
of
latter,
these
Fast.
soft
whereas
and some forms
material
that
light,
rar
ntoady
narallaled
a link
a cutting
between
rather
even more effective
476
if
worn with
this
For
reason
the
of
in
abundant
areas
had facilities
the
field
of
the
no Byzantium,
because
nducntvge
their
of
was more
it
to
or
qualtities.
Furnpe
of western
the period
during
level
may have enjoyed
provinces
proximity
reason
dial the
to import
enough
arms and legs
Muslim
eastern
than
on the some technological
generally
of
technological
Thus it
in large
mail
for
protection
t.., ilo
review.
under
rich
was not,
the simple
resources
to have been in advance
appears
It
for
armours.
either
to manufacture
Islam
in
or lamellar
wore
Islam
blow.
that
of
regions.
all
basic
number of
that
shock
demanded greater
of mail
scale
the
throughout
widespread
and a larger
construction
in
was popular
construction
cxpertisc
to absorb
armour
nail
equally
coursep
that
a soft
those
Central
Psinn
name
cultures
been in widespread
there
sophisticated
limb
defences
use.
The very fact
that
such items of armour were more connon
limb-severing
This greater
capabilities
capability,.,
the greeter
of the curved Central
Asian sabre.
probably
was to be reflected
in the sabre-»fencing
regiments. -1, t continues
cavalry
strokes
part
of
that
the lower
in
ion
com
most
wan
eobro
in
believed
or vambrace,
europenn
the
It may be revevant
wrist.
protrctod
to a typicol
cnd periods
where
exactly
that
cobre-cuts
and when the curved
to have been adopted.
Leg ormour remained rarer
to 13th centuries,
of later
styles
which
orn most vulnerable
provinces
European broad} sword,
of krranda particularly
of the modern sport
the cn0n
the bludgeoning,
to be emphasized in the cut-and-
kote cut which is aimed sat theopponant's
to note
with
which contrasted
enphaaio of the medieval
armour-breakäng
slice
reflected
Asia then elsewhere
in Central
had long
although
than arm-protection
the c'
no n protection
from the 7th
for
the thighs,
477
for
was useful
opponent
a horseman,
a lcnce.
armed with
to have sufficed
that
indicate
a dose. -combat mk6e
The variety
have reflected
The bnydnh was probably
of
/
been of
Gap" which
that
the epcngen.hJk
Tho r.iirhfer
form
um
of
this
the thud
that
is
entirely,
made of
the
rpangenholn
of
head protection
those
than were
turnt
perhaps
clear
in
moulded
of
references
from
Ilassanion: a.
^,-,Ost evf. dcnce
of
laminated
be described
to a metal
wood,
distinctly
h uns smaller,
dare
in
for
of the separate
the
12th
of
sometimes
could
century
FusltM
said
even
be a version
or have been a
in
shape and in
Comes like
Europe.
The
cuir-bouilli.
both
wore more varied
were normally
typical
can be safely
segments,
one piece
contamporary
that
As such it
cuir-bouilli
may,, however,
be a reflection
or perhaps
was partly$
normally
Asian origins,
Europe
and all
having
moot accurately
Occasional
instance
loco
which
in the camc direction
northern
leather.
The dnr
poplar.
in
construction.
known as the
a style
a coif. 9 probably
hardened
t"yuelim shields
round
latter
The khud is
Influence,
it
to appear
only
may in
and which
and of
points
wau clearly
of
construction
did have Central
evidenco
tý'ýL,Lrsk,
which
It
outline.
to be used by the
continued
came linguistic
uhilo
helmets
infantry.
and methods
two-piece
basic
in
helmets seems to
howevers to have boon a spongenhal. n.
t.ýrk secns,
suggests
that
to remain
spangenhelm,
"egg-shaped"
late-Roman
surviving
"Parthian
a segmented
than
rather
have originally
both
not
might
which
disorganized
forms
of
variety
legs,
to fluslim
an
seem generally
expected
totally
of terms relating
a genuine
gave a pointed
normally
any but
boots
the lower
for
were not
with
was fighting
Heavy cavalry
as protection
horsenon
if he
particularly
generally
convex
as a hand-hold
nh during
this
construction
the lcrge
plane
or
and :should
buckler.
period
almost
certainly
to such shields
refer
The construction
bucklers
Could have been largely
arena
of
dispute
'fiila
it
is
or "yzentine
their
comparable
to
t:; r1nnh
.
It
origins
that
assumed that
is
there
origin,
beyond the technological
of fire--arrrn,
and spread,
these
an
acbre.
European
to suggest
that
a kite-
in eastern
those
of
curved
had a western
independently
may even have been the prototype
provide
tho
surrounding
now evidence
originated
shield
even small
pointless.
shields,,
generally
of natal
the introduction
of the time buts before
Kite-shaped
layer
metal chields.,
of wholly
would not only have been probably
capabilities
shaped
metal bosses or metal
or at most a protective
rims and reinforcementss
plates.
having large
Islam.
even in
='yzontium
and overriding
problem
end Europe.
Horse--armour
the 7th
from
in
the written
f^f
ti
those
but
became popular
in flyxontium
that
is
ns far'
of
heavy nail
siring
pervecive
otylee
in
spread
these
far
EHcving looked
separetely,,
so fnrp
bards
the
of
felt
to
13th
lamellar
uootern
Sow
Andelus
century
formed
essentially
of
Islmic
tern
used
such as
substantial
Islam
during
sourcos
protections
The separate
roes.
end to a lesser
part
almost
u+ritterz
horse
or scale
al
Europncn1,
core
and east
os the evidence
in
bards
sources.
the vest
is
The widely
or quilted
Iranian
mentioned
it
doteil'
record.
and in China«
to comparable
refer
the z"rrrib
to
3assnnian
to
edoption
pictorial
seen to refer
soon on early
our porind,
cecn
the
frequently
is
in great
sometimes
from
5t
Chile
centuries.
sources,
would
horse-armours
but
13th
absent
completely
of
to
poses one particular
of
extent
a short-lived
french,
military
provinces.
at vcch group or class
a number of general
trends
of military
become apparent.
equipment
As might
47q
have been expected,,
botraye(
influences
the cant
local,
from both
night
indicate
basic
resources.
local
combat styles
technological
static
infantry
Curing
this
manufactured
end other
in Yemen,
in
as likely
come
relatively
development of cavalry,,
largely
relied
arnrures
to reflect
of champions,
on war-gear
as Gums in the north
Swords were clearly
equipment was likely
Damascus,
soon to be purely
cumbersome scale
the very limited
and
the latter
or poverty
just
at such centres
in the
imported
from
to have been ccnuircd,
from
neighbouring
Antiochs
Edesco,
one peons zar another,
including
however,
the Arabs probably
locally
Vij'; z and above all
for
such no the role
battles
period
that
backwardness
They are,
end Iranian
in the north,
preference
flrribin
of pre-Iclrimic
the Romano-3yzantino
Characteristics
and south.
such as a suggested
India
technology
thv farmer being most obvious
uorldc,
in
the military
arms-producing
the
Armenian
by
centres
highiondo'
-icn
r,znzbäyj
ond F'ýrs.
Curing the grenteot
"ý ýidün
and L'raayyradCaliphop
rcgiana
arms-praducirig
mot
inportant
exp^nsfonp
under the
thosc, and raany other
establiched
era of ruslirl
were overrun.
arma-nunuPacturing
in Aoýnhaniot7tins Turkist7ans northern
though less
Comparably pcriphcral,
in the uact,
r>ettlcd
populations
and r rc.
centres
Iran$
tJith
to hovo relied
provinces,
such as Egypt,
the exception
imported
on
Lt
rcmninßd on the periphery:
tho Cauc=us
Important,
in Morocco end al /ndalus.
produced in the central
the Caliphato'
I'cverthelvss,
Arms ucre,
particularly
Syria
centres
oppenrod
of course,
those with
and the aaxlrah,
of Fars these centres
rau notcrinls
nnd firmcnia.
largo
Iron
seen largely
or on imported partially-
coo
cannploted items which pbe f inishod
Such an industrial
pattern,
in local
workshops.
when added to the widespread
and
a
4vo
long-distance
effective
of the Caliphotof
trade
was then to chcrccteriatic
natwork uhich
not to mention
tho vital
role
military
of
I
drawn iron
tzorconaricc
Vnshionn spread rapidly.
nilitary
is
Asian,
Central
the Muslim
itself
Hence the
equipment.
of
bow,
composite
both
justified
though
to cl
by a strong
to 10th
the
such
Dordecux
Transoxanin
remained
of
was
across
stemmed
almost
been preceded(
Europe
from
the
6th
in
one lay
close
Iraq
the
third,
maritime
although
and Egypt.
Of these
the medieval
European
cl
Andalus,
Asian
influence
had been influencing
the
three,
upon eastern
Arabia
centres
Islamic
since
southern
the Muslim
rrcnco-Ciormnn
that
civilization
military
TurkistrnT
in
with
the
frontier
the rlunlim
located
contact
corrorcinl
from
cud stretched
and beyond
astride
arms-producing
frontier
the ruolim
to note
interesting
important
most
three
beyond
while
powered
influenced
India
version
A similar,
already
is
it
in Hind,
world's
just
to Passau,
Central
latest
limited
any case,
large
their
and initally
uest
upon ffediterranean
a scenario
Eurasian
region,
bolt
in
centuries.
of
lands
the
fashions
however,
was,
influence
one lay
in
far
and had,, in
Andalus
uolin
Fearing
that
infiltration
of
and sabre
results.
by non-Islamic
the
to
of
no the
spangenholn
and their
was seen in
half
wan,
and abundance
armour,
quality
troops
ouch items
of
infiltration
This
Franco.
entirely
by their
frontier
the ruolin
from
lamellar
later,
rather
popularity
that
a response
Asian
the quality
of
of Turkish$
seems to have been equally
Central
of
a result
instance,
Out it
the offectivcncüs
note
the enctern
most of
first
ouch styles.
of
that
acasure,
the
in
was,
that
scant
provinccc,,
The adoption
throughout
styles
world
effectiveness
true
many fnr. flung
fuelled
military
pre--Islamic
India,
heartindustrial
on
a persistent
technology,
times.
while
491
Tncticnl
"Ovolo
rind Militnr
mrnts
Tho first
TrehnnInny
uave of Islamic
of the Umayysd Empire resulted
More specifically
tactics
this
in which
than
mobility
strategy
uns hardly
an infantry
also
in
contrast
did
Arabia'
to their
poverty
foes.
that
the
first
in
horses,
greater
Cut such a
father
lack.
a original'-
infantry
on mounted
preference.
of
victories.
achieved
their
most of
to suggest
ovidcnco
a reliance
Arab warriors
a result
roflectod
is
from Arab infantry
stemmed from
camel-riding
strategic
and the establishment
conquest
Arab reliance
0J., horses.
ruslim
armies
were,
'rich
relatively
There
in
equipment
ouch as arms and armour.
Evidence
the. Fertile
Crescent
be more than
ucro
empires
of commercial
already
and northern
Arabia
again
in
famano-Dyzantine
of
Vet the latter
is also likely
military
centuries,
Sessenien
The clan or tribal
families
in the Hij3z,
areas clang
domination
increased
and prccunably
over such trading
by tribute
the
two
degree
and southern
to have enabled
to permeate
seeps to have
as, from the 5th to 7th
fyzantino
military
way around.
arms stores
tho main corcvcn
the
troops
A high
influences
Iron was also influencing
than the other
such
where
influence
of
source
which is herd+l)'- surprising
rather
Prcbin
between
from
auxiliaries.
competition.
dominated,
styles
tribal
between northern
contact
and Iranian
that
of
southern
frequent
by Arab troops
in warfare
rabble
is times
pre-Isl
played
indicates
empires
on ill-equipped
and cultural
Arabia in late
the peninsula.
role
have been true
The same night
rival
vital
and Iranian
Romans-Uyzantino
could
the
of
routoa,
artarioa.
and importation,
apparently
owned by leading
in
other
also
commercial
nettled
endured those norchantc
They were replenished
while
the oquipnent
their
or
involved
4ýz
included
almost certainly
from neighbouring
arms producing
Any presumed
first
t'.uslim
mineral-rich
its
of
reservoir
the Urayycds
from
obvious
curly
of
Islam.
to
Central
an
'uelim
province
Syria's
impact use minimal,
sections
small
either
tradition$
the came way as did the Arabs.
demilitarized
those sections
functions
were virtually
equipment
and tactics.
of
the bulk
to have the
or localized.
traby
and were
or they fought
The population
of
and remained so under
who did have military
indistinguishable
these
of
because the military
largely
in basically
the Umayyads, while
was the most
iteverthelecs,
technology.
within
Egypt use largely
were not
provided
two were also
the Arabian military
horse-
technology
and the Crechrib
however
by the
to recruit
necessary
the military
thus already
Byzantine
an of fort
horsemen
traditions
were themsolves
population
century
wide
since
it
was
Arab armies
such recruitment
influence
military
and
organization
time
At this
the military
had some Influence
of its
military
finding
The former
troops.
in
tarries
Many of these
peoples.
aria
Iran
In the paid-7th
of cavalry
were already
which
like
may have been Inspired
Iran.
proportion
uero
Iron,
impact
greatest
Sassanion
conquered
cultures
such non-'Arab
every
in
conquered
expands, however.,
not
Lýrnd or regional
such forces
through
channel
conquered
could
had been occupied.
among newly
lands
by the
enjoyed
as Islam
thvmeqg or by a similar
of
the Caliphs
for
equipment
manpower.
the
an increasing
lands
military
Caliphate
problem.
established
raising
Arabs
the
'and material
regions,
sophisticated
Arab military
system
manufacture
must have been increased
introduced
this
Pyznntino
included
of
and militarily
1.'hat
already
abundance
armies
Tranooxania.
to solve
both local
or police
from the Byzcntineo
The Nubians were far
from pacific:
in
but their
ý-ý3
traditions
cem. largely
military
culture
to hnve lain
their
while
within
influence
a wider
North f ricen
limited
was nlraoet entirely
to tgyp t.
The Berbers
in
role
the military
u.-ins for
equipment
Arnenia'o
nat
is
North
Africa
history
of
to have been backward,
appear
it
of
hard
to isolate
of the
influence
Cyzantine
and this
location
the
superior
aping
it
matters
P. second
that
influence
fyzantine
Romsna-Hellenistic
hove inherited
Europa
this
of
schools.
aver--emphasized
any
civilization
At least
the so--called
to
have contributed
deal
largely
historys
in military
Byzantium was the adopter
ideas during
may be that
a great
that
uvrr,,
was due to the batter
neighbours
clear
night
traditions
to assume that
of Constantinople.
culture
end cparSe.
seems to be an apparent
Gyznntino
of "barbarian"
factor
The first
often
iss by cdntrnsts
and modifier
simple
been greatly
ýy
uhich
cl'
"barbarian"
Ito
thosQ
of
and
their
while
and Iranian
tended
traditions
t.avartholvßsa
and recent
no such has probably
between
similarities
both
own military
Romano-3yzantine
etknocetth
Yet their
wn mara noticeable.
its
localized,
largely
even primitive,
nay be due to two factors.
Byzantine
Islam.
clearly
as Prmenia's
given
an nnalgonction
perhaps
if
a najor*
classical
nany centuries,
influence
surprisingly
played
the inflation
and European
fyzentines
nark Ages.
of
scholars,
Romnn and Greek
Euro.. contriciEy.
The Visigothic
profound
influence
particularly
in the military
was, nevertheless.,
Iranians
peninsula
field.
Thin certainly
In medieval
limited
or more specifically
f: oorioh
almost entirely
had a
in al Andaluas
on subsequent Muslim civilization
to the many European features
Yet it
in the Iberien
inheritance
contributed
military
to nl
Sassanians military
tradition.
=ndalus.
influence
4(ey-
was more fundamental
tactics
and equipment
centuries,
less
been importing
heavy
of
so in
This
Asia.
technology
military
The Influence
in
above all
and the
provinces,
central
would
include
this
century
Later.,
with
the
Iran
in fuslim
primarily
of
course
in
at least
either
came to be dominated
6th
century
eastern
to
and
or
the early
c.- e from
Tronsoxonien
nomad Turcoman
invasions,
relating
by Turks
through
largely
Iolci'e
of
the
equipment
From uncertain
component.
influence
populations
galjüq
the
an
armour,
horse-archery
also
in
for
under review.
armies
early
it
such innovation
including
ethnic
end
largely
influence
fiuslin
as n major
spoor
was to have by for
region
is apparent
the
11th
originating
bulk, of
the period
in
had itself
frost
TurkistanT
and urban
nettled
during
to
with
than
the
was felt
the 0th
and long-lasting
in tacticsa,
beginnings
and minor
11th
Turks
Yet
latter
in weapons
sabre
to horse-archery.
fighting
rather
of Turkiatan
lanellnrp
curved
cavalry
from which
the most dra +otic$ fundamental
fluslirt
from
innovation
The source
was Central
cavalry
horse-archery.
military
many centuries.
sprang
Islamic
of
particularly
though
sword
It
and much more wider-pread.
the
frontier.
influences
grew
more important.
rinally
there was India.
influences
Indian
Afnhanistän.
were very localizedn,
Uherever
connections
in those nchoutc
either
heavy,
through
is fully
extending
beyond
those uarrloro
Iolcm,
on
who rode them or
them, is almost nlwoys to be found.
who controlled
8th to 10th centuries
that
hardly
these appeared in eastern
perhaps the most noticeable
the Into
Iberian,
those of Visigothic
to
been
in
the
have
realm
would seem
One exception
of wnr-Pleph ,nto.
Indien
Like
in
f^uslin
choncjo
woo the increasing
armourodp cavalry.
tbile
tactics
importance
the influence
from
of
of
445
Iranian
vors
fundamental
stirrup
This
tradition
cavalry
in
early
or Transoxanio
developnent,
the
century
metal
already
knew of
place,
which
This
the
a horseman
to
difference
it.
being
of
course,
armed with
of Islamic
to engrgo enc^:y infantry
hcd largely
CAbbFsId
The Turnich
Cnliphato
so-+colled
political
consisted
primarily
It
f3yzantium's
spearheaded
was inspired
if
and could
hod
the opposition
of
9th
the
on
of
heavily
had such
CAbbä3id
century
armoured
horse--archers.
In many skillo,
in nddition
indeed likely,
military
hul*; ms that
and lf3th
that
resurgence
by these or comparably
the
by
mailed
no
much
no
centuries
"shave
army"
to the
now
tta
or very demornli2ed,
end inncc -play,
loo seem possibly,
This role
or scout,
they were trained
owordsnnnship
century
nrmies.
basic
dicorgenized
impact
Including
that
less
to the Arab and
particularly
troops
shock
co
Like most nrmlük coldierc,
would
time.
made for
was in turn
remained cs skirmishers
become fragmented,
nn important
his
striking
whereas in preceding
directly,
only bo used effectively
nirendy
the
It
sword.
capability
armoured cavalry,
c,hur7s7nT horsenen of early
cnvolry
or
epear
this
around
enhanced
could,
in
to stand
improved
greatly
stirrup
did
the horse-archer.
rn enhanced close-combat
new role
metal
Arabs
they
although
rigid
i: hurnoän
the
that
likely
man comfortably
greatly
in
who had already
Turks
the
Only
armoured
was itself
even mars important.
loop-stirrup
rope
the metal
won concerned,
with
horses
of
of
adoption
as Iclai
contact
or
use of
the
seemss however,
leather
to stand,
ability
sewer of
It
a fully
enable
paddle,
of
availability
was perhaps
far
to
stirrups.
not make widespread
howver,
0th
as a result
adapted
increased
to this
took
cdoption
and the
horsemen of western
to crehery.
the heavy cavalry
Wring
the 10th
armoured Nuslim cavalry
Europe,
Oyzcntine
496
tactics
offensive
tactics
nr1ül<
as well
Crescent.
in
without
crccs
drying
established
to
13th
role
centuries
tactics
coylemiss
of local
being
with
a prime
militias
the äazirah.
forces
engines
moat infantry
weapons,
marcenaritis.
the
circumstances.
from
Prececi_n9
Umoyynd
the
development
fire
ends above a11a of oil-based
on ethnic
on
although
there
batsios
owed their
populations
who exported
Examples include
large
and
infantry
from
such
sprang
to
a close
success
initial
the
a growth
was also
Syria
in
the
no
ä1äi,
such
areas
eh,
such as
either
in
while
with
10th
Their
open battle
sophistication
of
the
dicoppocred.
in
courses
centuries
states
combat,
were recruited
example,
during
as a
wasp of
on local
depending
Caliphate
incomes
state
Each factor
changed
the Fertile
probably
reduced
infantry
1t number of dynasties
or at least
warlike
little
such as
Particularly
country,,
induetrion,
of
loss
cAbbisid
of the
auccescor
mean that
was increased
siege
of more refined
of
many spheres
remained
there
warfare
not
in
vital
remained
infantry
siege
did
in
cavalry
the subsequent
power and of
dyncatias
patterns,
each area
importance
The increased
local
recruitment.
in
and far
powers
armaments
for
armour
Muslim
equipped
of trading
importance
differing
cAbbn id
,
lightly
up of il7jk
in
rising
the frogaicntation
of
a breakdown
of
and the
of
to o revival
of
oid
Unmyyad ore.
precevUn3';
particuarly
and various
+tiaverthelesai
led
result
f3üyids
the
nht.a1stn had a oimilnr,
an the nrnioo
the
deal in comon with
of
equipment,
0Abbnsid
influence
the Fctimido,
also
in
non and horse.
crcuablef
those
as with
Thoro were similarities
both
had a grent
certainly
°Ahb;
association
numbers of infantry
the Cüyida,, the
rids
the
end
t.urShi*ün.
The essential
throughout
role
the Crusading
of t; ualim
infantry
eras, particularly
naturally
persisted
when the Frankish
states
497
were forced
onto the defensive
behind a network of einbornte
fortifications.
The general
and tactical
developments,,
inherited
a Visigothic
the some on that
essentially
Influence
French
waves of
in western
Impact
the
thoco
did
Cy the
youth.
uert'
plus
Europoon
the central
role
and armour,
auch erns
was despite
the
Cnly
same period.
14th
military
after
Turkish
Central
influcnced
cal Andalua
the
the surviving
military
of
armies
Cusslim bastion
Islam increased
Their
lance,
went with
This
during
review,
the
early
"Christian"
these
of
Granada.
tactics,
between the military
end eastern
unrriors
and almost
under
period
from
century.
separate
against
in
that
13th
Berber
and trained
zone
and heavy
tactics
the
of
peninvuln
foes.
Christian
armour
throughout
end of
Iberian
were washing
shock
cavalry
differences
by thD Ayyübid tcke-over
of course,
the
conquests, of Iron,
A cubeequent
divergencies.
in
Subsequent
Andclusiän
their
heavy
was a reaction
equipment of western
the Saljüq
of
persisted
coon in
Tho uidening
from
heavy
equipped
century,
styles
of
that
not
tins still
the 1uslim
most strictly
century
equipment
existence
differently
entirely
the
12th
indistinguishable
virtually
rxcentinlly
in
waves of
even in
influence
Berber
Europe$
the entire
washed over
though
which,
tradition.
European
and corm to have hod a greater
to the north
states
tradition
military
the overall
within
from that
from the 8th to 13th conturioc.
world
soon elsewhere
'na technologicsal
as yell
was different
al /sndaluo and the minor Christian
r:ualim
than
hiotory,
In al Indalua
in the ruolin
even elsewhere
both
trend of military
greatly
and
following
the Fertile
Crescent
end Anatolia
domination
over Egypt'
brought
that
countryp
also contributed
Asian nomadic horce-orchory
the Muslin
uorld
since
tochniqucc
the Oth ccntury,
about
to theoe
h: da,
4g rý Cut until
the
It
minor.
influencer
in
uns,
of
fact,
part3
of
tribes
the
the
cufficicnt
that
element
Sal jt q sultanate
traditionally
the
their
the military
themselves
though
tactics
etage
joined
more than
Tho V'ongol conquest
but again relatively
feian
horse--archery
to absorb new ideas
feature
continuity
night
be termed,
extent
in equipment.
least
of
that
military
far
so
of
as the large,
armies,
1oien
the centre
The Turcomens
the Bedouin
troops.
auxiliary
Islam led to a further,
of eastern
of nomadic Central
presented
thesis
in this
history,
could
cnd an ability
eclecticism
uhilo
apparent
in the fields
The basic
to
ts'lites
military
a source
r'uslim
India.
to northern
of the
their
uns o
cultures
n strong
element of
as it
This elements or mainstream
was already
in recruitment
lost
Central
returned
from both conquered and rival
was also present.
trosC persistent
lessor
the evidence
Islamic
»
in those areas.
techniques
as indicating
be interpreted
fanilicc,
cxc ption
a stronger
prinonco
short--lived,
In conclusion,
basic
of parts
them the
Trcditionol
century.
dominant
n previously
largo
nomecdic T.urcomans
now with
Egypt
conquering
with
and partial
and equipment,
from
as little
tribes,
the
within
n thouscnd
Islam.
of
r0m,
recruited
in
influence
the world
true
Cnot
to bocomo a new and reif.
then
enabled
with
predominance
military
by bringing
the possibly,
of
by not only
pottorn
nutucl
of' the Middle
had gone on for
which
also
thocc
of
civilizations
this
within
r'everthvlv3r,,
crab
cottlod
zone but
cottled
hnd been rclotivoly
a continuation
Turkistcn
nomadic
and flock
influcnca
noroly
The SnlJügo brokc
yccrs.
of
this
century
betuecn
thace
rnd
11th
in Umayyad tLme.
of tactics
and also,
characteristics
estobliohcds
It was
to a
and orgenizations
though again to a lesser
of tt;uolim warfare,
dynastic
states
extent,
at
the
Middle
of
ý'ý
Enot were conccrned,,
so^aatinos evolved
ct'.bb'aaid
recruitment
of a largely
wns far
slowor.
indicated
continued,
fttol
by its
first
ano,quithout
century.
of Vienna.
It
Normally,
The effectiveness
very persistence
by the r1,
onlük
fund
cntnl
also brought
of this
houovor,
basic
fact
by
the
and
Sultanate
or drastic
the forces
the early
on uith
array or with
n
of the 11th century.
conquest,
rnpidly,,
the -aljüq
such evalutian
tradition
that
it
of Egypt and later
change until
to
uric
by the
the 18th
of Ielana to the very gatcc
ý.
4a0
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caurcrs
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thp t, ck rnund
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to the Con resr
nnd consenuencFn
of Orientalists
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London L!niuersity,.
taº
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the
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rorl
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Ph, ý,',
fn P"ecca nnd t"eiiinn in thp latp
Postr
flnrtinl
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theaisy
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ic
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49 1
ContcmnornrY
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Dedn Korkut,
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the
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D. L.
cUmar
Ibn IbrahIrn,
Al Ansari,
A Muslim Manual of tý1ar,
Pilgrims
(London 1937).
edit. $ and trans.,
ftnon.,
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and other
1974).
(London 1962
.
Itinerariurn
Perp rinorum
(London 1958),
trElns.,
The Son
(London
trans.!
Anon.,
Anon,,
(Turin-Rome
Arebo-5icule,
G. Lewis,
The Deeds of
Francorum
Anon. s Nudüd nl
ßiblioteca
Sayers,
K. Fonwick,
Cruando
and trans.,
inurnnl
(London
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1957).
Tafri. L el Kurüb fT TadbTrnl
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'fi
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R. S. M. Lutful-ý-luq,
edit.,
al furüaiyYa:
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XXII
trz"ans.!
Arts AQieti
arz
and
(Cairo
Bahnael DTnp ibn Shaddäd! Al Nlauºadir Fli äultnni
nh
Salradin What F3vfall
Doha o7. Ctlns ibn haddäd!
London 1897).
C. W, tlilvnn= trans*',
Sultan
edit.
1897).
Yusuf
"
the
"History
Almohades,
5anhägTjp
Oakr
ibn
Abt
Al!
of
Al Etaidhaga
cal
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Al.mohnde, C. Levi»ProvenCals
t3dit, and trnna. a, Pcria 1920).
Al QalädhurT,
Futüh
ni
Ouldnn,
r(v Gav)vs
adit.
y
(reprint
E3eirut
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K.
7dhurTj
5tntP9
If
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P.
thr,
Inlrnic
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val.
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of
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trano.,
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Al f3ctcri!. Dpocri tion
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fl, Canard' edit« and trana«p
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Chu
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DMlN21Pc110i2
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de text9'-I.
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W. W Rockhillo
f
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L9
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FirdawsT,
Thp Shahnama of
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Firdawsi,
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J.
Alexindr,
C. Leibs
A. Uulloro,
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A. Grohmann,
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Thn E21G of the Kinns
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Al Namdänl!
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Al HamdänTq Fiaslin ibn fhmads AiýIklT, %
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1931).
and
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Historieno
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t!drld
"
Occidentßux
of
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Arebic
N. A. Farlo$
Pnnyri,
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v
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Al HarcwT# "Los Conseils
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tram.,
of
South
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5ayý
a
Prince
du
l+yyübide.
un
al--Narawi
=
In d'Ftudoa
trans.
Gullet
t3rientn3,
en
p
Al HorTrTq Thn AB,-nmblipc) of Al NorTri
(London 1867
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"
T. Chonery and F. Steingosa*
cAbd
ýtý
"
in
Andalus,
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^"A
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5oq
DGJ
CAbbasid
Cd
Caliphate:
70,81,
140,168,305,307,310,
319,329,334,343,346,
347,351,352,356,360,
362,363,365,368-370,
373,374,377,388-392,
394,398,407,419,444,
449,462.
al
342.
Malik#
al
Rahn
CAbd
304,
a
Caliph:
ibn
284,
Sazaura:
332,403.
300.
Abkhazians:
cAbn *: 351,352,357,337,
391.
Ahsar: 233.
454.
Abtäl:
403.
Abyssinia:
307.
Achacmenids:
;ý,däb al 1tarb : 17,27,34,
100,107,119.
Adarga: 233,407.
5, II2,
Aegean, arms find:
91,144.
Aethiopica:
296.
Af,Lhani. atan: 120,150,301304p 327,371,395,399,
457.
Af'r4.silzb:
309.
Africans:
400,403.
Africa,
Aftak:
130.
350,400,419.
hlabi&-:
r1
374,375.
hovanians:
t1
374.
Agulani:
Ahä`bish: 263.
Aac1r: 402.
Ahcläth: 335,337,388,452.
Al
Bänhdäd: 391.
Ah¢aad ibn Tlx17unt 350,360.
cAjami:
352.
frescoSý: 33,323.
120,415,454,455.
Akontion:
104.
Ajanta,
cflkkah:
Alans: 216,328.
CAlägah: 176.
Albanians:
300,303,374,394.
Alcappo: 364,365,413,414,
449.
Alexandria:
277,286.
Alhambra:
437,440.
A la brida:
432,439,440.
A la jineta:
432,439,440.
C%1i, Caliph:
268,281,282.
lids:
370.
CXliyah:
113.
Allah:
100.
"Almalu:
170.
Alptegin:
358,363,367,368,
370.
Altai Mts.: 324.
Alwah: 380.
Auiaj:
Amalfi:
130.
407 .
CAz
351,352.
al
n, Caliph:
cPmr ibn
Cs: '276,236.
al
CAnüd: 67,69,73,281,391,
398,422.
iWü Darya: 305,307.
69.
Anukta:
43,149,173,280,
Anatolia:
285,330,348,353,360,362,
390,411,417,444-446,464.
CAnt'tzAh:
101,105,108.
Anbar: 259,
Andalusians:
23,37,
al Andalus,
89,106,139,146,150,175,
190,207,215,216,221,222,
231-233,236,251,291-293,
340,377,423-440.
'Anf:
219,220,226.
Anglo-Saxons:
3 67,,
ht: vnah:
fu:
124.
Anna Connena: 412.
Ansar:
231,339.
369,396.
Antkiyah:
Agbuha: 102.
CAggär: 142.
17.
al Agsara'T:
Arabia:
26,90,101,103,171,
173,235,247,255-274,277,
278,325,348,369,
Arabian Gulf:
88,261,271.
horse:
Arabian
447.
Arabs: 28,87.. 89,103,105,106,
255-268,271,275--278,280285v 233,301-305,307,309,
318,319,329,335,333.340,
343,343,3,17-35&p
358,361,
363,365-. 371,374,377-330,
384,389,402,407,414,419,
423,432,438,444,446,449452,454,456,457,461,464.
CArad:
90,113.
Aragon:
425,432,434.
Aral Sea: 305,325.
Aramaeans: 258.
5-10
ArdashTr I: 297.
Armenia, Armenians:
34,43,
80,237,235,289,290,
303,350,361,367,378,
3135,407,410-413,451.
CArr`adah: 154,15¬3,278.
ArSüf, battle:
40::, 415,443.
ýrtugids:
44E3,455.
ý..rus: 159.
cAsä: 72, We
csä
Agilah:
414.
Asäwira:
261-263,296,301.
Asi: 331.
CAskar: 447,448,450,
c 1: 113.
7,
s,q3ºlän: 402.
Asturia:
292,424,425.
Asturia-Leon;
292,425-428.
fi?, 263,294,296,
As;Z'rän:
301.
AsvZn: 285.
Atahet. js: 44£3,450.
CAtalah:
122.
ntish
kash ähanin:
154.
Atwaqs 226.
nears: 37,90,247,243,277,
32E3,3413,376.
ctturäsim:
361,396.
455,456.
ýyäz the Tall:
Aynah: 176,
ct'ýyr; 130.
AyyZ"f3ids: 70,92,106,231,
239,413-416,420,445,
452-456,461.
34,1460
295,300,
lti2.arbayjän:
375,3£36,414,4580,
cnzTa, Caliph:
401.
al
Babr Bayan: 315.
=-.
I3actria:
Bactrian
ca. l: 325.
305.
Fadakhshän:
ý..
_
Badan: 195.
Badr al Ja.ýnalis 411.
Baýnhc'ad: 2601 3A2# 351p 352,
356,357,370,337,391.
Bagrach Vol: 3ý0.
B,nha al ihn:
15.
I3ahräzý xZ: 265.
411.
Bahräm, Fäti. mid vi2ir:
421.
Bahri
Bä3a: 263,402,403.
16,281,327,
al BaladhurT:
344.
Baläsäjh: un: 321.
409.
Balkans:
362.
Balkh:
iýchist3n,
Ba]. u'
i3.alüchTs s 120,
374.
25miyan:
303,
Band: 89.
Banü Balk: 257.
Barns I tabib: 366.
383.
Banü ilia äl:
Barns Niarin: 295.
L3arnt Tahlib:
257.
Barägi:
250.
13aräsizn: 250*
Barb horse: 280.
434.
Barcelona:
13ar9-i bid:
130.
249.251,372,3739
Bargustuwan:
Bärnya: 402.
T33ar4iya: 378.
Basra: 34,301,304,338,339.
tilis:
379.
13
13,
223,281,
ayýah: 212-214,220..
345,352.
324.
T3aykal, lake:
13ayl.and: 307.
354.
Bäzfakand:
I3a Tkand: 354.
Bäzin: 402.
B7-iiUuband: 354.
105.
Bedouin:
259,
Belisarius:
101,102,237,288,
Berbers:
350,351,367,377,379,330,
382,334,386,401,403,405,,
407,423,429,431,434_440.
I3erutta:
104.
Bid: 129,131.
Bhlak:
131.
All leash: 93.
74.
13i1k-a t. 'ýkini:
Bill:
100.
8lntcath:
318.
al I3ir nx: 17,33.
Bishý-Ipür: 265.
Bleraya: 235.
402.
Blue Nile:
T3obrinski
Bucket:
399.
Book of Ledo Korkut:
446.
13ornu: 402.
Bucollarii:
236.
Buddhists, Buddhists:
303,304,
310,459.
Bury} lutäq:
168,195,251.
Bukhara,
Bukharis:
307.. 309,352.
Bulgar:
24,460,
447.
Bulgaria:
13urutuqt 131.
Bugaia, battle:
11.
449.
Eüridsa
t3urj. 15+9.
Burjäss 124.
Euruds 433.
511
But
132,
pay:
iuyids:
168,334,3513,374,
392.. 395,397.
Bythinia:
4113.
ßyaantitttn,
By., antines:
34,35,
37,40,43,68,71,
ß0,90,
100,103,104,117,119,
141,146,149,151,16,1,
169,172,174,194,202,
204,207,211,213,214,
217,2113,229,232,237239,247-249,257,258,
260,262,272,273,275,
277-279,232..
2191,, -233,300,
317,330,332,34.0.343,
34G.. 350,351..
357,359,3613f, 9, :372,376,
^x33,387,
.
388,390,400,407-.
413,
416.419,429,443..
447,454,
461,462.
Cztthtsian .: 300.
384,405,411,419,
Cairo:
451.
417.
Cappa.cbcia:
10,43,
Cappadoc3an frescos:
364.
r.aTr.-,n11.a Palatina
ceiling:
333,
295,4-149
4,15.
Carolingians:
:324.
3its.:
Carpathian
battle:
Carrhae,
t17.
325,370,392.
Caspian:
425,431. -4: 34,439.
Castile:
c-ttalo nia : WS,, 43: L-434*
35,150,173,
t',ýýucý'ýtzs ý;ts.:
303,326,
216,290,300..
3,-,o, 374,375,413.
364.
Cavusin:
Central
Aria:
36,37,40,248,
265,277,295,2970
293,
300,305,3190
333,343,
353,355,357p
353,375,
3G6,420,4,119
460,464,
465.
Chanson de Rol-ind:
106.
Char Chid: 354.
Chakhi:
236,240.
c3ka,rkh: 142,392.
Chartres,
191.
stained
glass:
Chashm3k: 217,218,224.
C2ü ýi: 323.
China, Chinese:
35,107,140,
149,152,169,207,248,
277,303,303..
312,315,
318--324,327,3313,459,
464,
302.
221.
rC+thionites:
Chotxms:
Chuub: 75,
3'w-bah tTr:
132.
hub-i
ähzan: 75,
34,362,363,411.
ri. licia:
Clibanarius:
343.
105.
oipanions
of the irophet:
289.
Constantinople:
Copts: 258,266,2136,287,411.
425,423.
Corcbva:
Corsosca:
93.
Cressac frescos:
11.
Crimean areas finds:
313,314,
323.
Crow's Feet: 154.
Crusades,
Crusaders:
150,193,
194,200,219,239,312,374,
331,334,337,333,402,411414,420,422,442..
444,447,
448,450,452.,
456,460,461.
Cuirace:
193.
Cuirie:
193.
Cursores:
454.
Cyprus : 340,447.
Oabb-abah:
159,277.
69,70,75,76,226,
Oabbüs:
393.
Oabbüs al muharrafah:
212,227,
Dabirah:
303,340.
DanhistSn:
Da.hrah: 46.
?'Sr.i.zn: 176.
Dnmascene: 36.
Dmmascus: 369,449.
36.
Damascus steel:
ýýng sang: 132.
ýä..
Danish t1xa: f31.
424.
!; vii stuaänclicis: 445.
232,233,240,241,
`'araqih:
348,352,370,393,404,406,
407,421,437,440.
Daracjah lamilah:
236,241,437.
Darariy:
105.
402.
Darfur:
taarrajah:
160.
'Das: 100,102.
DashMh:
44,46.
Dast: 52.
DaZri : 1013.
Daylam, Daylam.is:
108,230,237,
238,263,300,301,358,374,
378,391,396,397.
231.
Day of the CarnQl, battle:
Defensores: 454,
Delhi Sultanate:
334,335,420,
458.
M: ýi1:
94.
! Ihayl:
177,
Dhulabah:
58.
s1z
Dhubalah: 415.
Akritas : 348.
Dienes
tºingän:
303.
Dihrarn: 303.
177.
Dil3s:
T)TmA: 121.
Dirc:
167,170,175,137,1889
190,191,193-195,203,
216,2619
232,290,296,
344,352,364,366,377,
382,393,415,434,435,
455,464.
Div sux&rän:
369.
Diw rkan:
160.
Diyar
63akr: 449.
232.
Dorka:
Dorylaeurn, battle:
Douro: 427.
Drafsh:
Dshübbe:
Dulayfids
374,443.
294.
189.
: 370.
129,167,235,
Dura Europos:
258,264,266,297.
Wash
harbah:
103,109.
Durres ah-. 187,290.
46.
rusthni:
324.
Dzungari<an rates:
354.
Eastern Turks:
331.
East Indies:
fro:
4213.
cija,
battle:
439.
23,32-34,44,69,71,
'Egypt:
80,62,102,154,174,2039
250f 255,
237,233,2499
274,276,281,284--287,
350,367,
301,334,3409
368,381,344,365,338,
407,403,
3949 395,4019
4179 4199 420,
410-4129
422,451,452,457,461,
4629 464.
Clburz,
Mts.: 392.
Elephants:
107.
328.
England:
286.
Eritreans:
Eritrea,
291.
Ervogild:
battle:
445.
Erzinjan,
.
Ethiopia,
Ethiopians:
120,
262,263,286,402,403.
88.
Euphrates:
35,248,324,
Eurasian
Steppes:
375,3769
400,460.
Europe, Europeans:
26,35,37,
40,45,248,251,311,314,
3289 337,359,372,375,
3829 385,407,419,4209
426,428431,4399
4429 446
447,455,461.
Fadaks 276.
radfädahs
177.
'17t3.
FAC{1s
Fat"ans
147.
Falco:
101.
Falco
Darn tsceno:
Fai)(, ;, 191 .
36.
raragut:
438.
Fazchänä, Far7a2hina
305,308,
309,317-321,329,363.
Fars: 25,339,395.
Fätimicls:
32,70,92,101,102,
150,154,237,233,249,358,
367,368,377-335,387,388,
394,395,401,4.73.405,407,
400,410-414,419,451,452.
Fawq:. 132.
Fayyüm:
286.
Crescent:
Fertile
23,34,71,120,
154,173,256,25¬i,
271,276,
284,340,357,363,447,450,
452,457.
Finno-Ugrians:
460.
Firdawsi:
334,371-373,391,392,
396.
FIrüzäbjd:
297,344.
Fitr:
103.
Prance: 340,4228,431-434.
7.93,423.
Franks:
'undukistan:
303.
F-uray j 1yah: 92-94,363,40-1.
15-16,421,453,462,
'r'ttritsiya:
463,
Gabar, Gabr: 1¬39,196.
C,abri t, are: 393.
Gacftm 27.
Cad'-r.
- 27, ''-9.
Galicia:
4? 5.
Gar,,-Ah: 178.
Gardah: 236,242.
Cz; ah: 133.
Georgia,
Georgians:
34,2a3,303,
349,354,375,418,445.
Germany, Germans: 24,72,92,
267,291,449.
Costa Francortrn:
374,443.
Ghaddurah:
28.
Chal7u2ah: 133.
71 Gh3mr, battle:
274.
259,262,266.
Ghanids:
Ghaybah: 178.
426-429,431,444.
Gh is:
Gha: na: ].20.
Ghaznawicis: 72,334,335,369,
373, '174,395,597,441,457.
Ghiläf:
76.
Ghimci:
62.
Si3
GhuI7ms 709 249p 3499 35np
356-358i
363t 365-36at
371373 9 373 3309 3i#3 3939
9
395,4499
452.
Ghür: 303.
urir: s s 34 9 397 ; 99 9 457.
GhuYz: 313,399,433,440,441.
Gibraltar,
Straits:
427.
Gilänis:
Gilän,
230,392,396.
Giribän:
217,227.
Girühah:
142.
Glaive:
100.
Goths: 340.
Granada: 435,439,440,454.
Greek Fire:
390.
Grebks:
147,333,444,445.
Cucü-iar: 109.
4a3°.
GXma:
Cund: 294.
G"u;al: 76.
Guptas: 331.
Gurz: 67,70,72,76,297.
372,393.
Güsha. r: 123.
Guz r: 372,396.
1iadaf:
125.
56.
Kidd:
351,
Iberia:
141,147,169,294-293,
340,423..
410.
f larbTyah: 3£37,390.
Ioarf: 53.
Hasak: 161,
f tasting.
-i, battle:
326,359.
11 f fusayniyah:
410.
Fiusbän: 139,140,143,393,443,
F:umZrah:
282, ?.83.
403.
242.
Hajaralt al
yad: 147.
;, aj3 äj ibn Yüýuf: 347.
424.
aZ t tak,am I, of ail Andalus:
100.
I albard:
lia1cl.3h : 77,1717,173.
1-Lwjadan: 299.
1ýýc3Esnid,: 139,172,363-.
366,
3699 410,419.
; Iarsilrshz 59.
Ha=at:
301.
t i=rä l
al clayla. ýn: 341.
fianIyah:
122,
I
if:
32.
f iacl.,
}-kaat: 26,363,399.
105,10..
114,3£39,398,
-irbah:
-l,.
ß+42.
170.
Rashio(:
f3ungary,
Hungarians:
fdusäm: 49.
453,
13aciith:
i Iafsids:
iarýhaf:
;I-lärun
al
f faracl. ius: 239.
f fermitage:
327,347.
f 3crtairc3ia: 317.
11ijäx:
120,256,262,263,269,
271p 273,277,2£36.
f filyah:
51.
64,
Himälah:
ifirny4lr: 261,266,390.
i find, I finctis:
24,26,335.
Aindus:
330,331,333-336,399.
259ý..261,277,
Hisn Kayla:
455,
a-3ohenstauPfen: 409,
liubuk: 215,
i; udicis: 434.
I-Iujra: 330.
Huns: 118,119,303,309,340,
341.
horse:
Hungarian
447.
348.
367.
45,253,26(),
Hatra:
battle:
Itattin=
453.
ýfawf 36t3.
s
Ilasa-Mah:
3ß5p 388,
haIior. lprus:
296.
teer,hthalf tes: 309.
264,265.
CAbd
Ibn
a]. ;tnbbth : 26.
Ibn 1'.a;-. al: 4213,429.
f:
Ibn
uc1hayl: 191,215.
Ibn Is'hiq:
273.
Ibn al Khatib:
435.
.
Ibn äi.1 id:
435,436.
Ifrigiyah:
169,350,332,334,
400,402,403,405,419.
Ikdish:
424.
Ikhshidids:
360,330.
11 haus: 420,459,465,
cimädd
al Din: 15,
cItrad
443,
al Din Zangi:
cInCvnah: 391.
India,
Indians:
25-27,33,369
39,81-63,88,107,1200
233,
236,250,303,323,330-336,
340,370,394,395,397,393,
457,453.
I ndo-Fý,uropcans:
320.
Indonesia:
331.
Indus:
333,335.
Iran,
Iranians:
23,26,33,34,
40,44,45,68,70,80,169,
173,1744,194,207,216,247,
261-Mt
267,272,276,277,
289,297,293-307,309,312317,320,321,323,326,328,
3,219p 334,335,338..
340,245,
347,3413,352,354,355,357,
359,368,371-374,335,392,
(cont. )
5' 4
394,396,399,418,420,
444,447,443,455,453,
459,466.
horse:
280,354.
Iranian
Iraqis:
Iraq,
25,69,83,91,
139,301,302,310,320,
344,343,353.353,362,
373,374,385,3137,394,
419ý 447,
IsbTj1a:
305,363.
318.
Isfara:
xhmacrlites:
264,266.
153,
a1 I tl: am3arani:
82.
isr,:.ä'llis:
318,321.
Issyk i*ul:
_
43,21E3,239,
Italy,
Italians:
317,351,35-9,378,333,
3c^.
º4,609,419,420.
Ja'ý; bah: 125p 297.
Jarir:
126.
Jaf'n: 63.
16,17,25,103,
at Jähiz:
273,33¬3 i 339,341,347,
353,354.
Jaxjit: a: 403.
Janciar: 418.
=9
414,
Jan! WT1*ah: 236,237,
416.
Jarajirn, h: 284.
J.ara3: 354.
JaYl(lakh: 425,456.
143,392,414,415.
Jarkh:
JaTwaldüz : 133,393,443.
Jaub : 243.
häcýn%:
3 i3.
J.; "sai: at
17=i, 1£39-191,196,
Jawshan:
233,204,219,296,298,
315,316,353,366,372,
373,377,393,396,393,
45-t3.
34,45,139,257,301,
Jazirah:
361,363,387,413,414,445,
413,450,452,451,455.
Jean do Neun: 382.
Jews: 276.
Jib:
179.
Jift:
161.
ARtiaral.:
196.
363.
John Tzimisces:
Jubbah:
189,196,35t3,382,
393,404,454.
262.
Julancra:
Junm.ah: 230,231,243,
Jund: 279,349,350,377,388,
391,405,430,414.
Jur j än: 204, ; 02,329.
343.
Justinian:
411.
JuyushT:
Juzjan:
303.
t: abadion:
174.
Kabid:
123.
Kabsh:
150,161.
Kabü ah: 1139,416.
202-205.
Kaff:
I: äf ir küb<: t : 77,354,
Nalb: 151,100.
Mils-at zarad: 208,209.
Kma: 460.
Kamän: 122.
Karr.and: 143,
297.
I: =ändan:
Kamarbandi 174,189,190,197.
Ka.ýxiarc,
179.
}-ah carah:
Kz:p' hi: 204.
Kärd: 44,47.
Kärd buzurg:
27,398.
Kardus:
339.
Karluks:
313.
Karr wa farr:
259,233,353,353,
3669,405,439,454,
l: arv, r: 120,
Kärwah: 397.
ltzkaria:
303,320.324.
Ka , hka varyä:
305.
Kaslr. air:
32.0o
Katsina
Sultanate:
37.
1ý423Zhand: 191,19.7,194,197,
331,451.
Kcntouklion:
344.
Kha.ciarg: 129,133.
Kbadci: 52.
Miadqa:
331.
M
af: 34ry,
7.hafchah: 161.
i haftan:
T,Ka2azzj
7 Car3,197,371,398,458,
: 129.
l: halj Turks:
120,235,457.
harais:
339.
ýI:
,.Khanjar:
_..
23,26,40,41,312,
345,354,372,391,406,422.
än: 309,319.
!
2..
Yliarak:
16.'-'.
Kharstagin:
398.
Kharkov arms find:
36.
äri
ji:::
3Ci
344,343,357,358,
__.. n9,400.
.
Ithartiaa:
330.
hashabah:
162,
334.
al Khatib al BaModi:
Ktýtil:
94.
Ki:
91.
atil:
lan=es:
KhLtsi
366,
1\1%a
tun: 303.
Khaybar:
275.
Khazars:
37,328,329,377.
hillah:
63.
St5
Ithiram. kash: 209.
Khirs:
94,113,114.
Khisht:
106,110.
Khötýýn: 320,324.
Kud,
khudh: 21t'.. 220,22,4p
ý 225,377.
Khüdhah: 219,221,413,451.
44,208,209.
Khuff:
Khtmýýirawayh ibn Al=d:
369,
370.
Khuräsan,
Khuräuänis:
24,26,
6f3,90,140,169,189,215,
222,302,304,306,310,
319,322,324,339,345,
347,351-3549
356,368,
370,377,3837,391,096,
413,414.
Khur :: 77.
Khusrau I:
302.
i":husrau
rlnushirvan:
Khuyüt* a1 ibnsa. ^::
120,305..
FOrwärau::
363,377.
262,296.
179.
307,352,
qrazmshähs:
399,445,459.
Khw;.
193,249,375,376,460.
Kicv:
34.
Kilij:
Xi. lk: 129,134.
i; inrariah: 126,414,416.
22,24,
^5,32,39.
al Kincfi:
Kirmän: 300.
126.
'r:ish:
Ayyar:
5ar.
Kit,
a1:.
--i
Kit. -nah. - 377.
354.
Kizil:
ý zý iic3es: 2-V6.
89,90.
k:ontarion:
Kontos: 90.
34oreans : 338.
iýöse Oaahý battle:
ICuhachi. : 375.
j: 24u.
ytuha
Küfa: 260,301.
411.
liüfic:
KýýuýýYs lý : 295.
{{
týLiltaýýl ýac3ýý
ý:
i
Kumäh:
460.
445.
225.
455.
205.
Kt=
chishan:
Kurds: 23,106,366,
Kurdistan,
367,370,374,394,419,
449,450,457,454,455,
464.
Kushans: 302,303,306.
Lahore:
120.
259,261.
L,ýkkaids:
I.üät
al harb: 192 f 193,198.
Larnt: 233,244,4,02,404,406.
Languedoc:
170.
Lzs Navas de Tolosa,
battle:
406.
'N
Latti
70,77,78,455,
Lavr:,ta: 289.
Lcabanon: 412,421,464.
Leo VI: 363,376.
Leon: 425,432.
LO PUY: ill,
Lesser Arnenia:
411.
Libäs:
180.
Libci: 180.
Limes: 257.
417.
T3mites:
Limitanei:
2E34.
Lithrra:
218,227.
Lmnbards: 291,293,317.
Lorikion:
289.
Lucbah: 152-154,162.
Lucera: 409.
äl1q:
66.
Ma
tlaciejowski
Bible:
152.
Madinah: 274,28 6# 339.
T3.yah: 180.
%-ia!!
Madyah:
45,47.
Magganon:
277.
NSaýhrib: 150,233,251,2ß7..
2.t39,
351,379,382,335,402,406,
407,421,427,429,436,440.
Magyars : 37,80,295.
MW pusht:
134.
Mahza-u: 282.
.
l. ahzüz: 172.
NA3inn, najjann,
231,415.
mijann:
majra:
4.43.
,
Kakhcts : 95.
95.
Mal.alehak: 13.3.
Malaysia:
331.
Malik 5h3h: 442.
ý:artarr .-ºI watar:
181.
N".
aralüks Y 83,307,319,320,3351,
353,356,374,332,399,414,
420,424,441,444,447,452..
458,461,464.
Atamlük Sultanate:
27,28,44,
83,233,234,250,404,420,
422,461-465.
320,351-353,
al MaItaün, Caliph:
356,337.
Man.3badh: 170,181.
Manätiq:
65.
Manchuria:
324.
Manganikon:
277.
Mar!: 72.
Manjaniq:
151,152,162,277,
278.
al i+faniür, vi-Ar
of al Andalus:
436.
Mansürah; battle:
456.
Manzi. kert:
448.
Pc
battle:
443.
Manzikert,
262.
Maräziba:
Marbü : 95.
284,
Mardaites:
436,439,440.
Marinids:
Marishah:
135.
M.aroni. tes: 412.
436.
Varrakash:
26E3,341,
N'anän Zi', Caliph:
342,360,339.
104.
'Marzoubarboulon:
Mashakk: 131.
401,
""+a
riüchh:
.
ücri:
286,377.
tº1'r"i.as
N'Easyaf: 82.
Matars : 163.
'"aaurice, F.
s,zperor: 275,2139.
424,
'-:aurontius:
vawäcC: 29.
279,234.
Va: väli:
?4A 4.bräl
al Nahr: 305,306,
310,319,352,371.
mawdizct"i: 135.
114acvriunah:182.
262.
a2un:
.
N:ecca: 273,2E36.
278,293,419,
M(d3.terranean:
4.?3.
104.
Mc-naulion:
Messina:
147.
llldi:
430.
203,213,215-318,
ýYinhfar:
225,282,296,344,345,
3669 433.
114.
Mikhsarah:
430.
Milxtes:
54.
Hicýad:
ý"ý.qla : 14£3,
78.
gracah:
ivä.
Arcý'isids:
369,395,410.
1lirzabab:
114.
MigC-.`:r: 155.
R-lisericordi. a: 45.
..
55.
ý:ismar:
286.
Nlsr:
24.
Riithcla].:
ldtrad:
n:iyan:
95,96,106,391.
73.
93,105,106,437.
Vizräq:
N'onc3o1s: 34,92,118,235,247,
249,313,32.324,331,340,
399,416,420,445,459,
461,463-466.
Morocco: ; 12,233,382,402,
406,439,440.
R9oshchevaya Balka,
arms find:
326.
Mosul: 414.
Mosul Museum: 265,
Mozarabs: 433.
raren: 289,
282,301.
al mu auj ya h, Caliph:
Mubarakshah:
17.
252,344.
Mudajjaj:
402.
Mufattihah:
Mug castle,
129,315,
arms find:
317.
Muhaddab: 32,33,38.
üfra:
ibn
!
Abi
339.
4
a1 uhaºlab
36,167,241,
Muhamrad, Prophet:
269-272,275-277,282,283,
339.
Muharirah:
155.
Muhdawd b: 233.
Mucizz al Dawla: 353.
'ucizz al pin: 454.
344.
MujaffaCah:
400.
°ukhtarah:
°ul
: 26,335.
412.
Mungidhitcs:
än: 49.
Yuc} bir
309.
al °""ugaed.asi:
401,405,431,434,
ý"'ura'-bitin:
436,438.
ý,'urhaf ah : 50.
89,96,403.
°.urran,
riurranah:
"'useret:
1069
Mush duz-b: 164.
,+`uiucL.ýh: 170,
79.
tac,
rFiyr3h
:
"°us
257.
Rult;: 16 battle:
433.
al Ku ta."aid, of Seville:
Caliph:
320,329,
uctasim,
al N?
356,357,
"ýbtaT: 15,365.
al Tý'utan...
rfuthmMmthah:
154,164.
'Caliph:
36?.
aI ý'utic,
k3
'a%,: 370,3£36,388,426,
Mutla,
4u'''?, 452,
V-utvahhi.dud: 406,434,436,433.
battle:
Myricrkephalon,
445.
Naoal,: 60.
2wabatearm 258,261.
Rrabl: 135,2£35.
Näch,alch: 81-. II4,398.
iti3.fiat3h:
155.
t4a.f f a.tin : 234,390,413.
r af't : 155,394.
'4aft
156.
ahyad:
,
Naf t tiyºar : 156.
326..
Na.wszantniiklos
treasure:
32E3.
82,84,
Ir-ijikh:
..
-Nlajran: 271.
När: 156.
Narciu0-in: 164.
57
Näshib:
135.
Na,3I: 50,135.
435,438,439.
Nasrids:
Navarre:
4..'5,434.
IZ'v4ak: 139,140,144,393,443,
453.
NavJc: 114.
Nayzaq: 105,106,110,
e,aza,reth 1"ustýum: 443.
Negroes: 351,369,378,332,
400,401.
2Ligeria:
37.
17.
. ...
.
Nikýphorus
t'holcas: 359,360.
N3.zn: 135.
An ch.arkh kushkhý*,njir:
141,1
_,.
144.
Nimjär:
41,42.
N3m niza. ht 96.
A:isa'b: 55.
383.
hiähäpür:
Nisäpür,
armw find:
5,21.
331.
Nisirimsa:
664.
t'iya» :
Nizah: 88,139,96,97,372,
396,398,459.
Nomarques: 286.
Normans: 71,233,359,367,
378,383,407-409.
North Africa:
293,340,350,
379,330-333,409,426,
4329 433.
North. 4V'est Frontier
Province:
L''0.
Nubia, P.
`ubians:
120,262,263,
r81, ? 85,286,350,379,
380,402,403.
Mir al Olin: 11,412,413,4484." 5.
C'.
104.
eilette:
huz:
Ck
325.
Qrºan: 25,81,167,16E3,250,
262.
Onagros:
278.
Orissa:
450.
Ottomans:
235,462.
186.
x'agarchs:
399.
Faik:
383.
Palermo:
274,281,353,421,
Palestine:
452,460,464.
253,261,266.
Palmyra:
3'arair, P1ts .: 305.
Panceriam:
193.
Xranjah: 164.
Fantsir:
193.
Par: 136.
S`ar3lak:
30
Farand:
30,
Par dwn: 252.
F-är.. i magas: 30.
Parish:
136.
.
Pari-z.
300.
222,227.
Par satTz:
F'art3b:
136.
r,aºrthian
'ap: 299.
259,260,298,321,
Parthians:
340,441.
ri'arvan: 120.
Parvati:
93.
tIaydah: 399.
r-aykän: 136.
r,aywand: 182.
376,377,446,447.
e'echrnegs:
Persia,
r'Qrsians:
89,106,189191,212,218,2122,237,248,
250,262,279,280,302,319,
329,334,345,351,352,357,
366, ý70,374,419.
.
rharganoi : 317.
riandjikent:
309.. 317,320,321,
316_3.^tl.
3'ilum:
104.
i'Ingshan Xian: 92.
º "liny the Elder:
263.
"-oland, toles:
311.
100.
r Vle. -axr:
; 'rovencEt: 424,
369,376.
y'"sellus:
272.
', sili:
c'ü1äd.. i -ab 6dah:
137.
kyrences,
Mts.:
423,427,428.
Qabä' : 191.
f'abaq: 403.
Qabciah: 55.
Qabic ah: 57.
CadSa' : 182.
Qaddärah: 28.
battle:
C'Rdisiya,
301.
Cahzan-ih: 115.
ä.'ßra; 55.
455.
Qaisýriy. -ýh, battle:
Qala.
22.
Qalajur>.:
33,394.
Calä hur:
33,38,374,394,399,
4f><l.
:
ýa
Calb:
rT
246.
ßaijüri:
32,33,38.
Qanah: 87,91,97,98,382,391,
432,450,454.
Qancalis:
458,460.
Carächul:
39.
0.,aralhani, ds: 318.
Cara h.hitai:
399,459.
Qaran:: 127.
r. arqal:
19a, 381.
S1g
Aartal:
42,
157,413,415.
Qärürah:
Qasr al Hiayr al (barb!:
105,
347.
Cati
183.
Catty ah: 165.
Cawnas: 221,222,228.
Qaws: 122,297,370.
Caws at lawlab:
141.
Caws al, rijl:
144.
O?
aws bundüq: 145.
260,377.
rayräwan:
Cayräwän M:usetm:, helmets:
5.
26.
al Cazwini:
(dig j: 463.
327.
al Cikän:
458,460.
Slipchags:
Oiira : 64.
(i than:
127.
Citcah:
183.
(1 tdub: 42.
193.
Culret:
157.
Qunbalah:
89,90,98,102,
!; tantäriyah:
413,415,451.
Curaysh:
rusayr
286,335.
Arara: 346.
306,345.
Cutayba ibn Muslim:
104.
Rabä' ith:
215.
labicah:
183.
:tabtah:
2äiaiyah: 390.
Rän: 20.
61,
Rasä'i
-0 at
Ain: 278.
ßäs
Din: 465.
Rashid
_at
269,284.
Ra.yhidun Caliphs:
283,389.
25,72.
Ratl:
[talg: 86.
430.
Iýeconcquista:
Red Sea: 262.
433.
Reyes do Taifas:
41.
Reynald do Chatillon:
Rhineland:
24.
405,438.
Itibät:
battle:
291,292.
Barbatq,
Rio
Riptarion:
104,105.
Rish: 137.
292.
Roderick:
Roma, Romans: 103,117,166,
167,193,211-213,231,234,
257,258,265,267,278,
285,294,328,430.
291.
Romano-Celts:
Stirn: 23,35,444,447.
Rmah mucallifah:
99.
at
Riva
419.
wurtazigah:
Rumania: 324.
Ruah: 87-90,99,282,297,344,
345,352,370,377,389,406,
413,422,435,437,450,451.
Rushaydah: 266.
Russia,
Russians:
172,193,212,
237,2490
375,376,407,460.
Rutilah:
165.
Sä ad: 202_206,296,344,352.
>ac adah : 99.
259,261,266.
S,abaens:
Sabarbarah:
101-104,404.
Sabichah:
193,194,199,415,
454.
Säbiriyah:
Sadr: 115,
saffärids:
397.
Safhah:
safihah:
183,
334,335,370,371,
50.
184.
Sahara: 379,400,401.
137.
Sal=
Sakk: 393.
Saläh al Din: 41,106,388,414,
415,451.. 454.
Saljüqs:
146,190,313,325,
327,340,369,331,385,395,
399,411,413,417,418,441450,457,459,460.
Sal j ýtqs of Run: 89,129,412,
418,420,444..
446.
Salrýýýni.: 26.
5ämänidss 140,334,356,370.374.
Sarnarqand: 309,363,399.
Sämarrlal: 260,353,354,357.
Samsäm: 30.
.
San a' Atuseum: 266.
Sanasrvtar: 184.
Sarbuk: 53.
433.
Sancho of Navarre:
379,382,436.
canhäja:
67,80,139,167,
Sassanians:
214,220,234,235,247,257,
261-263,277,279,280,289,
293-307,326.
"329,343,344,
354,392,393.
Saq: 206,208,210,296.
419.
Sagälzba:
36.
Salti:
Sar: 57,228.
Saracenoi:
273.
Saracens:
260,264.
Saragossa:
434.
Sard: 170,175,184.
Sardinia:
139,407.
Särim: 31.
?
340.
arrnatians:
Sayf: 21,23,26,31,297.
rT
5rß
Sayf al Dawla: 364.
Sayf al hind: 26.
Sayr: 185.
80,
Scandinavians:
Scandinavia,
283,328,407.
Scramasax: 40,312.
272.
Scutati:
Scythians:
118,119.
318,321.
Smirechiye:
446,447.
Serbia:
Shabahah: 1549 165.
Shafrah:
53.
16,230,311,37153h:
373,396,459.
Shakh: 137.
,
Sharn hirz 26# 27,31,398,4S7.
86.
Shamshlr Ch.ar, arms find:
261,294.
r
häp
II
ä
s} rb: s8.
Sl?a-rib z 65.
äsh:
120,305,318.
Shast:
127.
Shatab:
51.
Shayzar:
412,451.
Shih: 107.
392,395,451.
Islam:
Shici
Shil:
107,111.
r.ýýh3.2: 122.
.
Shu: 10? 9
454.
lhujýan:
338.
Shurta:
bi:0. 339.
5hu uuc
shah:
80.
Si
:
80.
Siavoidians:
36.
Siberia:
23,37,81,147,237,
Sicily:
239,350,351,378,382334p 403,407. -410,423,429.
Sidon:
150,367,330.
battle:
282,283.
Siffin,
sijist7an,
300,
Sijistänis:
304,370.
44,47,391,406,
Sikkinah:
413.
Siläh:
199.
58.
Si1än:
Road: 320.
Silk
Sinai:
Sinn:
464.
115.
26,334,335,
Sind, Sindls:
371.
33.
Singhalese:
448,454.
Sinjear:
324.
Sinkiang:
330.
Sinope:
Sipar:
Sipar. -i
Sipar.. i
244,394,396-393.
akh:
236
cc
farä h: 236,244,398,
Sipar-i
9111: 244,245.
karg: 233,245.
Sipar-i
Sipar.. i shüshak: 239,244.
arms
find:
86.
S'iraf,
Sirash:
217,218,228.
1
Sirb
199.
STr Daryä: 303,317,318,325*
xitarah:
165.
123.
Siyah:
218.
Skaplion:
fretta:
90.
Skepti
S1avo.. Kings of Delhi:
399,4S7.
24,80,375,419.
Slavs:
ferru:
Soli
107.
Sonn of Roland:
191.
Spain,
Spaniards:
82,171,218,
221,233,237,239,251,
292,295,350,351,407.
419,423,424.
Spän kht:
137.
Spanish P4arch: 425.
Sphendobona:
146.
Sri Lanka: 26.
273,295,326,338..
Stirrups:
341,354,369.
Strategikon
275.
of Maurico:
Sudan, Sudanese: 120,401,402,
451.
Suf1:
al
212.
Suuhd: 303,305.309,317,320.
Sula: 93,107.
Su-Lu: 319.
Islam:
Sunni
Sur, kh: 138.
392,394,395,451.
Sutun: 79.
Suwayda Museum: 266.
Syrians:
44,102,172,
Syria,
174,204,207,239,249,255,
258,259,281t
284,285,290,
301,345,347,358,361,363,
364,367-369,380,384,385,
387,388,395,401,412-414,
42a. 4229 435,448,450,452,
460.462,464.
Syrian-Arab
horse:
280.
340.
Sythians:
Tacaliq:
185,
al Tabari: 16,207,296,307,
345.
Tabar: 82-84.
Tabarist3n:
284,302,370.
Tabarzin:
82,83,85,297,354,
39+! 444.
Tactica:
362.
ll Yaniinaytn:
Tah ir-Flü
Tähir3.
cM 3569 370.
._
277.
Ta'if:
T7Zj3.ks: 3739 457.
353.
szo
Ta Khingan:
324.
Taiäs ý99.
Talä#i
: 3£32.
Talas,
battle:
310,319.
Taýn: 99.
Vanfl:
321,322.
Tannür:
167,200.
al TanZWhi: 104.
Tariürinh:
167.
raq: 61.
._
Taqallaclaii:
60.
TaqT al Din: 454.
Tacri Custan: 295.299,
327,
338 s, 344.
Taraf:
115.
,Taräl iq: 215.
Tt: rge: 238.
Tarik,
Tarikah,
Tark:
214,
215,219,221,225,226,
372,450,454.
Täriciah:
236-2133,245,394,
0
414,416,421.
Täriq ibn Ziyäd:
291,292.
Taz2cashs 128.
249p 362,363,396.
Tarsus:
ä1 Tarsusz.: 93,102,151-154,
192,219,236,278,414,
451,453.
311,400.
Tartars:
364,444.
Taurus, Mts.:
TawahIn, battle:
358.
TawäshT: 45,>,, 454.
Tayriar:
276.
Thaclab:
116.
Thagl=ih: 276,415.
Themes: 279,280.
Thb al manic: 185.
229,232.
Thureos:
351.
Tiber:
402.
Tibesti,
?4ts.:
Tibet,
120,235,
Tibetans:
319,320.
Tien Shan, AMts. z 305,320,321,
324.
27,50.
Tigh:
Tij? af: 247,249,252,253,
296,297,344,352,354,
3S 3,372,380.
Tilsän:
329.
" 1.
.,.
Tainnxs: 253,286.
Tir:
138.
Tiräd:
374.
Tiraz:
323,383.
! Tr-i
anc5z7an: 111,398.
TIr-i
138.
partäbl.:
Topkapu, arms, collection:
5,
24,36,37,273,283.
Trajan:
258,
Transoxania:
129,140,173,202,
250,295,298,302,305-330,
33E3,339,345,352,355,356,
377.
Transylvania:
326.
Trident:
92.
Tripolitania:
384.
Trisula:
93.
Pzvhri 1 Beg: 440.
Tukharistän:
303.
ý ülunids:
334,362,368,3813,
394,400,410,417,419.
Tunisia:
212,289,382,403.
Turcxrnans:
441-450,452,455,
457,458,461,462,464,
Turcopoles:
412,461.
313,320,321.
Turfan:
319.
Türgesh:
24,33,40,68,80,
Turkistän:
150,295,305-330,338,354,
441,459,460.
Turks: 23,34,35,214,2413,249,
293,305.. 331,336,338,339,
342,345,349,350,352..
356,
363,365.. 368,372,374-376,
395,399,
3713,3130,388,393..
400,413,4113,419,438,440,
441,443-446,456-460.
Turs: 229_233,236,245,281,
297,329,393,413,415,416,
435,451,464.
230.
Turs tabatiyah:
437.
al Turtüshi:
...
ý,,......
Tutmajl:
M.
Tyre:
150,151.
307.
ydul17ah ibn Ziyad:
c Ukt3ara'
: 259.
Ulpiae
257.
I'Qtracorua:
Uknar Is Caliph:
21,277,279.
Umayyad Caliphate:
25,68,72,
167,265,268,269,279,281,
284-287,305,309,310,319,
323,337,339,341,343-347,
349,368,388,369,392,404.
tknayyads, of al Andalus:
292,
424,42s,
lJpa Vedas: 331,
oUckZylids:
366,395.
°UrR-t:
302,387.
Usärnah ibn Mngicih:
15,16,92,
413,451,
ltstrükhZna:
315,316.
Ushrusanah,
Ushru$iyah:
305,
309,313,315..
317,319-322,
329.
Ustün:
157.
ý21
Varangians:
80,239,407.
Vasht: 294.
Vatican
Library:
212.
Vedas: 333.
Venice:
419,107,100,112,300,392'394,
Visigoths:
221,290.293,425..
428,436.
Volga: 460.
t: adai': 148.
Lärý"i al t?üra: 276.
Nahaq: 149.
v-hlchi: 129.
Ltiamba: 291.
tläciiyah:
185.
t%arqa tira Culshäh:
443.
..
Vasi. f: 329.
.
Watar: 123,297.
`t:Qstarn Turks: 325.
283.
v'islnº, arms finds:
Ultixa:
292,
36.
t;botx:
Xß.phos: 21.
Yý.
-rLab: 246,415,455.
Yan7rmah: 271.
Yarugi:
449.
Yarkand:
320.
Yäsa: 449.
Yazxd ibn Aitilzallab:
284p 327,
329.
25,32,172,
Yemen, Yonenis:
266,
256,259,261-2649
267,277,300,390.
?..aba: 194,289.
?.aýhf:
18 6.
...
battle:
406,433,437.
?.all=a,
?..
100.
arký:
h: 436.
7..
AZta.
.
:..+rbürak:
141,145.
413,44S-452,454,
Zangids:
461.
?.arjj: 403.
ýI86.
-anjTr:
T-arad: 175.
61.
2aräfayn:
Zarafshän: 305,349,317,321.
?..
ard: 175,186.
2arcý'iyah:
194,195,200,217,
413.
?.aria:
111,422.
Zarraq:
153,415.
y..awT].a:
2hongshanf 93.
My401.
?.ih:
?.ird:
124.
175.
7-Tridss 382,403,405.
?..irih:
175,194,195,2019
297,315,371,373.
? iyär:
141,145.
Zubah: 53.
?
101,116.
ujj:
?üpin,
xhu-bin, zQ5in,
397.
nüpin: