/
Similar
Text
Handbook of Research
on Challenges and
Opportunities in
Launching a TechnologyDriven International
University
Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A.
Information Resources Management Association, USA
A volume in the Advances in Higher Education and
Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA, USA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: cust@igi-global.com
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com
Copyright © 2019 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Khosrow-Pour, Mehdi, 1951- editor.
Title: Handbook of research on challenges and opportunities in launching a
technology-driven international university / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A.,
editor.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018005650| ISBN 9781522562559 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522562566 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Education, Higher--Effect of technological innovations on. |
Internet in higher education. | Universities and colleges--Administration.
| Open learning.
Classification: LCC LB2395.7 .H2344 2019 | DDC 371.33--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018005650
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development
(AHEPD) (ISSN: 2327-6983; eISSN: 2327-6991)
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com.
Advances in Higher Education
and Professional Development
(AHEPD) Book Series
Jared Keengwe
University of North Dakota, USA
ISSN:2327-6983
EISSN:2327-6991
Mission
As world economies continue to shift and change in response to global financial situations, job markets have begun to demand a more highly-skilled workforce. In many industries a college degree is the
minimum requirement and further educational development is expected to advance. With these current
trends in mind, the Advances in Higher Education & Professional Development (AHEPD) Book
Series provides an outlet for researchers and academics to publish their research in these areas and to
distribute these works to practitioners and other researchers.
AHEPD encompasses all research dealing with higher education pedagogy, development, and curriculum design, as well as all areas of professional development, regardless of focus.
Coverage
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adult Education
Assessment in Higher Education
Career Training
Coaching and Mentoring
Continuing Professional Development
Governance in Higher Education
Higher Education Policy
Pedagogy of Teaching Higher Education
Vocational Education
IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts
for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our
Acquisition Editors at Acquisitions@igi-global.com
or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.
The Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series (ISSN 2327-6983) is published by IGI Global,
701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please
visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-higher-education-professional-development/73681. Postmaster: Send all address changes
to above address. Copyright © 2019 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this
series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including
classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.
Titles in this Series
For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: www.igi-global.com/book-series
Study Abroad Opportunities for Community College Students and Strategies for Global Learning
Gregory F. Malveaux (Montgomery College, USA) and Rosalind Latiner Raby (California State University Northridge, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 324pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522562528) • US $195.00 (our price)
Identifying, Describing, and Developing Teachers Who Are Gifted and Talented
Meta L. Van Sickle (College of Charleston, USA) Julie D. Swanson (College of Charleston, USA) Judith A. Bazler
(Monmouth University, USA) and Kathryn L. Lubniewski (Monmouth University, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 302pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522558798) • US $195.00 (our price)
Challenges and Opportunities for Women in Higher Education Leadership
Heidi L. Schnackenberg (State University of New York at Plattsburgh, USA) and Denise A. Simard (State University of New York at Plattsburgh, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 353pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522570561) • US $195.00 (our price)
Examining Student Retention and Engagement Strategies at Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Samuel L. Hinton (Independent Researcher, USA) and Antwon D. Woods (Belhaven University, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 250pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522570219) • US $175.00 (our price)
Exploring the Technological, Societal, and Institutional Dimensions of College Student Activism
Michael T. Miller (University of Arkansas, USA) and David V. Tolliver (University of Arkansas, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 303pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522572749) • US $185.00 (our price)
Optimizing Instructional Design Methods in Higher Education
Yianna Vovides (Georgetown University, USA) and Linda Rafaela Lemus (Georgetown University, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 245pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522549758) • US $175.00 (our price)
Handbook of Research on Field-Based Teacher Education
Thomas E. Hodges (University of South Carolina, USA) and Angela C. Baum (University of South Carolina, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 749pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522562498) • US $245.00 (our price)
Student-Centered Virtual Learning Environments in Higher Education
Marius Boboc (Cleveland State University, USA) and Selma Koç (Cleveland State University, USA)
Information Science Reference • copyright 2019 • 281pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522557692) • US $165.00 (our price)
701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661
E-Mail: cust@igi-global.com • www.igi-global.com
This book is dedicated to the memory of my late father for the love and care that he always displayed
for his family, and for teaching me the importance of humanitarianism. Also, to my wife, Olga, and
our son, Darius, for filling my life with so much love, joy, and happiness.
List of Contributors
Ahern, Terence C. / West Virginia University, USA........................................................................... 162
Aladejana, Francisca O. / Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria.................................................... 279
Bagasra, Anisah / Kennesaw State University, USA........................................................................... 51
Bhowmick, Bhaskar / Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India.......................................... 321
Çankaya, Serkan / Balıkesir University, Turkey............................................................................... 299
Cruz-Tapia, Mónica A. / Instituto Profesional de Chile, Chile........................................................... 31
Durak, Gürhan / Balıkesir University, Turkey.................................................................................. 299
Ellington, Linda / Southern New Hampshire University, USA......................................................... 253
Evans, William H. / The University of West Florida, USA.................................................................... 1
Floyd, Kim K. / West Virginia University, USA.................................................................................. 179
Gable, Robert A. / Old Dominion University, USA................................................................................ 1
Haynes, Aisha S. / University of South Carolina – Columbia, USA..................................................... 69
Herridge, Andrew S. / Texas Tech University, USA........................................................................... 237
Hornby, Garry / University of Plymouth, Barbados............................................................................. 1
Hoyos-Villa, Oscar Alberto / Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia............................... 195
James, Lisa J. / Texas Tech University, USA...................................................................................... 237
Korres, Maria Pavlis / Hellenic Open University, Greece & Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Greece............................................................................................................................................ 215
Kurubacak, Gulsun / Anadolu University, Turkey............................................................................ 338
Lignos, Ioannis / Hellenic Air Force, Greece & Hellenic Open University, Greece......................... 215
Mahlangu, Vimbi Petrus / University of South Africa, South Africa.................................................. 91
Olajide, Simeon O. / Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria............................................................. 279
Runte, Mary S. / University of Lethbridge, Canada............................................................................. 11
Runte, Robert / University of Lethbridge, Canada............................................................................. 11
Sahoo, Rosalin / Indian Institute of Technology Khragpur, India..................................................... 321
Saiz-Alvarez, Jose Manuel / Tecnologico de Monterrey, Spain........................................................ 195
Shambaugh, Neal / West Virginia University, USA........................................................................... 179
Torrisi-Steele, Geraldine / Griffith University, Australia................................................................. 131
Uğur, Serap / Anadolu University, Turkey......................................................................................... 338
Valdes-Montecinos, Michel / Universidad Arturo Prat, Chile........................................................... 31
Vega-Muñoz, Alejandro / Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile.................................................... 31
Wang, Victor / Liberty University, USA.................................................................................... 131, 253
Xing, Bo / University of Johannesburg, South Africa........................................................................ 107
Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxii
Section 1
Program Creation
Chapter 1
You Too Can Get It Write: The Pursuit of a Life of Scholarship............................................................ 1
William H. Evans, The University of West Florida, USA
Robert A. Gable, Old Dominion University, USA
Garry Hornby, University of Plymouth, Barbados
Chapter 2
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education...................................... 11
Mary S. Runte, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Robert Runte, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Chapter 3
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment:
Chilean Higher Education System Case................................................................................................ 31
Alejandro Vega-Muñoz, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile
Michel Valdes-Montecinos, Universidad Arturo Prat, Chile
Mónica A. Cruz-Tapia, Instituto Profesional de Chile, Chile
Section 2
Program Development
Chapter 4
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University: Challenges
and Opportunities for Broadening the Impact of HBCUs and Minority-Serving Institutions............... 51
Anisah Bagasra, Kennesaw State University, USA
Chapter 5
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online
Courses................................................................................................................................................... 69
Aisha S. Haynes, University of South Carolina – Columbia, USA
Chapter 6
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education: On-Campus and
Distance Learning Systems.................................................................................................................... 91
Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu, University of South Africa, South Africa
Chapter 7
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative for the
Fourth Industrial Revolution................................................................................................................ 107
Bo Xing, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Chapter 8
Transformation of Higher Education in China: A Teaching Methods Perspective............................. 131
Victor Wang, Liberty University, USA
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, Australia
Section 3
Implementation
Chapter 9
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning
Environment......................................................................................................................................... 162
Terence C. Ahern, West Virginia University, USA
Chapter 10
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning
Framework for a Technology-Driven International University........................................................... 179
Kim K. Floyd, West Virginia University, USA
Neal Shambaugh, West Virginia University, USA
Chapter 11
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities: An Application to a
Mexican HEI........................................................................................................................................ 195
Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Spain
Oscar Alberto Hoyos-Villa, Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia
Chapter 12
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education: A Case
Study on Training Hellenic Air Force Pilots....................................................................................... 215
Ioannis Lignos, Hellenic Air Force, Greece & Hellenic Open University, Greece
Maria Pavlis Korres, Hellenic Open University, Greece & Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Greece
Section 4
Impact
Chapter 13
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education: Brexit and
Higher Education................................................................................................................................. 237
Andrew S. Herridge, Texas Tech University, USA
Lisa J. James, Texas Tech University, USA
Chapter 14
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education............................................................. 253
Victor Wang, Liberty University, USA
Linda Ellington, Southern New Hampshire University, USA
Chapter 15
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies in Nigeria
Higher Education: A Case Study of Obafemi Awolowo University.................................................... 279
Francisca O. Aladejana, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
Simeon O. Olajide, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
Chapter 16
Learning Management Systems: Popular LMSs and Their Comparison............................................. 299
Gürhan Durak, Balıkesir University, Turkey
Serkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, Turkey
Chapter 17
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges: A Re-Look Into Indian Technology University
Context – Role of Indian Technological Universities in Academic Entrepreneurship........................ 321
Bhaskar Bhowmick, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
Rosalin Sahoo, Indian Institute of Technology Khragpur, India
Chapter 18
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning................ 338
Serap Uğur, Anadolu University, Turkey
Gulsun Kurubacak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 369
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 411
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 418
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxii
Section 1
Program Creation
Chapter 1
You Too Can Get It Write: The Pursuit of a Life of Scholarship............................................................ 1
William H. Evans, The University of West Florida, USA
Robert A. Gable, Old Dominion University, USA
Garry Hornby, University of Plymouth, Barbados
This chapter provides the reader with principles for writing and research that the authors have developed
over their lifetimes. They have published close to 600 refereed articles, monographs, books, and book
chapters between them and have learned what works and what doesn’t in professional writing and
research. Further, each of the authors has been involved with implementing technology-driven doctoral
programs and they share the lessons learned from these experiences. The suggestions they offer are not
intended to be exhaustive but rather are designed to provide the reader with a framework for success in
writing and research. They share their successes and failures and the necessity for accepting and using
feedback and critical reviews in a positive and productive manner. Additionally, they address the issue
of technology in research and writing and how these tools can aid those developing a research agenda.
They offer hope to those beginning a research and writing agenda and believe that if they can succeed
others can as well.
Chapter 2
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education...................................... 11
Mary S. Runte, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Robert Runte, University of Lethbridge, Canada
A historical analysis of the discourse of the purpose of higher education provides a typology of four
distinct discourses which reflect the social, political, and economic context within which the changing
rationale for funding universities has been defined. By analyzing where a technology-driven, international
university could be located in the interstices of these competing discourses, the typology can assist
educational leaders, administrators, and policymakers to more readily identify key obstacles to be
overcome, opportunities that could be developed, and the latent dysfunctions that need to be anticipated
to avoid both collateral damage and the resulting determined pushback. Forewarned is forearmed, and
understanding which aspects of which discourses lend support or undermine such a project could greatly
assist proponents in seeking support and avoiding missteps.
Chapter 3
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment:
Chilean Higher Education System Case................................................................................................ 31
Alejandro Vega-Muñoz, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile
Michel Valdes-Montecinos, Universidad Arturo Prat, Chile
Mónica A. Cruz-Tapia, Instituto Profesional de Chile, Chile
This chapter analyzes the controversial challenges faced by the Chilean university system for the creation
of an international online university. Chile is a country with a neoliberal economic system, widely exposed
to international markets, faces the need to internationalize its universities and expand its online offer,
two copulative actions in essence, but which have not had enough advances, given the tensions within
the university system of that country and the context conditions that surround it.
Section 2
Program Development
Chapter 4
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University: Challenges
and Opportunities for Broadening the Impact of HBCUs and Minority-Serving Institutions............... 51
Anisah Bagasra, Kennesaw State University, USA
This chapter presents an overview of the process of building online degree programs from the ground
up utilizing data from the process at a four-year liberal-arts institution in the United States that also has
a designation as a Historically Black College (HBCU). The university has expanded both its research
and global focus in the past several years, and the development of online degree programs was a natural
extension of a desire to produce global leaders through the lens of a traditional liberal arts degree
program. This chapter discusses some of the challenges HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions
(MSIs) face entering the online education marketplace, particularly the challenge of how HBCUs and
MSIs can use their historic legacy and missions to distinguish themselves from competitors and meet
the needs of online students.
Chapter 5
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online
Courses................................................................................................................................................... 69
Aisha S. Haynes, University of South Carolina – Columbia, USA
Students with and without disabilities are enrolling in online courses. Universal design for learning (UDL)
and accessibility strategies should be implemented proactively when designing and developing online
courses. Quality assurance and accessibility standards, university support, professional development,
and instructional designers are important for instructors to successfully design online courses and teach
online. The purpose of this chapter is to provide educators with strategies for implementing UDL and
accessibility in online courses.
Chapter 6
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education: On-Campus and
Distance Learning Systems.................................................................................................................... 91
Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu, University of South Africa, South Africa
The purpose of this chapter is to argue that developing on-campus and distance learning systems in higher
education will depend largely on developments in mobile technology. Structuration theory will be used
in understanding on-campus and distance learning systems in higher education. It can assist institutions
to consider questions of why the use of technology must not be taken for granted and what might be
the challenges and opportunities of technology. Developments in mobile technology are widening the
space of learning in on-campus and distance learning systems in higher education by allowing flexible
and instant access to rich digital resources. Mobile learning can also play a significant supplemental
role within university education. Challenges facing on-campus and distance learning systems is meeting
the ever increasing and diversified demands for higher education. Universities, which adopt on-campus,
distance learning systems, and become dual-mode institutions, consider the mode to be one of the
strategies through which they can achieve increased enrolments.
Chapter 7
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative for the
Fourth Industrial Revolution................................................................................................................ 107
Bo Xing, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Higher Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, or HE 4.0, is an umbrella term for accommodating
different manner of teaching and learning, research and innovation, service, and infrastructure that are
often portrayed as key elements of a university. Despite the imperative of HE 4.0, the truly transformed
HE environment is still far from reality. This discrepancy raises many questions such as (1) What makes
HE4.0 so special? and (2) How could the potential good of HE 4.0 be unlocked? This chapter seeks
to add to the literature by offering a “magic cube” framework, which includes diverse axes, faces, and
layers/slices, in understanding various inter-related factors. The result of this study (i.e., the magic cube
framework for HE 4.0) is developed to support all stakeholders of higher education system to fully grasp
the strengths of HE 4.0 in response to the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
Chapter 8
Transformation of Higher Education in China: A Teaching Methods Perspective............................. 131
Victor Wang, Liberty University, USA
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, Australia
Facilitated by the explosion of technologies, globalization is the catalyst for many changes in society and
its workings. Higher education is no exception. In the present chapter from a teaching methods perspective,
the authors consider China’s higher education system and the transformations it is undergoing, largely as a
response to globalization. Given that the employment capabilities of graduates are influenced by teaching
methods they experienced throughout their education, and in turn, once gaining employment graduates’
capabilities make some on the nation, it is appropriate and useful to adopt a teaching methods perspective
on educational transformation. Thus, to further understanding of the status of teaching methods in China,
the chapter reports on a study comparing Chinese adult education methods with Western educational
methods. A conceptual framework of the principles of andragogy is used. The study results, consistent
with other literature of adult education in China, indicate that some andragogical elements are used by
Chinese educators.
Section 3
Implementation
Chapter 9
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning
Environment......................................................................................................................................... 162
Terence C. Ahern, West Virginia University, USA
Technology has radically altered not only access but also how instruction is delivered. Modern learning
management systems (LMS) improve access to instruction by removing the barriers of time and of
location. Students can literally go to school anywhere at any time. The use of learning technologies
online has become a ubiquitous practice as a result of the spread of the internet. Even though the quality
and value of technology-based instruction has rapidly increased, the use of e-learning technologies does
not automatically guarantee good instruction. Even though the quality and value of technology-based
instruction has rapidly increased, the use of e-learning technologies does not automatically guarantee
good instruction. This chapter is about the choices and the design decisions that impact the delivery
and deployment of technology-based instruction. Each of these choices requires an understanding of the
trade-offs that the decision makers need to consider.
Chapter 10
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning
Framework for a Technology-Driven International University........................................................... 179
Kim K. Floyd, West Virginia University, USA
Neal Shambaugh, West Virginia University, USA
Universal design for learning (UDL) guides the developers of the technology-driven international
university to design flexible academic programs and design features of the supporting academic units.
Faculty, staff, and administrators share a moral responsibility to enable all people to access educational
opportunities. Adherence to UDL guidelines ensures accessible academic programs and acknowledges
that humans vary in their capacity and location to receive educational and research experiences. The
chapter first examines transformational features of the technology-driven internal university, describes
the UDL framework, and applies the UDL guidelines to academic programs (UDL-C) and administrative
units (UDL-A). Recommendations and further research are suggested applying UDL across a technologydriven international university.
Chapter 11
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities: An Application to a
Mexican HEI........................................................................................................................................ 195
Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Spain
Oscar Alberto Hoyos-Villa, Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia
The zero moment of truth (ZMOT) is a concept related to marketing that is changing gradually the
traditional strategy used to select a product or service offered in the market. This concept has gained
popularity among consumers due to the internet, but ZMOT has been barely analyzed during the
selection process of prospective students choosing an international HEI (higher education institution).
The objective of this chapter is to reflect how the combination of ZMOT, FMOT (first moment of truth),
and SMOT (second moment of truth) is a successful strategy for global universities based on digital
marketing to attract prospective students. An educational procedure that can be followed by technologydriven international HEIs, and by universities aiming to attract prospective students. In this sense, the
authors propose a brand-new concept entitled PSA (potential for student attraction) that they apply to
two campuses (Guadalajara and Mexico City) of the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico.
Chapter 12
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education: A Case
Study on Training Hellenic Air Force Pilots....................................................................................... 215
Ioannis Lignos, Hellenic Air Force, Greece & Hellenic Open University, Greece
Maria Pavlis Korres, Hellenic Open University, Greece & Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Greece
Virtual reality educational applications are supporting educational systems to provide better and more
realistic training. Military training systems have incorporated such applications in their training programs
having positive results in terms of training outcomes, safety, and cost efficiency. The aim of the chapter is
to present the benefits of using virtual reality applications in connection to the modern learning theories.
More specifically, the chapter summarizes the concepts of experiential, active and constructive learning
theories conjoining them with the results of a research conducted to the Hellenic Air Force training pilots
concerning their virtual reality training via flight simulators. As derived from the research, virtual reality
educational applications are very helpful as far as it concerns acquiring new knowledge, developing skills,
with predominant flexibility in decision making and more effective task prioritization and changing
trainees’ attitudes at the level of self-confidence, understanding, and self-reflection.
Section 4
Impact
Chapter 13
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education: Brexit and
Higher Education................................................................................................................................. 237
Andrew S. Herridge, Texas Tech University, USA
Lisa J. James, Texas Tech University, USA
This chapter looked at the implications of Brexit on the recruitment of international faculty, students,
and the ability to obtain research funding. Higher education stakeholders have legitimate concerns
regarding the impact of the UK’s separation from the EU. In preemptive moves, students are transferring
to institutions outside the UK and EU to universities that are welcoming and accommodating the special
needs and circumstances of international scholars. Researchers are prematurely dissolving collaborative
partnerships with colleagues to mitigate complications and lost funding expected, as a result of Brexit.
There are universities exploring possible locations for new satellite campuses in other countries. Through
the development of policies and treaties such as the Bologna Process, Lisbon Strategy, European Higher
Education in the World initiative, the European Union has demonstrated the importance and purpose of
higher education both in Europe and at the international level.
Chapter 14
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education............................................................. 253
Victor Wang, Liberty University, USA
Linda Ellington, Southern New Hampshire University, USA
Technologies come and go at an alarming rate, and the length of time any one technology exists before
being supplanted by a newer technology is growing even shorter. In colleges and universities, this rapid
technological replacement rate can hold immense implications for both the development and delivery
of education. When technology transience is considered, institutions of higher education look at how
specific incarnations of technology come and go, the length of time they are in existence, and their
use within a given context. And because education has historically been so closely intertwined with
technology, it becomes an investigation into not only education but also lifespan development, societal
adaptation, and a myriad of other factors in which technology driven international universities will exist
and or cease to exist.
Chapter 15
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies in Nigeria
Higher Education: A Case Study of Obafemi Awolowo University.................................................... 279
Francisca O. Aladejana, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
Simeon O. Olajide, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
The chapter investigated the facilities available, extent of usage, and the various methods, perspectives,
and strategies of blended learning used as well as possible challenges in Nigeria higher education using
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife as a case study. The descriptive survey research design was adopted.
An instrument titled “Questionnaire on Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning” was
administered on 216 lecturers selected by simple random sampling technique. Data collected were analyzed
using frequency counts and simple percentages. The results showed that facilities are fairly available and
there is moderate extent of usage of the available facilities for incorporating blended learning strategy.
Lecturers used 21 different methods, the five blended learning perspectives, and four different strategies.
Various challenges were identified. The study concluded that opportunities were available for lecturers
to implement blended learning strategy into the classroom instruction delivery if the major challenges
faced are properly addressed.
Chapter 16
Learning Management Systems: Popular LMSs and Their Comparison............................................. 299
Gürhan Durak, Balıkesir University, Turkey
Serkan Çankaya, Balıkesir University, Turkey
One of the technologies used in education is the learning management system (LMS). Selecting the
correct LMS is important for all education institutions so that they can avoid a number of difficulties
and problems in future. To be able to select the correct LMS, it is necessary to examine the features of
current LMSs in the market comparatively, to determine their capability of meeting the needs of the
education institution and to follow the trends in LMS use. This chapter presents information about LMS
types, features of commonly used LMSs, the trends in LMS use, and about the results of related studies
in literature. Today, Blackboard, Moodle, Edmodo, and Canvas are among the most commonly used
LMSs. Though these LMSs have many features in common, they also differ from one another in certain
aspects. Therefore, it is seen that different education institutions tend to prefer different LMSs in line
with their needs. In this respect, the selected LMS should be appropriate to the needs of the institution
and to its current resources.
Chapter 17
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges: A Re-Look Into Indian Technology University
Context – Role of Indian Technological Universities in Academic Entrepreneurship........................ 321
Bhaskar Bhowmick, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
Rosalin Sahoo, Indian Institute of Technology Khragpur, India
An emerging country like India demands a high level of entrepreneurial development for its economic
growth as the scope of entrepreneurship is tremendous here. There is a particular reason that developing
countries are trying to put in to entrepreneurship education in the higher education institutions (HEIs).
Higher education institutions (HEIs) have been playing a major part in current economic development
through innovation grant program. The idea of entrepreneurial university can be seen as the universities
those have proved to be the best in critical economic development condition. The prime focus of this
chapter is to understand the concept of academic entrepreneurship efficiently, to analyze the entrepreneurial
challenges in Indian technology universities and how it is related to regional growth. The literature on
these entrepreneurial pillars are still quite sparse, and the authors have tried to focus on all the important
aspects of them. These orientations of this archetype for facilitating Indian economic growth are discussed,
and the challenges are identified.
Chapter 18
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning................ 338
Serap Uğur, Anadolu University, Turkey
Gulsun Kurubacak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Technology management is a management discipline that evaluates the potential of the cutting-edge
technology integration to maintain the competitive institutions, and seeks ways to use these potentials
for the benefit of the organizations. The technologies that use in open and distance learning institutions
for learner enrollment and course follow-ups, software that teachers use both in content presentations
and evaluation stages, etc. They need to use technology in many different services and processes in the
managerial dimension. In this chapter, which is conducted by using interpretive phenomenology method
from qualitative research methods, it was questioned how to integrate artificial intelligence in open and
distance learning systems determined within the scope of technology management for a technology-driven
international university. Suggestions were made for artificial intelligence applications in the management
of open and distance learners.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 369
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 411
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 418
xvii
Preface
Today’s learners have become extraordinarily diverse as enrollment at higher learning institutions is taking a gradual climb upward. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) projects that between
2014 and 2025, undergraduate enrollment will rise from 17.3 million to 19.8 million in the United States.
Among the student population which was once comprised predominately of recent high school
graduates, a shift has taken place to include more non-traditional students who are oftentimes working
professionals seeking to juggle educational advancement alongside their careers. International students
studying abroad are also becoming a larger portion of the student composite, as numerous studies are
linking studying abroad to a successful future.
While student enrollment rates are continually on the rise, retention and competitiveness continues
to be a main point of concentration. Retaining international and non-traditional students means making
learning more accessible, which ultimately means incorporating more technology-driven approaches.
Technology has become one of the main catalysts for taking college and university programs to the next
level, encouraging more accessible learning globally and allowing enrollment numbers to thrive.
As colleges and universities are working to attract and retain students, the higher education market
overall is becoming increasingly competitive, forcing many colleges and universities to adopt marketoriented strategies, launch start-up academic programs, incorporate the most cutting-edge technology,
while also ensuring that they are meeting all quality assurance demands to earn and maintain accreditation.
Understanding how to effectively market, launch, and sustain an institution of higher learning requires
a multi-faceted approach, and as such knowledge resources are needed that will empower education
administrators and professionals, educators, researchers, course designers, and industry consultants all
over the world. The Handbook of Research on Challenges and Opportunities in Launching a TechnologyDriven International University is a vital reference source that will meet these needs by exploring the
latest coverage on the various aspects surrounding global learning institutions and academic programs that
can be propelled by emerging technologies to offer online accessibility and infrastructure development.
This reference source boasts 18 chapters that were carefully selected through a robust double-blind
peer review process and organized across four sections:
Section 1: Program Creation
Section 2: Program Development
Section 3: Implementation
Section 4: Impact
Preface
These chapters are contributed by global experts, drawing on their experiences, observations, and
research surrounding online degree programs, blended learning strategies, educational marketing, and
academic entrepreneurship.
Brief descriptions of each of the chapters within the four sections can be found in the following
paragraphs:
Section 1, “Program Creation,” focuses on the initial launch and initiation of a new university and
academic programs. The authors include research and personal experience in laying out the fundamentals
and strategies that must be employed when moving forward with new programs.
In Chapter 1, “You Too Can Get It Write: The Pursuit of a Life of Scholarship,” the authors Dr. William Evans from The University of West Florida, United States, Dr. Robert Gable, from Old Dominion
University, United States, and Dr. Garry Hornby from the University of Plymouth, Barbados, provide an
overview of their experience launching and implementing technology-driven doctoral programs while
also addressing technology in research agendas. They provide readers with some basic principles that
may very well help in developing and implementing a research and professional writing agenda.
In Chapter 2, “Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education,” the
authors Drs. Mary Runte and Robert Runte from the University of Lethbridge, Canada, examine the
historical analysis of the purpose of higher education by providing typology of four distinct discourses
which reflect the social, political, and economic context within which the changing rationale for funding
universities has been defined. By analyzing where a technology-driven, international university could
be located in the interstices of these competing discourses, the typology can assist educational leaders,
administrators, and policy-makers to more readily identify key obstacles to be overcome, opportunities
that could be developed, and the latent dysfunctions that need to be anticipated to avoid both collateral
damage and the resulting determined pushback.
In Chapter 3, “Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial
Environment: Chilean Higher Education System Case,” the authors Dr. Alejandro Vega-Muñoz from
Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile, Dr. Michel Valdes-Montecinos from Universidad Arturo Prat,
Chile, and Dr. Mónica Cruz-Tapia from Instituto Profesional de Chile, Chile, analyze the controversial
challenges faced by the Chilean university system for the creation of an international online university.
As Chile is a country with a neoliberal economy, widely exposed to international markets, the country is
faced with the need to internationalize its universities and expand its online offerings. Due to restrictions
and rising tensions, the challenges associated with internationalization are at a high point, and therefore
advancements in research and study have become critical, hence the formation of this chapter’s findings.
Section 2, “Program Development,” explores how new colleges, universities, and their programs
grow once they are launched, including strategies for technological progressions for furthering student
engagement and success.
In Chapter 4, “Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University:
Challenges and Opportunities for Broadening the Impact of HBCUs and Minority-Serving Institutions,”
the author Dr. Anisah Bagasra from Kennesaw State University, United States, presents an overview of
the process of building online degree programs from the ground up utilizing data from the process at a
four-year liberal-arts institution in the United States that also has a designation as a Historically Black
College (HBCU).
In Chapter 5, “Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in
Online Courses,” the author Dr. Aisha Haynes from the University of South Carolina - Columbia, United
States, provides educators with strategies for implementing Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and
xviii
Preface
accessibility in online courses. She aims to present how accessibility standards, university support, professional development, and instructional designers are important for instructors to successfully design
online courses and teach online.
In Chapter 6, “Developing an On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education,” the
author Dr. Vimbi Mahlangu from the University of South Africa, South Africa, argues that developing
an on-campus and distance learning system in Higher Education will depend largely on developments
in mobile technology. He discusses the advantages of applying structuration theory in higher education
institutions to answer important technology questions, including its accessibility to students.
In Chapter 7, “Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative for the Fourth Industrial Revolution,” the author Dr. Bo Xing from the University of Johannesburg,
China, seeks to add to the literature by offering a “magic cube” framework, which includes diverse axes,
faces, and layers/slices, in understanding various inter-related factors. The magic cube framework for HE
4.0, is developed to support all stakeholders of the higher education system to fully grasp the strengths
of HE 4.0 in response to the fourth industrial revolution.
In Chapter 8, “Transformation of Higher Education in China: A Teaching Methods Perspective,”
the authors Dr. Victor Wang from Liberty University, United States and Dr. Geraldine Torrisi-Steele
from Griffith University, Australia, report on a study comparing Chinese adult education methods with
Western educational methods using a conceptual framework of the principles of andragogy. The study
results, consistent with other literature of adult education in China, indicate that some andragogical elements are used by Chinese educators.
Section 3, “Implementation,” includes chapters relating to colleges executing new programs and the
results of launching technology-driven universities. The authors present cases of international institutions carrying out original programs to further global education.
In Chapter 9, “Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning
Environment,” the author Dr. Terence C. Ahern from West Virginia University, United States, explores
the choices and the design decisions that impact the delivery and deployment of technology-based
instruction. Each of these choices requires an understanding of the trade-offs that the decision-makers
need to consider when implementing technology in their institution.
In Chapter 10, “Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible
Learning Framework for a Technology-Driven International University,” the authors Drs. Kim Floyd and
Neal Shambaugh from West Virginia University, United States, examine transformational features of
the technology-driven international university, describing the UDL framework, and applying the UDL
guidelines to academic programs (UDL-C) and administrative units (UDL-A). They include recommendations and further research for applying UDL across a technology-driven international university.
In Chapter 11, “Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities: An Application
to a Mexican HEI,” the authors Dr. Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez from EGADE Business School-Tecnologico
de Monterrey, Spain and Dr. Oscar Alberto Hoyos-Villa from Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia, reflect on how the combination of the Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT), FMOT (First Moment
of Truth), and SMOT (Second Moment of Truth) is a successful strategy for global universities based
on digital marketing to attract prospective students. They propose a brand-new concept entitled PSA
(Potential for Student Attraction) that they apply into two campuses (Guadalajara and Mexico City) of
the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico.
In Chapter 12, “Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education: A Case Study on Training Hellenic Air Force Pilots,” the authors Dr. Ioannis Lignos from the
xix
Preface
Hellenic Air Force & Hellenic Open University, Greece and Dr. Maria Pavlis Korres from the Hellenic
Open University, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, present the benefits of using virtual reality applications in connection to modern learning theories. More specifically, the chapter summarizes
the concepts of experiential, active, and constructive learning theories conjoining them with the results
of research conducted to the Hellenic Air Force training pilots concerning their virtual reality training
via flight simulators.
Section 4, “Impact,” focuses on the effect technology-driven institutions have on society, education,
and student growth. The authors within this section use a combination of specific case examples and
research when presenting their chapters.
In Chapter 13, “Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education: Brexit and Higher Education,” the authors Drs. Andrew Herridge and Lisa James from Texas Tech
University, United States, look at the implications of Brexit on the recruitment of international faculty,
students, and the ability to obtain research funding as higher education stakeholders have legitimate
concerns regarding the impact of the UK’s separation from the EU. As a result of Brexit, students are
transferring to institutions outside the UK and EU to universities that are welcoming and accommodating
the special needs and circumstances of international scholars while researchers are prematurely dissolving collaborative partnerships with colleagues to mitigate complications and lost funding expected. The
authors explore the impact of this government decision.
In Chapter 14, “MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education,” the authors Dr. Victor
Wang from Liberty University, United States and Dr. Linda Ellington from Southern New Hampshire
University, United States, look at how specific incarnations of technology come and go, the length of time
they are in existence, and their use within a given context within higher education. Because education
has historically been so closely intertwined with technology, the authors investigate not only education
but also lifespan development, societal adaptation, and a myriad of other factors in which technologydriven international universities will exist and/or cease to exist.
In Chapter 15, “Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies in
Nigeria Higher Education: A Case Study of Obafemi Awolowo University,” the authors Drs. Francisca
Aladejana and Simeon Olajide from Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria, investigate the facilities
available, extent of usage, and the various methods, perspectives, and strategies of blended learning
used as well as possible challenges in Nigeria Higher Education using Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile-Ife as a case study using survey research. The chapter concludes that opportunities were available
for lecturers to implement blended learning strategy into classroom instruction delivery if the major
challenges faced were properly addressed.
In Chapter 16, “Learning Management Systems: Popular LMSs and Their Comparison,” the authors
Drs. Gürhan Durak and Serkan Çankaya from Balikesir University, Turkey, present information about
Learning Management System (LMS) types, including Blackboard, Moodle, and Edmodo, features of
commonly-used LMSs, the trends in LMS use, and about the results of related studies in literature. The
chapter discusses the ways certain LMS programs need to fit the needs of the institution.
In Chapter 17, “Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges: A Re-Look Into Indian Technology
University Context – Role of Indian Technological Universities in Academic Entrepreneurship,” the
authors Drs. Bhaskar Bhowmick and Rosalin Sahoo from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, aim to understand the concept of academic entrepreneurship and analyze the entrepreneurial
challenges in Indian technology universities, and how it is related to regional growth while focusing on
the important entrepreneurial pillars.
xx
Preface
In Chapter 18, “Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance
Learning,” the authors Drs. Serap Ugur and Gulsun Kurubacak from Anadolu University, Turkey, question how to integrate artificial intelligence in open and distance learning systems determined within the
scope of technology management for a technology-driven international university. The chapter consists
of suggestions for artificial intelligence applications to be developed for time, human power, and costs.
The comprehensive coverage this publication offers is sure to contribute to an enhanced understanding of all topics, research, and discoveries pertaining to the creation of technology-based high-quality
learning programs and institutions.
Furthermore, the research findings included in this publication will be instrumental in the expansion
of knowledge and will inspire its readers to explore additional possibilities and further contribute to the
current innovation and discoveries in this ever-growing field (higher education). The field is rapidly
changing and creating new opportunities along with a new set of challenges for existing institutions
as well as newly introduced technology-driven universities all over the world. Technology is allowing
institutions to become limitless in reaching out to their student population globally with the ability to
deliver the most up-to-date quality education across all academic programs.
As such, the only limitation to progressing innovation in this field is a lack of ingenuity and creativity!
xxi
xxii
Acknowledgment
To edit a major reference work of this caliber requires a good number of high quality submissions and
the assistance and collaboration from global researchers interested in this subject area. All submitted
manuscripts to this handbook of research underwent a robust double-blind peer review process in order to
achieve the highest level of quality and accuracy. I am thankful to all of the reviewers of this publication
for providing their expertise and their rigorous and unbiased assessment of the manuscripts assigned to
them on a double-blind basis.
I would also like to convey my deepest appreciation and gratitude to Courtney Tychinski, Special Projects
Coordinator, for all her tireless efforts in assisting me with the review process and other editorial activities related to this publication. Many thanks also to Lindsay Wertman, IGI Global’s Managing Director
for her valuable significant editorial contribution to this publication. Additionally, I would like to thank
the IGI Global Sales and Marketing Department for their endless support in promoting this publication.
Thank you to everyone who has provided me immeasurable amounts of knowledge, wisdom, and patience
throughout my academic career.
Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A.
Information Resources Management Association, USA
Section 1
Program Creation
1
Chapter 1
You Too Can Get It Write:
The Pursuit of a Life of Scholarship
William H. Evans
The University of West Florida, USA
Robert A. Gable
Old Dominion University, USA
Garry Hornby
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0026-3647
University of Plymouth, Barbados
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides the reader with principles for writing and research that the authors have developed over their lifetimes. They have published close to 600 refereed articles, monographs, books, and
book chapters between them and have learned what works and what doesn’t in professional writing and
research. Further, each of the authors has been involved with implementing technology-driven doctoral
programs and they share the lessons learned from these experiences. The suggestions they offer are not
intended to be exhaustive but rather are designed to provide the reader with a framework for success in
writing and research. They share their successes and failures and the necessity for accepting and using
feedback and critical reviews in a positive and productive manner. Additionally, they address the issue
of technology in research and writing and how these tools can aid those developing a research agenda.
They offer hope to those beginning a research and writing agenda and believe that if they can succeed
others can as well.
INTRODUCTION
In most institutions of higher education scholarship is fundamental to establishing and maintaining a successful academic career. Faculty are expected to conduct research and share their results in peer-refereed
journals. In fact, in many institutions, continued employment and subsequent promotion are linked to
conducting quality research and publishing in well-respected journals Certainly, what Ernest Boyer (1990)
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch001
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
You Too Can Get It Write
characterized as the scholarship of teaching and the scholarship of application (service) are important,
but research and professional writing are critical to maintaining a faculty position in higher education.
Even so, as few as 10% of faculty account for over 50% of the literature in some areas (Moxley, 1992).
Not surprisingly, beginning graduate students rarely have experience with the demands of professional
writing and view the skills required to become a scholar beyond their reach.
As advanced graduate students, we experienced a dramatic transformation; it was no longer about a
doctoral degree; rather it was the acceptance of a lifelong commitment to scholarship—the intellectual
pursuit of truth. We accepted that, by virtue of our degree programs, we had both the privilege and
responsibility to not only ‘consume’ the professional literature, but also contribute to it. We recognized
the reciprocal nature of the scholarship of discovery and the scholarship of teaching (see Boyer, 1990).
As we concluded our doctoral studies, we refined a research agenda that projected well into the future
and represented a way to draw upon the accumulated literature to contribute to it. Finally, we began to
sense that scholarship can foster a sense of professional accomplishment and personal satisfaction. We
firmly believe that you too can make important contributions to your discipline.
In this chapter, we provide you, in a concise manner, with some basic principles that may very well
help in developing and implementing a research and professional writing agenda. What we will provide
is what we have learned from many years of successful writing for professional journals, textbooks,
scholarly books and book chapters, as well as externally funded grants, and other scholarly activities
(e.g., professional presentations, workshops and serving on editorial boards for scholarly journals).
Each of us has lead the implementation of large scale technology driven doctoral and research programs at major universities. This experience has led us to some common knowledge that is reflective of
best practice and sound theoretic foundations related to the professional development of faculty. Faculty
who are successful in writing and conducting research will provide the foundation necessary to develop
a successful doctoral and research program.
In contemporary university settings, it is imperative that faculty have technology skills that enable
them to obtain and disseminate information. But, faculty members have to have more than just good
technical skills. They must also posses the ability to work collaboratively and plan and implement a
research and writing agenda as well as access to technology and assistance in using and maintaining
these technology tools.
There are numerous well-written books on professional writing but what we will provide are personal
lessons that we have learned the hard way through our own success and failure. We will leave it to others to offer theoretical foundations. What we are presenting here is the collective knowledge of of three
professionals who have been integrally involved in the leadership of doctoral and research programs.
Collectively, we have written about 600 peer-reviewed journal articles, books, book chapters, and professional monographs. We readily acknowledge that not all our efforts lead to a successful outcome. There
have been many writing and research projects that failed or never led to a publication. We believe that
we have learned something from each of these experiences. Furthermore, the inspiration for this chapter
comes from the fact that many of our best professional writing projects have involved working with others. We believe that we have learned something about what works and, at the same time, what things to
avoid. Our goal is to contribute to your ability to achieve a successful and gratifying professional career.
2
You Too Can Get It Write
How to Tell if You Are Going to Be a Successful Professional Writer
We are living proof that no one is born a successful writer. One of us failed English in high school and
again in college and took over 5 years to finish a four-year undergraduate degree. Another received a D
as a final grade in his first college English class with a note on his first English composition paper from
the instructor asking: “Is English your second language?” Another of us stopped taking English and
composition classes at age 16 after receiving the lowest passing grades possible in English language and
literature. Our colleague mercifully avoided college composition classes. But, our stories do illustrate
that people with even meager (beginning) writing skills can become good professional writers – including those like us who struggled to put sentences together in a coherent manner.
What each of us possesses is a great deal of tenacity, persistence, and the ability to organize our
thoughts and put them in writing, and learn from our failures. So, the first lesson is to not expect to
be a great professional writer in the initial stages of your career, but to be unwaveringly persistent and
accept the fact that writing and research are skills that evolve slowly and only get better with time and
effort and learning from others. We also have learned that writing skills are never fully developed. But,
writing skills do mature with time, effort, and attention to feedback. So, if you want to know if you can
successfully write and conduct professional research, ask yourself if you can be persistent, if you can
manage your behavior well enough to set aside time in your day to devote to writing and research, and
if you can accept and learn from critical and sometimes punishing feedback. It is impossible to grow as
a writer unless you can listen to critical feedback and grow from it.
The first inclination to critical feedback is to not accept the review and accept that the reviewer may
have a valid view of your work. Most of us have had times in which we wanted to discount critical feedback as an attack on the integrity of what we have written. But, the good writer is one who listens and
responds to this feedback and incorporates the suggestions into subsequent manuscripts.
Being successful in academic writing requires that you seek out and welcome critical feedback and risk
the rejection of your work. You can learn a great deal from this review process. Sometimes, however, the
feedback from journal article reviewers is so extensive and seemingly destructive it is very easy to decide
to give up. Once one of us was complaining to a colleague about the four pages of feedback received
from reviewers when she replied, ‘That is nothing, we just got 19 pages of corrections requested on our
latest paper’. Both of us addressed the issues raised by the reviewers and both articles were eventually
published. This illustrates the need to have the patience, as journals may be slow in completing reviews
and returning feedback to authors, which can be very discouraging, sometimes terminally. One of us
had a colleague whose very first submission to an academic journal resulted in a rejection three years
after he submitted it, despite regular requests for progress made in that time. He never submitted another
article to a journal. Don’t let this happen to you. Be persistent and respond, in a timely manner, to the
recommendations of reviewers and include a cover letter in which you address each of the comments
provided by journal editors.
A critical backdrop to professional writing is the panorama of technology tools that are now available. These tools are powerful and can greatly aid researchers and writers and make tasks that used to
be laborious and difficult much easier. Some years ago, (more than we would like to admit), we would
3
You Too Can Get It Write
wait until office staff went home for the night, so that we could access an electric typewriter (preferably with eraser tape). But, in any discussion of more contemporary tools, there must be recognition
that the development and availability of new tools occur at an astonishing rate. So, what ever is relevant
today could easily be irrelevant and outdated tomorrow. But, there are useful tools that can greatly aid
in research and writing projects, so the good researcher and writer should keep abreast of new developments and products.
The following principles of scholarship and professional writing are not meant to be exhaustive;
rather, they reflect what we consider to be among the most important principles of scholarly activities
that no one tells you about. Hopefully, they will help guide you in the development and completion of
your projects. We believe that these principles can lead to a strong work ethic from the very beginning
and will serve you well throughout your career.
Principle 1: Choose Carefully Your Writing Partners
Many successful writers will have several professional colleagues or project partners. In some cases, a
writing team develops based on common interests, while in other cases, a team develops because someone
has extended an offer to a colleague who is just beginning to conduct research or write professionally.
We can attest to the fact that enduring professional relationships can emerge in many ways; two of us
first met at a national conference when we attended a presentation on a topic of shared interest, (namely
the use of semi -logarithmic graphs), began a conversation that yielded a 35year professional relationship and personal friendship. Reach out to others with whom you share common professional interests.
Some writing teams survive the stress of collaborative writing, but other teams do not. Those who
survive and thrive have team members who share a common work ethic, are trustworthy, and not prone to
backbiting or self-aggrandizement. Those that don’t survive generally have members who fail to produce
quality work in a timely fashion, are unresponsive to deadlines, or feedback, and have personalities that
make them “difficult”. Thus, be very careful when you select someone to work with and remember that
personality variables often are as important as a compelling knowledge of the field. Your writing project
likely will not succeed if you can’t trust the person you are working with or if you engage in frequent
arguments or differences of opinions with them. If these confrontations are frequent, your writing will
become secondary to conflict resolution and will likely result in a breakup of the team and, in turn, failure
of what may have been a potentially important writing project. Protect yourself and make the decision
to work with people you can trust, depend on, are cooperative, and will keep their focus on the project
rather than differences of opinion.
A writing partner also must have some legitimate writing skills. The clear majority of writers don’t
have perfectly honed writing skills, but persons you are working with must have a reasonable level of
writing skills, but, more importantly, the desire to improve and accept feedback and act upon it.
All collaborative writing projects involve learning from others, but you don’t want to get in a position
in which you are going to have to spend a great deal of your time teaching partners the most rudimentary
elements of research and writing. So, select partners who know at least the basics of what Boyer (1990)
termed the “scholarship of discovery” (the desire to advance knowledge gleaned from the professional
literature) and who are willing to learn and grow as well as being cooperative and easy to work with.
4
You Too Can Get It Write
Principle 2: Agree on the Focus of the Project and Who Will Do What, When
Professional journals differ in their content and orientation. Some are practitioner-focused while others
are intended for professionals or academics with highly refined research skills. The way you write for one
journal may not be appropriate for another journal. So, before beginning a writing project, it is important
to decide on who your audience will be and which journal you will submit the manuscript. This will
determine your ‘writing style’. Once you do so, read carefully several back issues of the journal to get
an idea of the flavor and form of the journal. It also behooves you to identify any previously published
articles that reflect content related to what you plan to write about. It would be embarrassing to receive
feedback from a journal editor that indicates there was a special issue dedicated to the same topic one
year ago and you have failed to cite any of the articles.
Most journals have author guidelines, information that relates to the intended audience, and the requirements for manuscript organization, manuscript length, and referencing style (e.g., APA, Chicago
or Harvard). Parenthetically speaking, most journals in the fields of psychology and special education
require that prospective authors adhere to APA guidelines for manuscript preparation. We cannot emphasize strongly enough how important it is to read carefully those guidelines and follow them assiduously
as you move forward with your writing project.
You also may want to send an abstract to the editor of the journal and simply ask if the topic and/or
proposed format would be appropriate. Their response may be very helpful in developing a manuscript.
Also, you may very well find that the editors are developing a special topics issue for which your article
might be appropriate.
As you move forward with your writing project, you likely will make changes in the focus of the
manuscript to more closely align with the submission guidelines and readership of a particular journal.
These changes are part of a normal process of refining the specifics of any journal article.
Before starting a writing project, you should also clearly articulate the proposed author order and
who will be charged with the responsibility of overseeing the project. This role usually rests with the
senior author but it may be necessary to put someone else in charge if they have more experience or do
more of the work. Although it is best to decide on the order of authorship at the start of the project, it
is important to be flexible enough to change this order if it turns out that one or more of the co-authors
does more than was initially planned. The publication manual of the American Psychological Association (2016; 9th Ed) contains useful guidance regarding decision-making and authorship.
With the order of authorship also come decisions about timelines and editing and how this will be
done. Editing often is a problem because almost all of us believe that what we write is crystal clear and
doesn’t need editing. As a result, edits of a manuscript may not be well received and can result in some
hard feelings. This may cause co-authors to not discuss changes that need to be made and, as a result,
manuscripts can fail to progress in an acceptable manner. But, editing is an essential component of any
writing project, so be evenhanded and gentle but unambiguous in sharing your feedback. And, if you
are receiving feedback from colleagues, try to focus on the substance of the feedback, without taking it
personally and developing a negative attitude.
All suggested edits of a manuscript should be carefully documented. It is usually advantageous to
maintain a log that lists the suggested changes made by the reviewers (‘working memory’) and how you
addressed each concern. You don’t have to accept all your colleagues’ suggestions, but you should be
able to show that you considered them.
5
You Too Can Get It Write
Deadlines for writing projects should also be established and shared with colleagues. These deadlines
should reflect sufficient time for multiple edits and final manuscript preparation. It may be helpful to
send out reminders of upcoming deadlines to co-authors or research partners as they may have multiple
projects and deadlines and you don’t want your deadlines to get lost in the maze of professional activities of others.
Principle 3: Provide an Organization and Templates for the Writing
Project So That There Can Be Consistency Between Writers
Any writing project necessitates an outline that will guide writers in the same direction. This ‘roadmap’
should be accompanied by suggestions for writing in order to achieve consistency of literary style. Some
authors prefer to rely on a more traditional column outline; others feel a column outline is too constraining
and opt for a ‘cluster’ outline which may be built around a series of circles that vary in size, according to
the relative importance of the discussion points to the overall organization of the manuscript; additional
subordinate ideas can always be added; finally, the circles can be numbered according to the sequence
of content presentation. Last, there are some often more experienced authors who make use of a free
flow draft strategy.
It is easy to stray from the content outline or the agreed upon form of writing so there may need to
add detail to each area of the outline in order to compare and contrast submissions and edits. Without
this, the project may end up wandering aimlessly without any real focus.
Providing updates from all participants on their progress may help most writing projects. There should
be universal agreement among the writers that each will respond to a request for weekly or biweekly
updates by the senior author. Frequent updates at the beginning of the project will increase the likelihood that the project will get off to a good start. All too often productive people will take on multiple
projects or writing tasks and may not give your project the attention it deserves. If this happens and is not
addressed, deadlines may be missed and manuscript development may suffer. A good strategy is to ask
for weekly updates on progress and ask for specific information about specific activities on the article
or research project. It is possible that people will lie about their progress or will just fail to respond. If
this is the case, then serious consideration needs to be given to separating this person from the project.
It often is useful to divide up writing responsibilities to draw on the strengths of each team member and
to decrease the likelihood that you will be working at cross purposes such as two or more authors editing
the introduction at the same time.
Principle 4: Use Technology Tools
Technology has made writing much easier by providing tools that aid collaboration and instantaneous
sharing of information. Data analysis used to require a mainframe computer and laborious programming or trips to and from a data center that had enough computing power to digest and make sense of
extensive data sets. Now, most data based projects can be handled quite easily using a personal desktop
or laptop computer through the internet with access to powerful statistical programs that will even tell
the researcher of statistically significant differences.
Likewise, using programs like Survey Monkey and Qualtrics researchers can easily conduct surveys
that once required mailings, follow-up reminders, and long wait times for returns. In the past, researchers were challenged to account for the discrepancy between the number of surveys distributed and
6
You Too Can Get It Write
the number returned. These survey instruments now allow researchers an easy way to deal with these
thorny logistical issues The resulting data from a survey data can then be analyzed within the program
or downloaded to statistical programs to do a more complicated analysis of the data.
But, when using these tools, you should carefully preplan how you are going to collect your data and
make sure the way you are collecting the data will easily fit into the data analysis tool you want to use. A
little bit of preplanning may save you a lot of time. You also want to make sure that there is compatibility
between the various technology tools you are using. You want to ensure that it is easy to move data from
collection sites to data analysis programs. You don’t want to get caught in a situation in which you must
reenter data into a new tool or find that the form of the data does not fit easily into a data analysis tool.
A little bit of preplanning and a few test runs may save you a lot of time.
It is important to agree at the start of the writing project on the word processing software that will be
used or the way that the information will be formatted and saved. Drafts of research findings and writing
projects can be shared through portals such as Google Docs that allow all project participants to view
and edit documents with a word processing program that allows for the tracking of changes. Platforms
that allow sharing of manuscripts reduce the number of edited versions of the manuscript and ensure that
people are viewing the same edition. But, you may find that you want to limit the number of people who
can edit the manuscript so as to eliminate any one person from making a decision about what material
to keep, what needs to be eliminated and what needs to be edited. In these cases, it would be most appropriate for any and all edits to be sent to the senior author who would be responsible for making any
final edits. It may seem like a minor issue, but it is important to record the date (and time) of each draft.
At the beginning of a writing project, writing partners often create a drop box with which to share
relevant articles with colleagues. You will find websites that contain guidelines for establishing and
making use of drop boxes.
Another tool that many beginning as well as experienced writers make use of is Endnote to maintain
an ongoing record of references. We will admit that on more than one occasion, we were certain that
we would be able to track down an important reference, only to struggle at the last minute to find it.
It is also critical that research and writing team members stay in contact with each other. There are a
number of ways to facilitate ongoing communication among writing team members. For example, Skype
affords the opportunity to meet ‘face-to-face’ as do other options such as Zoom and Google Hangout.
These tools allow for immediate interaction between team members and may be very helpful in resolving
problems that result from miscommunication through less direct means of interactions such as email.
Technology can also greatly aid in Single Subject research. The visual analysis of graphed data for
study participants has long defined single subject research. Both researchers and practitioners often rely
on Microsoft Excel to generate those graphs. A relatively new index that combines non-overlapping data
points and trend analysis is the Tau-U derived from Kendall’s Rank Correlation and the Mann-Whitney
U. There are multiple articles and websites devoted to the application of the Tau-U which some argue
is not especially user friendly. A number of computer-based software programs are now available, including an open platform R package and R Commander package. In addition, a software package can
be found at the James E. Pustejovsky website which can assist in the analysis of slope and level change
in graphed data.
A related practice that has become an integral part of single subject research is the use of the What
Works Clearinghouse Standards for single-case designs. Developed by a panel of experts, these standards
now represent the ‘gold standard’ against which single subject research studies are judged.
7
You Too Can Get It Write
Likewise, there are a number of technology tools such as NVivo, MAXQDA, ATLAS.ti WebQDA,
Annotation and Data grav that can greatly aid in transcript analysis, coding and content analysis of
qualitative data. These tools are consistently updated and care should be taken to match the technology
tool to the research design and the nature of the information being collected.
Technology tools for writing and research can be helpful but they are merely tools that can be put
in the hands of the researcher to aid in data collection and analysis and manuscript development. A
poorly constructed study using the best technology tools will still produce a poor product. But a nicely
constructed study using appropriate tools may make a good project great allow everyone to be more
efficient in their time and effort.
Principle 5: Carefully Choose Your Research Method
and Tools and Don’t Go Beyond the Data
As we know, there are numerous investigative approaches, some involving single-case subjects and others
involving large numbers of participants. Some research methodologies are quantitative, some qualitative, and some are based on a mixed design. Additionally, some methodologies are quasi-experimental
and some experimental.
The selection of methodology is critical because it must be aligned with and responsive to your research question(s). Research methodology texts address this issue of matching the research methodology
to the research questions and they correctly note that sometimes the research questions or methodology
have to be altered a bit so that there is congruence. But, what they don’t tell you is that some academic
and researchers may believe that one methodology is far superior to others and that any investigation
involving a competing methodology is wholly inadequate. Often these conversations take on the emotion
of fanatics arguing differing opinions concerning religions, politics, or sports teams.
Before you begin an investigation, make sure that your research questions and methodology match
and that everyone in your writing and research team agrees with the way you are going to conduct your
investigation.
Data or evidence should result from any study. These data are subjected to some level of analysis
that will attempt to make sense of the meaning of the numbers and information that have been collected.
Data analysis can be extremely complex and is often reported in a way that adds confusion rather than
adding clarity
Data displays can be elegant and can visually make a strong statement in their simplicity. But, some
type of statistical analysis usually is needed to further refine the data. The good writer and researcher
will make every attempt to explain in a simple and straightforward manner exactly what was done in
the analysis and the meaning of the data. In our experience, data analysis often gets far too cumbersome
and people just stop reading the data analysis sections of papers. Our best advice is to write this section
of the paper in a way that people can easily understand what analysis was done, why it was done, and
what it means.
It also is easy for researchers to overrun, or go beyond, their data and draw conclusions that are
not warranted. Take care to recognize the difference between correlation and causation and give some
thought to whether statistical reported differences are large enough to reflect a meaningful difference.
Sometimes small statistical differences or significant results are good to report but may not translate
into real world differences.
8
You Too Can Get It Write
The research and writing team should consider the methodology of the research, the research questions, data analysis procedures, clarity of the writing of the results, as well as the implications of the
research. It is easy to allow procedures and writing to drift and draw conclusions that are unwarranted
and produce a manuscript that is cumbersome and confusing. Put another way, researchers sometimes
take liberties with their data in order to make assertions with which they feel a strong affinity
Principle 6: Write Clearly and in an Unambiguous Manner
There are numerous books that provide a great deal of detail about good professional writing. Each of
us has or is serving as an Executive Editor or Editor of a professional journal. In addition, each of use
serves on a number of editorial boards of professional journals. This editorial experience has allowed
us to review a large number of manuscripts and we have noticed a number of issues related to writing
style that need particular attention.
Try to limit the use of quotes in your professional writing to seminal quotes that are absolutely critical
in the construction of an argument. In most cases, it is far better to paraphrase the original author’s work
as this demonstrates the ability to understand and use the information contained in a quote. However, if
you are conducting qualitative research, you may find that it is appropriate to make more liberal use of
quotes, from both the literature and participants in the study.
Make sure your review of the literature is an analysis and a synthesis of material and not just a regurgitation of isolated studies. A good review of the literature should demonstrate a thorough understanding
of the most relevant and significant areas of the professional literature and what central lessons can be
gleaned from the totality of the studies. This type of analysis lends itself to a synthesis of the research
with an identification of major findings, unusual anomalies in the data, and cautions and concerns. If there
are a number of studies devoted to the same subject, it may be useful to include a representative sample
of well-designed studies. It is important to remember that the studies reviewed serve as benchmarks for
comparing your findings. This synthesis should be spelled out in such a way as to convince readers that
the proposed study represents the next most logical step in the analysis of the topic and will narrow the
gap between what is known versus what is unknown. Finally, it is all too common for authors to assert
that there is a “lack of research” without assuring readers that the time span, number of search engines,
search terms, review methods, and back checking hand searches justify such a claim.
Develop a style of writing and form of coverage of the content that will be used and adhered to by all
authors. Research and writing projects involving multiple researchers and writers will almost always lead
to differing writing styles and ways that content is covered. The simple solution to this have a mutually
agreed upon detailed outline (or organizational table) for each portion of the project. This outline should
be accompanied by specific suggestions of writing style.
This use of a detailed outline and examples of suggested writing styles will not be sufficient to eliminate
all differences in wording and coverage. As a result, one person should be assigned the task of editing
documents so as to assure consistency of style and content coverage. That person must be knowledgeable
of the research under review and possess the ability to identify ‘outlier’ data that may raise questions,
relative strengths and weaknesses of the extant research, ‘gaps’ in the accumulated research, and be
able to distinguish between empirical evidence and expert opinion. It is important to rely on primary
sources and avoid the temptation to draw information from secondary sources. Finally, when referring
to something as important as dependent and independent variables, it is essential to use the same terms
throughout the manuscript and avoid confusing readers by using a variety of terms.
9
You Too Can Get It Write
CONCLUSION
Professional writing and research are activities that can be rewarding but require a substantial investment
of time dedicated to careful planning and the systematic execution of the tasks associated with these
scholarly projects. It is useful to keep in mind that that your scholarship can contribute to the growth of
your professional discipline, Each quality investigation holds the promise of enlarging our understanding
of our science and how it can be applied to addressing real life problems. Your work can offer future
researchers direction and opportunity to build upon your efforts just as your research reflects past-topresent investigations. Researchers need to keep in mind that each successful investigation is a small, but
necessary building block that contributes to the building of a science. But, that is how a science is built.
So, we encourage you to accept the challenge to pursue a life of scholarship and strive to contribute
to the accumulated literature. To do so necessitates that you learn to cope with the inevitable rejection
of a manuscript and dedicate yourself to the journey for truth while recognizing that it may be an elusive
lifelong journey.
REFERENCES
Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Moxley, J. M. (1990). Publish don’t perish: The scholars guide to academic writing and publishing.
Westport, CT: Praeger.
10
11
Chapter 2
Placing a New University
Model Within the Discourse
of Higher Education
Mary S. Runte
University of Lethbridge, Canada
Robert Runte
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4101-9037
University of Lethbridge, Canada
ABSTRACT
A historical analysis of the discourse of the purpose of higher education provides a typology of four
distinct discourses which reflect the social, political, and economic context within which the changing
rationale for funding universities has been defined. By analyzing where a technology-driven, international university could be located in the interstices of these competing discourses, the typology can assist educational leaders, administrators, and policymakers to more readily identify key obstacles to be
overcome, opportunities that could be developed, and the latent dysfunctions that need to be anticipated
to avoid both collateral damage and the resulting determined pushback. Forewarned is forearmed, and
understanding which aspects of which discourses lend support or undermine such a project could greatly
assist proponents in seeking support and avoiding missteps.
INTRODUCTION
If one’s goal is to build an accessible, technology-driven, international institution of higher learning, then
one has to be prepared to defend the need for both a new institution and a new approach. The question
naturally arises, “What is the purpose of this new institution or this new approach?”
Before attempting to respond, educational leaders, administrators, and policy-makers need to understand that the purpose of higher education has been the subject of intense debate that draws on four
distinct (often contradictory) discourses. Adoption of online delivery or open access, for example, can
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch002
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
only be successful if relevant audiences can be convinced the new platform fits within their preconceptions of what legitimately constitutes an institution of higher education.
The purpose of this paper, then, is to provide a historical context for the rest of the papers in this
volume. As others analyze the technological advances creating a new type of learning experience, or
speak to the increasingly competitive nature of the post-secondary education market, or address issues of
open access through the ubiquitous availability of smart phones, and so on, this paper provides a typology within which to situate, and thereby analyze, these other discussions. Identifying and understanding
the underlying assumptions about the purpose of higher education contained within each of these other
papers will assist the reader in deconstructing, and thereby evaluating, the arguments presented.
Following the historical analysis, the second half of the paper lays out—in very broad strokes—the
implications of our typology of discourses for the four issues of open admissions; online instead of faceto-face classrooms; a focus on the learning module; and international structures. There is no attempt to
define a new discourse that would encompass all the new developments in higher education represented
in the current volume, because we consider it unlikely that there is a single, one-size-fits-all solution.
Rather, our purpose is to flag for readers that, implicit within each of these various issues and proposals, is an underlying set of assumptions about the purpose of higher education that needs to be made
explicit. It is up to the proponents of each of the many different proposals to analyze the implications
of their position and to decide which elements can safely be situated within existing discourses, which
may require compromise or rethinking.
Historically, different discourses have appealed to different stakeholders, so any new type of postsecondary institution needs to adopt the appropriate discourse for the audience addressed. If one wishes
to obtain government funding and taxpayer support, for example, the institution needs to reference the
manpower and economic needs of that region, which might be seen to conflict with a model premised
on a global faculty or student market. Understanding and being able to make explicit the underlying assumptions about the purpose of higher education is crucial to understanding what is at stake for various
publics, and how best to address their concerns.
As noted in a previous article (Runté & Runté, 2017), however, the four distinct discourses of our
typology are routinely confabulated, as institutional spokespersons tailor their pitches to suit the audience they are currently addressing. Unfortunately, when held to account on the implications of these
statements, the institution finds itself under siege for failing to fulfill all of these—frequently mutually
contradictory—goals. It is therefore crucial that proponents of this new type of institution understand
to which purposes of higher education they wish to lay claim.
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF FOUR DISCOURSES OF HIGHER EDUCATION
A historical overview charting shifts in the debate over the appropriate goals of higher education is
necessary to understand both what those competing arguments are and why different rationales came to
dominate at different points in history. As the saying goes, those who do not understand the mistakes of
history are doomed to repeat them, so it is important to avoid adopting an obsolete discourse to which
relevant stakeholders have already developed counter arguments, or which are logically incompatible
with one’s vision, if there are other discourses more clearly aligned with one’s own purposes. Higher
education is subject to intermittent waves of reform (Forstenzer, 2017), not all of which have worked
12
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
out as planned, so understanding the history of these debates is a necessary first step in deciding the
way forward.
There have been four different streams of discourse so far: enlightenment, human capital, manpower,
and consumerism. These are described in chronological order.
The Discourse of Enlightenment
The core of the enlightenment discourse is a commitment to liberal arts over vocational preparation. To
quote the founder of Dublin University, Cardinal Newman (1852), “Knowledge is capable of being its
own end. Such is the constitution of the human mind that any kind of knowledge, if it really be such,
is its own reward.” (p. 130). Higher education, as distinct from mere training, seeks to develop the
whole individual. The goal is not merely to certify a specific set of professional skills, but to graduate
individuals with a cultivated intellect, a disciplined and logical mind, possessing a discerning taste, a
noble and courteous bearing in the conduct of one’s life, and a sense of responsibility to one’s society
and civilization (Newman, p. 144). In enlightenment discourse, the goal of higher education is what
Newman called “a cultured gentleman” and might today be phrased as the “self-actualized individual”.
According to enlightenment discourse, then, university was not simply to provide a narrow professional training, but was expected to produce the cultural, intellectual, and ruling elite of the nation. In
this earlier period, of course, universities were elite institutions, albeit with some provision through
scholarships and sponsored mobility for the exceptionally talented from the working class. A liberal
education reflects the educational priorities of a landed aristocracy, where the accumulation of cultural
capital was how one identified oneself as a member of the elite.
Because the enlightenment discourse advocates liberal studies undertaken for their own sake, rather
than vocational preparation for some economic benefit, expenditure on higher education was necessarily
regarded as consumption. Indeed, as essentially the preserve of the elite in this period, university education could be considered a form of conspicuous consumption: one enrolled because it was expected of
gentlemen, not because it determined one’s social status or was required for economic advantage. The
founding of new universities was hailed for their cultural rather than economic contributions. Like opera
houses and art galleries, the creation of universities was seen as the consequence of economic growth
and prosperity, not a contributing factor.
The Discourse of Human Capital
Enlightenment discourse of university as consumption was almost completely displaced by the late 1950’s.
Nobel laureate Theodore Schultz, best known of human capital’s proponents, argued expenditures on
education were an investment in human capital and therefore in the nation’s economic progress. “Much
of what we call consumption constitutes investment in human capital. Direct expenditures on education,
health, and internal migration to take advantage of better job opportunities are clear examples (1977,
p.313).” Investment in education was now recognized as just as critical for economic development as
investment in physical infrastructure; indeed, a trained workforce was considered a precondition for the
development of modern infrastructure. Investment in human capital was expected to yield measurable
economic returns, so higher education costs could no longer be viewed as primarily consumption.
13
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Human capital discourse offered two perspectives on investment in education: the state’s and the
individual’s. Investment by the state was presented as a key prerequisite for competition with other industrial nations. The first issue (October, 1959) of University Affairs ——published by the Association
of Universities and Colleges of Canada (now, Universities Canada)—for example, quoted Cyril James:
“The U.S.S.R. is putting a tremendous amount of money and effort into education because it realizes
that trained men—not natural resources—are the foundation of national prosperity and essential for
continuing economic growth.”
Similarly, third world nations were thought to be underdeveloped as a consequence of illiteracy and
a lack of graduates. Post-war Europe had fewer intact capital resources than many African nations, but
European economies advanced more rapidly. The differences in education seemed to account for this.
(Today, one might more correctly point to the constraints of colonialism and the structure of world
markets, but such considerations are outside the scope of the current chapter.) Thus, the discourse of
human capital was adopted by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Organization for
Economic Co-Operation and Development, and imposed throughout the world as the basis of development strategies in 1950s and 1960s (Schultz, p. 322; Karabel & Halsey, pp. 13-15).
Applied to the individual, proponents of human capital charted years of education against lifetime
earnings to argue staying in school and working one’s way through college represented the individual’s
investment in one’s own earning capacities. For example, a medical student undertakes a long and costly
course of studies because the long-term return on investment of becoming a doctor is substantial. Note
that the state again receives an indirect benefit from encouraging the medical student, because the higher
wages realized by highly trained knowledge workers imply higher personal tax revenues for government,
as well as the promise of greater revenues from overall economic growth.
Consequently, the logic of the human capital discourse convinced students (and their parents) to
invest in post-secondary education at the same moment economists were urging governments to meet
this demand through the explosive expansion of high school, university, and technical institutes. To take
just one example, John Deutsch (1967) of the Economic Council of Canada announced that:
In its studies the Council has found the rate of return from investment in education, both to the individual
and the economy as a whole, is at least as large, and probably larger than, almost any other form of
investment. This has led us to recommend that the advancement of education and training at all levels
in Canada be given a very high place in the public policy and that investment in education be accorded
first place in the scale of priorities.
Given the obvious windfall for their own institutions, educators were quick to adopt the human capital
discourse, and it remained essentially unchallenged throughout the 1960s. The only dissenting voices
were remnants of the enlightenment camp, who argued the university’s mission should be cultural and
intellectual, not economic. Steacie (1960), for example, stated:
Education should be considered as a Canadian problem and not as a race with anyone.... Most emphatically, Canadian university graduates should not be considered mere units of military armament. In
fact it cannot be emphasized too strongly that the whole manpower concept is quite foreign to the real
purpose of a university . . . .(p.5)
14
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Stacie’s was a distinctly minority view in North America, though the UK’s 1963 Robbins Report
retained much of the language of the enlightenment model (Forstenzer, 2017). Given the benefits of
economists reclassifying expenditures on education as investment, educators embraced the human capital
discourse and argued there was no contradiction between the university’s mandate to promote cultural
and intellectual development and the desire to serve economic growth.
Already by the 1970s, however, economists were starting to have second thoughts about the theory
of human capital. Political economists such as Barry Bluestone complained the correlation between
education and earnings was not exact:
But many of those who suffer from low wages and unemployment have a considerable amount of human
capital. They fail to find jobs that pay a living wage because of racism, sexism, economic depression,
and uneven development of industries and regions. Compared with some workers who have found steady
employment in high-wage industries, these workers have, in many cases, even more human capital, but
happen to be the wrong color or sex, to be too young or too old, or to live on the wrong side of town or
in the wrong part of the country. The inadequacy of the economic system is a more important cause of
poverty than the inadequacy of people (Bluestone, 1977, p.338).
The failure of the American “War on Poverty” revealed significant cracks in the logic of human capital.
Premised on a discourse of human capital, the high priority given to investment in public schooling; the
creation of American community colleges as explicit investment in educational opportunity for minorities and the disadvantaged; and the expansion of the elite university into a mass multiversity system, all
failed as a universal panacea for America’s ills.
The public reaction against the recommendations of human capital model, however, came as a consequence of media coverage of increasing graduate unemployment or underemployment, decreasing
enrolments, and spiraling costs. Together, these trends appeared to indicate the limits of post-secondary
expansion had been reached. Although the model had postulated investment in human capital inevitably
resulted in economic growth—probably equal to or in excess of the scale of the investment—this was
not, in fact, happening.
The Canadian economy in the 1980s, for example, was experiencing recession, high unemployment,
and inflation. Instead of the predicted phenomenon of an expanding economy absorbing an expanding
graduate class, the economy was being over-supplied with expensive, over-trained manpower. This in
turn led to a falling off of enrolments as the public realized personal investment in higher education, both
in terms of the direct costs and in foregone earnings, might not provide an adequate return.
(Enrollment trends were frequently contradictory—often increasing as graduate unemployment
peaked—as those who could not find work took refuge from unfavorable labor markets by enrolling in
yet further education. This in turn led to further credential inflation, perpetuating the cycle. Faced with
public demand to reduce unemployment, governments frequently responded well into 1990s by invoking
a resurrected discourse of human capital to invest in additional skills training for the unemployed. This
allowed governments to be seen to be taking positive action, and had the immediate effect of lowering
unemployment statistics, because students are not included in the count.)
Increasing public disillusionment with undergraduate education, as credential inflation undermined
anticipated economic gains from obtaining a degree, added to a growing resentment of the rising cost
of university education to the taxpayer. Governments subsequently reordered their funding priorities.
15
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
The unrestrained investment in higher education, grounded in the discourse of human capital, came to
an abrupt end.
As early as 1970, the Economic Council of Canada—formerly the primary proponent of human
capital in Canada—expressed misgivings over the costs of higher education’s continued expansion. The
focus of its reports shifted from a discourse of human capital and investment in education, to the need
for greater efficiency, cost effectiveness, and co-ordination to reduce duplication, as part of a general
need to reduce costs. The Council started re-stressing the consumption view of education (EEC, 1971)
and recommending students pay a larger proportion of the costs of their education. Post-secondary administrators who had enjoyed the unconditional support of economists in their drive to expand, suddenly
found these former allies urging cutbacks and greater accountability.
The full shift came slightly later in the United States, where there were a series of reports throughout
the 1980s—Action for Excellence, A Nation At Risk, Making the Grade and Educating Americans for
the 21st Century—criticizing public education for failing to deliver on promises of economic and social
returns on investment. America was said to be losing competitive standing in the world, because Soviet
school children took four years of science and two of calculus, whereas 50% of Americans had no science
or math past grade 10. To quote Governor James B. Hunt (Chair of the Task Force on Education for Economic Growth), “We Americans want to insure that we can continue to compete in the world economy.
We want our economic productivity increased, our technological capability enhanced and our standing
in the world restored” (1984, p. 539). Greater corporate input was called for to standardize curriculum,
increase math and science requirements, tighten graduation standards, and cut unnecessary frills—i.e.,
non-vocational liberal arts. Art, music, and drama classes became targets as increasing emphasis was
placed on job training, which seemed to translate as greater emphasis on math and science. The business sector came in for criticism from policy-makers for not being sufficiently involved in determining
curriculum: “We must tell the business community that, if it wants better employees and higher profits,
it must be involved in what the schools teach and how they teach it (Hunt, 1984, p. 540).”
Naturally, educators were less sanguine about this growing intrusion by business in what had been
the exclusive arena of teachers and professors.
The Discourse of Manpower
Criticism of human capital discourse was directed at specific recommendations, but the fundamental
premise that education costs represented investment rather than consumption remained. Investment in
human capital was merely demoted from a necessary and sufficient factor for economic growth to a necessary but not sufficient factor. This change nevertheless represented a significant shift from the uncritical
assumptions of human capital discourse, (for example, that the labor market is freely competitive). This
narrower focus on manpower-planning can, therefore, be seen as a distinct discourse.
Manpower discourse recommends investment only for those programs for which there is a demonstrable
demand in the labor market. In other words, manpower training is determined by specific requirements
of the economy, rather than premised on a general rise in the population’s level of education. Investment
decisions are made on such criteria as the usefulness of the product (both in terms of graduates and
research), efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and so on, just like any other business.
A discourse of manpower needs represents further movement away from a discourse of enlightenment.
Enlightenment discourse emphasized learning for its own sake; human capital discourse accepted any
16
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
schooling as an investment in human capital; whereas manpower discourse rejects generalized learning
in favor of specific, vocationally and economically useful training.
To take Singapore as just one example, Ashton and Sung (1997) noted the government directly manipulated the education system to ensure graduates closely matched projected manpower needs.
...to make Singapore a regional center for certain of the knowledge-based industries, the government
decided that it requires not just a significant portion of the population to move through higher education... but, crucially, that the system must produce the requisite number of scientists and engineers to
provide the level of research and development required to sustain such industries. ... In this situation
education can never be allowed the kind of autonomy it has experienced in the West, but will always
need to be subordinated to the needs of nation-building and especially of economic development. (p.217)
Western governments shifted the dominant discourse towards one of manpower planning, but were
often unprepared to be seen as limiting educational opportunity for voters’ children, or too blatantly
assaulting university autonomy. Instead, governments influenced universities indirectly through pairing
general cutbacks with specific financial incentives. In Alberta, Canada, for example, funding for higher
education was divided into “base funding” (ongoing grants) and “funding envelopes” which made additional funding available for specific programs favored by government’s economic planners. Coping
with generalized cutbacks (or just the failure to keep up with inflation, capital costs, and so on) on the
one hand, and significant grants for targeted programs on the other, post-secondary institutions allowed
themselves to be shaped by government economic policies, without the need for direct government edict.
Similarly, since government investment in education is premised upon the manpower needs of the
economy, there is a strong desire to assess students for education costs. For example, the Ontario Economic
Council argued university tuition fees be allowed to rise to the point where they covered essentially the
full cost of teaching (J. Buttrick,1978, p. 10).
The manpower model of education remains a dominant discourse. In India, for example, Delhi
University recently shifted to a four-year undergraduate model, arguing they were “not turning out
employable graduates…We have not touched the knowledge component but added other values such as
communication, applied language, information technology, basic mathematics and other skills that each
graduate must have to be employable (emphasis added, Vice-chancellor Professor Singh, as quoted by
Mishra, 2014).
The relationship between these first three discourses may be seen in Table 1 (Runté and Runté, 2017).
Movement from left to right represents four associated trends: (1) a shift from an emphasis on the needs
of the individual to the needs of the economy; (2) a shift in the cost burden from the individual to the
society; (3) a shift in control from the universities to governments; and (4) a transition in scale from elite
to mass institutions (Runté & Runté, 2017).
Each of these parallel developments is interdependent, as it is unlikely any of them could have
emerged without the others.
Even under the manpower discourse, there is usually some (implicit) acknowledgement of indirect
benefits of a culturally literate populace. For example, a region without sufficient educational opportunities might experience difficulty in attracting or retaining corporate headquarters, as the best managers
would desire good schools for their children. Recognizing and measuring such variables, however, is
challenging. When such indirect benefits are acknowledged, they are generally seen as outside the eco-
17
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Table 1. Discourses of higher education
nomic sphere. To the extent liberal arts educate rather than train, liberal arts faculties are perceived as
cultural institutions on a par with public libraries, museums, theatres, and sports arenas.
The Discourse of Consumerism
This refinement of human capital into a manpower discourse led to a corresponding refinement of enlightenment into a discourse of consumerism. Under the manpower discourse, universities were encouraged
to see their primary function as vocational preparation and the needs of the economy were placed ahead
of those of the individual. Courses and programs that offer the student opportunities for self-actualization
outside a vocational context were shunted off the main campuses to a new type of facility (Runté, 1981).
These new institutions, the open universities, marketed university-level education to adults who were
already participating in the economy. They catered to part-time students who undertook study in their own
homes as a leisure activity. In England, for example, the Open University originally catered to teachers
seeking to upgrade their diplomas to degrees (but who would presumably remain in their current positions as teachers upon graduation), housewives (who would likely remain housewives), retired workers
(by definition not part of the labor market) and others seeking to improve themselves. Relatively few
took courses to improve marketable skills (Runté, 1981).
The first such institution in Canada was Athabasca University in the province of Alberta. Given the
province’s then neoconservative government—elected on a platform of spending cutbacks—1970s Alberta
seemed an unlikely location for a consumer-oriented, open-admissions, distance-education university
(Runté, 1981). The primary purpose of Athabasca University, however, was to constrain access to statesubsidized liberal arts education. By raising entrance requirements at the established campuses, while
simultaneously designating Athabasca open admissions, government shifted demand for liberal arts
to Athabasca, and restricted growth at established universities to more vocationally-oriented faculties.
(Runté, 1981) Athabasca correspondence model required less government funding, left the majority of
students fully participating in the labor market as they completed correspondence work at night and on
weekends, and charged students a higher proportion of the actual costs of their courses. The pursuit of
liberal studies was perceived by both students and the state as a consumer activity. That Athabasca was
the first university in Canada to accept payment by credit card is indicative of its consumer orientation
(Runté, 1981).
18
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
The discourse of consumerism in higher education has been greatly enhanced by the emergence of
the Internet. The phrase “online courses” brought up 3,270,000,000 results on Google (Nov 21, 2018).
Even allowing for the inevitable mistaken and duplicate entries, it is obvious that essentially any knowledge appropriate to higher education is today available to consumers as a course online. (Readers are
challenged to identify a topic that cannot be found as part of an online course.)
This consumerism gives rise to educational institutions that are largely autonomous, give priority
to the needs of the individual, and often charge the student the full or nearly the full cost, as was the
case under the discourse of enlightenment, but which are nevertheless mass rather than elite institutions. Whereas the discourse of enlightenment included both the concept of the cloistered scholar and
an absolute standard against which the educated gentleman was measured, neither is to be found in the
cafeteria-style offerings and part-time, isolated-at-home study of recreational education. The new discourse of consumerism is therefore distinct from the enlightenment discourse (Runté & Runté, 2017).
SITUATING INITIATIVES WITHIN DISCOURSES
The debate over the purpose of higher education continues to evolve, with significant practical implications for those seeking support for founding new institutions or implementing new approaches. Take for
example Appiahsept’s (2015) discussion of the role of tenure within different discourses. The emphasis
on the value of knowledge for its own sake within the discourse of enlightenment (which Appiahsept
labels utopia) necessarily places a high value on truth, and therefore favors establishing a tenure system
to ensure research and teaching free from outside influence, but also as a perk to attract the very top
scholars. In contrast, the manpower discourse (which Appiahsept labels utility) is all about efficiency
and program flexibility—the need to respond in a timely fashion to the demands of employers and the
needs of a changing labor market. The focus of the manpower discourse is therefore on instructor accountability (efficiency and effectiveness) and limited term contracts, so administration can constantly
reconfigure staffing to provide only the immediately-required, employer-requested curricular options.
The realization competing discourses appeal to different audiences, and that deliberately confabulating discourses can extend the appeal of a new institution or approach to multiple audiences, needs to be
balanced by the recognition that invoking the wrong discourse may have significant long-term implications. Successful implementation of any post-secondary project requires its proponents to appreciate
the full ramifications of the underlying assumptions of the adopted discourse, lest one suddenly finds
oneself accidentally committed, for example, to or against a system of tenure.
The relationship of these four discourses may be seen in Figure 1 (Runté & Runté, 2017). The enlightenment discourse and the consumerism discourse both portray education as intrinsically valuable
regardless of vocational relevance, in contrast to the human capital and manpower discourses which
both depict higher education as a means of social and economic development. Both the human capital
and consumerism discourses see higher education as input determined, with universities responding
to the demands and market choices of students. Both the manpower and enlightenment discourses see
schooling as output determined, with both public schooling and post-secondary institutions responding
to the needs of the labor market and the economy in the former, and to the intellectual standards of the
cultured gentleman in the latter (Runté & Runté, 2017).
19
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Figure 1. Four discourses of higher education
It should be emphasized, however, these four discourses are not entirely mutually exclusive. Colleges
often offer a multitude of programs that effectively stream students based on perceived ability (i.e.,
cultural capital) and career aspiration. Universities often house a multitude of faculties and programs,
some of which will be focused strictly on intellectual training (e.g., philosophy departments), while
others emphasize vocational or professional preparation (e.g., business faculties). Most post-secondary
institutions, for example, provide facilities for outreach and consumer education beside their regular
mandates. Vocationally-oriented, post-secondary institutions will often require students to take courses
not directly related to vocational skills because they are felt to be of general intellectual benefit (e.g.,
Engineer English). Often a single course or program can be seen to draw upon both the manpower and
consumerism discourses as some students register for career reasons while others take courses purely
for personal satisfaction. Consequently, institutions may stretch across more than one quadrant (Runté
& Runté, 2017).
Nevertheless, one can see how various institutions could be positioned on Figure 1 to show the degree
to which each is input or output determined, consumption or investment oriented. This presents several
opportunities for proponents of new institutions or approaches.
First, by plotting existing institutions on the grid, one can see which sectors represent a crowded field,
and which open opportunities. Can one’s proposal best be promulgated as filling a gap, or justified as
consistent with the existing consensus?
Second, plotting one’s own project on the grid should help to clarify one’s own assumptions, and
so more clearly articulate one’s philosophy. Distinguishing one’s new institution or approach from the
competition is clearly a prerequisite for demonstrating need or market opportunity.
Third, the activity of determining where on the grid one’s own discourse falls can help identify hidden contradictions in one’s proposal, as different aspects fall in different quadrants. To take a previous
example, envisioning a highly flexible, market-driven program able to rapidly adapt to changing labor
markets and emergent employer needs may contradict the expectation of attracting top faculty by promising tenure. The more clearly the underlying assumptions of one’s discourse can be identified, the more
clearly one can anticipate, mitigate, and avoid potential missteps.
Fourth, by locating one’s project on the grid, one may more easily anticipate from which corner to
expect opposition. Stakeholders or institutions that hold to a contrary discourse of what constitutes the
purpose of higher education may challenge the proposed project on the grounds it is illegitimate by
definition.
20
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Fifth, by analyzing where on the grid particular stakeholders are likely to fall (employers within the
manpower discourse, retired baby-boomers the market for consumer education), one can judge which
discourse is most likely to appeal, and adjust one’s pitch accordingly.
Finally, it is conceivable one’s new institution or approach may be based on such outside-the-box
thinking that it does not fit comfortably anywhere on the grid. This may mean one needs to create
an entirely new discourse, as distinct from any of the existing quadrants as they are from each other.
Brainstorming what that might look like could free one from existing assumptions to come up with
a truly unique offering. Perhaps some algorithm that calculates when a quantitative increase in skills
becomes a certifiable change in understanding; a completely democratized consumerism which still
manages to incorporate high standards, discriminating taste, and marketable skills; or a dramatically
different approach to teaching and learning drawing from cultural traditions completely separate from
the Eurocentric-university tradition.
To illustrate the utility of such an analysis, the next section examines how particular components
of a proposed accessible, technology-driven, international university might fare within each discourse.
Accessible: Open Admissions
Open admissions is so compatible with the discourse of consumerism that it is almost a requirement.
If one is offering a product for consumption in an education marketplace, then it is difficult to see how
one could justify restricting access, or what would motivate the supplier to artificially restrict sales.
Certainly any attempt to discriminate against particular populations—the working class or the Dalit for
example—would be the occasion for riots. Some national, state, or city boundaries might reasonably
be maintained if funding were primarily or significantly provided by that particular level of government; but the technology begs to transcend regional divisions to reach global markets, so even regional
governments may be anxious to source tuition revenues from outside their own boundaries. (Charging
differential fees for non-residents would be one proposal to address the funder’s concerns.) Planners espousing a discourse of consumerism are therefore likely to also champion open access as a fundamental
right, defended on free markets principles.
One may, to the same extent, anticipate suspicion and opposition from proponents of the enlightenment
discourse. It is today politically unacceptable to suggest limiting education on the basis of birth or elite
status, so the argument will instead be phrased in terms of maintaining standards. How can standards
be maintained if anyone is accepted into the program without first meeting some rigorous prerequisite?
Opponents to the new institution are bound to invoke the specter of the mail order degree and to
confabulate online with fake, at worst, or lesser than, at best. For example, the Canadian Broadcast Corporation recently conducted an investigative report on fake degrees (CBC Marketplace, Sept 15, 2017).
The moral panic induced by reports of such obvious fraud as the 800 unqualified Canadians identified as
having paid for a fake degree without attending any classes or assessments is easily extrapolated to cast
suspicion on any and all online institutions. For example, much was made of the fact there was no brick
and mortar building for this supposed university, but a brick and mortar campus may not be necessary
or appropriate to legitimate, innovative, online program delivery. Planners must, therefore, anticipate
and refute such accusations by, for example, seeking accreditation from traditional post-secondary accreditation bodies.
21
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Accreditation, however, brings its own problems as the accrediting bodies evolved in the era of brick
and mortar schools, so the criteria used are often obsolete. How does one demonstrate sufficient library
resources to support a Master degree, for example, when the criteria were based on the presumption of
print books stored in university collections, not ebooks readily available from the Guttenberg Project or
through Amazon, or other online resources? Even students resident at traditional universities are today
more likely to access articles through Google Scholar or JSTOR than walk the three blocks to the campus
library to search through hardcopy.
Another strategy would be to maintain (as the Open University of England and Alberta’s University
of Athabasca do) that while admissions are open access, graduation requires the attainment of standards
equal to or greater than traditional campuses. The provision of extensive student supports and resources
(writing centers, comprehensive advising, compressed secondary-level courses to bring students up to
pre-requisite post-secondary levels, and so on) could be part of the proposal’s fundamental design to
ensure student success.
More insidiously, the discourse of enlightenment presumes high standards refers to standards of
current elites. Democratizing post-secondary institutions to let in all-comers also opens the doors to
students who may not share a particular dialect or writing style, or view the world in particular ways.
These students may come to demand they not be discriminated against because they presume to question
the authenticity of assessments relative to their learning needs and lives, or because they responded in
Ebonics. The democratization of higher education through open access necessarily poses an existential
threat to current elites, and therefore to their support of the proposed institution. Finding the correct balance between meeting consumer needs without pandering to the lowest common denominator of market
forces, while simultaneously making curricular decisions on evidence-based, required standards will be
a key factor in the success of any post-secondary institution.
Of course, evidence-based standards could in this instance refer to the demands of employers and
professional associations for adequately trained workers.
Proponents of human capital discourse are likely to support open admissions on the grounds any increase in knowledge and skills can be interpreted as a desirable increase in human capital, and therefore
approve the widest possible catchment population. The human capital model is likely more tolerant of
consumer-driven education, since even the study of rock’n’roll can be seen as an increase in understanding and intellectual rigor, that could then be brought to bear on other aspects of graduates’ lives,
including employment.
Proponents of a manpower discourse are likely to favor employer input into graduation standards,
discarding the non-relevant criteria of the enlightenment discourse (e.g., would reject Latin or literature
as requirements for the production of engineers), but also rejecting the anything-goes attitude of the human capitalists. They may, however, be split or ambivalent on the question of open admissions.
Government labor departments may favor open admissions in periods of both high and low unemployment. In periods of high unemployment, manpower planners send the unemployed for further skills
training as a viable alternative to employment; to shift the blame for high unemployed to the workers for
not having sufficient skills; and to reduce unemployment figures by getting students off the unemployment rolls. In periods of low labor supply, open admissions serves government planners and employers
well by increasing the number of qualified graduates, and therefore the reserve army of unemployed,
and therefore potentially drive labor costs (i.e., wages) down. When cheap labor is in short supply (as
when baby boomers aged beyond entry level positions), employers sought to bring women, minorities,
and the disadvantaged into the labor force, to keep labor supply up and wages down (Spring, 1984).
22
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
On the other hand, professional associations will always oppose open admissions (citing the need
for only the very best applicants), as strict restrictions on the number of graduates is a key component
to controlling the market for their labor, thereby keeping salaries high.
Critics of human capital theory and manpower policy may correspondingly reject open admissions
where open admissions are touted as a route to induce otherwise disqualified populations to enter postsecondary education. Throwing the gates open threatens ruling elites with the revolution of rising expectations (Davies, 1962) and threatens workers with lower wages. Critics will therefore appeal to both the
enlightenment discourse of maintaining standards, and manpower’s discourse of matching graduates to
labor market needs, to argue for a restriction on access to vocationally relevant programs, primarily by
raising standards (i.e., entrance requirements through competitive examination). Only those programs
that are clearly irrelevant to the economy, or personal advancement within the existing social structure,
would be encouraged to adopt open admissions. By offering an avenue for self-fulfillment, and the appearance of further education, these vested interests distract attention from the restrictions on access to
the institutions that matter.
Proponents of innovative programs considering a policy of open admissions need to understand they
are then either restricted to the consumer market, or undertaking a truly revolutionary program in both
meanings of the word.
Technology-Driven: Online vs. Classroom
Proponents of the enlightenment discourse are likely to criticize online modalities as lacking the face-toface interaction with instructor and peers that characterized traditional, elite universities. Higher education, they would argue, is more than just the mere transfer of factual knowledge, but requires extensive
personal interaction to resocialize students into a graduate or professional mindset. The response by
the online community has been to try to recreate the traditional classroom online through the adoption
of video conferencing; live tweeting; private messaging; small group list serves; and Facebook-style
seminar-groups. Proponents of online courses could argue such emergent modalities provide a close
parallel to—perhaps even a superior replacement for—the huge lecture halls and graduate-student-led
seminars that characterize most modern multiversities. Such attempts may be airily dismissed within
an enlightenment discourse as irrelevant, given the lack of a residential requirement: it is the dormitory,
cafeteria, playing field, and library, critics will claim, where the man is re-made into the gentleman.
It goes without saying any harkening back to some imagined golden era of British-style residential
schooling conveniently overlooks the disqualifying issues of systemic bullying; the forcible erasure of
minority cultures; structural discrimination against women and the disadvantaged, who could not leave
their families or jobs to attend; and the increasing obsolescence of libraries of printed books. Universities as total institutions represent dysfunction (Goffman, 1957; Wright, 2017) not a loftier education.
Still, the unfounded assumption the traditional model was somehow superior often works to limit
innovation, as proponents struggle to recreate the classroom online. This is a mistake because there was
no golden age of the classroom: the vast majority of students learned content slowly, retained less, and
mostly learned how to deal with tedium and factory-style management from their foreman-style instructors. Instead of trying to recreate a system where the chief lessons are about control and conformity,
proponents of technology-driven higher education should be thinking farther outside the classroom-box
to create more efficient, effective, and liberating modes of instruction.
23
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
Including intermittent, time-limited residency requirements (e.g., six-week resident summer courses
or in-person workshops one weekend a month) or other blended learning scenarios may appear as an appropriate solution to traditionalists’ complaints, but such attempts can always be dismissed by definition
as much too limited. Instead, proponents of online education would be better to reject the assumption
of the need for a physical presence, and unleash emergent modalities to be a distinct form of learning.
For example, peer interaction is only valued by those who rise to the top of the social and grade-point
hierarchy; those who find themselves ignored, discriminated against, belittled, exploited, or outperformed
are likely much happier to be working independently online. Forcing students into inane online discussion groups where participation is measured in either quantity of comments (which discriminates against
the thoughtful and the quiet) or quality (as measured by the social capital of the elite) may work against
learning, instead of facilitating it. Competing against oneself, mastery learning, learning at one’s own
pace, taking time to be thoughtful, are all superior approaches to competitive classrooms where everyone
has to proceed together, ready or not. Better to have the student dealing with neutral bots, avatars, and
the increasingly sophisticated AIs coming out of tomorrow’s labs, than to force them to interact with
the loud, the bigoted, and the uniformed.
Better, then, to respond to the enlightenment discourse by looking forward rather than back.
For human capital and manpower discourses, the debate around online verses classroom comes down
to ensuring the transmission of hands-on skills. Again, the emergence of new modalities can address
these issues by the distribution of software or devices that allow the student to interact with models or
simulators that can report remotely to instructors or provide immediate feedback directly to the student.
Otherwise, criticism from the human capital or manpower discourses parallels the earlier discussion
of open admissions, in that online education provides better access to isolated populations: where greater
numbers of graduates are required, online courses will be encouraged, but correspondingly discouraged
where elites desire to limit access to the labor market.
Technology Driven: The Learning Module
One niche where online courses provide a unique advantage is modular learning. Proponents of manpower
discourse frequently embrace modular learning as an ideal, because it exactly matches the worker’s need
to know with the availability of course modules to provide that specific information. Instead of employers
having to pay for expensive journeyman or master programs (either directly as employee upgrading, or
indirectly by offering higher salaries to attract those with requisite certificates) the employer pays only
for the precise module required. Even more attractive to corporations is that modular training allows the
employer to define which skills workers need and may acquire. Limiting workers to specific skills limits
the worker’s ability to define or control one’s own skill set, thus making them dependent on the employer.
When an employer pays for a worker’s broad post-secondary education, there is the risk that once better qualified, the worker may leave to take a better paying job elsewhere (thus wasting the employer’s
investment, or worse, paying to train one’s competitor’s workers). Modular training eliminates this risk
for employers by limiting the worker to the skills combination relevant to only their current position.
By the same token, narrowly restricting worker learning goes against human capital discourse of
the societal benefit of creating a broad base of a wide range of skills available as part of a knowledge
infrastructure. Restricting worker mobility goes against human capital theory because it inevitably
has the effect of suppressing wages, and therefore regional development and tax revenues. Further, if
post-secondary education becomes overly responsive to employers’ narrowly-defined training needs,
24
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
it would necessarily limit the worker’s knowledge base, the ability to be reflective about goals as well
as means, and therefore limit the worker’s ability to question employer direction—which raises safety,
environmental, sustainability, and other issues of corporate social responsibility. When there is no one
with the expertise to say no to management, mistakes become inevitable.
Enlightenment critics of the manpower discourse would similarly reject modular training as too
limited, and not any part of a true education, which they conceive of as greater than the sum of its parts.
Modular learning is by definition, just the parts.
Emergent institutions could probably not successfully incorporate a modular component if attempting
to be classified as a comprehensive university. Technical institutes, on the other hand, may be required
to plan in these terms to satisfy a modern manpower discourse.
Under a consumer discourse, the consumer pays and benefits. Consumer education is therefore
market-driven and financed, and proponents of an emergent institution geared to the consumer market
can expect little in government support or subsidies. Some incentive funding or tax considerations may
be available to locate in one region over another, much as would be available to the movie industry or
any other potential employer or business, and some cultural funding may be extended if the institution
can be shown to promote the national culture or provincial voice, but to that extent, militates against the
concept of an international university
Adoption of a manpower or human capital discourse to attract government funding, however, may be
more problematic. Under human capital, the benefits of higher education are said to accrue to both the
individual (through higher lifetime earnings) and the state (through taxes and a stronger economy); but
as already has been seen, the benefits promised by human capital have not materialized. Nevertheless,
students and their parents remain heavily immersed in a discourse of human capital, and are thereby
encouraged to take on massive student debt to partake in post-secondary education.
This has led to what Forbes (Friedman, 2017) refers to a $1.3 trillion student debt crisis, affecting
over 44 million Americans. Such high levels of debt make it difficult, if not impossible, for graduates and
their parents to recover forgone earnings and direct expenditures on education, especially as credential
inflation, automation, and changing demographics impact the labor market to effectively lower available
wages. Such widely distributed levels of debt call into question why so many parents and students continue to espouse a discourse of human capital in the face of such ubiquitous experience to the contrary.
How is it the public consciousness holds onto a human capital discourse while business and governments
have moved on to a narrower manpower discourse? That the public holds to a belief that obscures rather
than illuminates the benefits of post-secondary education, strongly suggests it serves some ideological
purpose. Since the shift to manpower discourse encouraged governments to transfer an ever increasing
percentage of education costs to students (EEC, 1971; Buttrick, 1978), what in effect has occurred is 1.3
trillion dollars of the burden of corporate training costs has been transferred to the workers themselves.
This is clearly an unsustainable, unstable situation, a bubble waiting to burst. Given the sudden and
severe retraction of the labor market predicted as artificial intelligence is poised to deskill even professional level labor (Branbury, 2017), one may predict the imminent collapse of human capital rationales.
International: Global Economics vs. Regional Interests
On the surface, international is the least contentious component of a new technology-driven university.
Certainly, technology opens global markets for both faculty and students, as everyone’s smartphone
makes the proposed institution instantly accessible from essentially anywhere on Earth. International is
25
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
therefore completely consistent with a discourse of consumerism within a technologically-driven institution. The only slight hiccup might be in having to seek accreditation by numerous national or regional
bodies, each with its own idiosyncratic and contradictory criteria. Presumably, however, this would be
addressed by some of the more prestigious existing bodies going global, or the emergence of certification by global forums such as UNESCO.
Similarly, the intention to attract the best faculty from all over the world fits comfortably within an
enlightenment discourse, as does the thought of gathering the best and most talented students together in
a global institution. Where the enlightenment discourse falters is in determining which scholars should
be considered best and which subjects represent high standards. Leaving aside the obvious issues of
nationalism and racism in assumptions favoring some candidates over others, there is the larger question
of whether, say, Nigerian university courses on Hausa medicine can be incorporated successfully into
an international university’s Faculty of (Western) Medicine without losing the respect of the institution’s Western supporters. The enlightenment discourse has built-in euro-centric and science-centric
assumptions about standards that may either prove incompatible with an international university, or
represent the imposition of Western thought and ideology on a global scale. Consequently, proponents
of an international component are more likely to revert to a discourse of consumerism, where course and
faculty selection are more comfortably driven by consumer demand, rather than commitment to some
externally imposed intellectual ideal.
Proponents of the human capital discourse would see global education not only as a crucial foundation for the development of the global economy, but as a panacea for global social problems. If only the
undeveloped regions had more graduates, their economies would grow; poverty, prejudice and tribalism
would be eliminated; and there would be no more war. Only, none of that actually happened. (Again,
discussion of human capital theory as an ideology that obscures the reality of post-colonial market
structures, racism, sexism, and the rise of a global elite disconnected from local citizenry, is beyond
the scope of the current chapter.) Instead, proponents of the international component may well borrow
elements of human capital discourse to advocate for the new university, but such arguments are naïve or
disingenuous. Promoting educational opportunities to students who live in areas where the labor market
has no employment to offer graduates is likely to prove more disruptive than helpful, as graduates have
to choose between migration or un(der)employment. Consequently, vocational training unconnected
to the local labor markets feeds either a debilitating brain drain or a destabilizing revolution of rising
expectations, rather than development.
If managing manpower within provincial or national boundaries is too complicated and has historically failed (e.g., former Soviet Union’s centrally planned economy), then expanding such coordination
globally is likely unworkable. Both human capital and manpower discourses are at some level premised
on the assumption of competition between nations, and the need to prioritize national economic goals.
The international component cannot, therefore, sit comfortably with such discourses, but might shift to
a discourse of foreign aid. Note, however, foreign aid sits largely in the consumption category of economists’ calculations, rather than investment. Only when the foreign aid funding is spent in the donor’s
own manufacturing or service sectors to increase exports, can foreign aid be considered investment. By
parallel, funding of an international university could only be considered investment if tuition flows back
to the funder, and student/faculty expenditures are made within the funder’s own market. Of course, a
subtler argument could be made that by investing in the education of the national elites of other nations,
one is making a long term investment in strategic economic alliances, through the imposition of one’s
culture internationally.
26
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
All of which begs the question of the role of institutions of higher education in the developing world.
If by technology-driven international university we mean the export of Oxford and MIT learning modules throughout the international marketplace, then this becomes an example of neocolonialism, and
thus problematic. On the other hand, depending on which and how learning technologies are deployed,
technology could well be a great equalizer, giving smaller, regional, and non-elite campuses access to
the international marketplace. There are obvious contradictions, however, between these institutions’
mandate to meet local development needs for trained manpower and the creation of new locally-relevant
knowledge, and creating learning modules suitable for the learning export market. There is also a contradiction between the ideological function of the local institution in supporting local elites, and reaching out to consumers with conflicting ideologies, or allowing those external ideologies in to the local
campus. To quote Cassel (2001):
The real issue . . . is to create institutions solid enough and dynamic enough to stand the tensions that
will necessarily trigger the simultaneous performance of somewhat contradictory functions. The ability
to manage such contradictions, while emphasising the role of universities in the generation of knowledge
and the training of labor in the context of the new requirements of the development process, will condition to a large extent the capacity of new countries and regions to become part of the dynamic system
of the new world economy (p. 212).
The question then becomes whether these national and regional institutions can really reach out into
a world market, such that, say, African or Indian research and literature could achieve an equal footing in
the North American learning market, or whether ideological differences, language barriers, and outright
racism ensure that—like false news reproduction within the friend networks on Facebook—the appearance of unlimited choice is essentially reduced to a series of mere echo chambers.
On the other hand, the emergence of an accessible, international, technology-driven university ups
the ante for post-secondary institutions that are already competing for resources, students, and faculty
within their current catchment areas. Munro’s (2018) analysis of thirteen UK higher education policy
documents between 2003 and 2013 “demonstrates that, across the strategies, digital technologies are
depicted as tools for advancing the marketisation of UK HE.” Forstenzer (2017), for example, describes
the UK’s current post-secondary scene as one of “competition, competition, competition” and “the
marketization of higher education”. He speaks to the UK’s preoccupation with reforms centered on “efficiency gains”, “deliverable outcomes”, “choice” and “rankings.” Naidoo (2016) similarly characterizes
higher education world-wide as trapped in “competition fetish” based on scientific capital, geo-political
rivalry, relations with transnational corporations, status claims, and so on. Clearly, the emergence of new
global technologies allows for scaling up this competition to the international sphere, either through the
creation of new institutions, or the competition between existing institutions on the international stage.
In this context, it is useful to note the confabulation of all four discourses to gain competition advantage. References to “scientific capital” echo the human capital model; a preoccupation with “efficiency
gains”, “deliverable outcomes” and “rankings”, reflects the tighter investment decisions of the manpower model; the emphasis on “choice” demonstrates the market power of the student consumer; and
the enlightenment model underlies the status claims of universities like Oxford and Cambridge. To the
extent that this escalation of competition pits institutions against each other in an essentially unlimited
marketplace, the vary conception of the public role of the university or of what constitutes a university
is up for grabs (Forstenzer, 2017).
27
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
CONCLUSION
Even such a cursory examination of the existing discourses of the purpose of higher education reveals
the importance of carefully thinking through the implications of one’s proposal. It is easy to confabulate
competing arguments to appeal to various stakeholders, but without untangling and thoughtfully analyzing one’s own position, one may be committing oneself to the implementation of policies one does not
wish, or dooming the institution to failure as it is unable to deliver on promises made.
Perhaps what is needed is an entirely new discourse, based on both a critique of wrong or debilitating assumptions of previous models and the emergence of new technologies that allow entirely new
approaches. Residential, elite universities were characteristic of the enlightenment discourse because
residential was the only available mode of knowledge production and dissemination. The human capital
discourse came about because modern infrastructure requires a knowledge component. As modern production became increasingly post-industrial, the development of the knowledge economy demanded the
transition from elite to mass institutions, and from liberal arts to professional preparation. The manpower
and consumerism discourses emerged in response to the need to refine human capital, and to meet the
needs of a growing consumer market for education. As new technologies emerge for knowledge dissemination, opportunities to design entirely new structures and institutions inevitably follow suit. As
the labor market is shortly to be disrupted by the emergence of artificial intelligence (BBC, 2017), present capitalist structures will necessarily go through the same sort of crisis as the industrial revolution
presented to cottage industry, agricultural workers, and the landed aristocracy (Branbury, 2017). As the
elite universities of the aristocracy evolved into the modern multiversity to meet the needs of industrialbased, post-industrial, and now knowledge-based economies, so a new period of rapid evolution of the
post-secondary system may be anticipated. Whatever social relations of production arise from the new
technologies, there will undoubtedly be a need for a new discourse of further education, and the emergence of an accessible, technology-driven, international university.
REFERENCES
Alberta Advanced Education and Manpower. (1975). Athabasca University: A proposed role and mandate. Edmonton, Alberta: Queen’s Printer.
Appiahsept, K. A. (2015, September 13). The college crossroads. New York Times Sunday Magazine,
p. MM17.
Ashton, D., & Sung, J. (1997). Education, skill formation, and economic development: The Sinaporean
approach. In A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. Wells (Eds.), Education: Culture, economy, and
society (pp. 207–223). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Athabasca University. (1979). Academic Calendar 1979/1980. Author.
Banbury, B. (2017, September 8). Automate This! How AI technology could disrupt nearly half of all
jobs — and international politics. In Day Six. Canadian Broadcast Corporation. Retrieved from http://
www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/episode-354-miami-preps-for-irma-automating-your-job-the-safest-nfl-helmetche-guevara-s-brother-and-more-1.4276099/automate-this-how-ai-technology-could-disrupt-nearly-halfof-all-jobs-and-international-politics-1.4276126
28
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
BBC. (2017, November 29). Robot automation will ‘take 800 million jobs by 2030’. British Broadcast
Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42170100
Bluestone, B. (1977). Economic theory and the fate of the poor. In J. Karabel & A. H. Halsey (Eds.),
Power and ideology (pp. 337–338). New York: Oxford University Press.
Buttrick, J. (1978, February). Let tuition fees rise to cover costs…. University Affairs, 19, 10.
Castells, M. (2001). Universities as dynamic systems of contradictory functions. In J. Muller, N. Cloete, & S. Badat (Eds.), Challenges of globalisation: South African debates with Manuel Castells (pp.
206–223). Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman.
Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science, and Technology (National Science
Board). (1982). Educating Americans for the 21st century. Author.
Davies, J. (1962, February). Toward a theory of revolution. American Sociological Review, 27(1), 5–19.
doi:10.2307/2089714
Deutsch, J. (1967).. . University Affairs, 8, 2.
Economic Council of Canada. (1971, October). Canadian higher education in the seventies. Proceedings
of the seminar at Montebello, 29-31.
Education Commission of the States (1983) Action for excellence: A comprehensive plan to improve
our nation’s schools. Author.
Forstenzer, J. (2017) We are losing sight of higher education’s true purpose. The Conversation (Canada).
Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/we-are-losing-sight-of-higher-educations-true-purpose-73637
Friedman, Z. (2017). Student loan debt in 2017: A $1.3 trillion crisis. Forbes.com. Retrieved from https://
www.forbes.com/sites/zackfriedman/2017/02/21/student-loan-debt-statistics-2017/#6f25ebfe5dab
Goffman, E. (1961). On the Characteristics of Total Institutions. In D. Cressey (Ed.), The Prison: Studies
in Institutional Organization and Change. New York, NY: Holt.
Hunt, J. B. (1984, April). Education for economic growth: A critical investment. Phi Delta Kappan,
65(8), 538-541.
Karabel, J., & Halsey, A. H. (1977). Educational research: A review and interpretation. In Power and
Ideology in Education (pp. 1–85). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mishra, A. (2014, February 7). Growing mismatch between graduate skills, market needs. University WorldNews. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140204171742828
Munroe, M. (2018). The complicity of digital technologies in the marketisation of UK higher education: Exploring the implications of a critical discourse analysis of thirteen national digital teaching and
learning strategies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(11).
doi:10.118641239-018-0093-2
Naidoo, R. (2016, April 15). Higher education is trapped in competition fetish. University World News, 409.
29
Placing a New University Model Within the Discourse of Higher Education
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform.
Newman, C. J. H. (1959). The idea of a university. Introduction by George Shuster. New York: Image
Books. (Original work published 1852)
Runté, M., & Runté, R. (2017). The rhetoric of higher education reform: The changing discourse of the
purpose of higher education. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Administration, Policy, and Leadership in Higher Education (pp. 532–548). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-52250672-0.ch021
Runté, R. (1981). The Emergence of the open university concept in Alberta (Unpublished Master’s thesis).
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Runté, R., & Runté, M. (2007). Taylor-made for teachers: Deskilling through increased competencies.
International Journal of Humanization of Education, 1, 50–61.
Schultz, T. (1977). Investment in human capital. In J. Karabel & A. H. Halsey (Eds.), Power and ideologyin Education. New York: Oxford University Press.
Spring, J. (1984, April). Education and the sony war. Phi Delta Kappan, 65(8), 534–537.
Steacie, E. W. R. (1960).. . University Affairs, 1, 5.
Tomlinson, A. (Reporter). (2017, September 15). Fake degrees: Exposing Canadians with phoney credentials. In N. Vellani (producer), Marketplace, Season 45. Canadian Broadcast Corporation.
Twentieth Century Fund. (1983). Making the grade: Report of the twentieth century fund task force on
federal elementary and secondary education policy. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.
Wright, J. (2017). The university as a total institution. Quillette.com. Retrieved from http://quillette.
com/2017/01/02/the-university-as-a-total-institution/
30
31
Chapter 3
Challenges for the Creation
of an International Online
University in a Controversial
Environment:
Chilean Higher Education System Case
Alejandro Vega-Muñoz
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-2044
Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile
Michel Valdes-Montecinos
Universidad Arturo Prat, Chile
Mónica A. Cruz-Tapia
Instituto Profesional de Chile, Chile
ABSTRACT
This chapter analyzes the controversial challenges faced by the Chilean university system for the creation
of an international online university. Chile is a country with a neoliberal economic system, widely exposed
to international markets, faces the need to internationalize its universities and expand its online offer,
two copulative actions in essence, but which have not had enough advances, given the tensions within
the university system of that country and the context conditions that surround it.
INTRODUCTION
Chile is a country where a neoliberal socio economy prevails (Zunino, 2014), which for four decades
has given way to a decrease in the State’s presence in the fixing of prices and deregulation of economic
activities, an opening of international trade, and a privatization of social services (Bello, 2012). Paradigm
of the political economy that over time has hardened its position regarding deregulation, finance forms,
globalization and the emphasis on economic growth (Rodrik, 2018).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch003
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Thus, the Chilean context has led into a privatization of university education (Sanchez, 2016; Alarcón,
2017; Espinoza, 2017; Rodrik, 2017). And despite of country’s commercial openness in international
markets (Ortiz, 2004; Alarco, 2017; Jenne & Briones 2018) and high Internet connectivity (Subsecretary
of Telecommunications of Chile, 2017), there is no an international online university in Chile (National
Council of Education, 2018).
National controversies regarding the higher education system, in terms of access and quality (Vega
et al., 2017), could be a precedent for this. But, in any case, in relation to the growth of the Chilean
university system, the offer of online education is scarce and concentrated inside its (National Council
of Education, 2018). And even more lacking that gives an account on compliance local educational
accreditation criteria (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018). This gives rise to research
questions, such as: what conditions make possible the lacking existence of an online offer? What degree
of internationalization does that offer present? What challenges must be overcome to increase it?.
Based on the above, this chapter focuses on analyzing the challenges for the creation of an international online university in the current controversial environment in where the Chilean university system
is located.
Distance Education First Experience in Chile
Arkoful and Abaiboo (2015), mentioned some advantages and disadvantages in distance education:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Flexibility, allows to consider the time and place of the student
Efficiency of knowledge, student has access to a large amount of information
Provides opportunity to generate relationships among apprentices through discussion forums
Reduce the cost, students do not need to travel to study and offers the opportunity of learning to a
large number of students without the need of many buildings.
Adapts to the learning needs of each student and allows him to study at his own pace
Compensates lack of educators, instructors, laboratory technicians, etc.
Among disadvantages these authors point out:
Isolation makes it necessary for students to have time management skills and a strong motivation
to study
Regarding explanations and clarifications, the e-learning method is less effective than the face-toface method because through a computer is difficult to avoid cheating.
Not all disciplines are effective to be learned via e-learning, such as those of a scientific nature or
that require manual practice
It is important to focus on the role of social inclusion that distance education can have, virtual platforms
could revolutionize the knowledge society. Today it is possible to access large amounts of information
through the Internet, it is possible to review studies conducted in different parts of the world without
having to travel long distances. This has made it possible for thousands of people to learn different
disciplines without leaving the place where they live, then the technology era bridges the geographical
gaps that previously made knowledge acquisition difficult. Pino (2013), establishes that the internet has
the capacity to break the geographical variables, which allow people to transcend spatial limitations and
facilitate communication and the coordination of activities at the global level. This inclusive aspect would
32
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
allow access to those who, due to geographic difficulty, disability, ethnicity, vulnerability or deprivation
of liberty, are excluded from the formal education or face-to-face education system.
Additionally, Cabero-Almenara (2016) points out that eLearning education contributes to intellectual
and ethical empowerment, which increases justice and social equality. Therefore, the design of ICTs
must be simple, so that it will be accessible to all kinds of people, in this way we talk about the digital
divide not only in the sense of access to the network, but in addition to its physical characteristics or
cognitive, language, gender, culture, age or level of learning.
All this makes possible the worldwide tendency to change from face-to-face education, where it is
necessary to have the infrastructure of large buildings and traditional teaching, to the virtual modality;
with sufficient infrastructure of technological platforms capable of providing a communication network
between the teacher-tutor and the apprentices. Currently there are fully online universities such as the
University of Barcelona Virtual, the National University of Distance Education (UNED) as well as courses
and micro-masters offered by Harvard or Berkeley. For this it is necessary to invest in the training of a
teacher who can face the challenges of the digital era.
Regarding the distance modality, there are already several institutions of higher education that offer
programs, although there is not yet a regulation that specifically regulates in this sense. According to
the Ministry of Education only 2.1% of the total number of students is pursuing a career in this modality in 2018. But between 2018 and 2017 the number of careers or distance programs decreased by
-11.6%. In Chile, the first distance program began in 1977 with TELEDUC Distance Education Center
taught by the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile through its Television Corporation (Channel 13),
where various training programs were taught using as a tool television, and the printed materials could
be downloaded from the website. Between 1990 and 1996 TELEDUC had an average of 25 thousand
students on average (TELEDUC, 2018). In 1990 the virtual university REUNA (National University
Network) was created with the financial support of the Fund for the Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development (FONDEF), in 1998 it was strengthened with the establishment of REUNA2
and in the 2000 year it was integrated into the advanced academic networks. Currently REUNA (2018)
is composed of the following members:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica
Observatorio AURA
Universidad Arturo Prat
Universidad Austral de Chile
Universidad Católica del Norte
Universidad de Antofagasta
Universidad de Chile
Universidad de Concepción
Universidad de La Frontera
Universidad de La Serena
Universidad de Los Lagos
Universidad de Santiago de Chile
Universidad de Talca
Universidad de Tarapacá
Universidad de Valparaíso
33
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
•
•
•
•
•
Universidad del Bío Bío
Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación
Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María
The Ministry of Education in the 90s began a process of educational reform where the Enlaces project emerged, which aims were to incorporate the new technological tools at the service of education,
together with the intention of promoting educational equality, for this reason, this project started in the
twelve schools in one of the poorest regions of the country with the support of the Universidad de La
Frontera. Today, more than 7,000 schools make up Enlaces.
Advancing Towards the International Online University
in the Chilean Higher Education System
The new challenges for this new information era and networks is marked by globalization, globalization
allows not only the transaction of goods and services, but also of people, ideas, values and technologies
beyond our borders (Brunner, 2000). This trend extends to education since the perspective of how eLearning is integrated into the teaching-learning process changing. It is not only the opportunity to access
to innumerable information through search engines, or how we can access the most prominent research
in various fields; the opportunity to have access to information technologies and networks provide us
with an infinite universe of possibilities to open up to interculturality, to increase our knowledge and to
achieve economic and cultural development as a country.
Globalization raises from the social context that the individual goes from being a local citizen to
being a global citizen (Bizzozero & Pose, 2016), this citizen confronted with social inequalities and
demographic difficulties, can now be favored with virtual education assuming that a more integrated and
global curriculum (García-Pérez et al., 2015). To this must be added the rethinking of the educational
mission of tertiary education, due to the changes in society and its requirements it is necessary to form a
citizen under certain paradigms that help to achieve a thoughtful education (Castillo & Gamboa, 2012).
It must add that the tertiary educational system is presenting high rates of repetition and dropout, and,
although there are numerous studies in this regard, it has not been possible to find concrete solutions
from higher education institutions. Then arises the approach that distance education could become a
channel of access to education by those in social inequality could achieve the overcoming of poverty
in an economic and cultural way. The challenge of developing countries to get their inhabitants out of
poverty what can be done through the use of appropriate technological tools, that is why government
must consider educational strategies that tend to the development of abilities and knowledge, especially
in rural areas or difficult geographical access. Thus, would be possible the development of competencies and become an opportunity to obtain a better quality life and a better environment development,
so that inhabitants reach integrating their learning, not transforming their rural identity but strengthen
their sector. (Cuadros et al., 2012)
34
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
The Construction of a University System in Controversy
Zunino (2014), concludes regarding the existence of a neoliberal regime in Chile, which penetrates all
areas of social and political life. Previously Bello (2012) reported in this aspect: this is a product of the
change of role of the State in the economy established in 1975 by a ‘de facto’ government, based on a
market fundamentalism established by a set of technocratic advisers known as ‘Chicago Boys’, given his
training in economics received at this University of the United States of America (Silva, 1991; Huneeus,
2000). This economic fundamentalism, it is possible to keep unharmed after the return to democracy,
keeping the State restricted and acting under a promarket logic (Bello, 2012), and Olguín (2018) focuses
on this sort of ‘status quo’ is due to religious legitimacy, that under the figure of ‘religious doctrine’ offered to this way of seeing the role of the State, which in its origin has a validation by contrast, precisely,
the model of Unified National School (ENU, by its Spanish acronym).
Another authors like Escandón et al. (2018), suggest that neoliberal model has managed to impose a
distinctive temperament that conditional on the individual and collective personality, leaving latent the
dichotomy of serving the serving the market or society interests. Responding in the first instance to the
needs of the great economic powers and making visible strong questionings to the fundamental pillars
of education. On the other hand Alarcón (2017), maintains that the university, by losing its transforming orientation of society and focusing on the provision of professionals at the request of labor market
needs, manages to reduce the gaps between public and private higher education institutions, that added
to the internalized idea in Chile of a better private performance, puts these revalued institutions before
the election of those who enter to the tertiary education. Thus, neoliberalism would act in a visible but
hidden way, gaining - even in democracy - every day more ground due to an ‘ideological privatization’.
Nor would it be possible to explain the purpose of public policies in Latin America, by abstracting
from the role played by international agencies that provide financing, which make a condition of the
contribution of funds to non-developed countries to align those local policies with their recommendations. (López Guerra & Flores, 2006). Sanchez (2016) also suggests that preponderance of neoliberal
thinking, aligns public policies in the educational field under the concepts of: academic excellence,
efficiency and effectiveness of the education system, and quality of education.
Rodrik (2018) adds that the popularization of the neoliberal concept occurred in the 1990s, associated
with deregulation in the financial sphere and economic globalization, both their most visible manifestations. And without abstaining from criticizing the concept, in contrast recognizes the economic benefits
that thanks to neoliberalism have mainly achieved Asian countries such as China, South Korea, Japan
and Taiwan and other cases outside that set as Chile that benefited from globalization, being today one of
the countries with the highest per capita income in Latin America (Central Intelligence Agency, 2018).
As it was previously named, it is the Unified National School Project (ENU), established within the
framework of the Educational Policy of Salvador Allende Gossens (1970 - 1973), which under the presumption of being an instrument of socialist ideologization that would expand coverage generated one
by the biggest social breaks of the last fifty years in Chile. The project itself continued the increase in
Education Expenditures to 7.5% of GDP and established the concept of permanent education throughout
life and included in its coverage from pre-basic to higher education. Although it would be product of
strong criticism, given the opposition of the right side of Chilean conservative elite to the changes that
this project incorporated, going in depth the progressive ideas of the government of President Eduardo
35
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Frei Montalva (1964-1970) and questioning the prevailing ideological doctrine of social order, which
puts their cultural power at risk. (Olguin, 2018; Valenzuela, Labarrera & Rodriguez, 2008; FEUC, 1973).
Another achievement of the period, which gives a notion of continuity, was to increase to double the
access to Higher Education University, arriving according to Brunner (1986), coming to exceed 145
thousand students nationwide. In short, based on what was presented by Vera (2012), continuity from
the ‘reformist’ discourse based on the idea, present in Chile since 1938, of the teaching state (unifier)
and rupture from the ‘revolutionary’ discourse on the transformation educational statist social and the
overcoming of the ‘capitalist system contradictions’ in connection with the concept of ‘liberating pedagogy’ by Paulo Freire.
A new ideological rupture arises with the beginning of the Regime of Army General Augusto Pinochet
Ugarte (1973 - 1990), given the decrease presence of the State in Education, passing from a Teaching
State to a Guarantor State, coining the principle of ‘freedom of education ‘. Adding to, a stagnation of
the reforms, the adoption of an educational approach based on content and a drop to 2.6% of GDP as
Expenditure on Education. Situation that is exacerbated since 1980 with the municipalization of fiscal
scholar establishments, regional dismemberment of State Universities: De Chile and Técnica del Estado,
and expansion on participation of Private Universities from 2.5% to 11.5% of enrollment (Zurita, 2015;
Valenzuela, Labarrera & Rodríguez, 2008).
Return to Democracy, under the four governments of Pact-Concertación in Spanish- (Aylwin, Frei,
Lagos and Bachelet), is marked by the increase of Educational Coverage at all levels and multiple initiatives related to quality, like: return of constructivism to the classrooms and sum of the significant
learning, opening of Equity Education Quality Measurement Program (MECE) and ENLACES Network,
Teaching Evaluation and Complete School Day (JEC). Undoubtedly, the period was not exempt from
pressures from the student body with protests such as ‘the mochilazo’ (2000) and ‘the penguin revolution’
(2006), which achieve measures up to date in force, like ‘national school pass’; ‘free University Selection
Test’ for vulnerable students and ‘agreement for the quality of education’, in addition to replacement of
Constitutional Organic Law of Education (LOCE) by General Education Law (LGE) for primary and
secondary school level.
They are not measures that manage to appease the unhappiness incubated, it is evident that the promarket model did not change course with the return to democracy, issues such as shared financing in
municipal education or the increase of private participation in the University Education of 11.5% to over
50% (Zurita, 2015), not only denote continuity, but going into detail about this aspect. The foregoing is,
to a large extent, what led to the 2011 demonstrations and launched a set of reforms, still in progress.
Conforming to López Guerra and Flores (2006), neoliberal reforms to Latin America educational
systems were the answer to the quality problems that those presented, efficiency terms, effectiveness and
productivity, given an accelerated and inorganic growth. The problem in the management was pointed
out, by American experts who proposed to generate structural change and the adjustment of mentioned
systems by the competitive action of the market. Thus, argument of quality as a guarantor of greater
competitiveness for labor insertion of graduates, support privatization processes and with it a greater
diversification of education between state universities and private universities, whether elite or demand
absorption. (Sánchez, 2016).
Ortiz (2018) concludes that Chilean higher education institutions must make progress in their educational management to accomplish quality certifications required nationwide and international level,
increase the competitiveness of their supply, innovate in virtual education, strengthen their faculty and
increase productivity of research. The student movement of 2011, its social legitimacy, urgency of its
36
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
demands and demonstrated power with the achievement of legislative seats of four of its leaders in
2013, installed a controversial state about the previous paradigms, mainly on ‘Teaching University’
and Tensions are enough for Chilean universities to adopt these demands, at least in the higher quality
environment, which has also included collateral strengthening of teaching staff and the increase of their
research results. (Vega, Martinez & Morales, 2017).
In the specific case of Distance Education more than a decade ago UNESCO Chair in Distance Education (CUED) is working and researching the Quality criteria of Distance Education in Ibero-America
(CUED, 2018). Also through a theoretical-practical work with the scorecard ‘SCCQAP’, whose purpose is
to measure and quantify quality elements of online education, work that is being carried out by the Latin
American and Caribbean Institute of Quality in Distance Higher Education, as expressed in its mission:
‘Contribute to improvement of quality in distance higher education in Latin America and the Caribbean’
(CALED, 2018), being made up of several institutions as members of the Board of Directors: Organization of American States (OAS), Remote Education Network Consortium (CREAD), Iberoamerican Association of Distance Education (AIESAD), OEA Virtual Educa Project, Union of Universities of Latin
America and the Caribbean (UDUAL), Interamerican University Organization (OUI). And counting as
the Advisory Board with, the UNESCO chair of E-Learning of the Open University of Catalonia (UOC),
Organization and Management, dedicated to innovation and educational methodology, also provides
necessary information to build evaluation criteria. Thus, in the framework of the 30th Anniversary of
the Ibero-American Association of Higher Education at a Distance: the importance of the collaboration
of different international organizations was addressed, creating spaces for the exchange of experiences,
research, in order to provide criteria for distance education. (Miranda, 2010).
In Chile, as the parameters of the National Accreditation Commission - Chile (CNA - Chile) have
not been fully developed, the year two thousand seventeen (2017) this agency called for the first-time
competition peers of Distance Education, Virtual and Bimodal, being a breakthrough for these types of
studies. In addition, the Criteria for the Accreditation of Institutions that offer programs in a virtual and
combined modality for Higher Education have already been published, however, criteria for accreditation
of programs with virtual or distance modality for tertiary education have not yet been published. These
required that these programs continue to be evaluated with developed criteria for face-to-face programs.
(National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018b).
According to Espinoza (2017), growth of the Chilean university system occurs mainly in private
higher education institutions. Growth that became of transformation from an elite system to a mass and
highly deregulated, focuses on providing access coverage and therefore incorporates young people from
vulnerable families to tertiary education of low quality, depending on their purchasing power at ‘education market’ and given a regulatory context lacking controls over the learning process. Those results
in inequity in access to a quality educational offer, lack of equity that is also transmitted to graduation,
also generating inequity in access to the labor market. That which Ortiz (2018) complements by noting
that global influence has permeated Chile’s university system, redefining: knowledge as a social asset,
curriculum as a response to the needs of labor market, and future prospects as an alignment to the development strategies of various industrial sectors.
Given such ideological neoliberalism, economic opening to the global world and such high access
to ‘digital world’, it is surprising that Chile has not become an offshore educational pole. From now on
it will discuss the challenges pose to international expansion of the Chilean university system based on
the creation of an ‘international online university’.
37
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Figure 1. Annual remote and total enrollment between 2008 and 2017
Data source: (National Council of Education, 2018).
International and Online, Nascent Properties of the Chilean University
Distance education, the category in which online education is registered in Chile, represents in the last ten
years an annual enrollment of about one percent of total enrollment of Chilean university system. And as
system grows, so does its remote component. Figure 1, gives account of the growth of both magnitudes.
The figures observed in graph number 1, account for thirty-seven universities that have at least one
record of distance education in 2008 to 2017 period. Practically sixty percent of Chilean university system. But in 2008 this type of offer was concentrated in 99% in only ten universities, as shown in Table 1.
From Table 1 it can be inferred that a decade ago, a large part of Chilean universities that supplied
distance education, did not have an institutional quality accreditation before the National Accreditation
Commission (CNA-Chile) and as we will see below who had more credentials will be precisely those
that will diminish their participation so far.
As can be seen in Table 2, in general terms, ten main universities with distance education in Chile
present a better quality in terms of institutional accreditation (in years). And although Miguel de Cervantes University obtained an institutional accreditation of two years in May 2018 (National Accreditation
Commission - Chile, 2018), universities with a high component of distance education are not accredited
or have an incipient accreditation level. In the particular case of Universidad Andrés Bello (UNAB),
although it represents the second institution of Chilean university system in terms of online enrollment,
given its total volume of students as the largest university in Chile, its online enrollment to date is a
percentage marginal value within the total of its students.
So, the universities: Miguel de Cervantes (UMC), De Artes, Ciencias y Comunicación (UNIACC)
and La República (ULARE), represent today the model of online university in Chile. Regarding, the
mission that these institutions of higher education set out:
38
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Table 1. Universities with distance education in 2008
Total enrollment in
distance education
% of national total
Participation
Quality accreditation
(in years)
U. Católica del Norte (UCN)
1702
37%
5
U. Del Mar (UDM)
645
14%
0
U. De Aconcagua (UAC)
632
14%
0
U. De Artes, Ciencias y Comunicación
(UNIACC)
472
10%
3
U. De Antofagasta (UANTOF)
369
8%
3
U. De Playa Ancha de Ciencias de la Educación
(UPLA)
296
6%
4
U. Bolivariana (UB)
170
4%
0
U. Tecnológica Metropolitana (UTEM)
155
3%
0
U. De Arte y Ciencias Sociales (UARCIS)
72
2%
0
U. La República (ULARE)
68
1%
0
Universities
Data Source: (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018, National Council of Education, 2018)
Table 2. Universities with distance education in 2017
Universities
Total enrollment in
distance education
% Participation
of national total
Quality
accreditation
(in years)
U. Miguel de Cervantes (UMC)
2238
27%
U. Andrés Bello (UNAB)
1470
18%
U. De Artes, Ciencias y
Comunicación (UNIACC)
923
U. La República (ULARE)
Total enrollment in
education
% Distance
education
0
3342
67%
4
47452
3%
11%
0
4308
21%
573
7%
0
5475
10%
U. Tecnológica de Chile
(INACAP)
406
5%
2
36648
1%
U. Católica del Norte (UCN)
384
5%
6
11603
3%
U. Católica de Temuco (UCT)
381
5%
4
11482
3%
U. Arturo Prat (UNAP)
346
4%
4
13251
3%
U. Mayor (UMY)
321
4%
5
23105
1%
U. De Los Andes (UANDES)
271
3%
5
10063
3%
Data Source: (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018, National Council of Education, 2018)
Contribute to national development through university training for young people and adults, with a
characteristic of social inclusion of workers and vulnerable sectors, responding effectively to the social
and employment requirements environment (UMC, 2018).
39
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
To train integrally different people, regardless of their age, social status and geographical location,
through a quality tertiary education that recognizes the subject as a totality - integral and integrated in
a given social context - enabling to learn: to learn, to do, to be and to coexist, such that it is characterized by its conscience and commitment with the public good and its own development (UNIACC, 2018).
We are a secular, pluralistic and tolerant, non-profit Higher Education Institution, that trains people
who contribute to the development of the country, with social sense, honesty, environmentally friendly,
culture and values. Our training process and research activities in the areas defined as priorities allow the
development of a critical and innovative vision based on the search for ethical and humanistic principles
that contribute to the consolidation of a more just, inclusive and diverse global society. Its institutional
action is guided by an effective link with its environment, from which it derives a clear orientation in its
decisions and in the improvement of its academic tasks (ULARE, 2018).
None of the three previous cases makes an explicit mention of distance training, which would be
a characteristic, for which they objectively stand out within the Chilean university system. Within its
common characteristics, private universities are identified without tax contributions, whose students are
unable to access free tuition fees and fees for state benefits, being admitted by autonomous mechanisms
of each institution and outside the unique admission system that brings together to forty-one Chilean
universities. And also, they have a reduced enrollment that ranges between 3,500 and 5,500 students
(National Council of Education, 2018).
In terms of its online offer, in the case of Universidad Miguel de Cervantes it is focused on postgraduate education in education, among those that stand out Magister in Education Mention Curriculum and
Assessment based on Competencies and Education mention Quality Management, both accredited for
two and three years respectively. On the other hand, Universidad de Artes, Ciencias y Comunicación
and Universidad La República, would have a transversal presence of the online offer at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Being, in the case of UNIACC, the focus of this type of offer training in
Humanities, Social Sciences and Administration. And in ULARE adding to Humanities, Social Sciences
and Administration, Education and Technology.
But making viable a projection of these institutions in the online field depends strongly on improving their quality results, expressed at the level of institutional accreditation. Since the new requirements
imposed on the count of 2019 by Law 21,091 ‘About Higher Education’ require first an accredited
University, this status will only be granted for a minimum of three years (basic accreditation) and in
the medium term achieve an accreditation at the level known as ‘advanced quality accreditation’, which
implies obtaining a minimum period of accreditation of four years. (Ministry of Education - Chile, 2018).
Now, the internationalization of the university in Chile, as already expressed in this chapter, slides
down a different lane, to the technological distancing of the classrooms. Chile being a commercially
internationalized country to the extreme, the enrollment of foreign students is far from that, only 1% of
the total enrollment of Chilean universities corresponds to foreign students.
Only ten universities concentrate 54% of enrollment, but in none of the cases does that group of
students exceed more than 3% of their total enrollment by 2018. If they can identify two universities
whose percentage of foreigners among their enrollees are Regional Universities: Adventista de Chile
and De O’Higgins, with 7 and 4 percent respectively, would identify them as universities with a higher
proportion of foreign students, although the absolute figures are tiny given the size of these institutions.
Students who, in the case of Universidad Adventista de Chile, are mainly concentrated in the bachelor’s
40
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Table 3. Universities with foreign students in 2017
Foreign
students total
enrollment
%
national total:
foreign students
Participation
Students total
enrollment
% Foreign
students
Quality
accreditation
(in years)
U. Tecnológica de Chile (INACAP)
1006
15%
34898
3%
2
U. Arturo Prat (UNAP)
419
6%
13024
3%
4
U. Andrés Bello (UNAB)
395
6%
43493
1%
5
Pontificia U. Católica de Chile (PUC)
372
6%
27479
1%
7
U. Central de Chile (UCEN)
278
4%
12426
2%
4
U. de Chile (UCH)
251
4%
32448
1%
7
U. Mayor (UMAY)
251
4%
17733
1%
5
U. De Tarapacá (UTA)
234
4%
8864
3%
5
U. Diego Portales (UDP)
198
3%
15751
1%
5
U. De Valparaíso (UV)
192
3%
15705
1%
5
Students total
enrollment
% Foreign
students
Universities
Universities Most Internationalized
Universities
Foreign
students total
enrollment
% Participation
national total of
foreign students
U. Adventista de Chile (UNACH)
111
2%
1703
7%
3
U. De O`Higgins (UOH)
56
1%
1326
4%
0
Data Source: (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018, National Council of Education, 2018)
degree in Theology, followed by an undergraduate degree in Commercial Engineering. Situation that in
Universidad de O’Higgins occurs almost exclusively in undergraduate degree in Commercial Engineering. In the particular case of Universidad Tecnológica de Chile, its more than thousand foreign students,
are concentrated in careers in the area of administration, commerce and engineering and geographically in the Santiago metropolitan region and in the extreme north of Chile regions. (National Council
of Education, 2018), In both cases these areas coincide with the greatest migratory flows from Latin
American countries.
Ramírez (2017) consider that relevance of the internationalization of higher education has reached
political and academic borders, given the strategic demands it imposes on the projection on the international stage and, the internal challenges of institutional strengthening and higher quality. Undoubtedly,
the contrast of this last point, with the results of accreditation of the university that concentrates the
largest number of foreign students, as the two universities that concentrate a greater internal proportion
of foreign students, realizes that it is a present challenge in the Chilean reality,since it has already been
explained, in the medium term, the existence of universities with less than four years of accreditation
will not be possible.
The reasons for this dissociation between a country image with high international exposure and these
meager figures of results are not yet accurate. Even more so when Chile was part of the Alfa Tuning
Latin America Project more than fifteen years ago and the project included within its objectives the
assimilation of qualifications, convergence in higher education, networking and the Latin American
integration of qualifications (Muñoz & Sobrero, 2006).
41
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
But some of the characteristics of the Chilean university system that influence these results are related to three reasons:
•
•
•
The high cost of higher education, even in public institutions. Positioning the year 2011, when the
conflicts begin, as the second most expensive of the OECD after Ireland, and the most expensive
of this set of countries in proportion to GDP per capita (Vega, Martinez & Morales, 2017).
Languages knowledge, given the linguistic composition of the country: Spanish 99.5% (official),
English 10.2%, indigenous 1% (includes Mapudungun, Aymara, Quechua, Rapa Nui), other 2.3%,
unspecified 0.2% (CIA, 2018)
Low overall quality of its higher education institutions (see Table 4).
Effective internationalization and distance education in Chile cannot be found jointly in universities,
if they are considered institutions with a high internal proportion of foreign students and institutions
with a high concentration of students enrolled in distance education programs.
Crossing both characteristics, the Andrés Bello University (UNAB) represents a greater balance between internationalization and distance education. Faced with the new demands for quality accreditation
and maintaining the current accreditation results in status quo, higher education institutions such as the
“University of Arts, Sciences and Communication” (UNIACC) and the “Technological University of
Chile” (INACAP), could not continue operating and therefore, UNAB’s position would be indisputable.
Table 4. Chilean universities in the international rankings
Universities
Pontificia U. Católica de Chile
Pontificia U. Católica de Valparaíso
THE 2019
QS 2019
ARWU 2018
601-800
132
401-500
1001+
751-800
U. Adolfo Ibañéz
U. Andrés Bello
U. Austral de Chile
U. Católica del Norte
U. De Chile
701-750
1001+
801-1000
801-1000
1001+
601-800
208
U. De Concepción
1001+
651-700
U. De La Frontera
801-1000
U. De Santiago de Chile
U. De Talca
1001+
511-520
801-1000
801-1000
U. De Tarapacá
1001+
U. De Valparaíso
1001+
U. Del Bío Bío
1001+
U. Del Desarrollo
301-400
801-1000
401-500
U. Diego Portales
401-500
801-1000
U. Técnica Federico Santa María
601-800
801-1000
Data Source: (Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 2019, QS World University Ranking, 2019, Academic Ranking of
World Universities,2018)
42
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Table 5. Universities with high foreign students proportion and universities with high distance students
concentration
Universities
Quality
accreditation
(in years)
Total
enrollment
in distance
education
% Country
participation
in distance
education
Total
enrollment
in education
%
Distance
education
Foreign
students
total
enrollment
%
Share
Students
total
enrollment
% Foreign
students
U. Miguel
de Cervantes
(UMC)
2
2238
27%
3342
67%
25
0%
1096
2%
U. De Artes,
Ciencias y
Comunicación
(UNIACC)
0
923
11%
4308
21%
126
2%
4658
3%
U. La
República
(ULARE)
0
573
7%
5475
10%
50
1%
4807
1%
U. Adventista
de Chile
(UNACH)
3
17
0%
2189
1%
111
2%
1703
7%
U. De
O`Higgins
(UOH)
0
0
0%
435
0%
56
1%
1326
4%
Data source: (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018, National Council of Education, 2018)
Figure 2. Universities according to accreditation, foreign students and distance students
Data source: (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018, National Council of Education, 2018)
This university is the one with the largest number of students in Chile and its enrollment of foreign
students is distributed in areas as diverse as: Administration and Commerce, Agriculture, Forestry,
Aquaculture and Veterinary, Art and Architecture, Education, Health, Law, Science, Social Sciences,
Technology. Being its institutional mission ‘to be a university that offers to those who aspire to progress,
an integrating and excellent educational experience for a globalized world, supported by the critical cul43
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
tivation of knowledge, and the systematic generation of new knowledge’. And it is part of the Laureate
International Universities group that made up of more than 60 higher education institutions in twenty
countries and counts as a base with Walden University institution with more than 52,600 students from
all 50 U.S. states and more than 155 countries are pursuing bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees
online. (LIU, 2018). Therefore, it seems to have the support to advance as the institution of higher education that leads what we have called ‘international online universities’. But as a challenge, in addition
to delve into its participation in the ‘international online’ offer, it must increase its internal proportion
of both foreign and online students, in addition to achieving an accreditation of excellence, that is, with
a result of 6 to 7 years. This added to the need to at least settle within the international QS and ARWU
rankings, as well as improve their position in the THE ranking.
The quality of tertiary education is a widespread concern in the countries of Latin America, this is
transferred to all educational spheres including distance education. Calvo and Salas (2013) formulated
that the introduction of ICTs should respond to the current demands of the knowledge society, however
this is not enough if it does not respond to how the knowledge construction process develops. The authors emphasize that quality is determined in how the learning process is carried out and not the use of
ICTs. Quality in distance education should not only focus on technological tools as a means of accessing information or trying to reduce the digital divide in different regions of the world; the accentuation
should be placed on planning activities that allow those who access distance education to promote the
learning process.
In a study of the IESALC-UNESCO in 2004 cited in Silvio (2006) refers to two aspects linked to the
quality of distance education, the first has to do with the legal framework or regulatory rules of education programs from distance; the second gives an account of the instruments that are used to evaluate
the quality and accreditation of virtual programs. Due to the recentness of these virtual programs, there
are very few countries that have regulatory norms, this is also because of spontaneity of the creation of
these in response to market requirements. In terms of evaluation, each institution has its own evaluation
systems for its programs, not necessarily responding to international standards. There is an international
tendency to establish a legal regulation that tends to accreditation of these programs proposing criteria
and indicators that make it possible to measure the quality of these programs. (Silvio, 2006).
But the challenge is also open, for other universities that have a considerable online offer and a national level of accreditation between advanced and excellence. As the universities: Católica del Norte
(UCN), Católica de Temuco (UCT), Arturo Prat (UNAP), Mayor (UMY) and de Los Andes (UANDES)
and maintaining their quality should deep in their progress in this line increasing its volume of online
students and the proportion of international students in this type of teaching. Although the language
limitation can be a major challenge, asynchronous work as well as multi-language platforms, could
greatly replace this restriction to growth.
The underlying problem seems to be achieving the internationalization of the distance offer of all the
universities that have already managed to advance in this modality. Rather the Chilean university system
in general, would still be working the questions raised by Ramírez (2017) and despite the conversation
and possibility the presence of foreign students in the universities would be a very incipient and rather
face-to-face.
44
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The tension situation of the Chilean universities, which demand quality (Vega, Martinez & Morales,
2017), and with a new institutional support to accredit institutions at distance and in combined education or blended learning (National Accreditation Commission - Chile, 2018b). The first challenges of
institutions such as Universities: Andrés Bello (UNAB), Católica del Norte (UCN), Católica de Temuco
(UCT), Arturo Prat (UNAP), Mayor (UMY) and de Los Andes (UANDES), they are related to their
willingness to submit to these new standards and define themselves as universities with at least one online
component, within their educational offer, internalizing this in their institutional declarations. Therefore,
a first advance in this line of research should be related to this topic. Another interest in further developing the study of the challenges for the consolidation of an online university in Chile, has to do with the
internal challenges of the institutions in terms of the performance of the distance learning process and
the assessment that their students perform in the achievement of his learnings Finally, the challenge of
internalization seems to be a high point in Chile, due to restrictions already raised in this chapter and
therefore a point of great interest to continue being studied and transformed.
CONCLUSION
Although Chile’s neoliberal economic model seems to provide conditions for the development of an
international online university, controversies within its higher education system, particularly its university system, come to contradict that general perception. Distance education in Chile seems to have
managed to find the path, the recent generation criteria to accredit virtual education is one of them, as
well as sustained growth of this type of educational offer in accredited universities and with projection
to maintain in the stressed system of education in that country.
In terms of internationalization, the situation is more constrained and years of effort to assimilate and
interweave Chilean education to the rest of Latin America, Europe and the world, have had very poor
results. The internal conditions like high cost for families in university education, the lack of a universal
language domain and quality, which in relation to high cost do not make it competitive, have limited
Chile’s aspirations in this regard. Apparently, it is the market’s own rules, which limit development of
an international Chilean online university, a possible issue to overcome, but at the moment it poses a
huge challenge for the universities of that country.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers of this study are grateful to both Corporación Programa Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones en Educación for the provided institutional sponsorship in the field of educational studies.
45
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
REFERENCES
Alarco, G. (2017). Free Trade, Growth and Potential Product in Chile, Mexico and Peru. Economía
UNAM, 14(42), 24–46. doi:10.1016/j.eunam.2017.09.001
Alarcón, J. (2017). The rules of our game: Neoliberal privatization of education in Chile. Praxis Educativa (Santa Rosa), 12(3), 690–707. doi:10.5212/PraxEduc.v.12i3.001
Arkorful, V., & Abaidoo, N. (2015). The role of e-learning advantages and disadvantages of its adoption
un higher education. International Journal of Instructional technology and Distance Learning, 12(1),
29-42. Available in: http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_15/Jan15.pdf
Bello, D. (2012). State/nation relationship, economic development model and party system in Chile:
brief historical review as an attempt to understand a change of time. Polis, 11(31), 39-55. Available in:
http://journals.openedition.org/polis/3601
Bizzozero, L., & Pose, N. (2016). Higher education in globalization: Ideas and projection proposed by
international organizations. Seminar ‘A look towards the future of Higher Education’.
Brunner, J. J. (1986). From the university supervised to the university company. Higher education in
Chile. Nueva Sociedad, (84), 140 - 146. Available in: http://nuso.org/media/articles/downloads/1419_1.pdf
Brunner, J. J. (2000). Globalization and the future of education: trends, challenges, strategies. Seminar
on the Prospective of Education in the Latin America and the Caribbean Region. Available in: http://
www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/delphi/pdf/brunner.pdf
Cabero - Almenara. J. (2016). Distance Education as a strategy for social and educative inclusion. Revista mexicana de bachillerato a distancia, 8(15), 1-6. Available in: http://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/
rmbd/article/view/57384
CALED. (2018). CALED: What is your mission. Available in: www.caled-ead.org/cual-es-su-mision
Calvo, X., & Salas, N. (2013). Need for unification of Pedagogical mediation’s quality criteria in online
courses at the Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Revista Postgrado y Sociedad, 13(1), 27–44. doi:10.22458/
rpys.v13i1.384
Castillo, S.M.& Gamboa, A.R. (2012). Challenges of education in today’s society. Revista electrónica
Diálogos Educativos, 12(24), 55-69.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2018). The World Factbook. Available in: https://www.cia.gov/library/
publications/the-world-factbook/
Cuadros, J., Valencia, J., & Valencia, A. (2012). Information technologies and communication in rural
learning environments like social inclusion mechanisms. Actualidades Pedagógicas, (60), 101-120. .
doi:10.19052/ap.1756
CUED. (2018). UNESCO Chair in Distance Education. Available in: https://www2.uned.es/catedraunesco-ead/
46
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Escandón, M. B., Silva, V. M., Ibarra, M., & Rodríguez, W. A. (2018). Colonization of the neoliberal
model as organizational results in public servants and teachers in some human service. Tempus Psicológico, 1(1), 161–180. doi:10.30554/tempuspsi.1.1.2339.2018
Espinoza, O. (2017). Privatization of higher education in Chile: consequences and lessons learned. EccoS – Revista Científica, (44), 175-202. Doi:10.5585/eccos.n44.8070
FEUC. (1973). Unified National School, the control of consciences: critical report. Santiago de
Chile: FEUC, Departamento de Estudios. Available in: http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/
MC0038837.pdf
García-Pérez, F. F., Moreno-Fernández, O., & Rodríguez-Marín, F. (2015). World problems and education: towards a planetary citizenship. In B. Borghi, F. F. García-Pérez, & O. Moreno-Fernández (Eds.),
Novi Cives. Cittadini dall’infanzia in poi. Bologna: Pàtron Editore.
Huneeus, C. (2000). Technocrats and Politicians in an Authoritarian Regime. The ODEPLAN Boys and
the Gremialists in Pinochet`s Chile. Journal of Latin American Studies, 32(2), 461-501. Available in:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/158572
LIU. (2018). Walden University. Overview. Available in: https://www.laureate.net/OurNetwork/
NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/WaldenUniversity#t1
López Guerra, S., & Flores, M. (2006). Neo-Liberal Educational Reform in Latin America. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 8(1). Available in: https://redie.uabc.mx/redie/article/view/122/211
Ministry of Education - Chile. (2018). Law 21,091 ‘About Higher Education’. Available in: http://bcn.
cl/25b7u
Miranda, A. (2010). Distance Education in Ibero-America: XXX anniversary of the AIESAD. Revista
Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 13(2), 13-36. Available in: http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/
ried/article/view/13455
Muñoz, A., & Sobrero, V. (2006). Tuning Project in Chile: Analysis of processes of internationalization
of higher education. Calidad en la Educación, (24): 249–271. doi:10.31619/caledu.n24.278
National Accreditation Commission - Chile. (2018). Advanced Search for Accreditations. Available in:
https://www.cnachile.cl/Paginas/buscador-avanzado.aspx
National Accreditation Commission - Chile. (2018b). Virtual Training Criteria for Universities. Available in: https://www.cnachile.cl/SiteAssets/Paginas/Acreditacion-institucional/Criterios%20de%20
Formaci%c3%b3n%20Virtual%20para%20Ues.pdf
National Council of Education. (2018). Database of undergraduate (2005-2018) and postgraduate (20052017) by program. Available in: http://www.cned.cl/sites/default/files/base_indices_2005-2018_0.xlsx
Olguín, J. (2018). The Chilean right and the legitimizing principles of the pre and post 1973 coup d’état.
Revista Izquierdas, (38), 141-163. Available in http://www.izquierdas.cl/images/pdf/2018/n38/art7.pdf
47
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
Ortiz, E. M. (2018). Regional universities in Chile; tensions between the global and the local. Revista
de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación, 17(34), 149–156. doi:10.21703/rexe.20181734eortiz3
Pino, R. (2013). Internet and social capital in isolated villages in Chile. Polis, 12(36), 197–221. doi:10.4067/
S0718-65682013000300009
Ramírez, B. (2017). Internationalize? Why? For what? Internationalization in Argentine universities.
Debate Universitario, 5(10), 71-87. Available in: http://portalreviscien.uai.edu.ar/ojs/index.php/debateuniversitario/article/view/111
REUNA. (2018). REUNA: science and network education. Available in: http://www.reuna.cl/
Rodrik, D. (2018). Rescue the economy of neoliberalism. Letras Libres, (196), 12-17. Available in:
https://www.letraslibres.com/espana-mexico/revista/rescatar-la-economia-del-neoliberalismo
Silva, P. (1991). Technocrats and Politics in Chile: From the Chicago Boys to the CIEPLAN Monks.
Journal of Latin American Studies, 23(2), 385-410. Available in: https://www.jstor.org/stable/157030
Silvio, J. (2006). Towards quality virtual education, but with an emphasis on equity and relevance. RUSC.
Universities and Knowledge Society Journal, 3(1), 1–14. doi:10.7238/rusc.v3i1.269
Subsecretary of Telecommunications of Chile. (2017). IX Internet Access and Usage Survey. Government of Chile.
TELEDUC. (2018). Teleduc. Distance Education. Available in: http://teleduc.uc.cl/
UNAB. (2018). Universidad Andrés Bello. Mission, Vision, Values. Available in: https://www.unab.cl/
nuestra-universidad/universidad/mision-y-vision/
Valenzuela, J. M., Labarrera, P., & Rodríguez, P. (2008). Education in Chile: Between continuity and
ruptures. Main milestones of the Educational Policies. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, (48), 129
- 145. Available in: https://rieoei.org/historico/documentos/rie48a06.pdf
Vega, A., Martínez, C., & Morales, C. (2017). Social movement and inequity in access to Higher Education in Chile: the difficult path towards structural reform. In A. Vega & P. Andreucci (Eds.), From Social
Conflict to Global Indignation. Santiago de Chile: RIL Editores.
Vera, J. P. (2012). The Unified National School as a representation of the political - ideological struggle
during the Unidad Popular. Revista Divergencia, 1(1), 73-94. Available in: http://www.revistadivergencia.
cl/docs/ediciones/01/05_la_enu_como_representacion_de_la_lucha.pdf
Zunino, H. (2014). Neoliberal penetration in Chile: Possibilities and Restrictions to Civic Participation. Revista de Geografía Espacios, 4(7), 71-81. Available in: http://www.revistaespacios.cl/pdf/
n7/07_zunino4.pdf
Zurita, F. (2015). The university system in contemporary Chile. Educação em Revista, 31(2), 329–343.
doi:10.1590/0102-4698138059
48
Challenges for the Creation of an International Online University in a Controversial Environment
ADDITIONAL READING
Careaga, M. & Avendaño, A. (2017). Cyber Curriculum and Knowledge Management, Santiago de
Chile: RIL Editores.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Accreditation: Process whose purpose is to evaluate the fulfillment of its corporate project and verify
the existence of effective mechanisms of self-regulation and quality assurance, as well as to strengthen
its capacity for self-regulation and continuous improvement.
Digital World: Virtual environment composed and developed by Internet and digital devices. People
can connect from any place of the world through technology allowing access to all type of information
and communication.
Distance Education: Is the use of information and communication technology to get any knowledge
by means online teaching resources, with entirely independence of personal time and place.
The Mochilazo: A student rebellion that occurred in 2001, where students went out of the streets
to demand free school pass. They ask to State to regulate this guarantee instead private transportation
companies.
Neo-Liberal Educational: Refers to an education based on a free market economy, inspired from
market needs. Individuals are means or ends supported by weak educational system that try students as
products.
The Penguin Revolution: In 2006 a student mobilization took place in order to demand the improvement of quality in education, the end to profit and free of charge in education. Also, they demand that
the local government could promulgate a law that ensures quality in education.
Unified National School: A project under Salvador Allende government, its aim was structure education according to equal and equitable criteria with a wide participation of community. Also proposed
made equal humanist and technical education.
49
Section 2
Program Development
51
Chapter 4
Developing Successful
Online Degree Programs at a
Historically Black University:
Challenges and Opportunities for
Broadening the Impact of HBCUs
and Minority-Serving Institutions
Anisah Bagasra
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7057-5278
Kennesaw State University, USA
ABSTRACT
This chapter presents an overview of the process of building online degree programs from the ground
up utilizing data from the process at a four-year liberal-arts institution in the United States that also has
a designation as a Historically Black College (HBCU). The university has expanded both its research
and global focus in the past several years, and the development of online degree programs was a natural extension of a desire to produce global leaders through the lens of a traditional liberal arts degree
program. This chapter discusses some of the challenges HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions
(MSIs) face entering the online education marketplace, particularly the challenge of how HBCUs and
MSIs can use their historic legacy and missions to distinguish themselves from competitors and meet
the needs of online students.
INTRODUCTION
Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs), particularly those designated as Historically Black Colleges
(HBCUs) have been slow to jump on the bandwagon of online learning. For MSIs investing time and
resources into online education was long viewed as secondary to the traditional mission of providing
a quality education and mentorship to underserved minority populations and first generation college
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch004
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
students. MSI campuses have also traditionally been viewed as safe spaces for African American, international, and other ethnic minority students (Wilcox, Wells, Haddad & Wilcox, 2014), highlighting the
importance of campus presence. However, increasing diversity within student populations is prompting
many HBCUs and MSIs to consider broadening their impact beyond regional and national boundaries.
Under pressure to establish a more global presence and serve a growing non-traditional college student
population, HBCUs and MSIs may find the process of entering an already crowded online space to
be a challenge. Similar challenges are faced by small, liberal arts, and religiously affiliated colleges
throughout the United States, for whom resources and international exposure tend to be limited. This
chapter walks through the process of establishing online undergraduate and graduate degree programs
step-by-step, with a specific focus on addressing challenges that may be unique to HBCUs and other
Minority Serving institutions (MSIs).
This chapter presents lessons learned from the development of fully online degree programs at a small,
private, and religiously-affiliated, four-year liberal arts Historically Black College and University that is
a tuition-driven institution serving an overwhelmingly low-income, first-generation African American
college student population. The university decided to embark upon the development of online degree
programs with little knowledge of best practices in online learning, or required program infrastructure.
Faculty and administration had limited previous experience with online course development with the
exception of developing and pilot testing a handful of online courses a few years prior to the launch of
the fully online programs. Faculty usage of the learning management system (LMS) was around 50% of
faculty using the LMS to some extent ranging from posting the syllabus, using the gradebook, posting
instructional materials, or administering quizzes. Faculty comfort with online learning, and therefore support for developing online degree programs was similarly split at the time of launching online programs.
The experiences documented in the present chapter may prove beneficial for college administrators
at HBCUs, MSIs and similar institutions who are considering offering online degree programs at their
institution, are looking to strengthen their existing programs, or wish to change some aspect of their
current program. It can also be beneficial for faculty wishing to integrate technology into their courses
at HBCUs or MSIs with an interest in developing hybrid or fully online courses in the future. It can also
help policy makers and other stakeholders who are focused on the success of minority students to understand the challenges related to technology integration for minority-serving institutions and their students.
The university partnered initially with a third-party service to help faculty develop online courses.
This strategy, though costly, allowed the university to develop its internal infrastructure over time, gain
a better understanding of the needs of its student population, and build faculty buy-in by providing
comprehensive instructional design and pedagogy training. The third-party company provided a range
of services that could include marketing and enrollment services, but only course design, hosting, training, and tech-support were purchased. Marketing, admissions, enrollment and transcript processing were
handled internally by the institution. A fully online summer session geared toward traditional students
was the first program launched, focusing on general education courses that all students need to take to
graduate. The university drew upon its successful evening program for non-traditional students as the
foundation for initial expansion into fully online programs. Curriculum already in place for non-traditional
evening students was translated into the online environment. Similarly, the university’s MBA program
was an evening and weekend program that attracted locals within an approximate 30-mile driving range.
The MBA program was simultaneously launched as the first fully online graduate degree program along
with the two undergraduate programs. The goal of the institution was to successfully enroll around 25
students into the new programs to reach break-even status. The first year saw an enrollment of close to
52
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
100 students in these three programs. The online summer session also helped the university to retain
traditional students who were choosing to take courses in the summer at their local technical colleges
where tuition was cheaper and where they could live at home. There were many lessons learned in the
first several years of the program and throughout the process of infrastructure development. These lessons will be outlined and discussed in the following sections.
After successfully launching two undergraduate degree programs and one graduate degree program
based upon existing face-to-face evening programs at the institution, the university launched a re-tooled,
fully online Masters in Education program, an additional undergraduate degree based off of a popular
major with traditional undergraduates, and finally a nursing program that allowed RNs to complete a
BSN fully online. The author draws upon nearly five years of experience addressing the challenges in
building internal infrastructure and drawing upon external best practices and services to create sustainable and cost-effective online programs catering to students from all backgrounds wishing to start or
complete a degree within a fully online, asynchronous virtual environment.
The decision for the institution to enter into the online marketplace was driven by several factors. In
regards to launching a fully online summer program geared toward traditional students, several trends
impacted that decision. Located in a semi-rural location, the ability to retain students for summer classes
was dwindling, as there were few job and internship opportunities to make staying for the summer affordable. Many students also need to work in the summer, and cannot afford to take classes that last
for several hours during the day and interfere with holding a summer position. Factors that impacted
the decision to start fully online undergraduate and graduate degree programs included: 1) the physical
limits of campus to expand and a lack of additional classroom space, 2) saturation of the regional market
for non-traditional students who typically enrolled in the evening programs, and 3) the need to create
undergraduate, graduate and professional programs that meet the needs of the community and alumni
who want to further their education but no longer live within the vicinity of campus. Like many MSIs,
the need to open up educational opportunities to a population with changing needs prompted a decision
at the administrative level to explore the institution’s capabilities to offer online degrees. No other MSI
or HBCU in the state offered online degree programs, and only a handful of other private colleges were
offering online degrees. The lack of extensive competition helped to motivate administrators to take the
risk of investing in online. This case, therefore, draws upon the changing needs of both minority-serving
institutions and their students in a rapidly technology-driven and globalized world.
BACKGROUND
Fully online courses and degree programs are a significant and growing component in contemporary
higher education (Friedman, 2018). Technology has facilitated the delivery of quality courses anywhere
in the world, allowing students who are not able to sit in traditional face-to-face classes to earn a degree.
There are now thousands of fully online courses offered every year at universities around the world,
increasing access to higher education to a broader and more diverse population (Ketnor, 2015). Many
institutions have turned towards online education to increase profits or diversify their revenue.
Historically Black Colleges and Universities are institutions of higher education designated by the
Department of Education as an accredited college or university founded before 1964 with the explicit
goal of educating African Americans. There are currently 102 accredited HBCUs located in twenty one
states and the Virgin Islands, with most concentrated in the Southeastern United States. Many HBCUs
53
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
continue to serve large African American populations, while other colleges with the HBCUs designation
have larger populations of White, Hispanic, or Native American students. Degrees offered by HBCUs
range from two-year associate degrees to doctorate degrees, with the majority of HBCU focusing on
four-year bachelor degrees. HBCUs continue to produce a large number of African Americans who earn
doctoral, medical, and other professional degrees. Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) are institutions who
primarily serve minority students but do not meet the federal designation of an HBCU. HBCUs may fall
within the MSI umbrella, as do Hispanic-Serving Institutions and Tribal Colleges or Universities. Typically, an institution will meet the definition of an MSI if more than 25 percent of the student population
belongs to a specific minority group (Li, 2007). This includes Asian-serving, Hispanic-serving, Native
American-serving, other minority serving, and African American-serving non-HBCU schools. According to the Department of Education’s report (Li, 2007) there were approximately 1,254 MSIs in 2004.
In 2013, only twenty two HBCUs out of approximately 102 schools offered online degrees (Online
Degree Programs, 2013) compared to hundreds of comparable not for profit universities across the country
enrolling thousands of students every year. Public HBCUs were more likely to offer online or blended
degree programs than private HBCUs (Stuart & Yep, 2012). Many other HBCUs have started offering
select online courses without diving into a completely online program offering. The main reason for this
restrained approach to online course offerings is financial. Mainstream universities have adopted online
learning usually for reasons of increasing their competiveness, expanding their market base thereby
either increasing revenue or diversifying their revenue sources. Online courses have enabled increasing
access to higher education to a broader and more diverse population (Ketnor, 2015), allowing students
the convenience of taking courses anywhere, anytime. However, the convenience of online courses often
belies the true nature of online courses from an institutional standpoint, as these courses require hundreds of hours of preparation prior to the launch of a single course. Building an online course requires
resources for such things as technology infrastructure, course design and development, and instructor
training. HBCUs and Minority Serving Institutions have been reluctant to invest in such costly and time
consuming endeavors (Arroyo, 2014). Lack of financial and personnel resources are inhibiting factors
for the implementation of online learning, especially for smaller, tuition-driven HBCUs.
In order to get more HBCUs involved in distance learning, a coalition of six HBCUs formed V-HBCU
in 2001 (Roach, 2002). Such initiatives were designed to help HBCUs compete as a consortium and
to spread the burden of monetary investment in online across institutions. Other partnerships that have
helped HBCUs include those with online quality programs (Harkness, 2015). The stance that HBCUs
must get involved in online education to survive and continue to make meaningful contributions is a
major push (Smith III, 2011) and some have argued that HBCUS must find creative and unique ways to
integrate technology which may be through using Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs) or producing
their own (Samayoa et al., 2016). Although there are no exact numbers on how many MSIs in total have
online degree programs, web-based searches turn up advertisements for the top twenty five HispanicServing institutions with online bachelor degrees, suggesting that Hispanic-Serving institutions are more
involved in online degree offerings than colleges serving other minority groups such as Native Americans.
This may be a result of the geographic location of many of these schools, such as institutions located in
California with greater access to the latest trends in technology. It may also be a result of higher numbers
of students at Hispanic-serving institutions matching the criteria of non-traditional students (Li, 2007).
Other forms of e-learning or distance learning can be found at MSIs including low-residency programs,
correspondence-style courses, and self-paced independent learning. As the number of MSIs continues
54
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
to shift as institutions of higher education seek to further diversify their student populations, it can be
hard to identify the specific challenges and factors involved with launching online degree programs at
these institutions.
HBCUs and MSIs are still relevant and have a lot to offer that is unique; specifically their success
in retaining and promoting the academic success of minority students, providing important training in
STEM disciplines (Kim, 2002; Kim & Conrad, 2006; Lynch, 2014), valuing racial and ethnic diversity
within it student and faculty population (Nahal, 2009), and increasing internationalization (Will, 2015).
Early research on incorporating hybrid or digital learning in minority education has been promising
(Buzzetto-More & Sweat-Guy, 2006). Further study of the successful application on online learning
with minority students will only come as more offerings catering to this population are made available.
HBCUs and MSIs who move towards online education need to determine if they want to try and replicate these existing success models in the online format, or if they have a different focus and mission
for their online programs.
Challenges Faced by HBCUs and Other MSIs in Entering the Online Market
The barrier of financial costs aside, there are other challenges faced by HBCUs entering the online course
arena. Creating online courses and degree programs requires a paradigm shift from the way that HBCUs
and other Minority-serving institutions have traditionally functioned. Most HBCUs and MSIs pride
themselves on being family-oriented and providing face-to-face customer service on campus. They also
have a strong background in providing mentoring, lower class sizes, smaller faculty to student ratios, and
a more intimate campus setting. It is very difficult for many universities to shift from the idea of “come
to my office and I will assist you” to virtual services, digitized forms, and less personal interaction with
students. Previous research has suggested that the use of technology at HBCUs is sparse or inconsistent
(Davis, 2009). The digital divide has been documented among both faculty and students, and is of growing
concern when comparing HBCUs to Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) (Snipes, Ellis & Thomas,
2006). Part of this is a result of faculty capabilities, and another aspect is technology infrastructure.
Both of these are part of a larger issue of funding for infrastructure and faculty training, and the larger
than average teaching loads at HBCUs that leaves little time for faculty to learn new technology skills.
Student computer and internet access and literacy poses the next major problem when catering online
courses and programs to non-traditional minority students. This requires the HBCU or MSI to invest
additional funds and staffing to assist students who lack basic computer knowledge, including attaching
files, downloading software, and using audio and visual tools. We found that many of the students who
were initially attracted to our online offerings were students who had started a bachelor degree ten or
twenty years earlier, and saw online as an opportunity to finish that degree. Though the average age of
students was around 35 years old, fully online students in our programs ranged from 21 to 65. Younger
students tended to be more technology-savvy but lacked the skills and motivation to be independent
learners. Older students lacked technology skills, skills related to online research, and academic writing. We utilized peer tutors, an online success coach, virtual orientations, and eventually added virtual
tutoring services as ways to assist students with these issues. Additionally, not all students who enrolled
in our online programs had a personal computer or regular access to the internet, which are problems
more likely to be noted in minority students. Some universities have offered tablets or Chromebooks as
incentives to retain or attract students. This can be a useful strategy if funding allows.
55
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
HBCUs and MSIs traditionally serve more economically disadvantaged and underprepared students
(Gasman et al., 2013). Some HBCUs, for example, serve student population where up to 70 or 80 percent
of the population is PELL grant eligible, indicating their families live below the poverty line. MSIs as a
whole have a larger percentage of PELL eligible students compared to non-MSIs, around 44% compared
to 21% for non-MSIs (Li, 2007). Clearly MSIs and even more so HBCUs are serving a larger percentage
of low-income students. This creates a larger technology gap, as many of the students enter the university
without adequate technology exposure. It also created a disparity in the ability of the type of student who
would attend an HBCU or MSI being prepared to take fully online courses. They may not have adequate
internet access, access to a reliable computer, as well as the technology skills needed to navigate a course.
Indeed, previous surveys of HBCU students has shown a preference for face-to-face courses, and few
motivating factors other than convenience (Kwun, Alijani, Mancuso, & Kevin Fulk, 2012). One study
did find that minority status of an online student was associated with lower satisfaction with web-based
education (Ke & Kwak, 2013) but does not explore what factors may be leading to lower satisfaction
among minority students compared to non-minority students. Poley (2008) suggest that culture cannot
be ignored when developing the structure of online programs at MSIs.
In addition to the overall culture, technology infrastructure challenges, and student demographics at
many HBCUs and MSIs that appear to inhibit moves to offer online programs, the leadership at many
HBCUs and MSIs may be unsupportive of online learning. Financial instability, and non-MSIs making efforts to cater to and attract more minority students, has pushed many leaders of minority-serving
schools to take a fiscally conservative stance when it comes to new programs and other costly forms of
expansion. Aging physical structures on many HBCUs also pulls funding away from the development
of virtual initiatives. Many HBCUs are more than a century old and have buildings that need to be renovated. Physical classrooms also need to be outfitted with new technology on a regular basis. University
administrators have to balance all of the needs of aging institutions, which tend to have smaller endowments and be tuition-driven, when making decisions that require significant investment. There are, as
Arroyo (2014) points out, many potential hidden costs of distance education that can make it difficult
for HBCUs to compete in the online market with much larger competitors already well-established in
their offerings. Administrators at HBCUs and MSIs may also be weary of online education as it deviates
from the models that have been successful in retaining and graduating minority students. Administrators
who possess little understanding of the technology or pedagogy aspects of online learning may need to
ensure that their have members of their campus who do have the knowledge to properly assess and vet
technology providers. MSI administrators have reason to be weary of online education, as some institutions who launched online programs in the mid-90s to mid-2000s did not see the type of success and
rapid growth in their programs that was predicted (Kentnor, 2015).
Though HBCUs and other MSIs face a number of challenges related to launching fully online programs, the ability to do so is within their reach. The following sections address the major initiatives that
must be taken in order for an institution that traditionally serves minority students to adequately establish
strong and sustainable online education offerings.
The Process for Assessing and Establishing Online Programs
Making the decision to offer online courses or a fully online degree program is the beginning of the
process required for establishing online programs. There are several phases of consideration once the
initial intention is established. Prior to introducing online courses and programs it is imperative to as56
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
sess and develop both university infrastructure and also to establish initiatives for supporting faculty
engaged in design and delivery of online courses and programs. Once infrastructure has been assessed
and support mechanisms for staff are put in place, the next question is ‘where to start?’ – which courses
or programs are the best or higher priority for online learning? Having determined which courses or
programs will be delivered online, the question of quality must then be considered. What constitutes
quality in an online course? How will quality of online courses be assessed? How long should online
courses be? What elements should online courses include? Considering questions such as these will help
ensure that online courses continue to meet the institutional objectives of delivering quality education
to its students. And finally, how can an institution attract students to their online offerings? This calls
for the development of effective marketing and recruiting strategies. All of these are key components of
establishing and maintaining successful and sustainable online initiatives.
Assessing and Establishing University Infrastructure
Each university that is planning on implementing fully online course options or fully online degree programs must carefully assess their current infrastructure in order to determine what additional resources
may be needed to be successful. This can be achieved by hiring an external evaluator or forming an
internal assessment team consisting of team members from all areas of the university that would be impacted by the addition of online courses or programs. Typically, this will include information technology,
admissions and enrollment, financial aid, fiscal services, academic areas, library services, and student
support services. Each of these areas will be making a specific contribution or taking on additional
workload when launching online programs, unless the university decides to hire an external agency to
handle some or all of these services.
The assessment team or external evaluator will need to examine the current policies, practices, and
resources on a campus. Within the area of information technology, the current services offered by IT,
the number of staff and their duties, and existing technology such as server capabilities will need to be
assessed. If current servers will not be able to host additional student traffic, then a university may need
to look at utilizing cloud technology or otherwise outsourcing data storage and hosting services. This
is particularly important when assessing the current Student Information Service (SIS) being used, any
Course Management System (CMS) currently in use, and the Learning Management System (LMS) if
separate from the SIS and CMS. These three systems can exist exclusive of each other or be integrated.
The SIS system typically plays a role in student enrollment, grade and transcript information, and course
and classroom listings. The CMS systems currently on the market may include some of these features
as well as advising modules and attendance tracking. Though Learning Management Systems tend to
be dedicated to dissemination of information for specific courses or managing a fully online or hybrid
course, some universities use SIS or CMS systems to play this role. Knowing what systems are already
in place, how much and in what ways they are utilized by different areas, and to what extent they are
integrated will assist the assessment team in determining their efficacy for online programs. Previous
research has shown the numerous challenges involved in upgrading or migrating to a new LMS for all
stakeholders on a campus not just faculty and students (Such, Ritzhaupt, & Thompson, 2017; Akshylykov
& Nurmatov, 2016) which is why involvement from all areas in this assessment process is so pertinent.
Information Technology resources play a huge role in the start and maintenance of an online program.
If a university plans to offer technical support services beyond the regular work-day, is this possible given
the current staffing? Would out-sourcing technical support services be more cost-efficient? Who will be
57
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
responsible for training or providing orientation to faculty, staff, and students when using various types of
technology on campus and on-line? Will information technology staff be responsible for assisting faculty
in online course design or will these services be external or housed within a different area? What types
of technology assistance is IT already providing to students, faculty, and staff? How would the addition
of an online program impact the services currently being provided? Universities looking to start online
degree programs often need to start with a full assessment and evaluation of their current technology
infrastructure and services in order to move forward in an informed way. It is important to establish the
cost of upgrading or purchasing new technology, any costs associated with increased staffing, and the
timeline necessary to complete both upgrades and staffing changes to include training of new staff or
training existing staff on new technology or the online platform. We utilized the 24/7 technical support
offered by the third-party company for the first few years of our online programs, and then shifted to an
LMS hosting service that also provided 24/7 technical support. Additional changes included improving
and integrating on-campus IT support to meet the needs of online students, and integrating email log-in
and LMS log-in to make password reset less complicated.
Other infrastructure that needs to be assessed includes library resources and their availability to online
students, as the library provides valuable resources for student learning and research. The ability to access
library resources off-campus is a requirement of fully online programs. Services that are part of some
libraries today include 24/7 chat with a librarian, which connects students to any available librarian at
any time of the day, and provides information on the chat to the student’s campus librarian for additional
follow-up. Our librarians created their own virtual orientation booklet disseminated in a PDF format
with screen shot tutorials that outlined the step-by-step process for accessing different library resources
from off-campus. This type of orientation is especially beneficial for students to gain an understanding
of using scholarly resources. Additional library resources many need to be purchased to meet accreditation standards for certain programs. For example, the addition of the RN to BSN program required the
purchase of nursing databases including CINAHL.
Admissions for online programs is also very different from traditional admissions. Online students
expect to be able to submit their application with ease online, and receive an acknowledgement within
hours. Communication from admissions may be over the phone and through email. An institution has to
have the appropriate staffing to respond to applicants within twenty four hours or less, to identify what
documents a student has outstanding, and to receive and process student transfer transcripts. Appropriate staffing in other areas such as financial aid, student accounts, registrar staff who review and certify
transcripts should be assessed. Specifically, each institution needs to determine if dedicated staff must
be assigned to online students, or existing staff can manage the online student load. Dedicated admissions and an enrollment officer were initially hired for our online degree programs, in addition to an
online director. Within the first year, an online student success coach was added as a key staff person.
The financial aid office designated a financial aid officer to work with online students, and the business
office identified one individual to work with online student accounts.
The actual organizational structure of the online program must be established at the onset as well.
There are many different approaches that can be taken depending upon support, knowledge of online,
and staffing capabilities. Some institutions run their online programs completely independent of their
traditional programs. The online or distance learning office may hire instructors, develop courses, and
provide student support that is separate from the main campus services. This approach is typically used
when the online program is larger with many degree programs offered. It essentially operates as a mini
university within the university. The second approach is to have a dean or director of online education or
58
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
distance learning who manages the online programs similar to the way in which other deans manage their
schools or programs. The dean of online provides oversight of online courses and programs, provides
training for faculty and adjuncts, and reports to the vice president of academic affairs or provost, depending upon university leadership structure. The online office operates in tandem with other academic areas
on campus. The third organizational structure involves online program coordinators embedded within
each school or department who provide oversight, training, and quality control for online courses within
that department. All of the program coordinators may report to a dean or director of online education
or a center for distance learning.
Each institution has to assess their current organizational structure and culture, and determine how
online programs will best fit within this structure. The role of online coordinators, directors, or departments is vital to providing students, faculty, and staff with a clear resource for assistance with online
courses, policies, and procedures. The organizational structure that is chosen must have authority to
provide oversight and handle courses that are not meeting quality standards, or instructors who are not
following standards such as those related to course login, communication, and feedback for students.
Instructor evaluation in the online format is emerging as an essential process (Thomas, Graham, & Pina,
2018). If there are no consequences for poor course structure or poor instruction, the quality of a program will suffer and student satisfaction will also become an issue. The leadership provided by a dean
of online or office of online is responsible for aspects of student retention and completion rates, and all
of the factors that might be impacting these rates. Regardless of the model followed, the online office
or responsible parties will conduct a certain amount of evaluation and data analytics in order to assess
the effectiveness of online programs, similar to the way in which a department or school with conduct
periodic internal reviews. For MSI and HBCU institutions where online education or technology-infused
teaching are new concepts, it may be beneficial to have a separate online college or a dean of online who
possesses the technological skills and knowledge of online best practices to lead the new program. As
Austin (2010) has pointed out, online programs take a considerable amount of time and commitment,
and a great deal of organizational change. Willingness to engage in major organization change is a prerequisite to beginning this process.
Assessing and Establishing Faculty Support for Online Initiatives
Faculty support for the development and deployment of online courses and degree programs is an essential part of the formula for establishing successful online programs. Faculty possess the subject-matter
expertise to develop and teach a course. It is important to note that while some faculty may have much
experience in developing and teaching face-to-face courses, they may not have experience teaching in the
online format. Teaching online is not a direct translation of the skillset needed for face-to-face teaching
and it requires a degree of change in teaching practices. Faculty may require varying levels of support.
While some may require little or no support, other faculty may need a great deal of support to develop
the pedagogical skills necessary for an online learning environment. The first step in this is for faculty
to be willing to engage in the process of learning new techniques for teaching, and going through the
lengthy process of building an online course.
Surveying faculty or hosting focus groups with faculty are an initial step in establishing faculty support for online programs. Faculty will want to feel that online courses provide some incentive either
monetarily, greater teaching flexibility, or through a reduced reaching load. Faculty tend to have a negative view of online courses compared to face-to-face courses, including the quality and rigor of online
59
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
courses (Lytle, 2012; Allen, Seaman, Lederman & Jaschik, 2012; Palmer, Shaker, & Hoffman-Longtin,
2014). Faculty attitudes towards online courses is a significant factor in willingness to develop and teach
in the online format. If faculty possess negative attitudes towards online courses and their quality, this
can act as a major barrier to an institution establishing online courses and programs (Panda & Mishra,
2007; Tzy-Ling & Tzu-Jung, 2006). Faculty are also concerned about how much control they have over
course design and content (Tannehill, Serapiglia, & Guiler, 2018). Mitchell and colleagues (2015) have
outlined some of the ways to overcome faculty resistance to online education. Several of their sources of
resistance particularly resonate with faculty at MSIs and HBCUs including cultural assumptions about
online courses, and fear of the loss of interpersonal relationships with students, which has been a vital
component of HBCU education over the decades. Faculty must feel that online courses are going to add
value to their own and to student experiences. Golden (2016) discussed the pros and cons of establishing
communities of practice as a beneficial way to support online faculty by reducing isolation and fostering productive discussions among each other. Similarly, we found that pairing experienced faculty as
mentors for new online faculty, hosting course development workshops, and conducting focus groups
with our online adjunct faculty helped to foster community, allowed faculty to discuss issues in their
courses, and provide opportunities for mentoring. For example, during course development workshops,
faculty who were experienced in creating podcasts, or using open-educational resources, were brought
in to discuss their experiences, provide resources, and answer questions. The online director established
once a semester luncheons between adjunct faculty and full-time faculty in criminal justice (who were
usually the course designers), to discuss issues with course content, students, or technology challenges.
This bridged the gap between course designers and instructors, and fostered a relationship between the
full-time and adjunct faculty. When online instructors view the program as a team effort, it fosters greater
cohesion and can impact student outcomes.
Factors that may play into support for establishing online programs may include previous experience
teaching online (Ulmer, Watson, & Derby, 2007; Gerlich, 2005), what types of services will be available
to build the online courses such as instructional designers, whether faculty will receive compensation
for their time, and whether profits from online courses will flow back to the department in some way to
increase department resources. Faculty often have many questions and concerns about online programs
and their sustainability. Faculty will expect the university to have clear and established support services, an
implementation plan, and a clear understanding of their role within the course development and teaching
plan. Other common issues include proprietary rights: who owns a course once it is built? Will faculty
who built a course have first priority in teaching the course, or will they be expected to share the course
with other faculty or adjuncts? Who is responsible for changes and updates to a course? Faculty must be
invested in the online process and feel that they are being provided the support and services necessary
to deliver courses with the same rigor and quality as they do in face-to-face delivery.
Where to Start: What Programs and What Courses?
Many universities struggle with the issue of what online courses or programs to launch first. Do you start
with online degree programs that mirror an already successful face-to-face program on your campus?
Do you evaluate what is being offered online in your region and settle on a program with little regional
competition? Do you create graduate programs online that are fed by recent undergraduates at your
institution? These ae common questions that an institution asks when trying to decide what program or
programs to launch online.
60
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
Initially, an institution should start by conducting a SWOT analysis. What are the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in relation to existing undergraduate and graduate degree programs
at the institution? This should provide the institution with baseline data on existing programs. The
institution should also conduct a market analysis. Who are your biggest competitors who are likely to
attract the same types of students you are interested in? What online programs are being offered by
these universities? How many universities in the region are currently offering online programs? What
programs, based upon your strengths as an institution already, might you be able to offer online that is
unique? We created an online implementation taskforce that consisted of faculty, staff, and administrators who were all stakeholders
Faculty are an excellent resource for determining the viability of specific courses or programs for
the online format. In some cases, faculty view certain courses as appropriate for the online format, and
other courses as inappropriate for the online format due to beliefs that the material cannot be conveyed,
or quality cannot be maintained in an online version of a course. For example, faculty who are not
incorporating digital technology into their courses may feel that STEM courses, especially labs, cannot be offered in the online format. We encountered a great deal of opposition from science deans and
chairs to creating upper-level biology, chemistry and math courses. Additionally, initiatives in the area
of digital humanities have exposed faculty to the challenges and possibilities of placing courses with a
lot of reading and discussion into the online format.
Many accredited programs also put restrictions on how many credit hours or contact hours each faculty may teach. If a program is popular, but the faculty resources are not available to develop or teach
the courses, an institution needs to evaluate the ability to add new faculty, hire adjuncts, or hire external
subject matter experts (SMEs) to develop courses. Faculty may view certain courses as appropriate for
the online format, and may have questions about the ability to translate other courses such as clinical,
lab-based courses to the online environment (Mandernach, Mason, Forrest & Hackathorn, 2012). A team
of faculty should be selected to assess online program and course feasibility, and to propose programs,
certificates, or courses for online offerings. Specific departments may put forth a proposal for an online program, and may conduct needs assessments for those programs. Often, departments will look at
market trend data, conduct student surveys, or conduct external surveys to determine program demand
and viability. Prior to launching the fully online Master of Education in Curriculum and Instruction,
the School of Education conducted a survey of teachers located in areas of the state with no colleges
to assess interest in the program. That survey helped to make the case for developing the fully online
graduate program geared toward busy teachers. It also helped the faculty shape the length of the program.
Online Processes and Standards: Course Quality, Length, and Format
A university must decide on its minimum standards for course quality and the process for establishing
and monitoring these standards up front. Creating quality standards and minimum course requirements
cannot be an afterthought when establishing online degree programs. Though the technology may be
driving the offering of an online program, only program quality will maintain the program and allow
it to grow and thrive. Accrediting bodies provide standard for online courses. There are also industries
that create quality standards and tools to measure online course quality. The most prominent of these
external programs is Quality Matters. Quality Matters offers a subscription-based service that provides
universities with various services and tools including an external course review process. Universities
61
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
can also use their rubric to review their own courses. The Quality Matters rubric focuses on eight broad
standards that are broken down into smaller, more specific standards. They also have established a
minimum number of points for a course to be considered a quality online course (Legon, 2009; Shattuck, 2010). Their rubric strictly focuses on course content and structure, and not the actual instruction
through teacher and student interaction. Another provider of quality measurement and standards is the
Sloan Consortium, now known as the Online Learning Consortium (OLC). There are also a number of
online course management companies who utilize their own minimum course standards and rubrics as
they assist an institution with creating and offering online courses. It is very easy to access a variety of
existing rubrics and use these as a foundation for the development and testing of a rubric that meets the
needs of your own online program. During year one of online programs, existing rubrics were reviewed
and a rubric was designed to utilize in evaluating our online courses. The second phase involved establishing a process for review, including who would conduct reviews and what courses would be reviewed
first. The third phase focused on how these reviews would be utilized for revision of existing courses.
In addition, an institution has to establish format such as synchronous or asynchronous elements of
online courses. Synchronous elements of an online course require students’ to log in and participate in
an activity during a specific time frame. This can include video-conferencing or exams. Regardless of
asynchronous or synchronous formatting, an institution has to decide if exams will require proctoring
or any type of identity verification. External programs for student authentication, online proctoring,
plagiarism checkers, and lockdown browsers are at an additional cost from most Learning Management
systems. The length of courses is another challenge for many institutions. Best practices in online learning recommend shorter length courses than a traditional face-to-face degree program. Length of courses
can vary from five-weeks to sixteen weeks, with many online courses averaging six to eight weeks in
length. Students tend to take one or two courses at a time in this shortened, intensive format. Our online
programs went through several iterations in course length. Initially courses were in a five-week format
and an attempt was made to fit three five week sessions into an existing semester. This model was not a
fit for the university and made management of course sessions difficult. Students also felt overwhelmed
by the amount of information and work crammed into five weeks. After one semester, faculty and administrators moved towards approving two 8-week sessions per semester, that would allow students to
take two to three courses per eight weeks based upon their abilities. The average student enrolls in two
courses per eight weeks, and if financially able, takes an additional two courses in the summer session.
This allows the average student to complete 30 credit hours per academic year, like a traditional student.
As HBCUs and MSIs are typically brick and mortar schools with the majority of their students enrolled
in face-to-face courses, another challenge when starting an online program or online course offerings
is deciding who these courses will be open to. An institution can allow traditional face to face students
to take both online and on-ground courses or it can restrict students to one format. This decision should
be set early in the program planning stages. At the onset of launching online degree programs at the
institution used for this case study, online students were separate from on-ground students. On-ground
students could only switch to the online format or take select online courses if they met a certain criteria
under an exemption policy. This included military service, change in job, medical issues, and caring for
a newborn or other family member. On-ground students could temporarily switch to the online format
for a semester or year based on circumstances, or completely change their program. Exemptions were
reviewed and granted through the Office of the Provost. Another approach is to allow students to blend
their schedules according to their needs. For example, a student may want to take all of their major
62
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
courses online, but feels more comfortable taking science or a foreign language in a face-to-face format.
If students are allowed to have a blended schedule, the university must ensure that their billing and other
systems are aligned to properly process these students. If tuition or fees are different based on student
type, this becomes a more complex issue.
Student Services: Key Components to a Successful Online Program
Reliable and effective online student services are an indispensable component of a successful online
program. Without solid student services an institution will not be able to provide online students all
of the necessary tools to be successful in the online environment. Common student services that are
available to on-campus students that must be translated to the online environment include counseling
services, library services, tutoring or academic success services, and financial aid and student accounts.
A university must assess its student services and the capabilities to offer their services to online students.
This may require adding virtual tutoring services, online success coaching, and ensuring access to oncampus resources such as a writing center. Typically, the regional accrediting body will require online
programs to offer student support services that mirror the services offered to students in face-to-face
classes. This can be achieved in a variety of ways. For example, campus counseling services may offer
counseling via phone or Skype. Students on academic probation may complete webinars on study skills
or other virtual programs designed to assist them in meeting their academic goals. Writing centers may
offer virtual tutoring or paper review. A number of companies now specialize in providing virtual tutoring
services to online learners. These services can be expensive depending upon how many hours of tutoring
is purchased, the extent of the services offered, or student usage. Most university libraries now have a 24
hour chat with a librarian service through their webpage or library database. This service is valuable to
online students who often complete their coursework at night or on the weekends at times that may be
outside of the regular hours of the campus library. Online success coaches can offer a more personalized
student success plan, work with at-risk students, and help students to identify their academic strengths
and weaknesses. Since HBCUs and MSIs tend to utilize a mentoring approach with students, online
success coaches may bridge the gap in personalized attention that students would typically receive in
face-to-face courses at these institutions. Student success coaches can also effectively act as advocates
for students’ who may not feel comfortable reaching out to instructors to discuss any concerns or challenges they are facing. We found the addition of an online student success coach to be indispensable in
our program. The online student success coach helps to identify and reach out to at-risk students (those
with no or little log-in or participation in the first week of classes), serves as a liaison between students
and faculty, and advocates on behalf of students when weaknesses in a course or program are articulated
by multiple students. The need for a student success coach or coaches should be discussed within the
campus implementation team. Even if this type of student service is not offered at the inception of a
program, the need can be re-evaluated and should be considered if a program has low retention rates.
Online programs must also adhere to accessibility standards. This includes documenting any disability
through disability services and notifying instructors of any accommodations that may be needed for an
individual student. Technology accessibility standards include text, image, audio, and video requirements
(Macy, Macy & Shaw, 2018). Online courses must be accessible to students with disabilities, and an
institution has to assess its ability to successfully adhere to existing federal standards (Coleman & Berge,
2018). This may require additional training for online instructors, course designers, and course reviewers.
63
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
HBCUs and MSIs may face specific challenges in accessibility depending on the background of students
who enroll in their programs. Computer literacy and communication barriers may compound existing
documented disabilities. Willingness to disclose a disability due to stigma may also reduce the chance
that a reasonable accommodation will be requested. An individual may also not be aware that they have
a disability that can interfere with their ability to perform well in an online environment, as assessment
and diagnosis is unusual in certain communities, especially in rural communities with fewer behavioral
and psychological services. In addition, the affordability of textbooks for online students continues to be
a significant issue. Many students have exhausted much of their financial aid, and have little funds left
to spend on books. The usage of free e-books and other open education resources can increase accessibility to course materials for students. We continuously found that students could not afford to purchase
expensive books with codes, especially materials for accounting courses, foreign languages courses, and
math courses where much of the course work was completed through a third-party website. If students
could not purchase the code within the first week, they were set up for failure in the course. Additionally,
courses with external materials made it difficult to assess the course for minimum course standards, as
administrators and peer reviewers did not have access to materials requiring a purchased code.
Establishing a Marketing and Recruitment Strategy
Once an institution has assessed and outlined the foundational aspects of their online program including
course structure, quality control, staffing and infrastructure needs, specific programs to be offered, student
services, and other aspects of organizational structure, a marketing and recruitment strategy should be
established. Program branding, target market, and how far marketing will extend should be determined
at the onset. Types of marketing that can be utilized include traditional radio, newspaper, and billboard
advertising, social media based marketing, and digital marketing such as geofencing and search engine
optimization. If your target market is non-traditional students already established in a career, then the
type of marketing should take the age and demographic of the targeted population into consideration.
An institution needs to consider the cost and sustainability of various marketing strategies. A marketing
budget should be established that is realistic for the launch of new programs and a new format in course
offerings. The up-front marketing costs may be larger than continuing marketing strategies after the first
year, as you have to spend more to initially get information out about online offerings.
In addition to marketing, there are other recruitment strategies that should be considered. This may
include partnerships with technical or community colleges, industries, or other professional organizations. Increasingly, online degree programs are catering to the need of specific industries who want their
employees to earn higher degrees or certifications. An example of a recruitment strategy for an online
criminal justice program would be recruitment at sheriff’s offices, police departments, and correctional
facilities within the region. For programs like nursing, public health, health administration, and health
management, recruitment and partnerships with hospitals can lead to new student enrollment. Though
face-to-face recruitment strategies require available admissions or recruitment staff to travel regularly,
this type of recruitment is usually more effective and less costly than impersonal marketing strategies.
Marketing staff, online program staff, and campus recruiters should work together to establish an
initial plan that fits to goals of the institution for online enrollment. Goals should be set each year and
evaluated regularly for effectiveness. If a marketing or recruitment strategy is not yielding student interest
or enrollment, that strategy should be re-assessed and a new strategy implemented if necessary. If a new
64
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
marketing tool emerges, or a new potential marketing for student recruitment, those should be explored
and a plan put into place for new enrollment targets. Marketing team members and stakeholders in online
programs should meet at least four times a year to plan and evaluate current strategies.
Messages and information about the online program that are utilized in marketing and recruitment
strategies must be carefully constructed to accurately reflect the core aspects of the online degree or
course. This includes making sure that accurate information is conveyed regarding course length, any
cohort models, length of a program if enrolling with no transfer credits or some transfer credits, synchronous or asynchronous format, and technical requirements. If courses are six weeks in length and a
student takes one course every six weeks, year round, this should be clearly communicated in marketing materials. If a program requires students to take proctored exams on campus, this should be clearly
stated in marketing campaigns. Marketing messages and program requirements should be shaped with
stakeholders from each online academic program, admissions, and the marketing team.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
HBCUs and other MSIs who wish to start online degree programs can use the process outlined here as
guidance in planning and implementation of online programs. Each individual institution should examine
the needs of their students, the culture of the institution, and the alignment of online degree programs
with the institution’s vision and mission. They should also consult their regional accreditation bodies
and ensure that their proposed programs are meeting all minimum requirements. One of the major lessons from the process was the need to engage all institutional stakeholders in the process, continuously
listen to faculty, students, staff, and administrators, and to utilize criticism and individual experiences
for continuous improvement and growth. Regular, ongoing evaluation was a key component throughout our process of developing, maintaining, and growing our online programs. After initial set-up and
implementation, searching for areas that needed improvement, creating new ways to engage and support
faculty and students, and applying research to scale-up the program proved to be essential aspects for
sustainability.
There are many challenges that face HBCUs and MSIs in the process of building quality, culturallyrelevant online programs. Many lessons were learned prior to launching, over the initial years of program
building, and in the process of growing online offerings to meet student interest and market demand.
The biggest challenge perhaps, is staying true to the vision and mission of a minority-serving institution, by keeping the history and background of an institution and its students in mind. It is easy to get
lost in the sea of online degree offerings that have proliferated in the past decade, or to allow online
degrees to alter the fabric of an institution in ways that too strongly deviate from the long-term goals of
an institution. It is, however, important for each institution to continue to move forward, to set a global
and progressive vision. It is this careful balance that puts MSIs and HBCUs in a unique position in the
online education market.
65
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
REFERENCES
Akshylykov, J. J., & Nurmatov, N. A. (2016). Integration challenges of university and information
management system (UIMS) to Moodle. Integra Educativa, 20(2), 158–163. doi:10.15507/19919468.083.020.201602.158-163
Allen, A., Seaman, J., Lederman, D., & Jaschik, S. (2012). Conflicted: Faculty and Online education,
2012. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com /sites/default/server_files/
survey/conflicted.html
Arroyo, A. T. (2014). A Composite Theoretical Model Showing Potential Hidden Costs of Online Distance
Education at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: With Implications for Building Cost-Resistant
Courses and Programs. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 17(1).
Austin, G. A. (2010). Administrative challenges and rewards of online learning in a rural community
college: Reflections of a distance learning administrator. New Directions for Community Colleges,
27(150), 27–36. doi:10.1002/cc.402
Buzzetto-More, N. A., & Sweat-Guy, R. (2006). Incorporating the Hybrid Learning Model into Minority
Education at a Historically Black University. Journal of Information Technology Education, 5153–5164.
Coleman, M. S., & Berge, Z. K. (2018). A Review of Accessibility in Online Higher Education. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 21(1), 1–7.
Davis, J. (2009). Historically Black colleges and university (HBCUs): How they can better infuse technology throughout their campuses and business curriculum. In First Annual General Business Conference
Proceedings (pp. 100-112). Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston State University.
Friedman, J. (2018). 4 Expectations for online education in 2018. U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved
from https://www.usnews.com/higher-education/online-education/articles/2018-01-18/4-expectationsfor-online-education-in-2018
Gasman, M., Nguyen, T., Samayoa, A. C., Commodore, F., & Hyde-Carter, Y. (2013). The changing face
of Historically Black colleges and universities. Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
Gerlich, R. N. (2005). Faculty Perceptions of Distance Learning. Distance Education Report, 9(17), 8.
Golden, J. E. (2016). Supporting online faculty through communities of practice: Finding the faculty
voice. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(1), 84–93. doi:10.1080/14703297.20
14.910129
Harkness, S. J. (2015). How a Historically Black College University (HBCU) Established a Sustainable
Online Learning Program in Partnership with Quality Matters. American Journal of Distance Education,
29(3), 198–209. doi:10.1080/08923647.2015.1057440
Ke, F., & Kwak, D. (2013). Online learning across ethnicity and age: A study on learning interaction
participation, perception, and learning satisfaction. Computers & Education, 61, 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.
compedu.2012.09.003
66
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
Kentnor, H. E. (2015). Distance Education and the evolution of online learning in the United States.
Curriculum & Teaching Dialogue, 17(1/2), 21-34.
Kim, M. (2002). Historically Black vs. White Institutions: Academic Development Among Black Students. The Review of Higher Education, 25(4), 385–407. doi:10.1353/rhe.2002.0019
Kim, M., & Conrad, C. (2006). The Impact of Historically Black Colleges and Universities on the
Academic Success of African-American Students. Research in Higher Education, 47(4), 399–427.
doi:10.100711162-005-9001-4
Kwun, O., Alijani, G. S., Mancuso, L. C., & Kevin Fulk, H. (2012). Student Perceptions Of Online
Courses And Behavior In Historically Black Colleges And Universities (HBCU). Franklin Business &
Law Journal, 2012(2), 99-120.
Legon, R. (2009). The quality matters program. Baltimore, MD: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566198-8.ch252
Li, X. (2007). Characteristics of Minority-Serving Institutions and Minority Undergraduates Enrolled
in These Institutions (NCES 2008-156). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education
Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Lorenzetti, J. P. (2009). Attitudes toward Online Courses at HBCUs. Distance Education Report, 13(12),
3–8.
Lynch, M. (2014). 5 Reasons HBCUs are Still Relevant. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 31(14),
38–43.
Lytle, R. (2012). College professors fearful of online growth. U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved
from https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2012/07/06/college-professors-fearfulof-online-education-growth
Macy, M. M., Macy, R., & Shaw, M. E. (2018). Bringing the Ivory Tower into Students’ Homes: Promoting Accessibility in Online Courses. Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal, 11(1), 13–21.
doi:10.18848/1835-9795/CGP/v11i01/13-21
Mandernach, B. J., Mason, T., Forrest, K. D., & Hackathorn, J. (2012). Faculty Views on the Appropriateness of Teaching Undergraduate Psychology Courses Online. Teaching of Psychology, 39(3), 203–208.
doi:10.1177/0098628312450437
Mitchell, L. D., Parlamis, J. D., & Claiborne, S. A. (2015). Overcoming Faculty Avoidance of Online
Education: From Resistance to Support to Active Participation. Journal of Management Education,
39(3), 350–371. doi:10.1177/1052562914547964
Nahal, A. (2009). Tending to Diversity at an HBCU. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 26(20), 24.
Online Degree Programs. (2013). The appeal of Black colleges online. OnlineDegreePrograms.com.
Retrieved from http://www.onlinedegreeprograms.com/blog/2013/the-appeal-of-black-colleges-online/
Palmer, M. M., Shaker, G., & Hoffmann-Longtin, K. (2014). Despite Faculty Skepticism: Lessons from
a Graduate-Level Seminar in a Hybrid Course Environment. College Teaching, 62(3), 100106. doi:10.
1080/87567555.2014.912608
67
Developing Successful Online Degree Programs at a Historically Black University
Panda, S., & Mishra, S. (2007). E-Learning in a Mega Open University: Faculty attitude, barriers and
motivators. Educational Media International, 44(4), 323–338. doi:10.1080/09523980701680854
Poley, J. K. (2008). Asynchronous Learning Networks: Policy Implications for Minority Serving Institutions and for Leaders Addressing Needs of Minority Learners. Journal of Asynchronous Learning
Networks, 12(2), 73–82.
Roach, R. (2002). Going Online With V-HBCU. Black Issues in Higher Education, 19(5), 28.
Samayoa, A. C., Gasman, M., Abiola, U., Thai-Huy, N., & Commodore, F. (2016). Examining the
potential of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) at Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUs). The Journal of Negro Education, 85(4), 480–488. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.4.0480
Shattuck, K. (2010). Quality matters: A faculty-centered program to ensure quality in online course
design. Collected Essays on Teaching and Learning, 3, 49–53. doi:10.22329/celt.v3i0.3239
Smith, R. III. (2011). HBCUs Must Embrace Online Education. Diverse Issues in Higher Education,
28(3), 25.
Snipes, V. T., Ellis, W., & Thomas, J. (2006). Are HBCUs up to speed technologically? One case study.
Journal of Black Studies, 36(3), 382–395. doi:10.1177/0021934705278782
Stuart, R., & Yep, D. (2012). Survey: Nearly One in Four HBCUs Offer Full, Blended Online Degree
Programs. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 29(15), 16.
Such, B. B., Ritzhaupt, A. A., & Thompson, G. T. (2017). Migrating learning management systems: A
case of a large public university. Administrative Issues Journal: Education, Practice & Research, 7(2),
57–69. doi:10.5929/2017.7.2.6
Tannehill, D. B., Serapiglia, C. P., & Guiler, J. K. (2018). Administrative or Faculty Control of Online
Course Development and Teaching: A Comparison of Three Institutions. Information Systems Education Journal, 16(3), 26–34.
Thomas, J. J., Graham, C. C., & Piña, A. A. (2018). Current Practices of Online Instructor Evaluation
in Higher Education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 21(2), 1–13.
Tzy-Ling, C., & Tzu-Jung, C. (2006). Examination of attitudes towards teaching online courses based
on theory of reasoned action of university faculty in Taiwan. British Journal of Educational Technology,
37(5), 683–693. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00590.x
Ulmer, L. W., Watson, L. W., & Derby, D. (2007). Perceptions of Higher Education Faculty Members
on the Value of Distance Education. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 8(1), 59–70.
Wilcox, C., Wells, J., Haddad, G., & Wilcox, J. K. (2014). The Changing Democratic Functions of
Historically Black Colleges and Universities. New Political Science, 36(4), 556–572. doi:10.1080/073
93148.2014.954793
Will, M. (2015). A Historically Black University Embraces an International Future. The Chronicle of
Higher Education, 3.
68
69
Chapter 5
Establishing Considerations
for Universal Design for
Learning and Accessibility
in Online Courses
Aisha S. Haynes
University of South Carolina – Columbia, USA
ABSTRACT
Students with and without disabilities are enrolling in online courses. Universal design for learning
(UDL) and accessibility strategies should be implemented proactively when designing and developing
online courses. Quality assurance and accessibility standards, university support, professional development, and instructional designers are important for instructors to successfully design online courses
and teach online. The purpose of this chapter is to provide educators with strategies for implementing
UDL and accessibility in online courses.
INTRODUCTION
Online courses are becoming increasingly popular in educational institutions. Enrollments in online college courses are growing at a rapid pace (Allen & Seaman, 2014) and diversity is increasing (Ingram,
Lyons, Bowron, & Oliver, 2012). Online courses have the potential to attract students who may not be
able to attend traditional face-to-face courses (Allen & Seaman, 2014). Distance courses require students
to be disciplined, proficient with technology and work independently (Rao, Edelen-Smith, & Walehau,
2015). As colleges and universities move toward offering more online courses, students with special
needs may get left behind (Catalano, 2014). Online course accessibility and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are important as institutions of higher education extend their reach and course offerings to
a variety of students near and far. Many students, including those students with disabilities, are opting
for online versions of courses.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch005
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
According to Tobin (2013), UDL is an educational framework for designing multiple ways for learners to interact, engage and experience content. UDL was initially developed to provide equal learning
opportunities for students in face-to-face courses, but the framework has been adapted for online courses
(Tobin, 2013). UDL goes beyond being beneficial for students with disabilities. The principles often
benefit all learners (Tobin, 2013). Universal design strategies are being researched as ways to create
curriculum that is more global and diverse (Ingram, Lyons, Bowron, & Oliver, 2012). When launching a
technology-driven international university, considerations for UDL and accessibility should be established.
A study was conducted on an Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course at the University
of South Carolina (UofSC) – Columbia. The following research question guided the study: What impact
does universal design for learning (UDL) and accessible course design have on student learning experiences in an online course? The Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course is an academic
foundation course at the university. Academic foundation Carolina Core courses support study in program
majors and beyond the classroom experiences. Carolina Core courses develop competency in values,
ethics, global citizenship, multicultural understanding and social responsibility. The courses are a shared
experience for UofSC students regardless of their majors or fields of study. The objective of this chapter
is to determine the impact of UDL and accessibility on online courses and to provide educators with
strategies for implementing UDL and accessibility in online courses.
BACKGROUND
Online Course Design
College and universities have reported an increase in the demand for online courses – greater than the
demand for face-to-face courses (Allen & Seaman, 2010). As students in higher education institutions are
enrolling in more online courses, concerns about the quality of online courses has been raised (Newby,
Eagleson, & Pfander, 2014). Educational environments are searching for ways to evaluate the quality of
the experiences of students enrolled in online courses (Schmidt & Stowell, 2017).
Quality online course design incorporate student-student, student-instructor and student-content
engagement (Tobin, 2014). Chickering and Gamson (1987) provides seven good practices for undergraduate education. The guidelines are applicable to more than just undergraduate education. The seven
principles also relate to graduate education and corporate learning environments (Robertson, Grant &
Jackson, 2005). The principles include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
70
Encourages contact between students and faculty
Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students.
Encourages active learning.
Gives prompt feedback.
Emphasizes time on task.
Communicates high expectations.
Respects diverse talents and ways of learning.
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
The seven principles crafted by Chickering and Gamson (1987) can be used to create and deliver
quality online courses. Frequent student-instructor communication is the most important factor in student involvement and motivation (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). Learning is enhanced when it is collaborative and social. Working with other students has the potential to increase student involvement and
motivation in courses (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). It is important for students to be actively involved
in courses. Students should discuss learned materials, connect class materials to experiences and practically apply the information (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). Chickering and Gamson (1987) also noted
how it’s beneficial to provide students with appropriate feedback on assignments and opportunities to
reflect on what they have learned to assess their knowledge and skills. Students may need assistance
with time management skills because learning to use time effectively is critical for student success
(Chickering & Gamson, 1987). Instructors should communicate time commitments in online courses
and allocate realistic amounts of time for course assignments. Emphasizing the importance of having
high standards for academic excellence is important. Expecting more from students can result in getting
more out of them (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). Students learn differently and need opportunities to
show their talents and learn in ways that works the best for them (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). The
advancements in technology provide instructors with ways to implement the seven principles in online
courses. Technology increases access to instructors and resources, provides a way for students to interact
with others, creates collaboration and active learning spaces, provides opportunities for timely feedback,
makes studying more efficient, facilitates “anywhere, anytime” learning, promotes criteria and samples
of work, and provides students with well-organized materials and powerful visuals that help them learn
in ways they find most effective (Chickering & Gamson, 1996).
In a study by Jaggers and Xi (2016), it was noted that instructor presence (inviting questions from
students, providing feedback and demonstrating “caring”), motivated students to succeed and increased
student commitment in courses. Frazer, Sullivan, Weatherspoon and Hussey (2017) explained how
participants in a study viewed effective online teaching as facilitating student learning, connecting with
students, being approachable, responding to the needs of students, sharing experiences, and establishing
mutual comfort.
The growth of online learning has elevated the need for instructors to be prepared to teach online (Allen
& Seaman, 2010; Fish & Wickersham, 2009). Developing a quality online course can be a considerable
time commitment and can be a learning curve for instructors (Bussmann, Johnson, Oliver, Forsythe,
Grandjean, & Lebsock, 2017). Many educators hesitate to teach online because of the need to acquire
new technical, course development and online course facilitation skills (Fish & Wickersham, 2009).
Designing accessible online courses is beneficial to all learners, but often requires additional resources and can be time consuming (Cifuentes, Janney, Guerra, & Weir, 2016). Proactively designing
accessible online courses has the potential to be less expensive and less time consuming for instructors
(Case & Davidson, 2011). According to the 2013 Managing Online Education Survey, more than half
of the institutions that were studied required faculty who taught online for the first time to participate in
faculty development before teaching an online course. Providing professional development opportunities
for instructors is important when creating online programs and courses. In a national study of online
learning leaders, Fredericksen (2017) noted that two of the top three priorities for leaders were faculty
development and training and faculty support.
71
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Quality Matters Program
The Quality Matters (QM) Program is an international non-profit quality assurance organization. The
organization is a leader in quality assurance for online learning and was created to measure the quality of
online courses (Quality Matters Program, 2018). QM provides professional development opportunities
for instructors and instructional designers. The QM’s Higher Education Rubric standards can be used to
design quality online courses and assess the quality of online courses. The standards are research based
and are established from the insights of experienced online instructors and instructional designers. The
QM Higher Education Rubric, Sixth Edition, consists of eight general standards and 42 specific review
standards. Twenty-three of the specific review standards are “essential”, 12 review standards are “very
important” and seven review standards are “important”. The general review standards are listed below
(Quality Matters Program, 2018):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Course Overview and Introduction
Learning Objectives (Competencies)
Assessment and Measurement
Instructional Materials
Learning Activities and Learner Interaction
Course Technology
Learner Support
Accessibility and Usability
Kearns and Mancilla (2017) measured the impact of QM professional development. A mixed-methods
analysis of survey data over a three-year period revealed that the training improved course alignment,
class communication and the creation of better course learning objectives (Kearns & Mancilla, 2017).
Faculty reported creating more user-friendly and accessible courses. Faculty became more aware of UDL
and accessibility strategies, and discussed creating more accessible instructional materials.
Online course design should meet accessibility and usability standards (Parra, Osanloo, Raynor,
Hair, Korang, Padilla, & Chatterjee, 2018). The intent for standard eight is for course design to utilize
UDL principles and accessibility and usability techniques (Quality Matters Program, 2018). Techniques
include the course navigation facilitating ease of use, course design facilitating readability, providing
accessible course materials, providing alternative means to access course content, multimedia facilitating
ease of use and the inclusion of vendor accessibility statements for all required technologies in courses.
Proactively designing an accessible course can assist with last minute modifications to meet the needs
of students (Case and Davidson, 2011).
Online Course Accessibility
Educators may or may not know whether online students have disabilities, so it is essential for courses
to be designed with accessibility in mind. Online courses are diverse and include students with different abilities, backgrounds and experiences (Parra et al., 2018). It is essential to consider the needs
of all students, especially students with disabilities, when designing online courses. The importance
of designing accessible online courses cannot be ignored (Cifuentes et al., 2016). A survey of online
72
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
instructors found that 80% did not consider the needs of students with disabilities (Bissonnette, 2006).
Students with learning disabilities represent the largest group of students with disabilities. These students
and students with other “invisible” disabilities, like Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
traumatic brain injury or psychological disabilities, may be less likely to self-disclose their disability to
the institution, or even to the instructor due to the potentially impersonal nature of the online environment (UDI Online Project, 2010).
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
Issues, Controversies, Problems
Online learning environments can present challenges for students with disabilities if accessibility strategies are not implemented within courses (Catalano, 2014). Colleges and universities should understand
the challenges and provide faculty with resources and information to create accessible course content
(Bastedo, Sugan, Swenson, & Vargus, 2013). According to the National Center for Educational Statistics
(2016), 11% of college students were identified as having a disability between 2007-2008 and 20112012. Students identified themselves as having learning disabilities, blindness or visual impairments,
deafness or hard of hearing, speech impediments, orthopedic impairments and other health impairments.
There are laws related to accessibility, but there is no standardized approach to accommodate students with disabilities who are enrolled in online courses (Bastedo et al., 2013). In the 2013 Managing
Online Education survey, it was determined that 16% of institutions did not have a policy in place for
online students with disabilities. Thirty-six percent of the institutions rely on faculty to provide support
to online students with disabilities. More than half of the institutions studied did not have a systematic
way to ensure that students with disabilities were well served. Courses are now being analyzed for accessibility for all students, and not the “average” student (Ingram et al., 2012). There is a shift to revise
curriculum, and not “fix” students (Ingram et al., 2012).
Some students with disabilities utilize assistive technologies. Assistive technologies are tools that
improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Example assistive technologies
that may be used by students in online courses include screen readers, speech-to-text programs, screen
magnifiers, keyboards with large keys, and alternative input devices like head pointers and eye tracking
devices. It’s important for courses to be accessible so that students who use assistive technologies can
access course materials with ease.
Universal Design for Learning
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a theoretical framework based on research from technology,
neuroscience and education (Hartmann, 2015). The UDL framework is based on variability and contains
three principles that can provide learners with equal opportunities to learn. According to CAST (2018),
UDL principles include engagement (the “why” of learning), representation (the “what” of learning) and
action and expression (the “how” of learning). CAST (2018) notes the following about the UDL principles:
73
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
•
•
•
Multiple means of engagement: learners differ in the ways they are challenged, engaged and motivated to learn
Multiple means of representation: learners differ in the way they approach content and comprehend information
Multiple means of action and expression: learner differ in the way they express what they know
UDL values the need for courses to be accessible when the course is created (Hartmann, 2015; Ingram et al., 2012), and not reactively made accessible when an accommodation is needed for a student.
Inclusive strategies that benefit a variety of students can benefit all students and not just students with
disabilities. UDL can assist students without disabilities and increase clarity for all students who are
enrolled in courses (Rao et al., 2015).
In order to receive accommodations, students are required to disclose their disability and register with
a Student Disability Services office. Some students in an online environment do not want to disclose
their disability and do not request accommodations. Tobin (2013) expressed how UDL is perceived to be
needed retroactively when a student with a disability needs an accommodation. Tobin (2013) also noted
how captions and transcripts can be useful for parents who would like quiet time after children go to bed.
Tobin also expressed how transcripts and captions provide learners a way to access material based on
device capabilities and software application programs. Creating course materials with UDL in mind can
help learners where English is their second language and older learners who may be losing their vision.
Using UDL principles create environments where course materials are designed to be accessible to all
learners (Tobin, 2013). Educators should recognize their part in making courses accessible (Ingram et
al., 2012). By incorporate UDL principles in course design, educators can restructure and rethink how
learning occurs and how students are assessed in online learning environments (Rogers-Shaw, CarrChellman, & Choi, 2018). Using a UDL framework helps retain students and increases their changes
of being successful in online courses (Tobin, 2013). Principles of UDL can be implemented in course
learning outcomes, materials and assessments so that students, despite differences, will have an equal
opportunity to learn (Rogers-Shaw et al., 2018).
With the increase in the development of online courses, it’s important to gather information on students
experiences in online learning environments (Liu, 2012). A challenge in online education is providing
students with opportunities to succeed (Moore, 2014). In a distance environment, some students fear
that they will not be successful (Moore, 2014).
ONLINE LEARNING QUALITY REVIEW
In 2013, UofSC’s Office of the Provost implemented a Distributed Learning Quality Review (DLQR)
process. The process included reviewing online courses for quality and accessibility and revising courses
to meet new University quality assurance standards. Online courses at UofSC Columbia and the Palmetto
College campuses (regional campus system) are reviewed for quality, accessibility, and usability. To
date, 133 courses have passed the review.
The quality assurance standards are based on the Quality Matters (QM) Program rubric. UofSC’s
rubric consists of nine general standards and 49 specific standards. The nine general standards include:
course overview and introduction, learning outcomes/objectives, assessment and measurement, instructional materials, course activities and learner interaction, course technology, learner support, usability
74
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
and accessibility. All courses must meet certain standards, which are deemed as “essential”, as well as
80% of the total standards. The course discussed in this chapter, Introduction to Women’s and Gender
Studies, passed the University’s quality review.
Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies Course Structure
The Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course is an introduction to Women’s and Gender
Studies and is described as a social science perspective of women in psychologic, sociological, historical, anthropological, economic and political contexts. The course is taught in a 16-week format, 8-week
format, 4-week format and 3-week format by the instructor.
Upon successful completion of the course, students are able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Describe the key events in the history of feminist movement in the United States.
Identify the ways in which race, class, gender, and sexuality function in our society as systems of
oppression and privilege.
Develop feminist strategies for creating a more just society.
Examine the importance of feminist concepts and analysis.
Demonstrate an awareness of the social construction of gender (femininity and masculinity) and
its intersection with race, class, and sexuality.
Define vocabulary terms in the field of Women’s Studies.
Apply important theories and concepts in the field of Women’s Studies
The course was designed in the Blackboard Learning Management System and included the following links on the main menu:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Announcements
Read this First
Meet Your Professor
Syllabus
Weekly Modules
Course Discussion Boards
Group Discussion Boards
Nickel and Dimed
Check Grades
Send Email
Blackboard Help
The announcement section of the course was the first course component that students saw when they
accessed the course. The instructor posted two announcements each week for students. The announcements were also sent as an email to students. The “Read this First” section of the course included pertinent
information to help students get started in the course. This section included the following:
•
•
Course Introduction
Is online learning for me?
75
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Prerequisite Knowledge for the Course
Minimum Technical Skills Expected
Email Address in Blackboard
How much time will this course take each week?
Can I complete the course work when I choose?
Will anyone help me with this course?
When are assignments due?
What about emergencies?
Netiquette: Etiquette for Communicating Online
Contacting the Instructor
Modules
Course Accessibility
Checklists
Student Academic/Support Resources
Technological Resources
Computer Problems
Using a Mac to View Lecture Presentations
Course Syllabus
What am I supposed to do know that I’ve read this section?
The “Meet Your Professor” section of the course included the contact information for the instructor.
The section also included a captioned introductory video of the instructor. The instructor welcomed
the students to the class, provided expectations of an online course, explained how to get started in the
course, and provided interesting facts about herself.
In the “Syllabus” section of Blackboard, the instructor provided a detailed syllabus in both Microsoft
Word and PDF formats. Students in the course were informed that online courses are not easier than
face-to-classes courses and the importance of being extremely motivated and well organized to succeed
in the course. The typical class structure consisted of weekly modules. The modules included short
lecture presentations, readings, group discussions, quizzes, films/YouTube videos, exams and analytical
papers. Students were asked to post course related questions on a “Questions about the Course” discussion board in Blackboard. The course syllabus included a clear grading scale and grade distribution,
netiquette statements, instructions on submitting assignments, quiz and exam information, and specific
information on group discussions and rubrics. Information on the late work/make-up policy, disability
services, academic honesty and a complete course outline was included in the course syllabus.
The syllabus was created with UDL and accessibility techniques. Below are the features that were
used to create the syllabus:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
76
Instructor contact information included
Required textbook information included
Styles feature for document structure
Properly labeled hyperlinks with meaningful descriptions
Pre-formatted list styles for lists
Column heading indicated for tables
“Repeat Header Row” selected for tables
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
•
•
•
•
Sufficient color contrast
Font size at least 12 points
Font type consistent and easy to read
Page numbers
The “Weekly Modules” section of the course included weekly folders that contained information for
each week of the course. Information included measurable weekly learning objectives, images, detailed
course checklists, textbook readings, online readings, Adobe Presenter presentations, presentation transcripts, printable PowerPoint slides, YouTube and other 3rd party videos, study guides, quizzes, exams,
rubrics and instructions for writing papers. Students were instructed to complete course assignments in
the order they appeared.
Discussion boards were split into two sections. One section was “Course Discussion Boards” and
the other section was “Group Discussion Boards”. The course discussion boards section included the
following forums: “Questions about this Course”, “Student Introductions” and “Student Café Forum”.
Students were instructed to ask course related questions on the “Questions about this Course” discussion board. Each question was answered within 24 hours by the instructor or other students enrolled in
the course. Students frequently had the same questions. This technique provided student-instructor and
student-student interactions within the course. Students were asked to introduce themselves and provide
their name, hometown, year in school, major, interesting fact about themselves, previous women studies coursework and an image. The “Student Café Forum” provided an avenue for students to discuss
course related material. Related material included readings, videos, PowerPoint presentations, or other
pertinent artifacts.
Students in the class were split into groups of seven or eight people. The students discussed various
topics in women and gender studies. Initially posts were due by Thursday of the week and a response to
one classmate was due by Sunday of the week.
“Nickle and Dimed” was an assignment that students worked on throughout the semester. The instructor created an Adobe Presenter presentation for the assignment to provide students with detailed
information related to the assignment. A transcript for the presentation was located within the course.
“Nickle and Dimed” was due during the final exam period of the course.
The “Check Grades” section of Blackboard provided students with a simple way to check their grades.
Students had the ability to send email to the instructor, all users in the course, all groups in the course,
all teaching assistant users in the course, all instructor users in the course, and select course users.
Professional Development
The faculty member of the course worked with an instructional designer from the university’s Center for
Teaching Excellence (CTE) to design the course. Instructional designers assist faculty with designing
online, blended and flipped courses. The instructional design team provides instructors and graduate
teaching assistants with resources and pedagogical practices to design, develop and implement high quality online courses. Instructional designers work one-on-one with faculty clients to design, develop and
deliver quality online courses, conduct workshops, design and teach faculty short courses, and consult
with departments on online course design.
The CTE at UofSC inspires excellence and innovation in teaching. Since 2006, the center has created
and provided programming, resources and opportunities that foster innovative and effective pedagogical
77
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
practices among all who teach at UofSC. The CTE is the university’s one-stop resource for professional
development workshops, grants, short courses, communities of practices, hands-on assistance with course
design and one-on-one teaching consultations.
Professional development workshops include workshops on online course design, universal design
for learning and inclusive teaching. Example workshops titles include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
“Reaching All Students: Creating Inclusive Content”
“Inclusive Excellence at USC”
“AccessAbility: Universal Design as a Tool for Ensuring Equity of Access”
“Inclusive Teaching Methods for Online Instruction”
“Get Started Teaching Online in 75 minutes!”
“Defogging Our Equity Lens: Microaggressions and Unconscious Biases”
“Intercultural Inclusion and Diversity Teaching Strategies for First Generation College Students”
Many of the workshops noted are a part of new certification of completion initiative program that was
created by the CTE and the Office of Diversity and Inclusion during Fall 2018. The Teaching Towards
Inclusive Excellence (TTIE) initiative is designed to provide instructors with an opportunity to strengthen
their diversity leadership capacities and support the University’s commitment to inclusive excellence.
The CTE offers teaching innovation grants every year to invest in and support faculty. The grants
are designed to provide resources for faculty as they implement new and cutting-edge pedagogy with
the goal of enhancing student learning. The 3Ds (Design, Develop and Deliver) Bootcamp for Online
Courses grant program is intended to equip faculty with the skills needed to launch a quality, universally
designed and accessible online course. Participants participate in a series of face-to-face workshops over
the course of a week and continue to collaborate with CTE instructional designers during a semester to
complete the online course development. The course must meet the University quality assurance standards.
Instructional designers and invited guests conduct presentations on adult learning, principles of good
teaching, measureable learning outcomes and objectives, online learning quality assurance standards,
Quality Matters Program rubric, selecting assessments, instructional materials, activities and course technologies, communication and feedback plans, online syllabi, UDL, accessibility, course evaluation and
lecture creation. At the end of the face-to-face week, participants summarize their curriculum plan, share
the instructional materials that they created, provide feedback to colleagues and discuss a plan of action.
The “Getting Started Teaching Online at USC” short course offered through the CTE provides faculty
with best practices for teaching in an online environment. The course introduces faculty to teaching online
and prepares faculty to develop quality, accessible and universally designed online courses. The course
covers online learning best practices, student and faculty support services, online syllabi creation, role of
alignment in online courses, the Quality Matters rubrics, instructional technologies, learner interaction
and engagement, accessibility, usability, and universal design for learning. A week in the short course
focuses on accessibility, usability and UDL.
The Instructional Design Community of Practice is led by CTE Instructional Designers. The community is a place where online learning colleagues meet monthly to share ideas, provide updates on departmental tasks, collaborate on projects and discuss innovations in the field. The community of practice
participants discuss inclusive course design – including accessibility, usability and UDL.
When the Office of the Provost announced the Distributed Learning Quality Review (DLQR) process in 2013 as a part of their commitment to ensuring high-quality distributed learning courses at the
78
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
University, the faculty member of the Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course collaborated
with an instructional designer from the CTE to modify the course for quality UDL and accessibility.
UDL and accessibility and was a focus of the quality review. The course included all of the accessibility
requirements and was voted a “pass” by the Provost’s Committee on Distributed Learning. The CTE and
the university’s Student Disability Resource Center partnered to create specific accessibility standards
that all courses must meet to pass the review. The specific standards include:
•
•
•
•
•
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) has been performed on all PDF files before being posted.
PDF files are accompanied by their Word document equivalent or a link to the HTML equivalent.
All posted documents (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, etc.) are accessible and usable by screen readers.
Videos are captioned or have a transcript in Word format that made is available simultaneously
with the video (on the same date that the video is made available or assigned to be watched).
All content is accessible via the computer’s keyboard, without the use of a mouse
Specific accessibility guidelines to meet the standards include:
•
•
•
•
•
General
◦◦
Course and course content are accessible using only the keyboard
Blackboard
◦◦
Course is easy to navigate
◦◦
Alternative text (Alt-Text) has been added to all images
◦◦
Course does not contain blinking or flashing animations
◦◦
Links are properly labeled with meaningful descriptions
Course Syllabus:
◦◦
Instructor contact information is included
◦◦
Required textbook information is included
◦◦
Syllabus includes location and contact information for the Student Disability Resource center
◦◦
Page numbers are included
Microsoft Word
◦◦
Styles feature is used for document structure
◦◦
Alternative text has been included for images and shapes
◦◦
Links are properly labeled with meaningful descriptions
◦◦
Pre-formatted list styles are used for lists
◦◦
Column headings are indicated for tables
◦◦
“Repeat Row” is selected for tables
◦◦
Sufficient color contrast is used
◦◦
Color alone is not used to convey messages
◦◦
Font size is at least 12 points
◦◦
Font type is consistent and easy to read
◦◦
Page numbers are included
Microsoft PowerPoint
◦◦
Slides items are in the correct order
◦◦
Alternative text has been included for images and shapes
◦◦
Links are properly labeled with meaningful descriptions
79
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
•
•
•
•
◦◦
Pre-formatted list styles are used for lists
◦◦
Sufficient color contrast is used
◦◦
Font size is at least 24 points
◦◦
Color alone is not used to convey messages
◦◦
Videos are set to start automatically
◦◦
Unique titles are used for slides
◦◦
Font type is consistent and easy to read
Microsoft Excel
◦◦
Column titles/column row titles are used for spreadsheets
◦◦
Alternative text has been added to images and objects
◦◦
Links are properly labeled with meaningful descriptions
◦◦
Blank columns, rows and cells have been avoided
◦◦
Sheet tabs have unique names
◦◦
Sufficient color contrast is used
◦◦
Color alone is not used to convey messages
Portable Document Format (PDF)
◦◦
Text is searchable and can be highlighted
Audio
◦◦
A transcript is provided for audio content
Video
◦◦
Captions are included for video content
The quality assurance standards have built-in UDL strategies. The following UDL strategies were
included in the course:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
80
The instructor and the instructional designer made sure that students knew how to get started in
the course and knew where to find course components
The instructor introduced herself to the class and asked students to introduce themselves to the
class
Measurable course level and learning outcomes were present within the course
The course grading policy was clearly stated
Grading rubrics were included within the course
A variety of assessment instruments and instructional materials were used throughout the course
Students were provided multiple opportunities to track their learning
Lecture video were short and based on topics
The course included a variety of interactions (student-student, student-instructor, student content)
A detailed checklist was provided to students
Student support services, including an accessibility policy, was included within the course
Course was broken down into modules for navigation and ease of use
Lecture video were captioned and transcripts were provided
OCR was performed on all scanned files
All posted documents were made accessible and usable for screen readers
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A study was conducted on the Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies at the University of South
Carolina – Columbia that passed an internal quality review. The following research question guided
the study: What impact does universal design for learning (UDL) and accessible course design have on
student learning experiences in an online course? Participants, who were enrolled in five sections of the
asynchronous course, completed an online survey that included demographic and informational questions
pertaining to personal characteristics, as well as UDL, accessibility, usability in online courses, and the
impacts that the course design has on student learning outcomes. A link to the questionnaire was posted
as an announcement in Blackboard and was emailed to all students. The sample size was 192 students
who enrolled in the five sections of the course. Of the 192 students enrolled in the course, 179 responses
were collected. Some questionnaires were discarded because the questionnaires were not fully completed.
One hundred and seven-three entries (N=173) were used for this study. The response rate for this study
was 90%. Students who participated in the study received ten bonus points towards an assignment.
There were 173 (79%) females and 36 (21%) males enrolled in the course. Most of the students in the
course were between the ages of 18 and 22 (91%). There were 124 (72%) juniors and seniors enrolled
in the course and the majority of the students were Exercise Science majors (13%). One hundred and
thirty-three (77%) of students had taken an online course before enrolling in the Introduction to Women’s
and Gender Studies course. The majority of students (89%) had taken four or less online courses. Table
1 displays the number of online courses students completed (not including the Introduction to Women’s
and Gender Studies course).
Twenty-seven (16%) of the students identified as having a disability. When asked to describe their
disability, students noted the following disabilities: vision, ADHD, anxiety, asthma, physical (wheelchair), learning disability, food and other allergies, attention deficit disorder (ADD), post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), depression and auditory processing disorder. Students were asked if they live with one
or more of the characteristics below. The following responses were provided:
•
•
Blindness/Visual Impairment - 4 (2%)
Corrected Vision (e.g. glasses, contact lenses) - 58 (34%)
Table 1. Number of online courses completed
Number of Courses
Frequency
Percent
1
75
43
2
30
17
3
27
16
4
23
13
5
10
6
6
3
2
7
3
2
8
1
1
More than 8
1
1
81
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Deafness/Hearing Impairment - 2 (1%)
Hearing Loss - 1 (1%)
Head/Brain injury - 1 (1%)
Mental Illness - 4 (2%)
Mobility or Orthopedic Impairment, or Arthritis - 1 (1%)
Speech/Communication Impairment - 1 (1%)
Neurological Impairment - 2 (1%)
Cognitive Impairment - 0 (0%)
Learning Disability/Learning Difference - 14 (8%)
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - 2 (1%)
Other - 3 (2%)
In addition to descriptive information, participants were asked questions about their experiences in
the class as it pertains to the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Design of the course in Blackboard
Time spent accessing materials in the course
Impact of the structure of the course on learning
How course materials helped them stay on track
Sense of community in the course
Formats of documents
Lecture materials and transcripts
Experiences in online courses
How the Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course compared to other courses that they
had taken
Table 2 displays how participants rated the design of the Blackboard site. The question asked was
“Based upon your experiences in your online class, how would you rate the design of the course Blackboard site? Does the design facilitate each of the components below?” A Likert scale was used, 1=
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral feelings, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. On a scale of 1-5
with 5 being strongly agree, all means for course design components resulted in means greater than 4.00.
The specific components include “where to begin the course”, “where to learn about your professor”,
“where your syllabus and course schedule is located”, “where course materials are located”, “when your
assignments are due”, “where you check your grades”, “where you send email”, “where to get help”. The
course design component “where you check your grades” had the high mean score at 4.48.
When asked “How often do you log into your course?”, the majority of the participants logged into
their course at least 3 times per week. Table 3 displays the number of course logins for the course.
•
•
•
82
Having my course broken down into weekly modules positively impacts my learning
The weekly checklists help me stay on track
Introducing myself to the class and responding to the posts of other students at the beginning of
the course helps create a sense of community
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Table 2. Course design components (N=173)
Course Design Components
Mean
Standard Deviation
Where to begin the course
4.31
.90
Where to learn about your professor
4.38
.90
Where to learn about other students in the course
3.97
1.11
Where your syllabus and course schedule is located
4.47
.87
Where course materials are located
4.46
.90
When your assignments are due
4.46
.92
Where you check your grades
4.48
.94
Where you send email
4.23
1.01
Where to get help
4.16
1.03
Table 3. Course logins
Frequency
Percent
0 times a week
0
0
1-2 times a week
21
12.1%
3-4 times a week
82
47.4%
5-6 times a week
42
24.2%
7-8 times a week
18
10.4%
More than 8 times a week
10
5.8%
A Likert scale, 1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral feelings, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree, was used when participants were
presented with the following statements:
The Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course was broken down into weekly modules.
Weeks ran from Monday, 12:01am through Sunday, 11:59pm. Each module included measurable learning objectives, a printable weekly checklist in Word and PDF formats and all course activities for the
week in logical order. Ninety percent of the participants noted that they “agreed” or “strongly agreed”
that having the course broken down into weekly modules positively impacted their learning. Ninety-one
percent of the students also noted how the inclusion of weekly checklists helped them stay on track in
the course. Fifty-one percent of the participants “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that introducing themselves and responding to the post of other students at the beginning of the course helped create a sense
of community. Thirty-four students had neutral feelings.
All Word documents posted within the course also included the PDF file. Twenty-two percent of the
students only used the MS Word file, 34% of the students used just the PDF files and 45% of students
used both the Word and PDF files for various reasons. When asked “Why did you make this choice?”,
58% of students noted that PDF files were easier for them to open. Table 4 displays student responses
on why they decided to use PDF and/or MS Word versions of files.
If students selected “Other”, they were asked to explain why they selected other.
The responses for “Other” include:
83
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Table 4. PDF and Word files decision
I don’t have MS Word on my computer.
Frequency
Percent
3
2
I don’t have Adobe Reader on my computer.
3
2
MS Word documents are easier for me to open.
52
30
PDF files are easier for me to open.
100
58
I like to modify my documents (change font sizes,
change font colors, highlight text, etc).
55
32
Other
14
8
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
PDFs automatically open in a new tab and word documents require me to download it. It’s just
easier.
No specific reason - it was just a preference from past experience. I do like the fact that they are
both available, though! I wish she would post the PowerPoint slides in PowerPoint format, so that
it would be easier to take notes underneath each slide.
The articles were better in PDF but the slides were able to be printed differently in PPT
I used both and I think that both were easily accessible. I honestly think that I used whichever I
happened to click on each week.
If I want to save the document (like the checklists) to my computer then I use MS Word. If I do not
want to save it and are just reading it and then exiting the document, I will use the PDF version.
No particular reason, just out of habit.
I use both formats depending on if I want to edit a document or not.
PDF is easier if I don’t need to edit the material.
If I want to edit the document with my notes for my personal use then I will open in Word. If I just
want to briefly view the document then I open in PDF.
I like that you can’t change the PDF documents.
Sometimes it is easier to simply open the PDF file in another tab. Other times it is more useful to
open a file in Word.
Helps me understand the material if I see it in writing.
Sometimes I open word, sometimes I open a PDF. I don’t have a preference.
PDFs open in Safari. I have to wait on Word documents to download.
Students were asked if they primary view the lecture presentations (Adobe Presenter voiceover PowerPoint) or read the lecture from a transcript. Table 5 displays the primary method students accessed
lecture presentations. Fifty-five respondents (32%) answered that they viewed the lecture presentation.
Fifty respondents (29%) noted that they read the transcript and 65 respondents (38%) answered that they
viewed the lecture presentation and read the transcript.
In response to the question, “For the lecture presentations, do you use the “Notes” section of Adobe
Presenter while you are viewing the lecture?”, 48 students (28%) never used the “Notes” feature in Adobe
Presenter and 99 students (57%) noted they “Always”, “Often” or “Sometimes” use the “Notes” feature.
Table 6 displays the usage of the “Notes” feature in Adobe Presenter.
84
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Table 5. Primary method for accessing lectures
Frequency
Percent
View lecture presentation
55
32
Read the lecture (transcript)
50
29
Both
65
38
Neither
3
2
Table 6. Usage of the “notes” feature of Adobe Presenter
Frequency
Percent
Always
30
17
Often
26
15
Sometimes
43
25
Rarely
26
15
Never
48
28
A question was asked “If you use the “Notes” section of Adobe Presenter while viewing the presentation, how helpful is it when learning the material?” Table 7 displays the responses to the helpfulness of
the “Notes” section of Adobe Presenter. Eighty-two respondents (68%), of the 121 students, expressed
that used the “Notes” section of Adobe Presenter found the feature “Very Helpful” or “Helpful”.
Table 8 displays the readability of the “Notes” in Adobe Presenter. Ninety percent of the students
who used the “Notes” feature in Adobe Presenter found the information.
Table 9 displays how often students used the provided transcripts. Over 78% of students used the
provided transcripts for the lecture presentations “Always”, “Often” or “Sometimes”. Twenty-two percent
of students “Rarely” or “Never” used the transcripts.
Table 10 displays how transcripts were used. Over 50% of students used the transcripts as study guides
before tests and 38% of students used the transcript to review the lecture presentation after wanting the
lecture presentation. Students were asked to check all that apply.
Table 7. Helpfulness of the “notes” section of Adobe Presenter
Frequency
Percent
Very Helpful
36
21
Helpful
46
27
Neutral
32
18
Unhelpful
3
2
Very Unhelpful
1
1
I do not use the “Notes” section of Adobe
Presenter
55
32
85
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Table 8. Readability of the “notes” in Adobe Presenter
Frequency
Percent
Yes
96
55
No
11
6
I do not use the “Notes” section of Adobe
Presenter
66
38
Frequency
Percent
Always
31
18
Often
52
30
Table 9. Usage of the transcripts
Sometimes
52
30
Rarely
25
14
Never
13
8
Frequency
Percent
My main source of accessing the lecture
42
24
To review the lecture presentation after I
have watched the lecture presentation
65
38
As a study guide before tests
90
52
Other
4
2
I do not use the transcripts of the lectures
28
16
Table 10. Specific usage of transcripts
One student explained they used the transcript to highlight names and terms during the lecture. Another student noted they took notes on the transcripts.
When asked if the “Notes” section in Adobe Presenter or the transcript positively impact their learning, 54% noted that they “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” with the statement. A Likert scale was used, 1=
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral feelings, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. Table 11 displays
the results.
For the question, “If you have taken online courses before this course, how does this class compare to
other online classes you have taken?”, a Likert scale was used. 1= much worse, 2 = somewhat worse, 3
= about the same, 4 = somewhat better, 5 = much better. The questions focused on organization, ease of
navigation, sense of community, interactivity, master of material and overall learning. Table 12 displays
the comparison of the Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course to other completed online
courses. Fifty percent of respondents noted that the organization of the course was “Much Better” than
other online courses completed. In addition, 51% of students expressed that the ease of navigation of
the course was “Much Better” than other courses completed. Forty-two percent of respondents noted
that the “sense of community” in the course was “About the Same” as other online courses completed.
86
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Table 11. Impact of the “notes” feature in Adobe Presenter and transcripts
Frequency
Percent
1
6
3
2
8
5
3
66
38
4
65
38
5
28
16
Table 12. Course comparisons (N=173)
Much Worse
Somewhat Worse
About the Same
Somewhat Better
Much Better
Organization
0
0
52
35
86
Ease of Navigation
0
0
55
29
89
Sense of Community
0
3
73
30
67
Interactivity
0
2
59
41
71
Mastery of Material
1
0
59
40
73
Overall Learning
1
1
57
36
78
DISCUSSION
The results of the study indicate that the majority of students enrolled in the Introduction to Women’s
and Gender Studies course had enrolled in at least one online course prior to the course enrollment. The
majority of students did not identify as having a disability. The navigation of the course was simple for
students. Students had no issues locating where to begin within the course, the location of instructor
contact information, course syllabus, schedule, course materials, assignment due dates, grades, email
and course assistance.
Most students logged into the course 3-4 times a week. An overwhelming number of students felt
that having the course broken down into weekly modules positively impacted their learning. Students
felt that weekly checklists helped them stay on track. Half of the class felt that the course introductions
helped to create a sense of community. Many students accessed both the Word and PDF files. Compared
to Microsoft Word files, students found PDF files easier to open. Even though 16% of students identified
as having a disability, nearly 30% of students read the transcript and nearly 40% viewed the presentation
and read the transcript as their primary source of getting the lecture. Sixteen percent of students did
not use the transcripts at all for the course. Many students used the transcripts as study guides before
exams and to review the information after watching the lecture. In addition, more than half of the class
viewed the “Notes” section of Adobe Presenter to view the written text of the lecture while watching
the lecture. More than half of the students found the “Notes” helpful and more than half the class felt
that the “Notes” or transcript had a positive impact on their learning.
Results showed that the organization, navigation, sense of community, interactivity, mastery of
knowledge and overall learning of the Introduction to Women’s and Gender Studies course was better
than other courses they had completed.
87
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
CONCLUSION
This chapter discussed UDL and accessibility techniques and the course design of an Introduction to
Women’s and Gender Studies asynchronous online course. UDL, accessibility and usability features were
used to design an asynchronous online course that passed an internal quality review. The instructor of
the course received professional development from UofSC’s Center for Teaching Excellence and support
from the University to design a quality course. The features used to design the course were beneficial to
all students in the course – not just students with disabilities. When looking to design online courses, it’s
important for instructors to have support from the University. Support includes professional development
opportunities and a partnership with instructional designers. Universal design for learning, accessibility
and usability standards should be created and proactively incorporated in the design of online courses.
REFERENCES
Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the United States 2009.
Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium.
Bastedo, K., Sugar, A., Swenson, N., & Vargas, J. (2013). Programmatic, Systematic, Automatic: An
Online Course Accessibility Support Model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17(3), 87–102.
Bissonnette, L. (2006). Meeting the evolving education needs of faculty in providing access for university students with disabilities. Retrieved from http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/8741/1/NR16269.pdf
Bussmann, S., Johnson, S. R., Oliver, R., Forsythe, K., Grandjean, M., Lebsock, M., & Luster, T. (2017).
On the Recognition of Quality Online Course Design in Promotion and Tenure: A Survey of Higher Ed
Institutions in the Western United States. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 20(1), 1–14.
Case, D. E., & Davidson, R. C. (2011). Accessible online learning. New Directions for Student Services,
2011(134), 47–58. doi:10.1002s.394
CAST. (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org
Catalano, A. (2014). Improving distance education for students with special needs: A qualitative Study of
students’ experiences with an online library research course. Journal of Library & Information Services
in Distance Learning, 8(1/2), 17–31. doi:10.1080/1533290X.2014.902416
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–7.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1996). Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever.
AAHE Bulletin, 49(2), 3–7.
Cifuentes, L., Janney, A., Guerra, L., & Weir, J. (2016). A Working Model for Complying with Accessibility Guidelines for Online Learning. TechTrends, 60(6), 557–564. doi:10.100711528-016-0086-8
Fish, W. W., & Wickersham, L. E. (2009). Best Practices for Online Instructors: Reminders. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 10(3), 279–284.
88
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Frazer, C., Sullivan, D. H., Weatherspoon, D., & Hussey, L. (2017). Faculty Perceptions of Online Teaching Effectiveness and Indicators of Quality. Nursing Research and Practice, 2017, 1–6.
doi:10.1155/2017/9374189 PMID:28326195
Fredericksen, E. E. (2017). A national study of online learning leaders in US higher education. Online
Learning, 21(2). doi:10.24059/olj.v21i2.1164
Hartmann, E. (2015). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Learners with Severe Support Needs.
International Journal of Whole Schooling, 11(1), 54–67.
Ingram, R., Lyons, B., Bowron, R., & Oliver, J. (2012). Higher Education Online Course Accessibility
Issues: Universal Design. Review of Higher Education and Self-Learning, 5(16), 143–154.
Jaggers, S. S., & Xi, D. (2016). How do online course design features influence student performance?
Computers & Education, 95, 270–284. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.014
Kearns, L. R., & Mancilla, R. (2017). The Impact of Quality Matters Professional Development on
Teaching across Delivery Formats. American Journal of Distance Education, 31(3), 185–197. doi:10.
1080/08923647.2017.1301145
Liu, O. (2012). Student Evaluation of Instruction: In the New Paradigm of Distance Education. Research
in Higher Education, 53(4), 471–486. doi:10.100711162-011-9236-1
Managing Online Education 2013: Practices in Ensuring Quality. (2013). Retrieved from https://wcet.
wiche.edu/sites/default/files/2013ManagingOnlineEducationSurveyExecutiveSummary.pdf
Moore, R. (2014). Importance of Developing Community in Distance Education Courses. TechTrends,
58(2), 20–24. doi:10.100711528-014-0733-x
Newby, J., Eagleson, L., & Pfander, J. (2014). Quality Matters: New Roles for Librarians Using Standards for Online Course Design. Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning, 8(1),
32–44. doi:10.1080/1533290X.2014.916245
Parra, J., Osanloo, A., Raynor, C., Hair, S., Korang, T., Padilla, C., & Chatterjee, S. (2018). Perspectives
on a Graduate Online Course that Modeled Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to Teach UDL. Asian
Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 59–87.
Quality Matters Program. (n.d.). Quality Matters, 2018. Available from https://www.qualitymatters.org/
Rao, K., Edelen-Smith, P., & Wailehua, C. U. (2015). Universal design for online courses: Applying
principles to pedagogy. Open Learning, 30(1), 35–52. doi:10.1080/02680513.2014.991300
Robertson, J. S., Grant, M. M., & Jackson, L. (2005). Is online instruction perceived as effective as
campus instruction by graduate students in education? The Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 73–86.
doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.12.004
Rogers-Shaw, C., Carr-Chellman, D. J., & Choi, J. (2018). Universal Design for Learning: Guidelines
for Accessible Online Instruction. Adult Learning, 29(1), 20–31. doi:10.1177/1045159517735530
Schmidt, M., & Stowell, N. (2017). Certifying Business Courses through Quality Matters. Journal of
the Academy of Business Education, 18, 122–142.
89
Establishing Considerations for Universal Design for Learning and Accessibility in Online Courses
Tobin, T. J. (2013). Universal Design in Online Courses: Beyond Basics. Online Classroom, 13(12), 1–3.
Tobin, T. J. (2014). Increase Online Student Retention with Universal Design for Learning. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 15(3), 13–24.
UDI Online Project. (2010). Students with disabilities and online learning (Technical Brief #04). Retrieved from http://www.udi.uconn.edu/
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of Education
Statistics, 2015 (2016-014), Chapter 3. Author.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Accessibility: Ensuring access course materials to all learners.
Assistive Technology: Technologies that help perform tasks.
Disability: Impairment that can makes routine tasks more difficult.
Distributed Learning: Using technology to facilitate learning.
Online Learning: Education made available through the internet.
Universal Design for Learning: Providing equal access to curriculum for all students.
Usability: Ease of use of course components.
90
91
Chapter 6
Developing On-Campus and
Distance Learning Systems
in Higher Education:
On-Campus and Distance
Learning Systems
Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu
University of South Africa, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to argue that developing on-campus and distance learning systems in
higher education will depend largely on developments in mobile technology. Structuration theory will
be used in understanding on-campus and distance learning systems in higher education. It can assist
institutions to consider questions of why the use of technology must not be taken for granted and what
might be the challenges and opportunities of technology. Developments in mobile technology are widening the space of learning in on-campus and distance learning systems in higher education by allowing
flexible and instant access to rich digital resources. Mobile learning can also play a significant supplemental role within university education. Challenges facing on-campus and distance learning systems
is meeting the ever increasing and diversified demands for higher education. Universities, which adopt
on-campus, distance learning systems, and become dual-mode institutions, consider the mode to be one
of the strategies through which they can achieve increased enrolments.
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, technology will mean any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples of technology amongst others comprises
personal computers, digital television, email, digital camera and other electronic hardware and software
that these systems could access. The chapter will be structured as follows: The first section deals with
the Introduction. The second section deals with Structuration theory. The third section deals with ‘The
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch006
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
on-campus and open education system.’ The fourth section deals with the ‘Distance learning system
in Higher Education. The fifth section deals with the ‘Opportunities of technology in on-campus and
distance learning systems. The sixth section deals with the ‘Challenges of technology in on-campus and
distance learning systems.’ The seventh section deals with the ‘Implications’. Finally, the eighth section
will be the Conclusion.
On-campus and distance learning systems need to focus on the instructional use of computers, television, and other kinds of electronic hardware and software on their programs. Developments in mobile
technology are widening the space of learning in on-campus and distance learning systems in higher
education by allowing flexible and instance access to rich digital resources. Mobile learning can also
play a significant supplemental role within university education. Technological advancement can play
a vital role in developing an on-campus and distance learning systems in higher education. Thus, cloud
computing and its applications are important to on-campus and distance learning systems of distance
education worldwide. In higher education, cloud-computing services are used to provide the means for
students to collaborate and interact in a distributed learning space. It enables institutions to communicate
with their students, particularly to discuss and learn certain learning tasks through technological programs
(Al-Samarraie & Saeed, 2018, pp.77-78). Technology can be a viable tool in providing multiple modes
of learning delivery modes and communication that can meet the needs of students and institutions, at
low cost, and the demand for continuing education.
In the design of technology-driven learning programs, citizens as stakeholders need to be consulted
and to have a say within the collaborative process in all phases in decision-making, designing, planning,
implementing and evaluating of programs (Lember, Surva & Tõnurist, 2017, p.81). The participation of
citizens as stakeholders ought to be initiated by both the on-campus and distance learning institutions and
government. There is a need for a multi-directional communication and a shared trust between citizens,
the institutions and the state within the institutions. Therefore, digital technologies can create new social
practices and interactions in and within the institutions.
The next section deals with Structuration Theory.
STRUCTURATION THEORY
It explains how the structure and agency are related in the development of social behaviour. An on-campus
and distance higher education settings take the shape they have because of the interplay between social
structures and human actions. In an on-campus and distance higher education settings structures ought
to be seen as having functional properties, and how students negotiate social structures, their knowledge
and the way they act is of importance (Jack, 2017, p. 213). Structuration theory can assist institutions
to consider questions of why the use of technology must not be taken-for-granted and what might be
the challenges and opportunities of technology. In essence, it is about the influential actions of certain
actors and the practices they are able to embed in an on-campus and distance higher education settings,
from within or from outside. It helps the analysis of those situations where people might be able to alter
their own or others’ internal structures whilst external structures stay ostensibly the same (Jack, 2017, p.
215). The building and development of a flexible and responsive IT infrastructure was the most important
issue of IT management in any system (Byrd & Turner, 2000, p. 168). IT infrastructure is a multifaceted
concept that seems to include two related but distinct components.
92
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
In the design and management of technology infrastructure in an on-campus and distance learning
there ought to be a technical IT infrastructure, and a human IT infrastructure. The technical infrastructure
is the choices pertaining to applications, data, and technology configurations. A technical IT infrastructure will refer to telecommunications, computers, software, and data as integrated and interconnected
so that all type of information can be expeditiously routed through the network processes. The human
infrastructure is the choices pertaining to the knowledge and capabilities required to manage effectively
the IT resources within the organization. In designing the human IT infrastructure human and organizational skills, expertise, competencies, knowledge, commitments, values, norms, and organizational
structures ought to be included (Byrd &Turner, 2000, p.169). The human IT infrastructure need different
types of knowledge and skills to be designed for, namely:
•
•
•
Technology management knowledge and skills;
Business functional knowledge and skills;
Interpersonal and management skills, and
Technical knowledge and skills. Technology management knowledge and skills include an understanding of where and how to deploy IT effectively and profitably by meeting the strategic goals and
objectives of an organization (Byrd and Turner, 2000, p. 170). IT infrastructure should focus on speed
of implementation and flexibility. It must not be treated differently from human resources and finance
management directorates of the organization because it has direct effect on the performance of business
processes and organisations’ success. Building Information Modelling (BIM) methodology ought to be
adopted in the design of technology infrastructure to create an information parametric model and that
can facilitate a better design, to enhance construction efficiency, to develop a collaborative approach, a
better control of time and costs (Osello, Rapetti & Semeraro, 2017, p.1). In support of Osello et al. (2017),
Hudo, Maseleno, Atmotiyoso, Siregar, and Ahmad (2018, p. 28) are of the view that in addressing the
wide ranges of needs for teaching and learning purposes, online resources such as data sets or podcasts
where the lecturers show the video in class would be suitable in providing opportunities for students
with a whole level of learning. In this view, addressing the range of learning styles of individual students
online interaction needs to be sustained by technology resources including computers, smartphones,
tablets, digital cameras, networks and social media platforms.
The next section deals with the on-campus and open education systems.
THE ON-CAMPUS AND OPEN EDUCATION SYSTEMS
In this section, it is argued that the importance of creativity in on-campus and open education systems
is widely underestimated, because higher education institutions tend to give more value to critical thinking. Due to the important role of instructors in the development of students’ creative potential, creativity
should be a topic widely addressed in technological programs, to prepare students’ creative abilities. It
is also necessary for students to have access to technological information about pedagogical practices
that can developing their creativity (Alencar, Fleith, & Pereira, 2017, p.557).
In developing an on-campus and distance learning system in higher education, it should be noted
that on-campus learning will need the traditional face-to-face classroom, lecturers to be constantly
monitoring the engagement of students and adjusting their instruction accordingly. Thus, instruction in
93
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
an on-campus should be adapted in real time to meet the students’ needs. In distance learning system
the use of online and technology-mediated instruction become more dominant, it is possible to assist
lecturers in understanding the engagement level of students in their learning that will take place outside
of the face-to-face classroom (Bodily, Graham & Bush, 2017, p.11). On-campus and open education
system provides students with various opportunities for broadening the access of education in higher
education. Universities have been characterised by the co-location of lecturers and students in a shared
physical environment. Recent trends have seen the use of technology in on-campus and distance learning
education changing the way universities function. Digital technologies have enabled students to have
high-quality learning experiences, with large amounts of peer interaction, without ever needing to attend a physical campus (Glover & McDonald, 2018, p.950). However, while digital distance education
continues to grow, the benefits of students and lecturers sharing a physical space have not diminished.
The traditional methods of instruction such as lecture and the use of the blackboard or white board ought
to exist to education systems that have a challenge with connectivity. Thus, today’s education system is
guided more by technology through the internet versus human contact/direct instruction.
Therefore, instructional use of the internet need to be based on instructional theories, design models,
and strategies that align instructional media tools with university-level expectations (Edwards, 2018,
p.48). It should be noted that an online learning is a derivative of open distance learning. Therefore, the
use of digital technology has the ability to enable students and lecturers’ on-campus and open education
system to share information and interact both synchronously and asynchronously ((Glover & McDonald,
2018, p.950). Similarly, all on-campus and open education system programs ought to be designed to
be asynchronous to meet the demands of working students. This can enable students to login anytime
and learn at their own pace during the semester. Peer learning experiences for students can be enriched
through discussion boards and group projects via technology (Jennings, Nagarathnam, & Lawrence,
2018, p.100). Although the campus-based face-to-face mode depends on the teacher. Therefore, mobile
learning can bridge the pedagogically designed learning contexts, facilitate student-generated contexts,
and content, while providing personalisation and universal social connectedness, that sets it apart from
more traditional learning environments. In support of Jennings, Nagarathnam and Lawrence (2018);
Mouza (2017, p.157) is of the view that digital tools to be used to support teaching and learning in
promoting student learning throughout the duration of the students’ involvement with on-campus or
distance learning institution.
Similarly, Viberg and Grönlund (2017, p.365) are of the view that students need to be introduced to
various technologies. The choice of technology chosen by universities need to depend on the tasks they
are supposed to perform. For example, for the scheduled online synchronous programs, Adobe Connect
ought to be used, which offers a number of tools allowing students to communicate both orally and in
writing (microphone, webcam, chat, whiteboard, note pad, sharing of text and audio/video files, recording, etc.). Those programs that are synchronous need software that can be used simultaneously by several
groups of students. Hence, such programs rely on pre-booked virtual rooms for (instructor-led) discussions, and for students to use whenever available. In addition, in asynchronous programs communication
between students and instructors is by means of uploading and downloading instruments, where students
are seen as the end users and instructors as both designers and end users. Instructors can, for example,
activate and initiate different types of modules, such as a discussion forum or an examination task, and
upload diverse types of files related to course administration and instruction. Computer Literacy for
students need to be included in introductory courses, which ought to be enrolled by all students, enrolled
in Higher Education. Its aim is to focus at developing the basic ICT knowledge and skills to students. On
94
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
the other hand, the Educational Media and Technology courses need to cover a widespread variety of
technological tools such as models and scientific charts, and digital technological tools such as mobile
phones, computers, radios, etcetera (Kafyulilo, Fisser, Pieters & Voogt, 2015, p.382).
The next section will be dealing with distance learning system in higher education.
DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEM IN HIGHER EDUCATION
The extent of external knowledge is not the only relevant factor, as the diversity of technological knowledge resources is also important. This heterogeneity of knowledge is of great importance for distance
learning performance because the mixture of an institution’s own knowledge with acquired knowledge
can advance the chances of novel ideas and innovations. Increased diversity in on-campus and distance
mode of programs institutions can be able to achieve greater benefits in terms of resources and learning in
addition to expanding the knowledge base. Diversity, then, can be used as a crucial factor in technological
collaboration a factor which makes it possible for institutions to gain access to different – and occasionally complementary – knowledge. Although diversity brings benefits, it also increases the complexity
and costs of collaboration, along with some other difficulties. The greater the technological diversity
among on-campus and distance institutions, the more each institution has to learn from the other – but
the more difficult it is to share this knowledge. Problems of knowledge sharing within a context are
enlarged. Thus, the possession of highly dissimilar knowledge by the on campus and distance learning
institutions may raise particular difficulties for the shareability of their technology (Rodríguez, Nieto
& Santamaría, 2018, pp.412-413).
Technology can contribute to the efficient logistics of educational provision. Generally, it can contribute to the profitability and commoditization of education. In particular, technology can also contribute to on-campus and distance learning economic competitiveness and efficiency of lecturers and
knowledge production (Selwyn, 2017, p.113). In efforts to adapt to external opportunities and threats,
as well as to improve overall organizational viability, on-campus and open education systems need to
lead their organisations in new strategic directions. These changes need to focus on a total reordering
of organizational priorities and programs. More typically, on-campus and open education programs
need to focus on a set of new strategies and technology that will bring changes in learning. Examples
include an emphasis on new methods and new courses/modules (e.g., quality technological innovation)
(Hambrick & Lovelace, 2018, p.110).
Through appropriate adaptations and accommodations of on-campus and distance learning systems,
students who learn differently can achieve success with the integration of technology. Consequently,
students with disabilities could be supported using sequential assessments, multimodal approaches to
learning, and assistive technologies. These students could bring visualization and problem-solving skills
to these systems. Not only those students with disabilities could positively be able to adjust but also
through technological instructional programs, these students could exploit their strengths and circumvent
their weaknesses (Wille, Century, &Pike, 2017, pp.42). The access to technology at all levels in oncampus and distance learning systems is critical in technology-driven system of education. Technology
and digital tools have become ubiquitous, but they can be unsuccessful or dangerous when they are not
integrated into the learning process in meaningful ways. To improve remote communication, on-campus
and distance learning institutions are expected to upgrade the wireless bandwidth and install large displays
95
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
that allow for more natural collaboration on digital projects (Adams Becker, Cummins, Davis, Freeman,
Hall, Giesinger, & Ananthanarayanan, 2017, p.9).
Program adjustments, either through adaptation or through accommodation, need to have one of the
following categories, namely: presentation, response, timing, setting, and social interactions. Technological adaptations and accommodations need not change the system’s program content or materials
or change grading and testing measures. Rather, technology adjustments ought to provide students
with a range of ways to access content, enabling them to demonstrate understanding in different ways
(Adams et al., 2017, pp.42-43). The distance learning system depends primarily on media for effective communication, in order for teaching and learning to take place. The lecturer does not have to be
in the same place at the same time with the students for teaching and learning to take place. Hence,
distance-learning system of education in higher education is becoming one of the most preferred modes
of learning (Nage-Sibande & Morolong, 2018, p.5). They also think that technological advancements
can make it possible in merging distance learning and the on-campus face-to-face mode of learning. In
the past, technology-mediated teaching and learning used to be the prerogative of distance learning, and
now the on-campus-based face-to-face mode is becoming heavily dependent on technology mediation
(Nage-Sibande & Morolong, 2018p.11).
Al Shobaki and Abu Naser (2017, pp.147) are of the view that higher education institutions need
to ensure that they have performance indicators to attract students. For example, the employment rate
of recent graduates, students who complete their graduate studies ratio, the rate of success in licensing
/ profession tests, knowledge and abilities, profession of graduates. The performance of the teaching
staff, the performance of teachers in scientific research, the performance at the level of applied research,
practical experience and skills in teaching of academic staff. Institutional culture, graduates assessment,
excellence and uniqueness of the institution, community service, the development of the overall education,
curriculum development, the reputation of the institution, asset management and facilities available, cooperation with private institutions, evaluating the organization, and the industry assessment of graduates.
In support of Al Shobaki and Abu Naser (2017), Melguizo, Zamarro, Velasco and Sanchez (2017, p.
425), are of the view that a number of countries in other parts of the world have developed centralized
assessment and accountability systems along with instruments to measure Higher Education Institutions. In addition, student-learning outcomes have been traditionally measured using tests developed to
measure the generic knowledge (i.e., critical thinking, problem solving, and civic education) or subject
specific knowledge in a specific program of study. In particular, countries such as Australia, Brazil, and
Colombia have already created centralized accountability systems to evaluate and rank higher education
institutions that include different types of indicators.
Universities in developing their systems need to know that their programs should be able to support the
development of students’ professional knowledge of practice. That is the reason why technology is able
to empower students to take control of their learning and to focus on their learning. Technology can also
enhance students’ freedom, motivation and ability (Loughran, 2012, p.8). Internet protocol development,
like all technology development, is designed by biases and political choices with ethical consequences
for universities. On-campus and Distance learning systems need to scale up (grow in size or number of
students) while also scaling down (making an infrastructure useful to local applications) and this is a
common challenge for infrastructure design. Program developers need to develop infrastructural tools
(complex routing protocols and a robust code library) before they could develop applications for their
technological systems (Shilton, 2017, p.6-7). In addition, a dedicated staff to be assigned to software
96
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
infrastructure support, including sysadmins, software engineers, and usability experts. Again, universities need to know that technological knowledge is an enabling power to do either good or bad—but it
does not carry instructions on how to use it (Shilton, 2017, p.10).
Continued pressure for technological reform will stimulate on-campus and distance learning systems
to systematically pursue operational improvements. On-campus and distance learning systems ought
to establish formal centres for pursuing breakthrough innovations in student outcomes, operational efficiency, and revenue generation. They need to pay more attention to assessing the incremental value of
new technologies, which will put some much-needed downward pressure on the price of new programs.
They also need to evaluate alternative technologies that will increasingly take into account student affordability. Both the on-campus and distance learning systems need to apply the concept of stewardship in
dealing with the overuse and misuse of technology in their programs. The integrating and standardizing
of information technology within these systems is necessary (Zellmer, 2017, p.28).
The next section deals with the opportunities of Technology in on-campus and distance learning
systems.
OPPORTUNITIES OF TECHNOLOGY IN ON-CAMPUS
AND DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEMS
Ba and Nault (2017, p. 652) are of the view that the widespread availability of the Internet in the mid1990s had a significant social and economic impacts. Productivity increases from IT around 2010
were unprecedented. In recent years, IT’s potential has increased further with cloud computing, nano
technology, multi-processor arrays, quantum computing, telecommunications and mobile computing,
and other new developments. These information and communication technologies provide the basis for
new IT that on campus and distance learning systems can use in programs, and challenges will be how
to manage these technologies.
The potential benefits of technology amongst others could be for cost savings, ubiquitous communications, study aids, and location-based services (Cheon, Lee, Crooks & Song, 2012, p.1054). In support of
Cheon et al. (2012), Letseka, Letseka, & Pitsoe (2018, p.129) see technology as a tool that make learning
to become more active and dynamic when compared to traditional on-campus learning. It makes it possible for students to have access to a vast quantity of resources possible and at a lower cost. On- campus
and distance learning systems need to be differentiated pedagogically to accommodate different learning
styles by allowing students to work at their own pace and facilitate learning through a variety of activities. New tools and social media encourage collaboration between students and the community, without
barrier to space and time. Those same tools allow for the development of virtual communities that can
persist after the program/course is done. Information Technology and the Internet can easily transform
processes and institutions, transforming, in consequence, the ways of teaching, learning, and opening
the door to innovation and new pedagogical systems. Programs that use technology can be accessed
anytime, anywhere and are highly flexible (Wu, Terpenny, & Schaefer (2017, p. 105)
On-campus and Distance Learning Systems are expected to provide resources to students including
time for lecturers. Al Shobaki and Abu Naser (2017, pp.142-143) are of the view that universities need
to ensure that the following aspects are satisfied, for them to benefit from the use of technology, namely:
97
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
That the ratio of students to lecturers should be low if On-campus is to work and more for Distance
Learning System to function well.
Good infrastructure and equipment development.
Operations and administrative policies to support technological teaching and learning.
Providing funding for technology that contribute to the development of learning and teaching.
An institutional culture that appreciates and encourages learning and education in technology.
Practices and policies that support the exchange of ideas through technology
Provide specialized training areas supportive of the use of technology.
The use of technology in learning helps reduce the traditional training infrastructure, facilitates the
learning processes of students and improves their learning while they are away from the university. Oncampus, technology provides a useful mechanism to enrich students’ learning experiences. It facilitates
the collaboration and informal interaction between peer students, which is helpful in building social
capital and in motivating disengaged or at-risk students. In addition, it contributes to improving the
accessibility, interoperability and reusability of educational resources, and to enhancing interactivity
and flexibility of learning at convenient times and places. It extends learning opportunities to all socialeconomic levels, in particular those previously unreachable from traditional education approaches, such
as school dropouts (Liu a, Li b, & Carlsson, 2010, p.1212).
Wille, Century, and Pike (2017), are of the view that learning with technology need to enable students’
on-campus and distance learning systems to engage with content in a flexible manner to accommodate
different learning styles in terms of location, time, materials, content and teaching approaches. The
adoption of technology in on-campus and distance learning systems ought to be used as an alternative
method to enhance teaching and learning. Through technology, on-campus and distance learning systems
ought to ensure that access to instructional materials, both orally and in writing. These systems should
have options for students in solving or organizing work in alternate ways (e.g., typing or handwriting).
Students to have options for demonstrating understanding and sharing work in multiple ways (such as
delivering a presentation to the lecturer individually versus in front of the whole class; marking test
responses directly on a booklet versus using an online. Again, additional time for assignments, projects,
and tests to be addressed. Technology to enable students to adapt to changes of the systems and the
institutional instructional time (such as student adjustments to sequence of program activities, or timing
for modules to accommodate for student needs). These technological adjustments to take in account the
physical setting for learning (such as access to instruction space, social interactions with other students,
placing of students in groupings) (Wille, Century & Pike, 2017, pp.44). Learning Skills, such as knowledge acquisition and notes taking, Independent Skills, such as critical thinking, and socialization with
other students is very important and on-campus and distance learning programs to cater for them (e.g.,
information gathering, information aggregation, academic writing, and information processing/analysis)
(Levy & Ramim, (n.d.), p. 63E). Therefore, e-learning courses are critically important in ensuring that
students learn the competencies needed to be successful in life.
Contrary to developing programs for the on- campus and distance learning systems, institutional program developers to cater for the aspects pertaining to the standard of living of students. For example, to
look at the household material well-being of students; the opportunity to develop skills and knowledge
to enable them to play a socially useful role later in life; nurturing and socialisation in a secure environment, and having opportunities to socialise with other students; and participation in decision-making;
and developing the capacity to make informed decisions) (Morris, 2001, p.163). The use of technology
98
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
in learning need the knowledge of digital literacies, collaboration, complex communication and systemsthinking skills, among others. In order to align technology with learning, higher education institutions
need to offer courses and programmes that support the use of multidimensional abilities and skills and
the use of media and technology as supportive methods. Therefore, courses ought to be delivered in
three formats, namely: distance learning (DL), face-to-face (F2F) and hybrid (H) learning. Again, oncampus and distance learning systems are expected to deliver programs fully online; traditional F2F
courses and some content and activities to be offered offline and online. Whereas technology may differ
among instructors, curriculum content ought to remain the same (Vásquez-Colina, Russo, Lieberman
& Morris, 2017, p. 505).
Students’ use of context is a crucial differentiator between mobile and non-mobile technologies.
While non-mobile technology ought to be set up in, environments designed for certain activities (e.g.,
work – or education-related tasks that presuppose longer usage sessions and employment of particular
pre-installed computer software) is necessary. Mobile technology can in principle be used virtually in
any environment. In different programs, there are different types of tasks that technology can support.
For example, instructor formulated learning tasks in higher education can be associated with the mandatory use of a learning management system, where the choice of such technology-mediated learning
tasks will depend on the instructors’ preferences and decisions rather than on students’ choice. Hence,
some learning management systems are designed for desktop/laptop computer use, and are functionally
limited in their potential to be accessed through mobile devices. Students in their everyday lives employ
mobile technology for self-initiated tasks of various kinds (Viberg & Grönlund, 2017, p.359).
Joshi1, Sharma1, Gaur, Kumar and Kalmady (2017, p.1) are of the view that because of the rising
cost, there is a need to maintain computing and storage infrastructure. Therefore, on-campus and distance learning institutions need to outsource cloud service providers. Cloud computing enable computer
programs to share a pool of computing resources. These resources can be provided on demand with
minimal management effort or service provider interaction. The cloud model is a pay-per-use model.
The cloud user has to pay only for what the user uses. It is thus a cost-efficient solution with which
resources are remotely provided over the network. Virtualisation is the fundamental technology that
influences cloud computing. With virtualisation, On-campus and Distance Learning institutions can
utilise resources such as storage, network, desktops, or other such entities, remotely. Server virtualisation is the key technique to allocate isolated virtual spaces, that is, virtual machines to users for running
their applications or services. Cloud computing infrastructure is very complex and vulnerable to various system failures. Cloud infrastructure is able to provide continuous and uninterrupted services even
during power failures. Hence, there is a need of implementation of a robust fault tolerant scheme for the
cloud infrastructure (Joshil et al., 2017).
In support of Joshi1 et al. (2017); Wu, Terpenny, and Schaefer (2017, pp. 104-105) are of the view
that cloud-based design and manufacturing (CBDM) programs are the key pillars to enable on-campus
and distance learning systems to function. Due to its key characteristics, CBDM has the potential to
serve as a backbone of the institutional digital thread because it allows for a variety of modelling, simulation, and manufacturing software packages and services to be connected on demand. CBD enables
scalable, ubiquitous, seamless, and instant access to remote advanced digital design and computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) software packages as well as high-performance computing (HPC) resources. In
addition, CBDM can be used to build a highly customized and agile information and communication
technology infrastructures that integrate application software, digital models, and big data analytics
applications for program creation.
99
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
The advantage of designing a good Information Technology infrastructure can improve productivity,
enhance profitability and reduce costs. Also to gain competitive advantage and to improve customer
service. IT infrastructure underpins an organisation’s competitive position by enabling initiatives such as
cycle time improvement and cross-functional processes. It ought to be given attention in order to avoid
poor service delivery (Shibambu & Ditsa, 2017, pp.34-35). Emerging communication technologies are
expected to transform the design of on-campus and distance learning universities into seamless connected smart, intelligent and adaptive institutions. Higher and higher penetration of automation ought to
lead to increased device intelligence and they are expected to be performing their routine tasks in vivid
situations autonomously and without much human intervention. Such smart universities are expected
to provide high level of security, learning and communication facilities (Bhatt & Verma, 2015, p.396).
The next section deals with the challenges of Technology in on-campus and distance learning systems.
CHALLENGES OF TECHNOLOGY IN ON-CAMPUS
AND DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEMS
Maseleno, Sabani, Huda, Ahmad, Jasmi, and Basiron (2018, p. 1127) are of the view that learning is a
lifelong journey. To them, learning happens in sustainable educational learning programs. They suggest personalised learning models to encourage all students to grow to their fullest potential in either
on campus or distance learning environment. They argue that technology should focus on reinforcing
the students’ learning techniques by being adaptable to students’ needs and to be applicable to learning
methodologies that work best for them. Challenges for technology will arise because no two students
learn similarly or at a similar pace. Therefore, on-campus and distance learning systems should be differently. On-campus and Distance learning systems in higher education will always be facing challenges
because of developments in technology, and the increase in the number of students that need access to
higher education. Therefore, there is a need for increasing the intertwining of students with technological
devices such as mobile phones and wearable, as well as digital bodies such as avatars and social media
pages that will enable students’ experiences with technology more embodied, sensory and emotional
(Schultze, 2017, p.64).
Challenges facing on-campus and distance learning systems is meeting the ever increasing and
diversified demands for higher education. Universities, which adopt on-campus and distance learning
systems, and becoming a dual-mode institution, ought to consider the mode of delivery as the strategy
through which they can achieve increased enrolments. Dual-mode universities experience challenges
such as the inadequate resourcing, no proper and focused planning, no implementation plans and the lack
of efficient and effective monitoring processes at implementation stages (Nage-Sibande & Morolong,
2018, pp.9-11). Because networks can broadcast information of different kinds, its truthfulness and reliability are doubtful. The diversity of software does not allow all the users’ computers to have the same
functionality in the network. It can generate social and spatial discrimination. It can generate a digital
gap that may prevent access to goods and services offered by the networks among developed or underdeveloped countries. There could arise power groups of several types (Valencia and Cázares, 2016, p.10).
Joshi, Sharma, Gaur, Kumar and Kalmady (2017, p.1) are of the view that institutions that are relying on cloud computing infrastructure their technological programs can easily be vulnerable to various
system failures. According to them, cloud infrastructure is important if it can provide continuous and
uninterrupted services even during failures. Hence, there is a need of implementation of a robust fault
100
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
tolerant scheme for the cloud infrastructure. Programs need to be fault tolerance with respect to power
failures and recovering from it. According to Kaliisa and Picard (2017, pp. 15-18), network failure and
the poor supply of electricity and environmental factors may motivate and frustrate on-campus and distance learning systems in using of digital technologies in their programs. The lack of fixed line internet
connectivity and the limited internet access beyond the Wi-Fi zones at universities, and technical glitches
are some of the challenges facing affecting students.
With the increasing diversity of the student population in on-campus and distance learning systems,
institutions are required to identify practices that equip students better in utilising technology in ways
that will promote learning, development and success for all students. Institutions will be able to attract
students if they help them move from consumers to creators of knowledge through technological innovations. Both the on-campus and distance learning systems are expected to help all students reach their
potential and equipped them with the knowledge and skills needed to support equity and diversity in
these institutions by using technology. Innovative and forward-thinking approaches to be used in openand distance education in relation to emerging technologies (Mouza, 2017, p.156).
The delay in the production of study material in various formats due to the delay in the delivery of
required resources could pose a challenge for on-campus and distance learning universities. In addition,
the delay in receiving prescribed textbooks from publishers and the increase in prices for assistive devices
could be an obstacle for universities (Mohasoa, 2018-PowerPoint presentation slides). Education programmes are still not ready for e-learning in spite of their familiarity with advanced mobile technologies.
Students as consumers generally do not use the technological features of advanced mobile phones but are
satisfied with the traditional voice and SMS services. As a kind of new advanced mobile service, there is,
therefore, a need to find out the factors driving e-learning adoption (Liu, Li, & Carlsson, 2010, p.1212).
Concurring with Liu, et al., (2010); Sonesson, Boffard, Lundberg, Rydmark, and Karlgren (2017,
p.6) are of the view that the lack of competencies in combining educational approaches, e-learning as
theoretical knowledge in opposition to practical, hands-on learning, and technology-enhanced learning
as potential for support and innovation in on-campus and distance learning can easily pose a challenge.
Wu, Terpenny, and Schaefer (2017, p.116) are of the view that because of interconnected in cyberspace, programs can be targeted by hackers, cyber criminals and competing competitors. It is important
to address the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data on the cloud to ensure the success of
cloud-based design and manufacturing. Specially, data confidentiality should focus on limiting access
to data to authorized parties. Encryption is one of the primary techniques for ensuring data confidentiality. Therefore, data integrity need to focus on protecting data from being changed inappropriately
by unauthorized parties. As with data confidentiality, cryptography plays an important role in ensuring data integrity. In addition, data availability need to focus on ensuring that authorized parties are
able to access data when needed. Similar to organizations in all other sectors, on-campus and distance
learning systems should be concerned with the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data on the
cloud. Furthermore, it is also necessary to identify emerging threats and risks associated with designed
programs put on the cloud. For example, it is necessary to conduct systematic vulnerability assessment
of cloud-based designed programs and evaluate the impact of various cyberattacks on software, cloud
infrastructures, and manufacturing systems and processes (Wu, Terpenny & Schaefer, 2017, p.116). The
next section deals with the implications.
101
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
IMPLICATIONS
Implications for on-campus and distance learning systems is that there is a need to increase the use of
technology in developing programs. It is suggested that future on-campus and distance learning systems
regarding the use of technology in higher education to focus on cost, affordability, context, student profile, and connectivity in relation to student characteristics and academic achievement. Finally, the topic
could be further explored in higher education. Explicit criteria need to be set to ensure what should be
included in those programs that use technology. In addition, the degree to which technology is integrated
in on-campus and distance-learning systems should aim at promoting access, success and learning by
students. The provision of a work experience program with real-world experience is an important aspect
in motivating students to enrol in on-campus or on distance learning systems (Reddan & Rauchle, 2016,
p. 29).
According to Kane (2017, p.420, another important implication of mobile technologies is that it realizes the potential for ubiquitous access to social media tools for knowledge sharing, not simply when
they happen to be at a traditional laptop or desktop computer. This ubiquity allows institutions and
students to share and access knowledge shared by others nearly everywhere and anytime, creating the
possibility for “always on” knowledge management. Institutions can share and access knowledge using
these platforms virtually any time and anywhere, because they have near constant access to technological
platforms. Furthermore, these mobile devices are frequently not owned or controlled by the institutions,
giving students greater exposure
to and choice of knowledge management tools. With cloud-based programs, institutions could block
access to students from their computers, but blocking access on student-owned mobile devices is far more
difficult. Similarly, institutions have the ability to share and access knowledge, regardless of whether the
organisation or managers provide or approve of these channels. If the on-campus and distance learning
systems do not provide social media tools for collaboration, students can potentially adopt these technologies without permission from them.
The next section deals with the conclusion.
CONCLUSION
Diversity in technology is more important for technologically inclined on-campus and distance learning
programs. In addition, on-campus and distance learning systems should develop programs that will be
developing students’ digital citizenship, ensuring mastery of responsible and appropriate technology use,
such as online communication etiquette and digital rights and responsibilities in online learning settings
and beyond. To achieve access and success in higher education, universities need to consider merging
the on-campus and distance learning systems mode and promoting equivalency and giving prominence
to both on-campus and distance learning. The dual-mode system could be the most logical way that
universities should use by converging on-campus and distance learning systems by using technology to
meet the needs of the twenty-first century student. Thus, I argue that technology can enable on-campus
and distance learning systems and students to communicate and collaborate in innovative ways. Finally,
technologies can change how knowledge is shared stored and presented. Therefore, technology can create
opportunities for on-campus and distance learning systems in delivering programs.
102
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
REFERENCES
Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Davis, A., Freeman, A., Hall Giesinger, C., & Ananthanarayanan, V.
(2017). NMC Horizon Report: 2017 Higher Education Edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Al-Samarraie, H., & Saeed, N. (2018). A systematic review of cloud computing tools for collaborative
learning: Opportunities and challenges to the blended-learning environment. Computers & Education,
124, 77–91. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.05.016
Al Shobaki, M. J., & Abu Naser, S. S. (2017). The Role of the Practice of Excellence Strategies in
Education to Achieve Sustainable Competitive Advantage to Institutions of Higher Education-Faculty
of Engineering and Information Technology at Al-Azhar University in Gaza a Model. International
Journal of Digital Publication Technology, 1(2), 135–157.
Alencar, E. M. L. S., Fleith, D. S., & Pereira, N. (2017). Creativity in Higher Education: Challenges and
Facilitating Factors. Trends in Psychology / Temas em Psicologia – Junho, 25(2), 553-561. Doi:10.9788/
TP2017.2-09
Ba, S., & Nault, B. (2017). Emergent Themes in the Interface Between Economics of Information
Systems and Management of Technology. Production and Operations Management, 26(4), 652–666.
doi:10.1111/poms.12644
Bhatt, J., & Verma, H. K. (2015). Design and Development of Wired Building Automation Systems.
Energy and Building, 103, 396–413. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.02.054
Bodily, R., Graham, C. R., & Bush, M. D. (2017). Online Learner Engagement: Opportunities and Challenges with Using Data Analytics. Educational Technology, 57(1), 10–18.
Byrd, T. A., & Turner, D. E. (2000). Measuring the Flexibility of Information Technology Infrastructure:
Exploratory Analysis of a Construct. Journal of Management Information Systems, 17(1), 167–208. do
i:10.1080/07421222.2000.11045632
Cheon, J., Lee, S., Crooks, S. M., & Song, J. (2012). An investigation of mobile learning readiness in
higher education based on the theory of planned behavior. Computers & Education, 59(3), 1054–1064.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.015
Edwards, F. R. (2018). The relationship between college student attitudes towards online learning based
on reading self-efficacy, ethnicity, and age (PhD dissertation). Liberty University.
Glover, I., & McDonald, K. (2018). Digital Places: Location-based Digital Practices in Higher Education using Bluetooth Beacons. EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2018, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Hambrick, D. C., & Lovelace, J. B. (2018). The Role of Executive Symbolism in Advancing New Strategic Themes in Organizations: A Social Influence Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 43(1),
110–131. doi:10.5465/amr.2015.0190
Hudo, M., Maseleno, A., Atmotiyoso, P., Siregar, M., & Ahmad, R. (2018). Big Data Emerging Technology: Insights into Innovative Environment for Online Learning Resources. International Journal of
Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(1), 23–36. doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i01.6990
103
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
Jack. (2017). Strong Structuration Theory and Management Accounting Research. Advances in Scientific
and Applied Accounting, 10(2), 211-223.
Jennings, D. F., Nagarathnam, B., & Lawrence, F. B. (2018). Insights into a Graduate Degree in Industrial Distribution Offered by Distance Education. Universal Journal of Management, 6(3), 98–103.
doi:10.13189/ujm.2018.060303
Joshi, Y., Sharma, D., Gaur, U., Kumar, V., & Kalmady, R. (2017). Design of a Fault Tolerant Architecture for Private Cloud Computing Infrastructure. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 10(4),
1–4. Doi:10.17485/ijst/2017/v10i4/110663
Kafyulilo, A., Fisser, P., Pieters, J., & Voogt, J. (2015). ICT Use in Science and Mathematics Teacher
Education in Tanzania: Developing Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Australasian Journal
of Educational Technology, 31(4), 381–399. doi:10.14742/ajet.1240
Kaliisa & Picard. (2017). A Systematic Review on Mobile Learning in Higher Education: The African
Perspective. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1), 1–18.
Kane, G. C. (2017). The evolutionary implications of social media for organizational knowledge management. Information and Organization, 27(1), 37–46. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2017.01.001
Lember, Surva, & Tõnurist. (2017). Towards passive co-production? The role of modern technologies
in coproduction (Lember, Surva, and Tönurist). 5th Annual Meeting of the IIAS Study Group of Coproduction of Public Services, 75-98.
Letseka, M., Letseka, M. M., & Pitsoe, V. (2018). The challenges of E-Learning in South Africa. In M.
Sinecen (Ed.), E-Learning. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech.
Levy, Y., & Ramim, M. M. n.d. The E-Learning Skills Gap Study: Initial Results of Skills Desired for
Persistence and Success in Online Engineering and Computing Courses. In Proceedings of the 12th Chais
Conference for the Study of Innovation and Learning Technologies: Learning in the Technological Era.
Raanana: The Open University of Israel.
Liu, Y., Li, H., & Carlsson, C. (2010). Factors driving the adoption of m-learning: An empirical study.
Computers & Education, 55(3), 1211–1219. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.018
Loughran, J. (2012). Introduction: The Challenges of Subject Teaching. In P. W. K. Chan (Ed.), Asia
Pacific Education: Diversity, Challenges and Changes (pp. 7–9). Monash University Publishing.
Maseleno, A., Sabani, N., Huda, M., Ahmad, R., Jasmi, K., & Basiron, B. (2018). Demystifying Learning Analytics in Personalised Learning. IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology,
7(3), 1124–1129. doi:10.14419/ijet.v7i3.9789
Melguizo, T., Zamarro, G., Velasco, T., & Sanchez, F. J. (2017). The Methodological Challenges of
Measuring Student Learning, Degree Attainment, and Early Labor Market Outcomes in Higher Education.
Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 424–448. doi:10.1080/19345747.2016.1238985
Mohasoa, I.P. (2018). Embracing diversity in pursuit of academic excellence. PowerPoint Presentation,
UNISA.
104
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
Morris, J. (2001). Social exclusion and young disabled people with high levels of support needs. Critical
Social Policy Ltd, 21(2), 161-183.
Mouza, C. M. (Ed.). (2017). Editorial: Strengthening the Impact, Novelty and Diversity of Research on
Technology and Teacher Education. Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 17(2),
154–159.
Nage-Sibande, B., & Morolong, B. L. (2018). A trend analysis of opportunities and challenges of open
and distance learning provision in dual-mode institutions. Distance Education, 39(4), 495–510. doi:10
.1080/01587919.2018.1457951
Osello, A., Rapetti, N., & Semeraro, F. (2017). BIM Methodology Approach to Infrastructure Design:
Case Study of Paniga Tunnel. IOP Conference Series. Materials Science and Engineering, 245(062052),
1–9. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/245/6/062052
Reddan, G., & Rauchle, M. (2016). Quality WIL + CDL = Employability. Australian Collaborative
Education Network (ACEN) National Conference 2016, Sydney, Australia.
Rodríguez, A., Nieto, M. J., & Santamaría, L. (2018). International collaboration and innovation in
professional and technological knowledge-intensive services. Industry and Innovation, 25(4), 408–431.
doi:10.1080/13662716.2017.1414752
Schultze, U. (2017). What kind of world do we want to help make with our theories? Information and
Organization, 27(1), 60–66. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2017.01.002
Selwyn, N. (2017). Education and Technology: critical questions. In Education and Technology Critical
Approaches. Monash University.
Shibambu & Ditsa. (2017). Analysis of Information Technology Infrastructure Towards Improving
Services in the Public Sector. Journal of IT and Economic Development, 8(1), 33–44.
Shilton, K. (2017). Engaging Values Despite Neutrality: Challenges and Approaches to Values Reflection during the Design of Internet Infrastructure. Science, Technology & Human Values, XX(X), 1–23.
Sonesson, L., Boffard, K., Lundberg, L., Rydmark, M., & Karlgren, K. (2017). The challenges of military
medical education and training for physicians and nurses in the Nordic countries – an interview study.
Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 25(38), 1–10. PMID:28399912
Valencia, A. V., Cázares, M., & del Carmen, T. (2016). Academic and research networks management:
Challenges for higher education institutions in Mexico. International Journal of Educational Technology
in Higher Education, 13(7), 1–11. doi:10.118641239-016-0013-2
Vásquez-Colina, M. D., Russo, M. R., Lieberman, M., & Morris, J. D. (2017). A case study of using peer
feedback in face-to-face and distance learning classes among pre-service teachers. Journal of Further
and Higher Education, 41(4), 504–515. doi:10.1080/0309877X.2015.1135884
Viberg, O., & Grönlund, Å. (2017). Understanding students’ learning practices: Challenges for design
and integration of mobile technology into distance education. Learning, Media and Technology, 42(3),
357–377. doi:10.1080/17439884.2016.1088869
105
Developing On-Campus and Distance Learning Systems in Higher Education
Wille, C., Century, J., & Pike, M. (2017). Exploratory Research to Expand Opportunities in Computer
Science for Students with Learning Differences. Computing in Science & Engineering, 19(40), 40–50.
doi:10.1109/MCSE.2017.43
Wu, T., Terpenny, J., & Schaefer, D. (2017). Digital design and manufacturing on the cloud: A review
of software and services. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing,
31(01), 104–118. doi:10.1017/S0890060416000305
Zellmer, W. A. (2017). Introduction: A Foundation for Strategic Planning in Health-System Pharmacy.
American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 74(2), 28–53.
106
107
Chapter 7
Towards a Magic Cube
Framework in Understanding
Higher Education 4.0
Imperative for the Fourth
Industrial Revolution
Bo Xing
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Higher Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, or HE 4.0, is an umbrella term for accommodating
different manner of teaching and learning, research and innovation, service, and infrastructure that are
often portrayed as key elements of a university. Despite the imperative of HE 4.0, the truly transformed
HE environment is still far from reality. This discrepancy raises many questions such as (1) What makes
HE4.0 so special? and (2) How could the potential good of HE 4.0 be unlocked? This chapter seeks to
add to the literature by offering a “magic cube” framework, which includes diverse axes, faces, and
layers/slices, in understanding various inter-related factors. The result of this study (i.e., the magic cube
framework for HE 4.0) is developed to support all stakeholders of higher education system to fully grasp
the strengths of HE 4.0 in response to the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
INTRODUCTION
The fourth industrial revolution is fast approaching us. On the one hand, the news is good for higher education (HE) institutions. With the increase in the income level, the numbers of enrollments are up. There’s
a continuing specialized talent shortage, creating excellent opportunity for research-driven public- and
private-sector relationships (Lee & Miozzo, 2015; Salleh & Omar, 2013; The Economist, 2008). And
more important, the current technological trend in digitalization has a profound effect on institutions’
performance, academic achievements, and students’ satisfaction (Castañeda & Selwyn, 2018; Hedberg,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch007
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
2006; HEFCE, 2010; Kukulska-Hulme, 2012; Marshall, 2010; Ng, 2015; Potkonjak et al., 2016; Xing,
2015). On the other hand, despite the fast pace of change in the digital technology landscape for today’s
HE system, the press (Dickson, 2017; C. A. Frey & Osborne, 2015; Mezied, 2016; West, 2018), academic
papers (Krueger, 2018; Lamprini & Bröchler, 2018; Peters, 2017; Xing, Marwala, & Marwala, 2018;
Xing & Marwala, 2017), government/consultant reports (Brown-Martin, 2017; Mulgan & Joshi, 2016;
National Research Council, 2002), and books (Gleason, 2018; Jung, Horta, & Yonezawa, 2018; Maasse,
Nerland, & Yates, 2018; Porter, 2015; van der Zwaan, 2017) keep raising imperative questions around
the future of HE, such as how HE institutions would be affected by the fourth industrial revolution, how
to use various advanced technologies in the educational environment as effectively as possible, and how
the delivery of HE could be transformed?
The author believes in the era of fourth industrial revolution, altering HE is more necessary than ever
before, since breakthrough technological inventions alone are not sufficient, diffusion of new technologies is critical (Peters & Besley, 2013). Therefore, this chapter intends to highlight multiple aspects that
this grand conversion (HE 4.0), is taking or going to take place. Reviving an ancient system will be by
no means easy. But it does promise a better and universal higher education. Rarely have demand and
occasion so neatly come together. Rather than bolstering up the old model, governments should follow
this sweeping tendency, adapt to and concentrate on making it work better.
Briefly, the remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: Subsequent to the INTRODUCTION
section, the status quo of our society is discussed in BACKGROUND section. Then, the workbench of
the proposed framework, namely, magic cube, is detailed in THE WORKBENCH OF MAGIC CUBE
section which is followed by the MAGIC CUBE FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT section. Next, the
future work is highlighted in the FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS section. Finally, the CONCLUSION section closes this chapter.
BACKGROUND
Though the business of HE remains unchanged much since its inception – Aristotle taught at the Athenian
Lyceum – today young students still assemble at a scheduled time and venue to listen to the wisdom of
scholars. Now a new industrial revolution has begun, thanks to several forces such as financial pressures
(mounting costs), technological achievements (upsetting technological advancement), and sustainable
requirement (diversifying demand). The result of this upside-down course will be the rebirth of the
university – HE 4.0.
Past Futures of Our Society
We all recognize that our society is changing rapidly. Indeed, change rather than stability is the order
of the day. However, change doesn’t care if you’re ready. In other words, if anyone is failing to clearly
understand the history and characteristics of those changes – and failing to alter the method to cope with
those changes – s/he will lose opportunities.
To understand the present future of our society, i.e., fourth industrial revolution (to be discussed in
the next subsection), one need to first understand the concept of industrial revolution and three preceding generations of industrial revolutions. According to Cambridge Dictionary (Cambridge Dictionary,
2018), Industrial Revolution can be defined as “[…] the period of time during which work began to be
108
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
done more by machines in factories than by hand at home”. To break it down, the noun ‘industry’ stands
for the production of goods or services through technology and commercial organizational advances;
and ‘industrialization’ stands for the development of industries on a wide scale. In other words, the development of scientific knowledge and technology were essential for the emergence of industrialization
(Belvedere, Grando, & Bielli, 2013).
Based on this understanding, the previous three generations of industrial revolutions can be catalyzed
by technology advances of the last three hundred years of human evolution (Stearns, 2013; Xing et al.,
2018):
•
•
•
First Industrial Revolution (1IR): Knowledge formulation, examples include steam mechanization, etc.
Second Industrial Revolution (2IR): Knowledge evolution, examples include electrification,
mass production, etc.
Third Industrial Revolution (3IR): Knowledge distribution, examples include computerization,
Internetization, etc.
Present Future: The Fourth Industrial Revolution
Now the fourth wave of industrial revolution is quickly moving towards us. The emergence and formation
of this new round of industrial revolution have roughly undergone four phases (Liao, Loures, Deschamps,
Brezinski, & Venâncio, 2018):
•
•
•
•
Phase One – Conceptualization: Around 1985 by W.W. Rostow in a book chapter entitled “The
Fifth Kondratieff Upswing and the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Their Meaning for Forestry”
(Rostow, 1985);
Phase Two – Propagation (Roughly Before 2012): Mainly in nanotechnology domain, e.g., a
2006 book chapter entitled “From Conventional Technology to Carbon Nanotechnology: The
Fourth Industrial Revolution and the Discoveries of C60, Carbon Nanotube and Nanodiamond”
(Dai, 2006);
Phase Three – Initiation (in 2013): By German National Academy of Science and Engineering
(ACATECH) in a report entitled “Securing the Future of German Manufacturing Industry:
Recommendations for Implementing the Strategic Initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0”. This is where the
name of Industry 4.0 actually came from (Kagermann, Wahlster, Helbig, & ACATECH, 2013);
and
Phase Four – Dissemination (in 2016): By Klaus Schwab (Founder and Executive Chairman of
World Economic Forum) in a book entitled “The Fourth Industrial Revolution” (Schwab, 2016).
Basically, the scope of the fourth industrial revolution is far beyond Industry 4.0 and previous digital
or information revolutions. The fourth industrial revolution is no longer a purely technical automation,
a transformation from one energy to another at a faster rate as we saw in the steam and electrical revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. We can look back at the twentieth century as a kind
of preparation, a prelude to a new generation of industrial revolution with the digital revolution laying
the ground for electronics and computing that would spread knowledge and ideas built on the earlier
industrial revolutions. Now, with the breakthrough in several emerging technologies, ranging from
109
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of things (IoT), robotics, to nanotechnology, biotechnology and
quantum computing, to name just a few, the fourth industrial revolution – characterized by knowledge
fusion/mutation – is ignited and is ongoing. Broadly speaking, the fourth industrial revolution refers to
a systemic transformation that includes an impact on civil society, governance structures, and human
identity in addition to solely economic and manufacturing ramifications. As described by Klaus Schwab
in (Schwab, 2016), leaders and citizens are called for “together shape a future that works for all by putting
people first, empowering them and constantly reminding ourselves that all of those new technologies
are first and foremost tools made by people for people.”
The Abstractions of Present Future
Transforming into the 4IR era is neither quick nor easy. Commentators often offer both utopian and
dystopian predictions, but the reality is likely to be a complex blend of both, because our technologies
have outpaced our ability. In response to this, Ito and Howe (2016) offered us a new spectrum that deals
with how to survive in our fast future. According to their study, the unpredictable future can be abstracted
and boiled down to the following three key features:
•
•
•
Asymmetry: e.g., today’s biggest threat come from the smallest of places, form startups and
rogues, breakaways and indie labs.
Complexity: e.g., heterogeneity, interdependency, and adaptation.
Uncertainty: e.g., fuzziness, roughness, and indefiniteness (Xing & Marwala, 2018o, 2018p).
Why do these abstractions matter? One reasonable answer is that they are signs of change, and the
only way that defense might catch up is to increase proportional to the efforts in economic, educational
and technological innovation.
The Representations of Present Future
We are today witnessing a fundamental reorientation of what it means to technique and technology.
Inevitability, these technological disruptions will influence the whole society. One of the key societal
ramifications of the fourth industrial revolution is that rapidly advanced technologies are changing
people’s physical and virtual lives and identities, such as the way people live, work and even who we
are (Liao, Deschamps, de Freitas Rocha Loures, & Ramos, 2017; Mazali, 2018; Oztemel & Gursev, in
press; Saucedo.Martínez, Pérez-Lara, Marmolejo-Saucedo, Salais-Fierro, & Vasant, in press). Schwab
(2016) offered readers a more perceivable version of present future in which those technologies can be
listed into the following three clusters.
•
•
•
110
Physical: One of the main characteristics in this domain is their tangible nature, such as 3D/4D
printing, robotics, autonomous vehicles (say, drones), and new materials.
Digital: In this domain, one famous example is IoT, which is the core technology used to bridge
the physical and digital applications. Another one lies in blockchain, a technology for managing
a lack of trust.
Biological: Innovations in this realm, including genetics, are astonished. Examples include biopharmas, biometrics, precision medicine, genetic editing, bio printing, and cell therapy.
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Methods for Making Futures
To reduce the future’s uncertainty, many attempts in the literature have been made to develop/predict
futures, ranging from the ‘artistic’ (Utopias) to the ‘scientific’ (studying ‘failed’ futures) (Adam &
Groves, 2007). Indeed, there are many reasons why the future is mysterious, so hard to figure out and to
plan for. Though there is hardly no science of the future, it is widely acknowledged that the successful
engagement with the future rests on tacit knowledge. For the full transformative potential of knowledge
to be enabled, there is a general consensus that a new vision of HE system, which diffuses knowledge,
nurtures and develops students’ level of creativity, and underpins social mobility and equity is very much
needed (Center for Digital Technology and Management, 2015; Morris & Setser, 2015; Oblinger, 2012).
Higher Education 4.0 in the Era of Fourth Industrial Revolution
Higher education (HE) has been identified as an imperative for the fourth industrial revolution. One reason
is that this round of industrial revolution poses a greater risk of ‘technological unemployment’ (Rothbard,
2015). That is because low-skilled tasks are increasingly being automated and artificial intelligence (AI)
is transforming many services jobs. According to (World Economic Forum, 2017), on average, a third of
the skillsets required to perform today’s jobs will be wholly new by 2020. In addition, the new industrial
revolution wave also has the potential to reshuffle the cards of the entire HE system. In response to all
this challenges and opportunities, all educational institutions should not only focus on adopting various
changes fast, but also concentrated on adapting to these changes quickly (Xing et al., 2018).
Past Futures of Higher Education
To plan for the future, it is important to look back. From an historian point of view, the history of HE
can be categorized into two main stages: (1) From 12th century to 1970; (2) from 1970 to today. In fact,
HE was as an enduring legacy of medieval European civilization. In the long history of Stage One, several decisive events should be remembered (Nybom, 2012): the ‘Gutenberg Revolution (1460~1560)”,
the ‘Scientific Revolution’ (1600~1770), the ‘Humboldt Revolution’ (1810~1850), and the ‘Research
University Revolution’ (1850~1914). In the literature, all these years are defined as an elite HE system
(Geiger, 2015; Kogan, Bauer, Bleiklie, & Henkel, 2006). In Stage Two, as a consequence of legitimate
demographic, democratic and economic pressures, HE system was transformed from elite to mass and
even universal institutions (Trow, 1974). Although HE varies across countries and each has undergone
a large number of changes overtime, in general, HE can be divided into the following three generations
(Geiger, 2015):
•
•
Elite Higher Education (HE 1.0): During this generation, HE was mainly responsible for the
training of wealthy elite under a rather strict degree system. The core of HE 1.0 is to reflect specific demands of various parties of a national stage, say, its schools, churches or judicial systems
(Askling & Bauer, 1999).
Mass Higher Education (HE 2.0): From the years of 1965 to the late 1990s, the tension between
huge labor redundancy and economic prosperity had prompted the HE to go through a period of
‘massification’, i.e., to provide HE to many people (Scott, 1995; Tapper & Palfreyman, 2005). For
example, students enrolled in HE had expanded rapidly in the US during the prosperous times of
111
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
•
the 1950s and 1960s (Freeman, 1976). In China, with the economic reform and market opening,
a great leap forward decision in HE, i.e., to enlarge the scale of HE, had also been made in 1999
(Knight, Quheng, & Shi, 2017).
Universal Higher Education (HE 3.0): Global education has emerged as a major theme of discussion and action in the universal HE era (McNay, 2006). For instance, the major transformation process of HE system in Europe was launched in 1999 with the Bologna Process (Reinalda,
2008). As a proactive initiative, the Bologna Process was aimed at creating the European Higher
Education Area (EHEA) by 2010 through the acts of harmonizing diverse educational systems.
This practice targets at searching for new concepts, policies and practices in HE environment. The
outputs of such exercise are to be used for enhancing pan-European educational systems’ comparability, compatibility, and coherency (Kogan et al., 2006).
Present Future of Higher Education
Though these past shifts were highly encouraging, in today’s complex socio-political-economic academic
context, the traditional way of knowledge acquisition, in which students are trained through a didactical
relationship between the educator, student and learning material, is no longer sufficient. In particular, in
the era of the fourth industrial revolution, there are three types of forces, namely, financial, technological
and sustainable, have dramatically changed the milieu of HE:
•
•
•
112
Financial Forces: In general, the financial model for HE institutions consists of three parts, i.e.,
tuition, taxpayer funding, and donation/grant. However, in the era of 4IR, on one hand, the cost
of HE continues to escalate at an alarming rate, on the other hand, the link between learning and
earning is breaking down (The Economist, 2017). Other financial trends at the heart of many
global HE system include severed global competition, shifted government funding, tarnished public supports, and rapidly changed curriculum revisions (Jacob & Gokbel, in press). Within this
context, two tasks, namely, finding significant alternative revenue sources or new means of significantly reducing expenditures for maintaining financial healthy, remain on top of the list of an
HE institution.
Technological Forces: Of course, our society has gone through many other periods of dramatic
technological changes before (such as steam engine, railroad, and automobile), but never before
have our society experienced technologies that are evolving so rapidly. Among others, one of biggest challenges today is about how to minimize the growing skills gap (Flanagan, Modjtahedi, &
Coe, 2017; Karkkainen, Panos, Broby, & Bracciali, 2017). According to a famous calculated study
reported by (C. B. Frey & Osborne, 2013), 47% of existing jobs in America are susceptible to automation. More urgently, Deloitte (Bersin, 2016), a consultancy firm, reported that there is already
a skill shortage in the areas of AI and big data analytics. It is commonly agreed that in order to
conquer this challenge, the education and innovation need to be combined together. When education fails to keep pace with technology, the fundamental insight seized reformers in the industrial
revolution will fall apart (The Economist, 2017).
Sustainable Forces: Though technological forces can lead to skill shortage, many people believe
that such change can only affect the on-the-job training education. However, the reality seems to
be more complex. A recent survey conducted by Pew Research Centre showed that over 16% of
Americans think that a college degree (usually four-year) is sufficient for students to find a better
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
job in the modern economy. As a result, simply forcing young people to keep pursuing another
levels of formal education, in particular just at the start of their lives, will not be a one size fits
all solution. According to (Figueiró & Raufflet, 2015), there are mainly four types of challenges
to keep HE sustainable, namely, organizational challenges, terminological challenges, capabilitybased challenges, and pedagogical challenges.
Based on this observation, a new HE paradigm (HE 4.0) has been proposed in (Xing & Marwala,
2017) which covers the following key aspects:
•
•
•
•
Teaching & Learning 4.0 (T&L 4.0): Employing wearables-assisted teaching, learning, and
training; embracing massive open online courses (MOOCs); cultivating innovative talent; and
generalizing blended learning.
Research & Innovation 4.0 (R&I 4.0): Open innovation; evolutionary & revolutionary innovations; new technological advancement driven R&I; and shorten innovation cycles.
Service 4.0: University-as-a-platform (UaaP); education-as-a-service (EaaS); internationallylinked programs.
Infrastructure 4.0: Data cube infrastructure. The concept of data cube was originally introduced
in the domain of business intelligence (Loshin, 2013). Loosely speaking, a data cube infrastructure refers to a cyber-system that manages multi-dimensional datasets (or data cube for short).
The advantage of introducing data cube infrastructure, not only in business intelligence domain,
but also in other emerging areas (say, big earth data system), can be found in (Nativi, Mazzetti, &
Craglia, 2017).
THE WORKBENCH OF MAGIC CUBE
A new vision of HE system, (i.e., HE 4.0), without a doubt, will definitely draw attentions from both
within the institutions (e.g., academics, professional associations, and administrators) and outside the
institutions (e.g., government agencies, financial bodies, business enterprises, social organizations, and
political parties). A necessary question will certainly surface at this moment: if HE 4.0 is known to be
the answer of reimagining higher education in the fourth industrial revolution age, how is it possible to
make sure that each HE 4.0 exercise has desired outcome?
As a common knowledge, disruptive change is always a demanding task for dominating organizations.
The inherent natural tendency is trying to defend the existing structures and maintaining the accustomed
activities, particularly when those are deemed to be successful at the current stage. During the process
of interpreting this complex, the large amount of variables involved in HE 4.0 impose a great challenge
on every educational practitioner. These factors have mutual influence against each other which in turn
can affect the final outcome of HE 4.0 in one way or another. Accordingly, the goal of this section is not
to present a blueprint for building HE 4.0. Instead, the aim is to introduce a novel and alternative thinking schema, the analogy of magic cube framework, which could turn the process of developing HE 4.0
to be more understandable, explainable, and controllable. In other words, the introduction of a “magic
cube” framework attempts to make explicit use of the HE 4.0 strategies and capture the extent to which
they are evident in the activities of a higher education environment.
113
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Brief History of Magic Cube
Magic cube, or more formally, the Rubik’s cube was initially invented in 1974 by a Hungarian professor
(Ernő Rubik) as a three dimensional combination puzzle for teaching purpose (Kaur, 2015). Regarding
how was this magic cube actually invented, please refer to (Rubik, 1987). Here, some important features
of a magic cube that were mentioned by Prof. Rubik are outlined as follows (Rubik, Varga, Kéri, Marx,
& Vekerdy, 1987):
•
•
•
•
Integrity: Magic cube is composed of many components that are integrated as a whole;
Maneuverability: Several pieces of a magic cube can be move all together;
Dimensionality: One easy to be overlooked characteristic that contains many key features of a
cube.
Cubicality: Other shapes (say, sphere) are much less satisfying in terms of making a 90 turn.
Family of Magic Cube
Today, one can find many variations of magic cube in the marketplace. This section provides the basic
understanding of some most popular ones regarding their fundamental structures, key terms and notations.
Since 2003, the World Cube Association (WCA, 2018) has been conducting competitions by using the
following four versions (Weed, 2016), namely, Rubik’s Pocket (Stat, 1982), Rubik’s Cube (Kośniowski,
1981; Thai & Taylor, 1982; Varasano, 1981), Rubik’s Revenge (Adams, 1982; Mason, 1982; Thai, Taylor,
Black, & Golomb, 1982), and Rubik’s Professor.
Rubik’s Pocket ( 2 × 2 × 2 )
This is the smallest member of the Rubik’s cube family which has six faces. The notation of faces
is followed by David Singmaster as suggested in (A. H. Frey & Singmasters, 1981; Singmaster, 1981).
Figure 1 illustrates how six faces are named.
In terms of the turning mechanism, the similar fashion is followed (A. H. Frey & Singmasters, 1981;
Singmaster, 1981): The rotation (or move) of different faces (front, back, left, right, up, and down) is
labelled as F, B, L, R, U, and D, respectively. More specifically, F and F ′ are used to represent performing a clockwise and counter-clockwise turn on the front face, respectively. A schematic illustration
of such turning mechanism is illustrated in Figure 2.
Meanwhile, a half turn (180 ) of any face is denoted with an additional 2 as illustrated in Figure 3,
an unfolded view of a scrambled Rubik’s Pocket with chosen moves.
Rubik’s Cube ( 3 × 3 × 3 )
When it comes to the classical Rubik’s cube, the following key terminologies can be further discussed.
•
114
Cubies (or Subcubes, Facets): Exteriorly, the standard version of Rubik’s cube seems to have 27
( 3 × 3 × 3 ) “cubies” with equal size (Bandelow, 1982).
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 1. Notation of the cube faces
Figure 2. Schematic illustration of layers’ turning mechanism of a typical Rubik’s Pocket
•
•
Colors of Cubies: The surface of the cube is made up by 54 ( 6 × 9 ) lateral faces of the aforementioned cubies. These faces are painted with six different colors, say, yellow, white, blue, green,
dark red and orange (Bandelow, 1982).
Types of Cubies: By moving one step further, one can classify these cubies as follows (as illustrated in Figure 4): corner cubies (8 out of 27) with three colored tiles, edge cubies (12 out of 27)
with two colored tiles, and face cubies (6 out of 27) with one colored tile (Bandelow, 1982). Here,
the last and hidden cubie (1 out of 27) is essentially a rigid system with three mutually perpendicular axes. This very core component can be regarded as a central cubie with six attached octagonal
extensions. Each one of these octagon can rotate towards either direction at different possible degrees ( 90 , 180 , or 360 ) (Kaur, 2015).
115
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 3. Unfolded view of an example of scrambled Rubik’s Pocket with chosen moves
•
•
Layers: Each of the 27 cubies belongs to 3 different types of layers (as illustrated in Figure 5), that
is, every layer consists of 9 cubies.
States (or Configurations): In a standard 3 × 3 × 3 Rubik’s Cube environment, a set ( ) can be
defined which consists of 4.3 × 1019 states including goal state (ssolved ) as well. Accordingly, one
can observe a state (st ∈ ) at every timestep (t ) and take an action (at ∈ ), where
:= {F , F ′, , D, D ′} (McAleer, Agostinelli, Shmakov, & Baldi, 2018). An unfolded view of a
scrambled Rubik’s Cube with chosen moves is illustrated in Figure 6.
The details of Rubik’s Revenge ( 4 × 4 × 4 ), originally designed and patented by Peter Sebestény,
and Rubik’s Professor ( 5 × 5 × 5 ), originally designed by Udo Krell, are out of the scope of this chapter,
interested readers should refer to (Rubik et al., 1987; Slocum, Singmaster, Huang, Gebhardt, & Hellings,
2009) for further discussion.
Family of V-CUBE
After the 5 × 5 × 5 cube was invented in 1986, many people started to believe that a 6 × 6 × 6 cube is
impossible under certain geometry constraints. Surprisingly, a Greek engineer Panagiotis Verdes demonstrated a fully workable 6 × 6 × 6 V-CUBE in 2005 (Slocum et al., 2009). Since 2008, higher-order
116
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 4. Schematic representation of different types of cubies
Figure 5. Schematic illustration of layers’ turning mechanism of a typical Rubik’s Cube
cubes (such as V-CUBE 6 × 6 × 6 , and V-CUBE 7 × 7 × 7 ) started available in the market. In Verdes’s
2004 patent, the V-CUBE designs range from 2 × 2 × 2 to an amazing 11 × 11 × 11 . For the purpose of
this chapter, an unfolded view of a scrambled 8 × 8 × 8 cube with chosen moves is illustrated in Figure
7.
Other Cubic Variations
Apart from the abovementioned cube-shaped puzzles, one can also find some other interesting variations
in the literature, such as Pyraminx (Endl, 1982b), Megaminx (Endl, 1982a), and Skewb (Hofstadter,
1986; Slocum et al., 2009).
117
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 6. Unfolded view of an example of scrambled Rubik’s Cube with chosen moves
MAGIC CUBE FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT
Based on the movement characteristics of a typical Rubik’s cube, the proposed magic cube analogy represents a systematic thinking philosophy by incorporating different higher education scenarios and the
associated departments. This section will describe the magic cube framework through different lenses
(i.e., holistic, macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic) by covering various key elements such as
axes, layers, slices, and cubies.
Holistic View: Axes of the Magic Cube Framework
On the one hand, a unit cube can be regarded as one of the simplest object in an n-dimensional Euclidean space. It is describable and imaginable with the perfectness in shape regarding the symmetry and
regularity; while on the other hand, a unit cube also ranks as one of the most important object in an ndimensional Euclidean space. It plays a key role in comprehending measure and volume. In particular,
the structure and geometry of a high-dimensional unit cube is rather rich which can in turn help people
to understand combinatorics (Zong, 2006). By looking at an 8 × 8 × 8 cube via a holistic lens, one can
envision two sets of Cartesian coordinates for standing for the abstractions and representations of present future, respectively. Figure 8 illustrates such formulation.
118
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 7. Unfolded view of an example of scrambled V-CUBE 8 with chosen moves
Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the abstractive and representative Cartesian coordinates
119
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Macroscopic View: Faces of the Magic Cube Framework
When a holistic view of the proposed framework is acquired, one can move closer to examine the
magic cube with the macroscopic lens. Figure 9 illustrates the obtained unfolded view of the 8 × 8 × 8
cube’s six faces.
As show in Figure 9, different faces and the associated goals are outlined as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Face 1: Down face – The DNA of the University of Johannesburg (UJ);
Face 2: Back Face – GES (Global Excellence & Stature) of the University of Johannesburg (UJ);
Face 3: Left Face – HE 4.0 (Higher Education 4.0) (Xing & Marwala, 2017);
Face 4: Front Face – FIRST (Fourth Industrial Revolution & Skill Transformation) Initiative;
Face 5: Right Face – AID (Artificial Intelligence & Digitalization) Guideline; and
Face 6: Up Face – ADAPTIVE (Accessibility, Digital-literacy, Acceleration, Pan-regionalization,
Transformation, Inclusiveness, Vision, & Engagement) Formula (Xing et al., 2018).
Mesoscopic View: Layers and Slices of the Magic Cube Framework
When the mesoscopic lens is attached, one can further identify various layers and slices of the proposed
framework. The corresponding schematic illustration can be found in Figure 10.
As illustrated in Figure 10, different layers and slices are labelled as follows based on eight faculties
of UJ:
•
•
FEBE: Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment;
FADA: Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture;
Figure 9. Schematic illustration of the six faces of the developed magic cube framework
120
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 10. Schematic illustration of magic cube’s layers and slices
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
FoE: Faculty of Education;
FEBE: Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment;
FHS: Faculty of Health Sciences;
FoH: Faculty of Humanities
FoL: Faculty of Law;
FoS: Faculty of Science; and
CBE: College of Business and Economics.
The interaction among various layers/slices are, on the one hand, guided by following three visible
dimensions, namely, T&L 4.0, R&I 4.0, and Service 4.0; and on the other hand, facilitated by an invisible dimension, namely, Infrastructure 4.0.
121
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Microscopic View: Exemplary Cubie: Institute for Intelligent Systems (IIS)
As one can notice, the proposed magic cube framework consists of a certain number of cubies which
represents different departments/institutes within distinct faculties. By performing a microscopic examination, the detailed function and specific role of each cubie can be summarized. Here, an exemplary
corner cubie which belongs to FEBE is highlighted and illustrated in Figure 11.
Here, the functionality of an IIS cubie can be break down to three levels as illustrated in Figure 12.
•
•
•
Macro Level: At this level, the goal of an IIS cubie is in line with the grand aim of the magic cube
framework;
Meso Level: At this level, the role of an IIS cubie is to enable the fusion of various disciplines,
i.e., mono-, inter-, multi-, cross-, trans-, and meta-disciplinarity.
Micro Level: The strategic plan 2025 of UJ still serves as the fundamental rule for an IIS cubie
to organize its daily activities.
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of a corner cubie: Institute for Intelligent System (IIS)
122
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figure 12.The functionality of an IIS cubie in the proposed magic cube framework
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
In this chapter, the proposed magic cube framework is mainly restricted to three dimension. An immediate future research direction could be extending the current framework to higher dimensions (four, five,
and more) with different size of each layers. However, the cuboid shape used in this chapter is rather a
profile, instead of an exact reflection. One should use it as a starting point for further exploration and
exploitation. In addition, one should also draw implications from employing AI algorithms to solve the
Rubik’s Cube problem (McAleer et al., 2018). Apart from all this, the author of this chapter also propose
to introduce “The Art of the UJobic” concept.
Prospects: The Art of the UJobic
The Art of the UJobic can be used as a slogan for a radical transformation of higher education environment in coping with the fourth industrial revolution wave.
Jobic = Jo’burg (Johannesburg) + Cubic
123
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
The synonym of “Jobic” stands for the following key capabilities that are crucial for the fourth industrial revolution era:
•
•
•
•
•
“J” for Junction
“O” for Orchestration
“B” for Bricolage
“I” for Ingenuity
“C” for Craving
UJobic = UJ + Jobic
The synonym of “UJobic” stands for the combination of UJ and Jobic by emphasizing the important
role of university in realizing the ultimate goal from the following perspectives:
•
•
•
•
•
UJobic Offers Junction
UJobic Facilitates Orchestration
UJobic Motivates Bricolage
UJobic Cultivates Ingenuity
UJobic Nurtures Craving
CONCLUSION
Higher education (HE) has always been denoted as both an investment in the future and a gateway to
valued careers. Nevertheless, as quoted and commented by Nancy W. Gleason in a recently published
book (Gleason, 2018), “Why is it that books about technological-induced economic change tend to
focus on every other information industry except for higher education?” The answer is because no one
knows quite what is happening yet. It is too new. In the meantime, though there are some other forms of
publications available regarding what needs to change in higher education, most of them lack a detailed
framework in terms of how higher education can actually implement those changes. This chapter intends
to fill this gap by offering readers a framework that is called magic cube.
The cubic framework proposed in this chapter is a model which can be utilized in distinct ways.
The four dimensions, three visible (T&L 4.0, R&I 4.0, Service 4.0) and one invisible (infrastructure
4.0), can be studied either in a separated or an integrated manner. Cube can also be treated partially or
wholly for specific purposes. The framework allows not only lecturers, students, or anyone else who is
interested in knowing about individual faculty/institute/department along different dimensions, it also
let the scrutiny of the entire HE institution become possible. Image an era that needs some sort of transformation be hastened to get global demands accommodated, be fast-paced to keep the new challenges
dealt with, and be outperformed to assure the social expectations met, if there ever was a time for a HE
institution to lead or be part of this transformation, the author believes it is definitely now – the fourth
industrial revolution age.
124
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
REFERENCES
Adam, B., & Groves, C. (2007). Future matters: action, knowledge, ethics. Koninklijke Brill NV.
doi:10.1163/ej.9789004161771.i-218
Adams, J. (1982). How to solve Rubik’s Revenge: Full-color step-by-step instructions to solve the supercube. The Dial Press.
Askling, B., & Bauer, M. (1999). The role, function and impact of a national agency in the evaluation of
a decentralised higher education system. Department of Education and Didactics, Göteborg University:
IPDreports, No 1999:01.
Bandelow, C. (1982). Inside Rubik’s cube and beyond (J. Zehnder & L. Moser, Trans.). Birkhäuser
Boston. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-7779-5
Belvedere, V., Grando, A., & Bielli, P. (2013). A quantitative investigation of the role of information and
communication technologies in the implementation of a product-service system. International Journal
of Production Research, 51(2), 410–426. doi:10.1080/00207543.2011.648278
Bersin, J. (2016). Predictions for 2016: a bold new world of talent, learning, leadership, and HR technology ahead. Deloitte Consulting LLP.
Brown-Martin, G. (2017). Education and the fourth industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://
www.groupemediatfo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/FINAL-Education-and-the-Fourth-IndustrialRevolution-1-1-1.pdf
Cambridge Dictionary. (2018). The industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.
org/dictionary/english/industrial-revolution
Castañeda, L., & Selwyn, N. (2018). More than tools? Making sense of the ongoing digitizations of
higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(22), 1–10.
Center for Digital Technology and Management. (2015). The future of education. Munich, Germany:
Center for Digital Technology and Management.
Dai, L. (2006). From conventional technology to carbon nanotechnology: The fourth industrial revolution
and the discoveries of C60 carbon nanotube and nanodiamond. In L. Dai (Ed.), Carbon Nanotechnology:
Recent Developments in Chemistry, Physics, Materials Science and Device Applications (pp. 3–11).
Elsevier V.V. doi:10.1016/B978-044451855-2/50004-8
Dickson, B. (2017). How artificial intelligence is shaping the future of education? Retrieved from https://
www.pcmag.com/article/357483/how-artificial-intelligence-is-shaping-the-future-of-education
Endl, K. (1982a). Megaminx: The elementary strategy, with two types of operations only. Würfel-Verlag
GmbH.
Endl, K. (1982b). Pyraminx cube: The elementary solution, with two types of operations only. WürfelVerlag GmbH.
125
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Figueiró, P. S., & Raufflet, E. (2015). Sustainability in higher education: A systematic review with focus
on management education. Journal of Cleaner Production, 106, 22–33. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.118
Flanagan, C., Modjtahedi, A., & Coe, I. (2017). Investigating the global FinTech talent shortage. Faculty
of Science, Ryerson University.
Freeman, R. B. (1976). The overeducated American. New York: Academic Press.
Frey, A. H., & Singmasters, D. (1981). Handbook of cubik math. Enslow Publishers.
Frey, C. A., & Osborne, M. A. (2015). Technology at work: The future of innovation and employment.
Retrieved from http://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/reports/Citi_GPS_Technology_Work.pdf
Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2013). The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Retrieved from www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf
Geiger, R. L. (2015). The history of American higher education: learning and culture from the founding
to world war II. Princeton University Press.
Gleason, N. W. (Ed.). (2018). Higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. Singapore:
Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0
Hedberg, J. G. (2006). E-learning futures? Speculations for a time yet to come. Studies in Continuing
Education, 28(2), 173–185. doi:10.1080/01580370600751187
HEFCE. (2010). The higher education workforce framework 2010: overview report. Retrieved from
http://www.hefce.ac.uk/media/hefce/content/pubs/2010/201005/10_05.pdf
Hofstadter, D. R. (1986). Metamagical themas: Questing for the essence of mind and pattern. Bantam
Books, Inc.
Ito, J., & Howe, J. (2016). Whiplash: how to survive our faster future. Grand Central Publishing.
Jacob, W. J., & Gokbel, V. (in press). Global higher education learning outcomes and financial trends:
Comparative and innovative approaches. International Journal of Educational Development. doi:10.1016/j.
ijedudev.2017.03.001
Jung, J., Horta, H., & Yonezawa, A. (2018). Researching higher education in Asia: history, development
and future. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4989-7
Kagermann, H., Wahlster, W., Helbig, J., & ACATECH. (2013). Securing the future of German manufacturing industry: Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0: Communication Promoters Group of the Industry-Science Research Alliance and National Academy of Science and
Engineering. Retrieved from http://www.acatech.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Baumstruktur_nach_Website/
Acatech/root/de/Material_fuer_Sonderseiten/Industrie_4.0/Final_report__Industrie_4.0_accessible.pdf
Karkkainen, T., Panos, G. A., Broby, D., & Bracciali, A. (2017). On the educational curriculum in
finance and technology. SSRN Electronic Journal, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3121982
126
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Kaur, H. (2015). Algorithms for solving the Rubik’s cube: A study of how to solve the Rubik’s cube using
to famous approaches: The Thistlewaite’s algorithm and the IDA* algorithm (Unpublished Bachelor
Thesis). KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
Knight, J., Quheng, D., & Shi, L. (2017). China’s expansion of higher education: The labour market consequences of a supply shock. China Economic Review, 43, 127–141. doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2017.01.008
Kogan, M., Bauer, M., Bleiklie, I., & Henkel, M. (Eds.). (2006). Transforming higher education: a comparative study (2nd ed.; Vol. 13). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4657-5
Kośniowski, C. (1981). Conquer that cube. Cambridge University Press.
Krueger, K. (2018). Back to the future: What the coming fourth industrial revolution means for education. T.H.E. Journal, 45(2), 24.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). How should the higher education workforce adapt to advancements in
technology for teaching and learning? Internet and Higher Education, 15(4), 247–254. doi:10.1016/j.
iheduc.2011.12.002
Lamprini, K., & Bröchler, R. (2018). How collaborative innovation and technology in educational ecosystem can meet the challenges raised by the 4th industrial revolution. World Technopolis Review, 7, 2–14.
Lee, H., & Miozzo, M. (2015). How does working on university-industry collaborative projects affect
science and engineering doctorates’ careers? evidence from a UK research-based university. The Journal
of Technology Transfer, 40(2), 293–317. doi:10.100710961-014-9340-4
Liao, Y., Deschamps, F., de Freitas Rocha Loures, E., & Ramos, L. F. P. (2017). Past, present and future
of Industry 4.0 - a systematic literature review and research agenda proposal. International Journal of
Production Research, 55(12), 3609–3629. doi:10.1080/00207543.2017.1308576
Liao, Y., Loures, E. R., Deschamps, F., Brezinski, G., & Venâncio, A. (2018). The impact of the fourth
industrial revolution: A cross-country/region comparison. Production, 28(0), 1–18. doi:10.1590/01036513.20180061
Loshin, D. (2013). Business intelligence: The savvy manager’s guide (2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann.
Maasse, P., Nerland, M., & Yates, L. (2018). Reconfiguring knowledge in higher education. Springer
International Publishing AG, ISBN.
Marshall, S. (2010). Change, technology and higher education: Are universities capable of organisational
change? ALT-J. Research in Learning Technology, 18(3), 179–192. doi:10.1080/09687769.2010.529107
Mason, W. L. (1982). Rubik’s Revenge: The simplest solution. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mazali, T. (2018). From industry 4.0 to society 4.0, there and back. AI & Society, 33(3), 405–411.
doi:10.100700146-017-0792-6
McAleer, S., Agostinelli, F., Shmakov, A., & Baldi, P. (2018). Solving the Rubik’s Cube without human
knowledge. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1805.07470.pdf
127
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
McNay, I. (2006). Beyond mass higher education: building on experience. The Society for Research
into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Mezied, A. A. (2016). What roll will education play in the fourth industrial revolution? Retrieved from
http://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/what-role-will-education-play-in-th-fourth-industrial-revolution/
Morris, H., & Setser, B. (2015). Building a culture of innovation in higher education: design & practice
for leaders. 2Revolutions & EDUCAUSE.
Mulgan, G., & Joshi, R. (2016). Clicks and mortarboards: how can higher education make the most of
digital technology? Retrieved from https://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/higher_education_and_
technology_nov16_.pdf
National Research Council. (2002). Preparing for the revolution: information technology and the future
of the research university. The National Academies Press.
Nativi, S., Mazzetti, P., & Craglia, M. (2017). A view based model of data cube to support big earth data
systems interoperability. Big Earth Data, 1(1-2), 75–99. doi:10.1080/20964471.2017.1404232
Ng, W. (2015). New digital technology in education: conceptualizing professional learning for educators. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05822-1
Nybom, T. (2012). The disintegration of higher education in Europe, 1970-2010: a post-Humboldtian
essay. In S. Rothblatt (Ed.), Clark Kerr’s World of Higher Education Reaches the 21st Century. Dordrecht,
The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media.
Oblinger, D. G. (Ed.). (2012). Game changers: education and information technologies. EDUCAUSE.
Oztemel, E., & Gursev, S. (in press). Literature review of Industry 4.0 and related technologies. Journal
of Intelligent Manufacturing. doi:10.100710845-018-1433-8
Peters, M. A. (2017). Technological unemployment: Educating for the fourth industrial revolution.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 49(1), 1–6. doi:10.1080/00131857.2016.1177412
Peters, M. A., & Besley, T. (Eds.). (2013). The creative university: Vol. 1. Sense Publishers.
Porter, S. (2015). To MOOC or not to MOOC: how can online learning help to build the future of higher
education? Elsevier.
Potkonjak, V., Gardner, M., Callaghan, V., Mattila, P., Guetl, C., Petrović, V. M., & Jovanović, K. (2016).
Virtual laboratories for education in science, technology, and engineering: A review. Computers &
Education, 95, 309–327. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.02.002
Reinalda, B. (2008). The ongoing Bologna process and political science. European Political Science,
7(3), 389–393. doi:10.1057/eps.2008.16
Rostow, W. W. (1985). The developing world in the fifth Kondratieff upswing. The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 420(1), 111–124. doi:10.1177/000271627542000110
Rothbard, M. N. (2015). Science, technology and government. Mises Institute.
128
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Rubik, E. (1987). In play (D. Singmaster, Trans.). In E. Rubik, T. Varga, G. Kéri, G. Marx & T. Vekerdy
(Eds.), Rubik’s Cubic Compendium. Oxford University Press.
Rubik, E., Varga, T., Kéri, G., Marx, G., & Vekerdy, T. (1987). Rubik’s cubic compendium (D. Singmaster, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
Salleh, M. S., & Omar, M. Z. (2013). University-industry collaboration models in Malaysia. Procedia:
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 102, 654–664. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.784
Saucedo.Martínez, J. A., Pérez-Lara, M., Marmolejo-Saucedo, J. A., Salais-Fierro, T. E., & Vasant, P.
(in press). Industry 4.0 framework for management and operations: A review. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing. doi:10.100712652-017-0533-1
Schwab, K. (2016). The fourth industrial revolution. New York: Crown Business.
Scott, P. (1995). The meanings of mass higher education. The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Singmaster, D. (1981). Notes on Rubik’s Magic Cube. Enslow Publishers.
Slocum, J., Singmaster, D., Huang, W.-H., Gebhardt, D., & Hellings, G. (2009). The cube: The ultimate
guide to the world’s bestselling puzzle. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc.
Stat, B. (1982). Altogether fun and absolutely understanding Rubik’s Pocket CubeTM. Banbury Books, Inc.
Stearns, P. N. (2013). The industrial revolution in world history (4th ed.). Westview Press.
Tapper, T., & Palfreyman, D. (Eds.). (2005). Understanding mass higher education: comparative perspective on access. Routledge Falmer.
Thai, M., & Taylor, H. (1982). The winning solution to Rubik’s Cube. Banbury Books, Inc.
Thai, M., Taylor, H., Black, M. R., & Golomb, S. W. (1982). The winning solution to Rubik’s Revenge.
Banbury Books, Inc.
The Economist. (2008). The future of higher education: how technology will shape learning. The Economist Intelligence Unit.
The Economist. (2017). Lifelong learning. The Economist, 422(9023), 9.
Trow, M. A. (1974). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. In General report to
the conference on the structure of post-secondary education (pp. 55–101). Paris, France: Organisation
for Economic Development and Cooperation.
van der Zwaan, B. (2017). Higher education in 2040: a global approach (V. Collingwood, Trans.).
Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.26530/OAPEN_625978
Varasano, J. (1981). Jeff conquers the cube in 45 seconds* And you can, too. Scarborough House.
WCA. (2018). About the WCA: World Cube Association. Retrieved from https://www.worldcubeassociation.org/about
129
Towards a Magic Cube Framework in Understanding Higher Education 4.0 Imperative
Weed, J. (2016). Sub-optimal multi-phase path planning: A method for solving Rubik’s Revenge. Retrieved
from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1601.05744
West, K. (2018). Three truths for gearing up to the fourth industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://
www.fin24.com/Opinion/three-truths-for-gearing-up-to-the-fourth-industrial-revolution-20180301
World Economic Forum. (2017). Realizing human potential in the fourth industrial revolution: an agenda
for leaders to shape the future of education, gender and work. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.
org/docs/WEF_EGW_Whitepaper.pdf
Xing, B. (2015). Massive online open course assisted mechatronics learning: a hybrid approach. In A.
Mesquita & P. Peres (Eds.), Furthering Higher Education Possibilities through Massive Open Online
Courses. IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8279-5.ch012
Xing, B., Marwala, L., & Marwala, T. (2018). Adopt fast, adapt quick: Adaptive approaches in the South
African Context. In N. W. Gleason (Ed.), Higher Education in the Era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (pp. 171–206). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0_8
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2017). Implications of the fourth industrial age for higher education. The
Thinker: For the Thought Leaders, 73, 10-15.
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2018o). Smart computing applications in crowdfunding. CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group. doi:10.1201/b22523
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2018p). Introduction to smart computing—approximate reasoning. In B. Xing
& T. Marwala (Eds.), Smart Computing Applications in Crowdfunding. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group.
Zong, C. (2006). Cube: A window to convex and discrete geometry. Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511543173
130
131
Chapter 8
Transformation of Higher
Education in China:
A Teaching Methods Perspective
Victor Wang
Liberty University, USA
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele
Griffith University, Australia
ABSTRACT
Facilitated by the explosion of technologies, globalization is the catalyst for many changes in society
and its workings. Higher education is no exception. In the present chapter from a teaching methods
perspective, the authors consider China’s higher education system and the transformations it is undergoing, largely as a response to globalization. Given that the employment capabilities of graduates are
influenced by teaching methods they experienced throughout their education, and in turn, once gaining
employment graduates’ capabilities make some on the nation, it is appropriate and useful to adopt a
teaching methods perspective on educational transformation. Thus, to further understanding of the
status of teaching methods in China, the chapter reports on a study comparing Chinese adult education
methods with Western educational methods. A conceptual framework of the principles of andragogy is
used. The study results, consistent with other literature of adult education in China, indicate that some
andragogical elements are used by Chinese educators.
INTRODUCTION
Scott (1998) observes “investment in [higher education] can be translated into comparative economic
advantage, a belief encouraged by theories of post-industrial society, which suggest that ‘knowledge’
has become the primary resource in advance economies”. Universities are core to contributing to, and
shaping, knowledge resources both at national and global levels. Beyond training a new generation of
leaders, and producing well-educated members of society, universities make social contribution through
commercialization of research, problem solving, provision of public space for knowledge development,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch008
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Transformation of Higher Education in China
exchange and application as well as scientific and engineering base for inventions in the private sector
(Wu & Zhou, 2012). In recognition of the important role universities play in the knowledge economy
China, like most other nations, is recognizing higher education as an important economic asset, and
as a vehicle for building a significant presence in a globalized socio-economic environment. Reaching
towards a globally competitive higher education system, China is steadily reforming its system of higher
education. China’s reforms are capturing the interest of the West, the U.S. being no exception. Towards
gaining deeper insights into the reforms taking place in Chinese Higher Education with respect to teaching methods, a systematic comparison of adult education methods in China and the U.S. was undertaken.
Prior to describing the study and discussing its outcomes, it is useful to begin with a consideration of the
China’s aspirations for higher education, and followed by discussion of teaching methods from the adult
education perspective of pedagogy and andragogy, as is found in the work of adult education theorists
such as Knowles. A brief literature review of adult education in China and the U.S. is undertaken prior
to describing the study methodology, presenting results and discussing insights gained from the study.
China’s Aspirations for Higher Education
The most compelling evidence of China’s ambitions for a high quality, globally competitive higher
education system is found in the initiation of the 985 project. Coinciding with the 100th anniversary of
Peking University, the project was announced in 1998. The 1998 administration, striving to develop the
knowledge base in its people through higher education, set goals to grow China’s education system and
thus helped to grow China’s universities (Douglass, 2012). The results of the administration’s efforts
indicate positive progress towards meeting the aim of high quality, globally competitive higher education
in China. Enrollment increased, and the quality of China’s education system improved.
At the inception of the 985 Project, the first nine Chinese Ivy League Universities arose:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Fudan University
Harbin Institute of Technology
Nanjing University
Peking University
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Tsinghua University
University of Science and Technology of China
Xi’an Jiao Tong University
Zhejiang University
In 2004, the second phase of the project saw the addition of other universities to reach a total of 39.
In 2011, the closure of the 985 Project was announced, but efforts to further the goal of high quality,
globally competitive higher education continue in the form of project 211 in which there are currently
112 member universities. More recently, on November 5, 2015, the Chinese State Council released a
statement “Coordinate Development of World-class Universities and First-class Disciplines Construction Overall Plan” (China sets direction for world class universities, 2015). The statement furthers the
goals of the 985 and 211 projects with the World Class 2.0” plan, now referred to as the “Double First
Class” plan. An important objective of the plan is to have six universities into the top world universities
by 2020 and have some of these institutions ranked in the top 15 by 2030. The Thirteen Five Year Plan
132
Transformation of Higher Education in China
released on January 10, 2017, reinforces the education objectives and targets for education (across all
levels of education from prep to university) and enhancement of international cooperation (Department
of Education and Training, 2017). The document clearly shows China’s continued aspirations for quality,
internationally competitive education system:
By the end of 2020, China aims to have strengthened and modernized its education system, and to be in
a position to play a more influential role internationally in education. The Plan identifies a number of
key priority areas including innovation, moral education, education equality and poverty relief, structural reform and teacher development. Improving education quality lies at the heart of the Plan, and
this theme is integrated into all of the development strategies. (Department of Education and Training,
2017, para. 3)
According to Professor Kai Jiang (2010) who teaches at Peking University, “building a high quality
and internationally competitive national higher education system has become the major objective among
policymakers” (p. 5). In addition to quality, increased processes would be put in place to monitor the
accountability of institutions and education programs. China has invested major resources to attract the
top professors to teach in China and to fund research and to improve its’ learning facilities. The 2020
blueprint promises that:
Efforts should be made to attract more world-class experts and scholars to teaching, research and
managerial jobs in China, and invite high-level professionals and academic teams from overseas in a
planned way. Quality textbooks shall be imported, and the percentage of foreign teachers in college
faculty increased. (p. 34)
Alongside efforts to increase Chinese students’ participation in high quality university education,
there is an agenda for internationalization of education. The “Study in China Program” announced in
2010 is orientated towards lifting the number of international students studying in China and making
China the most popular destination for international students in Asia (Pan, 2013).
There is further substantial evidence of the impact of China’s actions to increase quality and participation in higher education. China’s higher education system, in terms of numbers of both teachers
and students is largest in the world, and research activities have led to China being one of the largest
producers of peer-reviewed articles with research output rising from 3% to 11% in the decade 2001-2011
(Yang, 2015). Admission has greatly expanded since 1999 with a gross enrollment rate of around 37.5%
in 2014. A 2017 online article on the World Economic Forum web pages announces that “China now
produces twice as many graduates a year as the U.S.” with eight million students graduating in 2017 – a
number almost ten times the number of graduates in China in 1997 (Stapleton, 2017).
One interesting observation of China’s education transformation progress was made in a World Economic Forum article, which reports that despite increases in the number of graduates, Chinese companies
complain of a lack of graduates with “soft skills” such as communication, analytical and managerial
skills (Stapleton, 2017). This observation brings us to a discussion of teaching methods used in China,
and a consideration of skills for the twenty-first century, but first it is instructive to briefly consider the
teaching methods known as pedagogy and andragogy.
133
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Teaching Methods: Pedagogy and Andragogy
Teaching methods can be seen as external factors that may lead to individual transformation and emancipation (Wang & Sarbo, 2004) in Mezirow’s (1991, 2000) and Freire’s (1970, 1973, 2003). Transformational learning may occur when a teaching method provides optimal environments and stimulation.
Thus, the knowledge, skill and attitudes of students emerging from higher education are influenced
greatly by the educational methods experienced. The capabilities and experiences of higher education
students ultimately influence the quality and wider, long term impact of higher education on the nation.
Two teaching methods have been exhaustively examined in the literature of adult education: teachercentered teaching and student-centered teaching - the latter is close to the ideas that emerged in the
education of adults (Jarvis, 2002). Knowles, Holton and Swanson (1998, 2005. 2011) extended studentcentered teaching one step further by saying, “an essential feature of andragogy is flexibility” (p. 183).
Pedagogy refers predominantly to teacher-focused education though the term is often loosely used to
refer to ‘teaching’. The word pedagogy has its roots in the Greek word paid meaning child and agogus
meaning leader of. Pedagogy, literally means ‘lead the child’. Pedagogy essentially refers to more authoritarian teaching methods whereby the learner is largely a passive recipient of knowledge. Andragogy
(from the Greek aner meaning adult) on the other hand, was initially defined as the science of helping
adults to learn, and refers to a more student-centered view of teaching in which learning tends to be
inquiry based and experiential (Knowles, 1977). In literature surrounding teaching methods an apparent
dichotomy arises between pedagogy and andragogy, however, as Knowles (1977) advises, andragogical
and pedagogical methods should be viewed along a continuum with andragogy and pedagogy at either
extreme end. Before proceeding further with discussion of adult teaching methods in China and the West
(in particular United States), it is important to note two key points about terminology related to teaching
methods. Firstly, the word pedagogy is unfortunately often used very loosely to simply mean teaching
method, but the use of the term in the context of this chapter refers specifically to teaching methods that
are authoritarian. Secondly, there are other terminologies are used in literature, in various contexts to
capture the essence of difference between ‘direct instruction of the authoritarian teaching method, and
the ‘student centered instruction’ in which students play more active roles in the generation of knowledge.
However, since the emphasis in the present paper is on adult learning, and the characteristics of adult
learners as dimensions along which we compare teaching methods in China with the West, it is more
appropriate to follow Knowles and others in the field of adult education and frame teaching methods in
terms of andragogy and pedagogy.
TEACHING METHODS IN CHINA AND THE U.S.:
A BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE
China’s adult education teaching methods are rooted in a very different historical and cultural context than
Western Universities. Higher learning in China had its beginnings as part of the bureaucratic system and
was closely tied to the imperial system. Sitting the imperial examinations had more to do with gaining
knowledge and skills for the utility in terms of ruling classes rather than seeking knowledge for its own
sake (Yang, 2015). In contrast, Western medieval universities were largely self-governing autonomous
institutions (Yang, 2015) existing for the pursuit of knowledge as an end of its own. Although modern
Chinese universities are beginning to shift to Western values, there is ongoing tension between the West134
Transformation of Higher Education in China
ern and Chinese higher learning traditions within universities and as Yang (2015) notes “the merging of
Chinese and Western ideas of a university remains an unfinished business.” (p. 530)
A well documented and often discussed difference between universities in China and those in the West,
is China’s reliance on teaching methods that are largely teacher centered rather than student centered. As
noted by Biggs (1996), the Chinese teacher is viewed as an authority figure that relies on lecture method
that focuses primarily on items that are to be tested through quantitatively measured exams. The teacher
expects the students to master the content often through repetition using a subject-centered approach.
The teacher uses external rewards system as well as punishment for lack of student performance. In other
words, Chinese teaching methods are largely andragogical in nature.
Since 1911, China’s leaders have experimented broadly with culturally distinct educational principles
imported from the West. However, andragogy, a popular approach to adult learning in the West for over
30 years (Wang & Bott, 2004; Wang & King, 2006; Wang & Cranton, 2012), has never gained a foothold
in China. Even John Dewey, an outspoken supporter of experiential learning method, who lectured for
26 months in China during 1919-1921 (Kaplan, Sobin, & Andors, 1979) failed to exert appreciable influence on adult education in China. Pedagogy has remained firmly entrenched as the preferred method
of adult education in China, and China’s leaders have overlooked andragogy’s potential for fostering
the desired transformation and emancipation of Chinese adult learners. Perhaps, as educational reform
develops in China, we will witness changes in educational goals, teaching methods and course content.
Given that teaching methods ultimately resonate throughout society in the form of graduate skills, attitudes and capabilities, it is appropriate to consider in further detail adult education methods in China
and in the West, particularly the U.S.
Adult Education Methods in China
Wang and Bott’s 2004 research suggested that the Chinese adult educators support a teacher-centered
mode of teaching, view lecturing as a superior method and consider themselves providers of knowledge
rather than facilitators (p. 47). This result was reflected in Jackson’s 1986 study that indicated teaching
in China is a conservative act, relying on a “mimetic” or “epistemic” tradition, which “gives a central
place to the transmission of factual and procedural knowledge from one person to another through an
essentially imitative process” (p. 117). According to Paine (1992), teaching in China is characteristically
text-based, subject-oriented and teacher-centered, which is the typical pedagogical approach and not the
andragogical approach more commonly found in the Western adult education.
For thousands of years, Chinese educators have maintained that all education encompasses twin goals:
teaching books (Chen, 1981) and teaching learners (Price, 1992). To teach in China implies teaching
books and teaching learners, and, consequently, teachers are expected to embrace these twin goals. Not
surprisingly, adult teaching is structured in ways that support a text-driven and teacher dominated view
of education. The teacher’s first goal is defined as the transmission of subject knowledge, and the learning of texts and textual knowledge is paramount. Accordingly, teachers are trained to deliver lectures on
the text, and learners are expected to reproduce these interpretations in exams.
The second goal of adult education is to teach learners. In the Chinese context, this goal involves
moral training (Price, 1992). Political ideologies prescribed by higher authorities are reinforced by adult
educators. Teachers are expected to be role models. Students are to learn from their teachers, following
their political and ideological examples.
135
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Chinese teacher education is designed to help educators master the teaching materials, apply these
teaching materials and learn how to use the text. All curricula are prescribed by the Ministry of Education, and teachers are not permitted to question the authority of the texts prescribed by higher authorities.
Teaching in China is focused exclusively on the transmission of orthodox subject knowledge, and concepts such as flexibility, problem solving, critical thinking and independent learning are not recognized.
Paine’s 1992 research also indicated that, in general, Chinese teachers view teaching as performance
rather than as interaction. All teachers ultimately learn to be great performers. Teaching puts teachers in
the role of masters and students in the role of disciples. Instruction is a unilateral process as professors
expound on texts (Paine, 1992, p. 190). The role of the students is to expend great effort in memorization and analysis of a text chosen by their teachers. In fact, memorization of texts is more highly valued
in China than in any other educational or cultural settings.
Chinese teaching strictly proscribes acceptable teaching philosophies, teacher roles and roles of
students. Deviations from these clearly defined roles are not permitted. This hierarchical structure dominates classrooms as well as educational institutions and firmly reinforces China’s pedagogical approach
to adult education. The tribal peoples in the west and other regions in China are linguistic minorities.
Since Han people (the majority of the Chinese population) dominate the Chinese culture and governments at all levels, the modes of teaching of these linguistic minorities are essentially the same as those
preached and practiced by the Han people. While the teaching/learning situation of linguistic minorities
may be of great interest, this chapter intends to compare and merge two prominent intellectual traditions
by exclusively focusing on the Han people (mainstream teaching methods of the Chinese people) and
Western adult education methods.
Adult Education Methods in the United States
Contrary to Chinese adult education methods, Western adult education reflects a humanistic approach to
education that emphasizes the interaction between teachers and students. First, adult education practice
in the West revolves around the core principles of andragogy that were described by Knowles (1970) as
reflecting the following assumptions:
•
•
•
•
Learning is self-directed
Experience is central to learning
Learners learn what they need
Adults are problem-centered in relation to their learning (as cited in Wang & Bott, 2004, p. 36)
While some scholars view andragogy as a technological application of psychological and sociological principles, Knowles saw it as a set of practices located along a continuum from teacher-directed to
student-directed learning. Student-centered learning represents a democratic approach to teaching and
learning, which is characterized by a characteristic set of teaching activities, such as using learning
contracts (Knowles, 1986; Rogers, 1969) to structure coursework, negotiating the course syllabus at the
first-class meeting, requiring students to compile personal learning journals and relying on open-ended
discussion methods.
Western adult educators draw a clear distinction (Knowles, 1970, 1973, 1975) between the education
of adults (andragogy) and the education of children (pedagogy), although from time to time pedagogy
may be employed in adult basic education (Conti, 1985). In general, adult educators tend to prefer an
136
Transformation of Higher Education in China
andragogical approach to teaching as advocated by early adult education leaders such as Knowles. Adult
educators in West are frequently referred to as “learning facilitators”, implying that they are helpers
rather than information transmitters like their Chinese counterparts in the learning process.
Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) emphasized the helping roles of adult educators when he
observed:
Finally, I found myself performing a different set of functions that required a different set of skills. Instead
of performing the function of content planner and transmitter, which required primarily presentation
skills, I was performing the function of process designer and manager, which required relationship
building, needs assessment, involvement of students in planning, linking students to learning resources,
and encouraging student initiative. (p. 201)
Indeed, a Western adult educator views adult education as the education of equals (Jarvis, 1985).
Western adult educators seek to build positive relationships with adult learners (Rogers, 1951, 1961).
In the process, they encourage effective group dynamics and self-directed learning projects. Western
adult educators are co-learners in the educational process (Price, 1999) who treat adult learners with
dignity and respect (Bergevin, 1967). To a Western adult educator, an adult learner is highly motivated
and self-directed. The adult learner assumes responsibility for learning and self-development. Above all,
Western adult educators never deprive adult learners of their excitement for the discovery of learning.
Unlike their Chinese counterparts, Western educators do not place learners in a submissive role of
following their instructors’ instruction. In the democratic atmosphere of Western adult education, everyone participates in the learning process. The teacher may be an expert in one area; students are experts
in other areas. As one of the early founders of adult education in the West, Lindeman (1926) advocated:
Subject matter is brought into the situation, is put to work, when needed. Texts and teachers play a new
secondary role in this type of education; they must give way to the primary importance of the learners.
(pp. 8-9)
Contemporary leaders in Western adult education have taken Knowles’ advice on flexibility further
by arguing that teachers’ roles need to be situational in order to meet learners’ learning needs. Grow
(1991) described the four stages of autonomous learning and their corresponding teaching methods
summarized in Table 1, below. Grow’s stages in learning autonomy support the notion that the learners’
needs prescribe the situational roles of adult educators.
Table 1. Grow’s stages in learning autonomy
Stage
Learner
Educator
Methods
Stage 1
Dependent
Coach
Coaching with immediate feedback; Informational lecture
Stage 2
Interested
Motivator
Inspiring lecture plus guided discussions; goal setting
Stage 3
Involved
Facilitator
Discussion facilitated by teacher who participates as equal
Stage 4
Self-directed
Consultant
Internship; dissertation, self-study
137
Transformation of Higher Education in China
During the Post-World-War II period, a focal point in adult education was critical reflection—challenging existing ideas and looking for alternatives (Brookfield, 1995, 2013). Critical reflection was
central to Mezirow’s 1991 and 2000 research (Wang & Cranton, 2011). The role of critical reflection
in adult education remains a scholarly interest in Western adult education research in the 21st century
(King, 2000, 2004).
Teaching for 21st Century Capabilities
The nature of education in the 21st century has gained a great deal of attention. Educational literature
is littered with articles seeking to identify the 21st century capabilities that educational institutions
should be developing in order to equip students to effectively respond to, and even shape, future social
conditions. Capabilities such as critical thinking, collaboration and working in teams, problem solving,
systems thinking, cross-cultural and cross disciplinary communication, and creative thinking are the
dominant themes found in any discussion of 21st century capabilities. These capabilities are clearly not
new – after all little progress would have been made from human’s early beginnings if critical thinking
and problem solving were entirely absent. What is new, is the enormous importance of these capabilities. It is well acknowledged in literature that full participation in present and future society, as well
as nations’ economic success depends on 21st century capabilities. Problem solving, critical thinking,
working in interdisciplinary and cross cultural teams are becoming crucial for not only thriving in society but also to driving the innovations needed to propel forward. Subject knowledge, though important
as a foundation for further development is at least of equal importance to 21st century capabilities. In
any case, knowledge is now being generated at such volumes and such a rate that it is impossible for to
master. In this context, static knowledge (beyond the important fundamentals) is of limited value, what
is crucial is making dynamic connections and navigating through complex problems to identify the best
and sometimes novel solutions - this requires the 21st century capabilities.
Interestingly, in China, despite the growing number of graduates, employers frequently complain they
cannot find the graduates to meet their company needs – the deficit is usually in skills such as communication, managerial skills (Stapleton, 2017). It should be mentioned that concern about the development
of 21st century skills in higher education graduates is not unique to China. There is much emphasis on
these so called ‘employability skills’ or ‘generic skills’ in the West, and many Western employers also
identifying the lack of graduates with necessary ‘generic skills’ as problematic. For example, employers
in the field of technology and science emphatically maintain that graduates must necessarily possess
both technical knowledge and generic skills:
In the workplace, employees will be challenged, they’ll need to think for themselves and to think outside
the box, …Universities need to challenge students, not just teach theory… Most technical skills can be
learnt on the job. It is the willingness to have a go, learn from mistakes, continuously improve, problem
solve and adapt that is more valuable. (Sabine, 2015, para. 8-9)
Teaching methods most conducive to the development of skills such as critical thinking, adaptivity,
creativity have been shown to be inquiry based, student-centered approaches i.e. andragogical approaches.
Andragogical approaches are practiced more commonly in Western education (although there is renewed
emphasis on these approaches as part of efforts to meet demands of contemporary society). In China,
138
Transformation of Higher Education in China
on the other hand, the predominate teaching methods employed in China tend towards students learning
information through memorization. Rooted in the early heritage of education serving the skill needs of
the Imperial system, Chinese education is a more passive form of education where the teacher delivers
information that is generally accepted at face value. But “critical thinking involves recognizing and
researching the assumptions that undergird our thoughts and actions” (Brookfield, 2005, p.1).
If we are committed to helping students think well with concepts, we must teach them how to strip off
surface language and consider alternative ways to talk and think about things. This includes teaching
them how to closely examine the concepts they have personally formed as well as those into which they
have been socially indoctrinated. (Elder & Paul, 2001, p. 4)
Thus, education methods which place the teacher as the sole authority do not assist the development
of critical thinking. Through andragogy (Knowles, 1970) and self-directed learning (Knowles, 1975)
students are encouraged to be increasingly self-directed as they use life experiences to investigate and
some problems. Using their own curiosity as a spring-board to learning, student and facilitator (the
teacher) can negotiate learning activities to help him find answers to problems and situations that are
already engaging his interests. In a relaxed and trusting environment, the student and the facilitator can
use informal, formal and non-formal techniques to examine constructs and theories that may move the
student to higher order thinking skills beyond rote memorization. Rather than tests and retests and endless sets of lectures, each student becomes their own guide through learning contracts (Knowles, 1976)
and projects sequenced in readiness levels. Students can also use a community of learners (his facilitator,
his peers, and even subject experts in his community or the world) to serve as validation for his growth.
Through the use of andragogy, students prepare themselves for the world where they are part of a team
of collaborators that solve problems across subject areas, disciplines, and even continents. The student
or learner in this scenario is posed for life and career-centered settings that require someone to think for
themselves and to be willing to risk and accept challenges along the way. Put simply, such andragogical
methods help the student to acquire the capabilities required prepared to engage in life long learning.
There is evidence of change in China’s education system towards the andragogical methods used more
commonly in the West. Amid labor-force concerns, China’s Thirteen Five Year Plan makes note of the
necessity of life-long learning (Department of Education and Training, 2017).
Intertwined with the development of desirable 21st century skills the education system is technology
education. Technology education as part of the curriculum in China has had a relatively short history
as compared to the Western world. (Feng, Siu, & Gu, 2011). The 1980s saw the introduction of labor
related technical education but it is only recently that the technology curriculum aimed at new digital
technologies, digital literacy and design has begun to be implemented. The technology curriculum as a
subject in its own right, and as different than the labor focused technology curriculum, was initiated in
2001 and the standards for this curriculum in 2003. The introduction of the new technology curriculum
saw a move away from purely technical skills for the purpose of labor to the development of creativity,
problem solving and fostering initiative – all of which are feature as 21st century skills. The new technology curriculum furthered the transformation of education away from skill and labor based learning to
the support of lifelong learning. Interestingly, though Chinese education continues to lead in developing knowledge and academic results, it still lags behind the West in ability to apply that knowledge and
design (Green, 2015), implicating the need to further promote skills in creativity and critical thinking.
139
Transformation of Higher Education in China
In fact, the technology curriculum, by virtue of the problem solving, critical thinking and design process
inherent in the process design in technologies can be an effective vehicle for growing capabilities in 21st
century skills. This is perhaps something to consider as China continues its efforts for transformation
of education.
The Progress of Education Transformation in China: A Systematic
Comparison of Adult Education Methods in China and the U.S.
It is evident, from the preceding discussion that there are differences between adult education methods
between China and the U.S., but more importantly, the state of those differences is dynamic, changing
as systems of education across the globe continue to evolve, albeit to varying extents and in varying
directions. Furthermore, in a globalized world, where economies and societies are becoming increasingly
entangled, educational practices and transformation in one country will necessarily influence social,
economic and education practice/policies in another. Much is being written about education systems in
various countries, but the comparisons between countries are less frequent, and when they are made, tend
to be made at general levels. The juxtaposition of methods or systems is an effective way of highlighting
commonalities and differences, and arriving at an understanding of the system through analysis of those
differences/commonalities. With this in mind, a systematic comparison of adult education methods in
China and the U.S. is undertaken. Additionally, since teachers are agents of change, and given both the
impact of teaching methods on education and China’s efforts to reform its education system, it is useful
to turn to the coal-face of teaching, the teachers themselves. We have argued that education appropriate
to the 21st century must necessarily include the development of lifelong or employability skills among
its key goals. We have also noted that education in China espouses to primarily pedagogical teaching
methods and these methods are not conducive to developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills
at the heart of lifelong learning capabilities. A systematic comparison of teaching methods in the West
and in China will shed further light on the transformation efforts of higher education. The question
driving the comparison is “What are the instructional strategies of Chinese adult educators in light of
the Western adult education methods relative to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Learner-Centered Activities;
Personalizing Instruction;
Relating to Experience;
Assessing Student Needs;
Climate Building;
Participation in the Learning Process; and
Flexibility for Personal Development?
Methodology
To develop the background and context for the present study, literature related to Chinese adult education
methods was reviewed and analyzed for indications of the impact of Chinese adult education methods
on the transformation and emancipation of Chinese adult learners. The literature review was largely an
investigative and critical process during which the researcher gradually made sense of a social phenom-
140
Transformation of Higher Education in China
enon by contrasting, comparing, cataloguing and classifying the data reported in accounts of the object of
study (Miles & Huberman, 1994). First, the textual data were carefully reviewed and analyzed. Second,
patterns and themes were identified and described. Finally, these patterns and themes were analyzed in
terms of the theoretical framework of this study.
In addition, the study collected both quantitative and qualitative data regarding certain teaching methods
Chinese adult educators and United States adult learning professionals employed to educate and train adult
learners in their respective countries. For the quantitative portion of the study, a slightly modified form
of Conti’s (1983, 2004) Principles of Adult Learning Scale (PALS) was administered. This instrument
has been used for over twenty years by Western education researchers to determine whether teachers
are primarily pedagogical or andragogical in a given teaching situation and was, therefore, considered
appropriate for the purposes of the present study. According to Conti (1983, 2004), PALS measures the
following seven factors associated with teaching practice: Learner-Centered Activities, Personalizing
Instruction, Relating to Experience, Assessing Student Needs, Climate Building, Participation in the
Learning Process and Flexibility for Personal Development. These seven factors represent the basic
elements that comprise the instructor’s general teaching mode (either pedagogical or andragogical).
To supplement and complement the quantitative portion of the study, a series of ten open-ended
questions were adapted from Wang and Bott’s 2004 research. These opened-ended questions were developed to solicit information regarding why instructors chose to be pedagogical or andragogical in their
instruction of adult learners. Permissions to conduct this mixed method research were granted by three
leading institutions of higher learning in the area of adult education in China and in the United States.
Participants from the three universities completed the two online surveys. The following electronic link
leads to both the quantitative portion and the qualitative portion of the online survey (Wang, 2005):
http://134.139.176.33/surveys/adult_teaching_methods-survey_instruments.htm.
Participants
Jiaotong University, in Shanghai, has been a leader in adult education on the East Coast of China since
China opened its doors to the outside world in the early 1980s. Its faculty teaches courses to adult learners
mainly in the evening. Faculty members from Northeastern University in Northeast China also volunteered
to participate in the study. The thirty-six instructors from these two leading universities in China who
completed online surveys for this study were full time faculty, teaching adult learners. Adult education
programs at these institutions have evolved in response to China’s increasing emphasis on promoting
desired changes in political ideology, socio-economic relations and human productive capabilities through
adult education. The communal ownership of property has been eroded and industry-based centers have
sprung up like weed throughout China.
The XYZ Department at one of the largest universities in southern California, United States is a
leader in adult education on the West Coast of the United States. In addition to its full time students (all
adult learners), its distance education program enrolls well over 2000 adult learners residing throughout
the state and in other states in the United States. The thirty-six participants from this university for this
study who volunteered to participate in this research were adult learning professionals, teaching adult
learners either in adult vocational schools or in law enforcement and fire service agencies in California.
They were enrolled in adult education programs offered by this department.
141
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Validation of Instruments
Prior to data analysis, the reliability of Conti’s 1983 and 2004 questionnaires (PALS) used to collect
data from the adult educators in China and the United States was established (alpha .90, N of cases=72,
N of items=44). Further, the instrument had been approved by the father of adult education, Malcolm
Knowles (G. Conti, personal communication, February, 2001). The ten open-ended questions originally
designed by Wang (2004) were reviewed and approved as to form and content by faculty in the Department of Professional Studies.
Data Analysis
SPSS 22.0 for Windows was used to analyze the data collected for this study. PALS generates both
positive and negative responses to items. Therefore, differentiating values were assigned to items in the
questionnaires. Analysis was conducted for each factor, comparing the mean responses from Chinese
adult educators and U.S. adult educators. The overall scale mean scores, which indicate respondents’
preferences for either pedagogical or andragogical modes, and the standard deviations for the two groups
were calculated and compared.
Responses to the ten open-ended questions provided additional information regarding the teaching
methods preferred by Chinese adult educators and Western adult learning professionals. Because the
qualitative database was relatively small (i.e., less than 500 pages of transcription), analysis of qualitative data was not aided by the use of a qualitative data analysis computer program (Creswell, 2003).
The findings were entered into tables and figures, and a narrative was developed to report the findings.
FINDINGS
The tables presented below summarize the analysis of survey responses to each of the seven factors of
Conti’s 1983, 2004 instrument and the analysis of the results of the ten open-ended questions designed
by the researcher. The mean responses for participants on each of the seven factors are presented in
separate tables. Each of the seven factors contains several items that comprise the instructor’s preference
for andragogical or pedagogical teaching methods. The standard deviations of participants’ scores are
also provided in the tables.
To provide a clearer picture of the groups’ preferences, the overall scale mean scores and standard
deviations were also entered into a table. The findings on the qualitative portion of the survey were
reported in a table format. Table 2 summarizes the adult educators’ responses for Factor One.
Table 2 indicates that American adult educators had low scores in three of the 12 variables and high
scores in the remaining variables. These results suggest that American adult educators support a collaborative mode of teaching. They encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning. The
classroom focus is the learner and learner-centered activities.
Table 3 also shows that Chinese adult educators had low scores in nine of the 12 variables and slightly
higher scores on the other variables that make up Factor One. These results suggest that Chinese adult
educators support teacher-centered teaching. They favor formal testing over informal evaluation techniques and rely heavily on standardized tests. They encourage students to accept middle-class values.
142
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Table 2. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult learners to factor one (n=36)
Factor 1: Learner-Centered Activities Responses
USA
M
China
SD
M
SD
2. I use appropriate forms of disciplinary action when it is needed.
2.53
1.44
2.45
1.06
4. I encourage students to adopt middleclass values.
3.03
1.48
2.80
1.37
11. I identify the educational objectives of each of my students
1.72
1.32
2.69
0.83
12. I plan units that differ as widely as possible from my students’ socio-economic backgrounds
3.11
1.30
2.40
1.16
13. I try to motivate students by confronting them during group discussions with their classmates
2.53
1.13
2.04
0.70
16. I use one basic teaching method because I have found that most adults have similar learning
styles.
3.17
1.16
2.14
0.80
19. I use written tests to assess the degree of academic growth rather than to indicate new
directions for learning.
2.03
0.88
2.00
0.64
21. I use what history has proven that adults need to learn as my chief criteria for planning learning
episodes.
1.94
0.83
1.94
0.90
29. I use methods that foster quiet, productive deskwork
2.67
1.10
2.50
0.90
30. I use tests as my chief method of evaluating students
2.42
0.91
1.87
0.69
38. I use materials that were originally designed for students in elementary and secondary schools.
3.70
1.47
2.40
0.74
40. I measure a student’s long-term educational growth by comparing his/her total achievement in
class to his/her expected performance as measured by national norms from standardized tests.
2.81
1.17
2.22
0.62
They exercise disciplinary action when needed and determine educational objectives for each student.
They tend to practice one basic method of learning.
Table 3 contains the adult educators’ responses for Factor Two.
Results summarized in Table 2 suggest that American adult educators had low scores in three of
the nine variables and high scores in six of the nine variables that comprise Factor Two. These results
indicate that American adult educators do a variety of things that personalize learning to meet the unique
needs of each student. Objectives are based on individual methods and abilities. Instruction is self-paced.
Various methods, materials, and assignments are used.
Table 3 also indicates that Chinese adult educators had low scores in the majority of the nine of
variables. These results suggest that Chinese adult educators view lecturing as a superior method for
presenting subject material to the adult learner and that competition was encouraged among adult learners.
Table 4 describes the adult educators’ responses for Factor Three.
Table 4 indicates that American adult educators had very high scores in all six of the variables in
Factor Three. Table 3 also shows that Chinese adult educators had moderately high scores in all six of
the variables. These results suggest that both American and Chinese adult educators planned learning
activities that take into account their students’ prior experiences and they encouraged students to relate
their new learning to prior experiences. To make learning relevant, learning episodes were organized
according to the problems that the students encounter in everyday living. Students were encouraged to
ask basic questions about the nature of their society
Table 5 summarizes adult educators’ responses for Factor Four.
Table 5 indicates that American adult educators had very high scores and Chinese adult educators
had moderately high scores on Factor Four, Assessing Student Needs. These results suggest that both
143
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Table 3. Mean responses for U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor two (n=36)
Factor 2: Personalizing Instruction Responses
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
3. I allow senior students more time to complete assignments when
they need it.
2.47
1.42
2.08
1.32
9. I use lecturing as the best method of presenting my subject material
to adult students.
2.14
0.99
2.22
1.15
17. I use different teaching techniques depending on the students being
taught.
3.97
0.95
3.51
0.82
24. I let each student work at her/his own pace regardless of the amount
of time it takes her/him to learn a new concept.
2.69
1.01
2.36
0.87
32. I gear my instructional objectives to match the individual abilities
and needs of the students.
3.08
0.97
3.08
0.57
35. I allow a student’s motives for participating in continuing education
to be a major determinant in the planning of learning objectives.
3.19
1.19
3.01
0.73
37. I give all students in my class the same assignment on a given topic.
1.81
1.24
1.83
0.80
41. I encourage competition among my students.
2.58
1.36
1.47
0.53
42. I use different materials with different students.
2.61
1.20
2.88
0.66
Table 4. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor three (n=36)
Factor 3: Relating to Experience Responses
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
14. I plan learning episodes to take into account my students’ prior
experience.
3.53
1.03
2.97
0.61
31. I plan activities that will encourage each student’s growth from
dependence on others to greater independence.
3.69
0.79
2.90
0.56
34. I encourage my students to ask questions about the nature of their
society.
3.61
1.05
3.01
0.77
39. I organize adult learning episodes according to the problems that
my students encounter in everyday life
3.14
0.99
3.15
0.60
43. I help students relate new learning to their prior experiences.
3.94
0.86
3.15
0.65
44. I teach units about problems of everyday living
3.08
0.94
2.61
0.71
American adult educators and Chinese adult educators treated students as adults and attempted to find
what each student wants and needs to know. They relied on individual conferences and informal counseling. They diagnosed existing gaps between students’ goals and present levels of performance. They
assisted students in developing short-range as well as long-range objectives.
Table 6 summarizes adult educators’ responses to Factor Five.
Table 6 indicates that American adult educators had very high scores on Factor Five, Climate Building, while Chinese adult educators had high scores on three of the four variables. These results suggest
that both American and Chinese adult educators established a friendly and informal climate as the first
step in their andragogical model. Dialogue and interaction with other students were encouraged. Barriers were eliminated by using the numerous competencies that adults already possess as building blocks
144
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Table 5. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor four (n=36)
USA
Factor 4: Assessing Student Needs Responses
China
M
SD
M
SD
5. I help students diagnose the gaps between their goals and their present
level of performance.
3.64
0.83
3.11
0.69
8. I counsel students informally.
3.67
0.86
2.88
0.90
23. I have individual conferences to help students identify their
educational needs.
3.33
0.96
2.99
0.77
25. I help my students develop short-range as well as long-range
objectives.
3.78
1.05
2.65
1.20
Table 6. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor five (n=36)
Factor 5: Climate Building Responses
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
18. I encourage dialogue among my students.
4.56
0.69
3.65
0.82
20. I utilize the many competencies that most adults already possess to
achieve educational objectives.
3.64
0.80
3.08
0.67
22. I accept errors as a natural part of the learning process.
4.11
0.92
3.11
0.87
28. I allow my students to take periodic breaks during class.
3.58
1.05
1.95
1.02
for educational objectives. Risk taking was encouraged, and errors were accepted as a natural part of
the learning process. Learners could experiment and explore elements related to their self-concept and
practice interpersonal skills. Failures served as a feedback device to direct future positive learning. Table
6 also shows that Chinese adult educators did not allow adult students to take periodic breaks during class.
Table 7 summarizes adult educators’ responses to Factor Six.
Table 7 shows that American adult educators had high scores in the four variables and that Chinese
adult educators had two low scores and two high scores in the four variables that make up Factor Six.
These results suggest that American adult educators had students identify the problems that they wished
to solve and allowed the students to participate in making decisions about the topics that would be covered
in class. They involved the students in developing the criteria for evaluating classroom performance.
Table 7. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor six (n=36)
Factor 6: Participation in the Learning Process
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
1. I allow students to participate in developing the criteria for
evaluating their performance in class.
2.58
1.32
2.54
0.88
10. I arrange the classroom so that it is easy for students to interact.
3.72
1.32
2.04
1.32
15. I allow students to participate in making decisions about the topics
that will be covered in class.
3.06
0.86
3.20
0.67
36. I have my students identify problems that they wish to solve.
3.64
0.93
3.40
0.74
145
Transformation of Higher Education in China
An adult-to-adult relationship between teacher and students was encouraged. Table 7 also indicates that
Chinese adult educators did not allow students to participate in developing criteria for evaluating their
performance in class and that they did not arrange the classroom for easy interaction.
Table 8 summarizes adult educators’ responses to Factor Seven.
Table 8 indicates that American adult educators had low scores on three of the five variables and
moderately high scores on two. These results suggest that American adult educators viewed themselves
as providers of knowledge rather than facilitators. They determined the objectives for the students at the
beginning of the program and stuck to them regardless of the idiosyncrasies that may arise from divergent
student needs. A well-disciplined classroom was viewed as a stimulus for learning. Table 8 also indicates
that Chinese adult educators had low scores in all five variables that comprise Factor Seven. The results
suggest that Chinese adult educators opposed the collaborative mode of teaching.
Table 9 summarizes the overall scale mean scores and standard deviations of adult educators’ responses.
Table 9 shows that American adult educators had six high scores and just one low score on Factor
Seven. Thus, the American adult educators surveyed preferred andragogical methods in their instruction
Table 8. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators to factor seven (n=36)
Factor 7: Flexibility for Personal Development
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
6. I provide knowledge rather than serve as a resource person.
2.00
1.04
2.01
0.77
7. I stick to the instructional objectives that I write at the beginning of
a program.
1.50
0.74
1.51
0.78
26. I maintain a well-disciplined classroom to reduce interference to
learning.
1.31
0.82
1.54
0.61
27. I avoid discussion of controversial subjects that involve value
judgments.
2.81
1.41
2.11
0.77
33. I avoid issues that relate to the student’s concept of himself/herself.
2.78
1.02
2.43
1.02
Table 9. Mean responses of U.S. and Chinese adult educators all seven factors (n=36)
All Factors
USA
China
M
SD
M
SD
1. Learner-Centered Activities
2.64
1.18
2.29
0.84
2. Personalizing Instruction
2.73
1.15
2.49
0.83
3. Relating to Experience
3.50
0.94
2.97
0.65
4. Assessing Student Needs
3.61
0.93
2.90
0.89
5. Climate Building
3.97
0.87
2.95
0.85
6. Participation in the Learning Process
3.25
1.11
2.80
0.91
7. Flexibility for Personal Development
2.08
1.01
1.92
0.79
of adult learners in the United States. Table 9 also shows that Chinese adult educators had consistently
146
Transformation of Higher Education in China
lower scores on all seven factors. These results indicate that andragogical methods were consistently
less preferred by the Chinese adult educators surveyed.
The qualitative portion of the study was comprised of ten open-ended questions that included items
designed to elicit responses to the six principles of andragogy articulated by Knowles.
Table 10 presents the ten items.
In response to Question 1, only 11 (30.6%) of the 36 Chinese adult educators could identify the adult
education leaders mentioned, while 33 (91.7%) of the 36 American adult educators could identify them.
For Question 2, 29 (80.6%) of the 36 Chinese adult educators could explain the difference between andragogy and pedagogy, but 34 (94.4%) of the 36 American adult educators could explain the difference.
In response to Question 3, 22 (61%) Chinese adult educators reported they negotiated curricular
priorities with their adult students at the beginning of each semester while only 14 (38.9%) American
adult educators reported negotiating curricular priorities. In response to Question 4, 32 (88.9%) Chinese
adult educators took adult learners’ prior experience into account when planning their lessons while 35
(97.2%) of the 36 American adult educators did so.
In response to Question 5, only 7 (19.4%) of the 36 Chinese adult educators reported that the lecture
method is superior to facilitating learning, but none of the 36 American adult educators believed that the
lecture method is superior to facilitation. For Question 6, only 4 (11.1%) of 36 Chinese adult educators
reported using learning contracts when assessing adult students’ learning, but only 4 (11.1%) of the 36
American adult educators used learning contracts.
For Question 7, all 36 (100%) Chinese adult educators believed it should be a goal of adult educators
to help all adult learners become self-directed. Similarly, all 36 (100%) American adult educators shared
that goal. In response to Question 8, 29 (80.6%) of the Chinese adult educators designed activities to
build students’ self-esteem and sense of accomplishment while delivering course content, but 34 (94.4%)
American adult educators designed these activities.
In response to Question 9, 32 (88.9%) of the 36 Chinese adult educators indicated they encouraged
a search for real-life examples, developed assignments related to real-life situations and embedded the
content of their course in everyday life, but 35 (97.2%) American adult educators reported carrying
Table 10. Open-ended questions comprising the qualitative portion of the study
n=36, N=36 (USA); n=36, N=36 (China)
1. Briefly identify the following individuals: Malcolm Knowles, Jack Mezirow, Peter Jarvis, Stephen Brookfield, Kathleen P. King, and
Sharan B. Merriam. Please indicate “unknown” for individuals you cannot identify.
2. Briefly explain the difference between andragogy and pedagogy.
3. Do you negotiate curricular priorities with your adult students at the beginning of each course you teach? Why or why not?
4. Do you take into account your adult learners’ prior experience when planning your lessons? Why or why not?
5. Do you believe that the lecture method is superior to facilitating learning? Why or why not?
6. Do you use learning contracts when assessing adult students’ learning? Why or why not?
7. Do you think it should be a goal of adult educators to help all adult learners become self-directed? Why or why not?
8. Do you design activities that build students’ self-esteem and sense of accomplishment while delivering course content? Why or why
not?
9. Do you encourage a search for real-life examples, develop assignments related to real-life situations and embed the content of your
course in everyday life? Why or why not?
10. Do you think memorization can foster greater autonomy in thinking? Why or why not?
147
Transformation of Higher Education in China
out these activities. In response to Question 10, 32 (88.9%) of the 36 Chinese adult educators reported
they believed memorization could foster greater autonomy in thinking while only 21 (58.3%) of the 36
American adult educators believed memorization could foster greater autonomy in thinking.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to compare the teaching modes of Chinese and U.S. adult educators
within the conceptual framework of Western andragogy and Chinese pedagogy. Within this framework,
the comparison focused especially on differences in teaching philosophies, teachers’ roles and learners’ roles. Thus, the present study sought to extend our understanding of Chinese and Western adult
teaching methods in a new direction that is grounded in data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In the context
of transformation of higher education in China, the study is useful to gain some insights into the extent
of transformation of teaching methods from the traditionally more teacher centered approaches to the
student centered approaches of andragogical methods.
The quantitative findings suggested that these Chinese adult learning professionals remain more
pedagogical in their instruction than their American counterparts, although some andragogical elements
were present in their instruction of adult learners in China. In contrast, the American adult educators
surveyed were consistently more andragogical in their instruction, with only one pedagogical element
identified in their instruction of adult learners in the United States.
Responses to the open-ended items in the survey tended to corroborate the quantitative findings,
although some inconsistencies were observed. For example, the Western form of andragogy (studentcentered teaching) is usually characterized by using learning contracts to structure coursework, negotiating the syllabus at the first class meeting, asking students to compile personal learning journals and
relying on open-ended discussion methods. However, 61% of the 36 Chinese adult educators negotiated
curricular priorities with their adult students at the beginning of each semester they taught whereas only
38.9% of American adult educators did so. Another interesting inconsistency was that very few Chinese
or American adult educators surveyed (only 11.1% of Chinese and 11.1% of American adult educators)
used learning contracts to structure coursework.
On the other hand, the finding that 88.9% of Chinese educators believed that memorization could
foster greater autonomy in thinking, whereas only 58.3% of American adult educators believed this,
tends to reinforce Western perceptions of Chinese pedagogy. Based on responses from 32 Chinese adult
educators’ regarding the use and value of memorization, the following are comments which characterize
the responses of the group as a whole:
•
•
•
148
Yes, memorization, for those language learners, may help lay a solid foundation for their language
competence.
To me, memorization contributes to the reserved pool of resources that adult learners employ
when thinking. Therefore, it should foster greater autonomy in thinking in this sense. Not rote
memorizing, but dynamic memorization of ideas from reading is really useful for the adult learners in handling different situations they encounter in work.
More memorization means greater freedom in converting thoughts to language; more freedom in
handling a foreign language means greater autonomy in thinking. If people learn something by
Transformation of Higher Education in China
•
heart, it will gradually become part of their thinking. Before we can think autonomously, memorization is the first and basic step to take.
Only after the phase of memorization can we internalize the learning contents and train our thinking. Without the memorization of what has been learned, what should the adult learners think
about?
The finding that 80.6% of Chinese adult educators surveyed could explain the difference between
andragogy and pedagogy clearly contradicts reports in the literature that Chinese adult education teachers deny a distinction between the education of adults and the education of children. This result may
suggest a disjuncture between teaching methods officially sanctioned by educational institutions and
the teaching preferences of individual adult educators. In any event, the mere fact that over 80% of the
Chinese participants were conversant with andragogical principles is noteworthy.
Although the writings of Confucius include abundant examples of humanism and egalitarianism,
adult educators in modern China carry out the will of the government by aligning education with the
maintenance of order and continuity in human society (Kaplan et al., 1979). In the Chinese educational
tradition, adult educators are cast in the role of authority figures whose major task is to transmit knowledge.
An adult educator who is unable to talk to his/her adult students eloquently is considered an incompetent
teacher. An adult learner who is incapable of memorization is viewed as less capable of learning. In
this context, it would be extremely difficult for Chinese adult educators to negotiate curricular priorities
with their adult students at the beginning of each semester. Nevertheless, 61% of the 36 Chinese adult
educators indicated they did negotiate curricular priorities with their adult students.
Merriam (2004) pointed out that for positive transformation and emancipation to occur, adults who
are able to “participate freely and fully in critical-dialectical discourse” exhibit highly developed metacognitive skills of critical self-reflection (p. 63). Such an essential discourse does not occur in response
to Chinese adult teaching methods. In fact, adult teaching methods in China offer little in the way of skill
development, independent inquiry and creative learning for the mass of China’s adult learners.
As Paine (1992) argued, the pedagogical approach to teaching in China is deeply rooted in the widely
held traditional notions about knowledge, authority and learning (p. 201). A teacher’s role is clearly
defined as a knowledge transmitter, a performer and an agent of change. The Western democratic approach to teaching (i.e., andragogy) is seen as evidence of teachers’ laziness or lack of commitment by
students in China (Brookfield, 1995). Wang and Bott’s 2004 research implied that Chinese adult educators
in general have clung to a liberal philosophy of education that views instructors as absolute authorities
over learners (p. 48). Further, Pratt’s 1993 research indicated that in the Chinese culture, compliance
with authority is highly valued. Since it can be argued that learners change in the ways their instructors
have arranged for them, in China change is measured by students’ memorization and analysis of texts
prescribed by their instructors. Change in moral education is measured by how politically compliant
students are with the aims of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
It should not be surprising, then, that the Western form of andragogy has, despite commitment to
transformation, yet to gain significant momentum among China’s educational leadership. Wang and Bott’s
2004 research showed that 96% of the Chinese adult educators who were surveyed could not identify
the following individuals in Western adult education: Malcolm Knowles, Jack Mezirow, Peter Jarvis,
Stephen Brookfield, Sharan Merriam and Kathleen King. The results of the present study indicated
that over 30% could correctly identify these figures. Although contemporary Western educators such
as Merriam and others have presented andragogical teaching approaches at educational conferences in
149
Transformation of Higher Education in China
China in recent years, it is unlikely that Chinese adult educators can incorporate these methods into their
classroom instruction since they are not prescribed by China’s Ministry of Education.
The teaching philosophies held by adult teachers will determine their instructional methods. Thus,
the liberal philosophy held by Chinese adult educators dictates their one-way instructional process. This
philosophy supports absolute respect for instructors and places students in a passive role. In contrast,
the Western adult education philosophy dictates that adult learners be treated with respect and dignity.
To a Western adult educator, rejecting an adult learner’s prior experience is tantamount to rejecting the
whole person in the educational process. Western adult educators view the aim of education as the facilitation of learning (Wang, 2004, p. 212). To Western adult educators, teachers are not the fount of all
wisdom as their Chinese counterparts have emphasized. According to Jarvis (2002), teachers no longer
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Have a monopoly on transmitting knowledge;
Determine or legislate on matters of knowledge, but they may be interpreting of different systems
of knowledge;
Deal with truth, but they certainly teach truths;
Teach with unchanging knowledge, but now they deal with scientific knowledge that is transient;
Are confined to the classroom, but like the ancient teachers, they may have to function where their
learners are;
Teach only theoretical knowledge, but now they also help learner acquire practical knowledge;
Can assume that their learners know nothing about the subjects that they teach but must learn to
build on knowledge acquired by their learners from a wide variety of sources. (p. 20).
These opposing views regarding the aim of education lead to different methodological preferences.
In the West, adult educators go beyond basic respect for the adult learner and view the adult learner
as a primary source of data for making sound decisions regarding the learning process. They also take
into consideration learner needs, learner styles, learner experience and learner motivation. In contrast,
in China central directives from the Ministry of Education are viewed as a primary source of data for
making sound decisions about teaching methods.
In the past China has competed with the United States to provide education to its young people. Students from China have travelled across the world to learn critical thinking and independent thinking skills
from universities in the United States. It seems that educational reform in China has begun to make some
inroads. There are neight million students graduating in 2017; this is ten times the number of graduates
in China in 1997 and twice as many graduates a year as the U.S. (Stapleton, 2017). (Stapleton, 2017).
Lin Yi Normal University grew from 3,500 students in 2000 to just under 35000 students at present.
Chinese institutions are becoming competitive with those in the U.S., additionally there are increasing
numbers of international students now choosing China as a destination for higher education study. The
number of international students studying in China’s educational institutions rose by 6% between 104
and 2015 with a total of 397, 635 students coming into China’s educational system (Department of
Education and Training, 2016). Now that Chinese leaders recognize that it is crucial for future leaders
to be able to think critically and to solve problems based on a foundation of reflection and analyzing,
humanities has to be offered in universities to develop these inquiring minds. Ultimately the recognition
that humanities need to be included in higher education brings the excitement of change and adaptation
and increased competition for the United States.
150
Transformation of Higher Education in China
CONCLUSION
With the goal of contributing to understanding the transformation of education taking place in China,
we have discussed China’s aspirations for developing an education system that will insure global
competitiveness and strong economic presence in the globalized world of the 21st century and beyond.
Given that educational transformation is enabled at ground level by teaching methods, we have placed
emphasis on teaching methods in China and the U.S. (as representative of Western approaches). In the
midst of waves of educational transformation across China, research into teaching methods of higher
education educators provides insight into the extent of educational transformation in China and sheds
light on potential future directions.
The reported study compared the teaching methods of Chinese and Western adult educators, and
indicates, that at the time of the study at least, Chinese teaching methods of the participants continue
to be more pedagogical and teacher-centered whilst U.S. educator methods are more student centered
and andragogical. The Chinese teaching methods being more pedagogical than andragogical, are less
likely to foster adult learners’ transformation and emancipation. So it seems that the transformation
process of China’s education system is yet incomplete. As we noted in the chapter, to flourish in the 21st
century, capabilities such as creative thinking, problem solving and critical thinking are a requirement
for all. Pedagogic, teacher driven teaching methods favored in China will produce narrow, dependent,
docile students who are “high in score, but low in ability”. However, the persistence of China’s efforts
at transformation of education is beginning to make some impact, though there remains significant work
to be done if China’s education system is to meet that of the West.
It is evident that both teachers and China’s leaders wish to embrace change and the desire to promote
lifelong learning is quite clear. The 2020 blueprint is an exciting movement toward building a more
creative, independent and critical thinking mindset of the Chinese adult student.
The emphasis of the themes is to serve all the students, promote their all-round development, enhance
their sense of social responsibility to serve the nation and the people, nurture their innovative and daring
spirit to explore the unknown, and hone their abilities to solve practical problems. (The 2020 Blueprint
Strategy, p. 10)
The transformation of education in China is raising some rich and healthy discussion around teaching methods. Amid the various perspectives emerging in literature, Smith and Hu’s offer what seems to
be very sound advice that educators across all disciplines and cultures develop a “global perspective of
teaching and learning” and thus should “examine themselves to first uncover their own cultural philosophy
of teaching and learning [and then] blend cultural perspectives in tandem with 21st century skills” (2013,
p. 104). One possible avenue for fuelling or accelerating the transformation of practices is to integrate
international faculty, from the ground level up, increasing opportunities for cross-fertilization of ideas at
the coal- face of teaching activities, and also lay the foundations for greater cross-cultural understanding
of academic practices for all those involved. There is evidence that such cross-institutional, cross-cultural
activities are already taking place. A Google search on international faculty and China 2020 quickly
reveals a growing number of universities across the world, with international strategic plans explicitly
seeking to establish research, teaching and learning relationships with China.
151
Transformation of Higher Education in China
The changes are exciting. How the new will meet and interact with the centuries old Confucian values
will continue to hold the interest of the world, and likely the interest of educators themselves, and must
be a platform for reflection, investigation and further evolution of thought surrounding teaching methods.
REFERENCES
Bergevin, P. A. (1967). A philosophy for adult education. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Biggs, J. (1996). Western misconceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins &
J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner (pp. 46–47). Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Comparative
Education Research Center.
Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. (2005). Overcoming impostorship, cultural suicide, and lost innocence: Implications
for teaching critical thinking in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges, 130.
Brookfield, S. D. (2013). A critical theory of adult and community education. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.),
Handbook of research for improving the 21st century workforce: Tools for lifelong learning (pp. 141156). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2181-7.ch010
Capaldi, E. D. (2011). Budget Cuts and Educational Quality. Academe, 97(6), 10–13.
Chen, T. H. (1981). Chinese education since 1949: Academic and revolutionary models. New York,
NY: Pergamon Press.
China sets direction for world class universities. (2015). Retrieved from Australian Government Department of Education and Training: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/News/Latest-News/Pages/Chinasets-direction-for-world-class-universities.aspx
Conti, G. (1983). Principles of adult learning scale. Retrieved from http://www.okstate.edu/education/
ses/hraepals.html
Conti, G. (1985). The relationship between teaching style and adult student learning. Adult Education
Quarterly, 35(4), 220–228. doi:10.1177/0001848185035004004
Conti, G. (2004). Appendix B: principles of adult learning scale. In M. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult learning
methods: A guide for effective instruction (pp. 87–91). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Department of Education and Training. (2016). China - Outbound and inbound international students.
Retrieved from Rsearch snapshot: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/.../China_outbound%20and%20
inbound%20terti
152
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Department of Education and Training. (2017). China releases Thirteenth Five Year Plan for Education.
Retrieved from Australian Government, International Network: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/
International-network/china/PolicyUpdates-China/Pages/China-Releases-Thirteenth-Five-Year-Planfor-Education-.aspx
Douglass, J. A. (2012). China futurisms: Research universities as leaders or followers? Social Research,
79(3), 639. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.fau.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA30707779
3&v=2.1&u=gale15691&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2001). Critical thinking: Thinking with concepts. Journal of Developmental
Education, 24(3), 42.
Feng, W., Siu, K., & Gu, J. (2011). Exploring the position of technology education in China. In M. J.
De Vries (Ed.), Positioning technology education in the curriculum (pp. 227–242). Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: Sense Publishers. doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-675-5_17
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Freire, P. (2003). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: The Continuum International Publishing
Group.
Green, R. (2015). Chinese schools get a lesson from Britain. Retrieved from D & T - the design and
technology association: https://www.data.org.uk/blog/2015/january/12/chinese-schools-get-a-lessonfrom-britain/
Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125–149.
doi:10.1177/0001848191041003001
Jackson, P. (1986). The practice of teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Jarvis, P. (1985). The sociology of adult and continuing education. Beckenham, UK: Croom Helm.
Jarvis, P. (2002). The theory & practice of teaching. London, UK: Kogan Page.
Kaplan, F. M., Sobin, J. M., & Andors, S. (1979). Encyclopedia of china today. New York, NY: Harper
& Row, Publishers.
Kenyon, M., Levine, A., Lounder, A., Meekins, M., O’Meara, K., & Waugaman, C. (2011). Following
the cuts: How is the recession affecting faculty work? Liberal Education, 97, 1.
King, K. P. (2000). Educational technology that transforms: Educators’ transformational learning experiences in professional development. In Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Adult Education Research
Conference (pp. 1-5). University of British Columbia.
King, K. P. (2004). Light through a crucible of tragedy: Collaborative transformative learning research
yields social action. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Adult Education Research Conference (pp. 309314). University of Victoria.
153
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New
York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1977). Adult learning processes: Pedagogy and andragogy. Religious Education (Chicago, Ill.), 72(2), 202–211. doi:10.1080/0034408770720210
Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier
Butterworth Heinemann. doi:10.4324/9780080481913
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult
education and human resource development (7th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F. III, & Swanson, A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. S., & Hulda, F. (1973). Introduction to group dynamics. Chicago, IL: Follett.
Levin, C. L. (2010). Top of the class. Foreign Affairs, 89(3), 63–75. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fau.
edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/214294611?accountid=10902
Lindeman, E. C. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York, NY: New Republic.
Merriam, S. B. (2004). The role of cognitive development in Mezirow’s transformational learning theory.
Adult Education Quarterly, 55(1), 60–68. doi:10.1177/0741713604268891
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Paine, L. (1992). Teaching and modernization in contemporary China. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education
and modernization: The Chinese experience (pp. 183–209). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Pan, S.-Y. (2013). China’s approach to the international market for higher education students: Strategies
and implications. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 35(3), 249–263. doi:10.1080
/1360080X.2013.786860
Piaget, J. (1967). The mental development of the child. In D. Elkind (Ed.), Six psychological studies by
Piaget. New York, NY: Random House.
Pratt, D. D. (1993). Andragogy after twenty-five years. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 57. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
154
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Price, D. M. (1999). Philosophy and the adult educator. Adult Learning, 11(2), 3–5.
doi:10.1177/104515959901100202
Price, R. (1992). Moral-political education and modernization. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education and
modernization: The Chinese experience (pp. 211–237). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Qi, W. (2011). A discussion on the 985 project from a comparative perspective. Chinese Education &
Society, 44(5), 41–56. doi:10.2753/CED1061-1932440504
Qingnian, X., Duanhong, Z., & Hong, L. (2011). Governance Reform at China’s “985 Project” Universities. Chinese Education & Society, 44(5), 31–40. doi:10.2753/CED1061-1932440503
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On become a person. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Ross, H. (1992). Foreign languages education as a barometer of modernization. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.),
Education and modernization: The Chinese experience (pp. 239–254). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Ryan, J., Kang, C., Mitchell, I., & Erickson, G. (2009). China’s basic education reform: An account
of an international collaborative research and development project. Asia Pacific Journal of Education,
29(4), 427–441. doi:10.1080/02188790903308902
Sabine, A. (2015). Why soft skills are just as important as academic ability in science graduates. Retrieved
from SEEK insights and resources: https://insightsresources.seek.com.au/soft-skills-just-importantacademic-ability-science-graduates
Scott, P. (1998). Massification, internationalization and globalization. In P. Scot (Ed.), The globalization
of higher education (pp. 108–129). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press and Society for Research
into Higher Education.
Smith, J., & Hu, R. (2013). Rethinking teacher education: Synchronizing Eastern and Western views of
teaching and learning to promote 21st century skills and global perspectives. Education Research and
Perspectives, 40, 86–108.
Stapleton, K. (2017, April 13). Events: China now produces twice as many graduates a year as the US.
Retrieved from World Economic Forum: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/04/higher-educationin-china-has-boomed-in-the-last-decade
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1988). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wang, J. L., & Colletta, N. (1991). Chinese education problems, policies, and prospects. In I. Epstein
(Ed.), Chinese education problems, policies, and prospects (pp. 145–162). New York, NY: Garland
Publishing, INC.
155
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Wang, V. (2004-2005). Adult education reality: three generations, different transformation the impact
of social context: three generations of Chinese adult learners. The New York Journal of Adult Learning,
3(1), 17–32.
Wang, V. (2005). Instructor survey instruments: Adult teaching methods. Retrieved from
http://134.139.176.33/surveys/adult_teaching_ methods-survey_instruments.htm
Wang, V., & Bott, P. A. (2004). Modes of teaching of Chinese adult educators. The New York Journal
of Adult Learning, 2(2), 32–51.
Wang, V., & Sarbo, L. (2004). Philosophy, role of adult educators, and learning How contextually adapted
philosophies and the situational role of adult educators affect learners’ transformation and emancipation.
Journal of Transformative Education, 2(3), 204–214. doi:10.1177/1541344604265105
Wang, V. C. X., & Cranton, P. A. (2011). Transformative learning. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 2(4), 58–66. doi:10.4018/javet.2011100105
Wang, V. C. X., & Cranton, P. A. (2012). Promoting and implementing self-directed learning (SDL): An
effective adult education model. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology,
3(3), 16–25. doi:10.4018/javet.2012070102
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. P. (2006). Understanding Mezirow’s theory of reflectivity from Confucian
perspectives: A model and perspective. Retrieved from http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue8_1/
wang.html
Wu, W., & Zhou, Y. (2012). The third mission stalled? Universities in China’s technological progress.
The Journal of Technology Transfer, 37(6), 812–827. doi:10.100710961-011-9233-8
Yang, R. (2015). Reassessing China’s higher education development: A focus on academic culture. Asia
Pacific Education Review, 16(4), 527–535. doi:10.100712564-015-9397-2
Zhao, L. (2011). A blueprint for the future: China’s plan for education reform and development 20102020. EAI Background Brief No 616 East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore. Retrieved
from http://www.eai.nus.edu.sg/BB616.pdf
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
21st Century Capabilities: Capabilities (sometimes referred to as skills) such as critical thinking,
problem solving, cross cultural and cross disciplinary communication, creativity, team work and lifelong
learning, all of which are considered necessary to effective participation in society and to the continued
development of society in the 21st century and beyond.
Andragogy: Term used to refer to adult education. It is characterized by learner-centered methods in
which student directed approaches such as inquiry-based learning tend to be used. Interaction between
teacher and student takes place frequently as learners and teacher engage in active discussion.
Globalization: The interaction of organizations across the globe. Globalization is facilitated by technologies particularly new communications and other digital technologies. The interaction of cross-global
organizations means that national economies are greatly influenced by global socio-economic events.
156
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Life-Long Learning: As the term implies, life-long learning refers to the concept that individuals
continue to learn and evolve in their knowledge and skills throughout their lives. In the rapidly changing
globalized world having capabilities for life-long learning is imperative to being able effectively interact
with and contribute to ongoing development of society. It is identified as one of the core capabilities of
living effectively in the 21st century.
Pedagogy: Term originally used to mean educating or leading children. Sometimes used to mean
method and practice of teaching. Pedagogy tends towards teacher-centered approaches in which the
learner is mostly passive and directed by the teacher.
Teaching Methods: The principles and strategies used by teachers to help students to learn. Personal
teaching philosophy and culture influence teaching methods. Andragogy and pedagogy are two teaching
methods extensively considered in literature.
Transformation: Major change or evolution.
157
Transformation of Higher Education in China
APPENDIX A
Appendix A shows a comparison of the participation rate between the United States and China. They
demonstrate the importance of education to two strong countries: The United States and China. Both
countries are committed to educating its population from a young age.
(2010, 11). The Educational Differences Between the United States and China. StudyMode.com. Retrieved
from http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Educational-Differences-Between-The-United-478780.html
Figure 1.
Source: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/usa_statistics.html
158
Transformation of Higher Education in China
Figure 2.
Source: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/china_statistics.html
159
Transformation of Higher Education in China
APPENDIX B
Appendix B outlines the strength of students’ reading and math skills. China is leading being placed in
the number one position; even considerably ahead of the United States. This reinforces the significance
that education plays in China.
Figure 3.
160
Section 3
Implementation
162
Chapter 9
Implementing Technology
and Designed-Based
Solutions to Create an Online
Learning Environment
Terence C. Ahern
West Virginia University, USA
ABSTRACT
Technology has radically altered not only access but also how instruction is delivered. Modern learning
management systems (LMS) improve access to instruction by removing the barriers of time and of location. Students can literally go to school anywhere at any time. The use of learning technologies online
has become a ubiquitous practice as a result of the spread of the internet. Even though the quality and
value of technology-based instruction has rapidly increased, the use of e-learning technologies does
not automatically guarantee good instruction. Even though the quality and value of technology-based
instruction has rapidly increased, the use of e-learning technologies does not automatically guarantee
good instruction. This chapter is about the choices and the design decisions that impact the delivery
and deployment of technology-based instruction. Each of these choices requires an understanding of
the trade-offs that the decision makers need to consider.
INTRODUCTION
Technology has altered the delivery of instruction. The online experience transcends the traditional brick
and mortar classroom using innovative technologies such as social media, video or even 3D virtual reality. Modern technologies have also improved access to instruction by removing the barriers of time and
of location. Students can almost go to school anywhere at any time.
This technology has evolved so dramatically that the notion of online learning and teaching has moved
from the periphery of the university to the “center of university life… The use of learning technologies
online has become a ubiquitous practice as a result of the spread of the Internet” (Larreamendy-Joerns
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch009
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
& Leonhardt (2006) p. 570). Consequently, students, including students on campus, are commonly
taking online courses. According to College Scholarships (2017), the number of students who take a
combination of in-person and online classes has almost doubled from 23 percent to 45 percent over the
last five years (no para.).
Though the quality and value of technology-based instruction has rapidly increased, the use of elearning technologies does not automatically guarantee good instruction. Bates (2005) observes that the
“technology is neither good nor bad in itself but it is in the way it is used that matters (p. 2). This chapter
is about the integration of learning technologies with administrative and instructional design strategies
so that content may be deployed in ways that are both appropriate and effective.
Learning Environments
Instruction happens in context. During the past two decades the notion of where and when instruction
happens has undergone a radical transformation. The teacher and the student, individually or collectively,
are no longer constrained by time and space. Instruction can happen anywhere at any time. A better
understanding of how learning occurs has led to a shift in the design of learning environments.
Historically instruction was, as Jonassen and Land (2012) point out, ” a process of conveying ideas
to students” (p. vii). Good instruction was simply a product of good communication. All that a good
teacher had to do was to effectively communicate to students. By adding feedback to the communication
(transmission - reception) model, behaviorists were able to equate learning with changes in behavior.
However, Jonassen and Land (2012) note that we have “entered into a new age in learning theory”(vii).
The new learning models emphasize, in contrast to the transmissive model, that “learning is willful,
intentional, active, conscious, constructive practice that include reciprocal intention-action-reflection
activities(ix). From this view learning is more “meaning making” than simply a behavioral change. The
student is an equal partner in the delivery of instruction and good instruction emphasizes a more integrative approach. Instead of merely talking at the student the new emphasis is talking with the student,
thereby engaging the learner.
This emphasis has led to the development of new instructional designs that are focused on student
engagement and integration. For example, a student’s prior knowledge and experience is not ignored
but is assessed and incorporated into the instruction. Land, Hannafin and Oliver (2012) note “that prior
knowledge and experience form the conceptual referent from which new knowledge is organized and
experienced …” (p.12)
Typically, this shift is difficult in the more traditional classroom environment. However, in the
technology rich environment of the modern online classroom, student-centered learning environments
emphasize constructing personal meaning by relating new knowledge to existing conceptions and understandings; “technology promotes access to resources and tools that facilitate construction”. (Hannafin
& Land, 1997, 170)
The explosion of educational technologies has led to a development of better instructional design that
“promotes access to resources and tools that facilitate construction of learning” (Hannafin and Land p.
170). For example, Ahern (2016) demonstrates how social media can be effectively designed for instruction. With attendant understanding of learning theory, he suggests that “social network media can be
used as an appropriate tool if it is matched with a clear understanding of what we want our students to
know or do. This requires students to engage in an activity, which should lead to a re-examination of their
prior understanding so that they can accept, reject, or accommodate the new information. (p. 335). As,
163
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Land, Hannafin, and Oliver (2012) suggest, we are looking at a “principled approach to the linking of
teaching, learning and technology (p. 6). This reciprocal relationship between learning theories, instructional design, and educational technology has fueled the deployment of effective learning environments.
We have learned good instructional design follows from to a better understanding of how people learn.
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter is about the principled design of an online student-centered learning environment. The
“principled approach” considers the choices and design decisions that weigh the most appropriate learning theory with effective design strategies to optimize the use of available technology.
Using a case-based approach, we explore the design and the deployment of the Sexual Assault Training Academy. We explore the variety of choices from the selection of the learning management system
to the design of student engagement. Administrators, subject-matter experts, and faculty are required
to effectively implement solutions. Additionally, each decision is dependent on the different constraints
that exert control on the design, the development, and the delivery of instruction.
The Case Study
The West Virginia Foundation for Rape Information and Services (Foundation), is an organization that
seeks to strengthen services, develop intervention programs, and address a myriad of public crimes related to sexual violence, stalking, and domestic violence. The Foundation was established in 1982 and
is comprised of the nine rape crisis centers that work with allied professionals to provide services and
develop intervention and prevention programs.
Non-profit organizations (NPO) such as the Foundation make an indispensable contribution to society. They provide services more nimbly than either the for-profit or governmental sector because they
typically focus on a single issue. Klemz, Simon and Kumar (2003) note that NPO’s are highly diverse
organizations that “help improve the living conditions of weaker sections of society, executing programs
developed by governments, acting as a watchdog for society and providing education to people in communities etc.” (p 216). This focus, on the one hand, means that NPO’s can respond swiftly to the needs
of the community they serve. Successful non-profits are skilled in building relationships with volunteers,
supporters, and donors and that ensure their survival (Spencer, 2002). However, this focus also means
that these organizations often lack sustainable resources for information technology that would enhance
their mission. Spencer also notes that nonprofits are typically a step behind for-profit and government
organizations in capitalizing on new technology (2002).
Historically, the Foundation concentrated on developing face-to-face material for weekend workshops that trained professionals along with volunteers who staff the nine rape crisis centers. However,
because West Virginia is both a rural and a poor state the Foundation wanted to increase access across
the state. Therefore, to serve the greatest number of students, the Foundation sought to provide the training materials online. By making the materials accessible online they would reduce the expense to the
many collaborative organizations or collectives across the state by allowing easy centralized access to
the training materials anywhere at any time. Providing these materials online was not an easy task for
an agency that does not have a large staff dedicated to information technology, or a budget dedicated to
instructional design.
164
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Consequently, the Foundation needed to make a series of decisions ranging from technical issues to
instructional design. For example, what were the software options to deliver the training material online?
How would they transform face-to-face training materials into an online, individualized self-directed
learning experience? This required the Foundation to overcome the various constraints within the organization. What they realized is that they needed to partner with other institutions that would provide
the needed expertise. This led to the creation of partnership resulting in the Sexual Assault Services
Training Academy (SASTA).
Administrative Choices
The Foundation initially reached out to the Marshall University’s Forensic Science Center (MUFSC). This
collaboration represented an unparalleled commitment to work collaboratively to improve the training
capacity of service providers and first responders across the State of West Virginia. MUFSC provided
hardware resources in the form of a basic web-server. Additionally, MUFSC helped the Foundation design
a basic web-presence which provided information about services that the Foundation provides to the state.
Realizing that they also needed instructional design help the Foundation contacted the Instructional
Design and Technology program in the Department of the Learning Sciences and Human Development
(IDT) at West Virginia University (WVU). With the addition of IDT, the Foundation had the necessary
expertise to move from a face-to-face training to an entirely online learning experience.
Each of the three agencies provided distinct services that were crucial to the delivery of instruction
online: Marshall University Forensic Science provided the necessary hardware such as the production
server, the Foundation acted as the Subject Matter Expert and the Instructional Design and Technology
program at WVU provided expertise in educational technologies and instructional design.
The WV Safe Training and Collaboration Toolkit (KIT) was chosen as the initial set of materials
to be deployed to the Academy. The KIT was originally delivered as an intensive face-to-face training
over a short period of time – such as a weekend. This material needed to be translated into courses and
modules from face-to-face training materials into self-paced, individualized modules deployed by a
learning management system. (LMS)
Additionally, the Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) certification program was added to the
initial roll-out of the Academy. SANE was a different type of program from SASTA in that it was composed of two distinct instructional parts - content and clinical. The basic informational content could be
delivered online whereas the clinical experience was required to be face-to-face.
Learning Management Systems
Learning management systems (LMS) range from large proprietary or open source software packages to
a cloud-based system. Proprietary software is typically closed to end-user modifications. Blackboard is
an example of a proprietary system which provides a complete online experience. According to Fenton
(2017) “Clearly, Blackboard Learn is the maximalist’s LMS…, Blackboard offers an unrivalled ecosystem
of educational resources”. This software is a proprietary server-based system that institutions essentially
purchase either outright or through a maintenance agreement. According to Machado and Tao (2007)
“the combined market share of Blackboard and WebCT is estimated at 80-90% of the secondary schools
and universities that use learning management systems”. What this means is that it provides a complete
turn-key operation, but at a high cost and a high learning curve for the institution and its faculty.
165
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
In contrast, open-source software is usually free or with a slight cost but is more flexible to the institution’s needs because it is open to modifications as necessary by the end user. However, open source
software can be difficult to install and to use. For example, available resources (such as chat) are provided
by third-party plugins, which can be difficult to integrate into the overall system. (see Machado and Tao).
Finally, because of the Internet, learning management systems have moved to the cloud. Cloud-based
tools support “a trend that began with the emergence of the Internet: a shift away from large organizational control of the instructional function toward the individual user, both faculty member and learner.”
(Diaz, 2010, p 58). Using the SaaS (Software as a Service) model, institutions can deliver web-based
instruction without the necessity of local hardware or personnel. Faculty and students would access the
LMS virtually. Basically, the educational provider could concentrate on the delivery of the instruction
and would not have to attend to any software or hardware issues typically inherent in either the proprietary or open-source system. However, this would complicate and or reduce the control of the overall
system away from the faculty and the administration. Consequently, issues such as student access and
records need to be considered.
The Foundation opted for a turn-key operation using the hardware that was controlled by Marshall
University. Once the system was set up and running it would require little overt technical or administrative intervention. The Foundation selected Moodle as the learning management system to meet the
instructional needs of students online (Machado and Tao, 2007). Moodle has large installed user base
worldwide Moodle (over 57000 registered sites) and a relatively mature code base. This makes Moodle
reliable and stable and does not require a large investment of administrative oversight once installed.
(Machado & Tao, 2006). Further, Moodle was chosen for the adaptability of the code-base.
According to Ahern and Burgazzoli (2017) Moodle uses internet-based technologies that:
•
•
•
Deliver instruction (content, learning activities, and assessment)
Manage the interaction between teacher and student (blogs, chat, wiki’s)
Provide course and site management tools (grades, certificates, badges) (p. 19)
As noted above a Learning Management System is typically composed of content delivery systems
which deliver the instruction, create learning activities, and provide learning assessments along with
communication tools between the instructor and students. Finally, the system manages enrollment,
assessment, and grades. The core of the LMS is the use of a central database. The decision by the partnership to use a server-based approach was informed by the need of the Foundation to maintain close
control over the course design elements as well as student data. Additionally, the Foundation already
had a server-based footprint from the hardware provided by Marshall University.
Therefore, the choice of Moodle as the LMS was due in large part to its open-source design which
made it adaptable to both programs. Moodle could be set up as a turn-key operation without a large
investment of hardware and personnel. For example, Moodle allows students to self-register without the
Foundation’s intervention using an email-based self-registration process. Further because of the opensource nature of the software, the system was modified to accommodate a controlled registration system
for SANE (See Ahern & Burgazzoli 2017 for further details) which allowed the SANE administrator to
evaluate the student’s credentials.
The types of students targeted by the Foundation have varied backgrounds such as social workers, peace officers, and volunteers... The design and delivery of the online training materials is what
Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt (2006) termed “opportunistic learning”
166
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
For example, working professionals may require information carefully tailored to their occupation and
professional interests. By supplying learning opportunities without disrupting the flow of everyday activities, online distance education benefits from the situatedness of learning and helps to bridge the gap
between work and school. In so doing, distance education colonizes an educational niche traditionally
overlooked by formal higher education (p. 577)
Given the needs of the targeted students, access and flexibility was paramount. However, on the other
hand the Foundation was also responsible for delivering the Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE)
program. SANE is a hybrid course which has an online as well as a face-to-face component. Additionally, it requires that a prospective student must be a registered nurse to participate.
Moodle uses a modular architecture. There is a core application code surrounded by code called
plugins which allows the software to tailor functionality. These plugins give Moodle flexibility to meet
the specific needs of its end users. A Moodle installation consists of the Moodle application code, a
backend database, and a file store for uploaded and generated files (the moodledata folder). All three
parts can run on a single server. Once the initial instance of the server was installed and configured the
system creates an initial page called the Front Page which acts as the gateway into the Sexual Assault
Learning Academy.
Moodle was also adaptable to the needs of the Foundation and the delivery requirements of the training.
As noted above the Academy began with the Collaboration Tool KIT and SANE. Each of these programs
had different enrollment requirements. For the Tool KIT there was no need to restrict enrollment because
the intent was to make the materials universally accessible. In contrast the professional requirements for
certification for SANE necessitated that each student be a registered nurse which required the student’s
qualifications be reviewed prior to enrolling. The SANE program coordinator was required to assess each
student’s qualifications. If they met the required minimum the administrator would process the request to
enroll into SANE. Because of the open-source nature of the software the system was able to be modified
to accommodate a controlled registration system for SANE (See Ahern & Burgazzoli 2017 for further
details) which allowed the SANE administrator to evaluate the student’s credentials promptly and easily.
Instructional Design Choices
The instructional design choices were in large part dictated by the limited resources of the Foundation.
As noted, the Foundation opted for a turn-key operation so that once a course was deployed it was freely
available to anyone who wanted to access the course with limited intervention from the Foundation. The
limited resources and the open access approach led the Foundation to develop the instructional materials
by the using the self-directed learning (SDL) and Flipped classroom models.
Self-Directed Learning
Self-Directed Learning (SDL) is a core model for the delivery of adult education (see Garrison, 1987,
Knowles 1975). The basic SDL approach assumes learners are “motivated to assume personal responsibility and collaborative control of the cognitive (self-monitoring) and contextual (self-management)
processes in constructing and confirming meaningful and worthwhile learning outcomes”. (Garrison,
1997). The apparent need to “learn on one’s own” has been a persistent theme in self-directed learning.
167
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Garrison notes that self-directed learning may well be the most prominent and well researched topic
in the field of adult education (Garrison, 1997). However, most of the literature on SDL puts the focus
on the learner so that if you are a self-directed learner you make your own choices, monitor your own
learning, and you exercise learner control over the learning outcomes. What this means in practice “is
that the learner exercises a great deal of independence in deciding what is worthwhile to learn and how
to approach the learning task, regardless of entering competencies and contextual contingencies.” (Garrison pn18).
Self-Management
For Garrison (1997) self-management “demonstrates an aspect of external task control specific to the
management of learning activities… it is intended to reflect the social setting (resource management)
and what learners do during the learning process.” (p. 20). In practice instructors will design flexibility
into a course that allows the learner to select for example one article out of three on which they have to
respond. So as Garrison notes “Facilitators provide the support, direction and standards necessary for a
successful educational outcome. Therefore, in what might seem a paradox, self-management of learning
in an educational context is properly a collaborative experience” (p. 21). Garrison however cautions his
readers “As important as the construct [self-management] is to adult education, little attention has been
directed to the learning process itself--the cognitive and motivational dimensions of learning” (p. 18).
Process
Self-directed learning emphasizes the notion that the learner is in control of the learning process. The
learner makes choices, selects the various learning strategies and the cognitive commitment that provides
the best choice for creating meaning. As in our example above the learner will choose an article out of
a selection. The student employs various strategies to accomplish the task. As they read the article they
may highlight topics by underlining key concepts or possibly developing an outline of the article. As
Song and Hill (2007) point out, SDL is “a process (sic) in which a learner assumes primary responsibility
for planning, implementing and evaluating the learning process” (p. 29) The learner is in control of the
various learning strategies they will employ to achieve the learning outcome from the task. The problem
with current models of SDL is that it only attends to the learner. The context in which the learning takes
place is conspicuously absent.
Consequently, Song and Hill note that “some scholars consider SDL critical in distance education”
(p. 30). The context in which the learning takes place has a tremendous impact both on the ability, and
the opportunity for the learners to take control of their learning. The context of online learning seems
to provide users with unique possibilities to assume control. The separation of the learner in time and
space from the instructor and other learners creates a kind of mandate to make important choices about
the learning space. However, the importance of context has not “attracted much attention to date” (Song
and Hill, 2004, p. 30). They argue
There is a need for new perspectives on how context influences SDL. When initial SDL models were
developed, face-to-face instruction was the predominant model in higher education. Almost a decade
after the last model (cf., Garrison, 1997) higher education is occurring in a variety of contexts, ranging
from face-to-face classrooms to virtual classrooms. (p. 30)
168
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Song and Hill have created a conceptual model that has added a third dimension, one in which context is important to the learning that takes place. They emphasize the environmental factors that impact
the opportunities for self-directed learning. It is a matter of design. As they point out the key is “in the
effective design of online SDL environment.” (Song and Hill, 2007, p. 37). The design of the learning
environment or space is where the learner encounters the right content at the right time to maximize the
acquisition of the requisite skill and knowledge. This encounter with the content is structured so that the
learner is provided an opportunity to integrate the new content with prior knowledge.
Instructional Design for SDL
Given the intent of the Academy, it was assumed that the type of student who would access the content
would be motivated to engage in self-directed learning because of their need and the flexibility an online
delivery system would provide. Consequently, the Foundation wanted to maximize the availability of
instructional material and decided that an asynchronous stand-alone format would reach the most students. For self-direction to be effective, the targeted learners needed to be motivated as well as having
the capabilities for self-management. The design of the instruction would heavily rely on the learning
capabilities of individual students. Therefore, the learning activities would need to scaffold the learning
through the course structure, the use of appropriate tasks, and access to additional learning resources.
Structure
The Learning Management System that the Foundation used was Moodle. Once the user has accessed
the system they are presented with the homepage.
Notice Moodle allowed the Foundation to brand not only the site but also each page across all courses.
The logo and the title page are consistent across the entire site. There is a welcome statement across the
top and the courses are listed below. On the left of the screen there is a navigation block for administrators with additional blocks specifying other types of links. For example, the “Latest News” block is
where individual students can keep informed of news about the Academy as well as talk, interact with,
and update other instructors or students.
In the center of the Homepage a visitor can view the latest course offerings. The LMS provides the
administrator with the ability to use a combination list which can have a category depth of up to three.
Notice that there is a variety of courses available to take. The Foundation established a workable structure
so that the student can select a course based on either what is appropriate given the student’s current
situation or what might be of greatest interest.
This list of courses and the subsequent menu is designed to aid the student to make choices that are
appropriate for their situation. For example, a student may choose the module on Stalking within the
course of Sexual Violence and Related crimes. By clicking on the arrow, the student is presented with
a list of available modules within the course (see Figure 2)
The combination list depicts the preferred order for the course on Sexual Violence and Related
Crimes. However, the student is afforded the opportunity to select a different order of the modules that
is more appropriate for their situation or needs. For example, what if the student is interested or needs
information on Stalking. They would simply click on the link and the LMS would present them with
the module’s content.
169
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Figure 1. SASTA home
Figure 2. Module list within the course sexual violence and related crimes
170
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Learning Activities
The student is then provided with organizational clues for each module such as an overview and intended
learning as demonstrated in Figure 3.
The use of the icons for each section such as the icon of the teacher is consistent across all the modules
within the course. This helps to orient the student to the expected learning outcome and the learning
activities. Each module is structured with an introduction, core knowledge, and a learning task that will
help to engage the student and make sense of the content. Finally, the learning activities were designed
so that the individual student could engage with other students and the faculty.
The learning management system makes it easy to create activities that can be delivered on demand.
Notice the section on Core Knowledge as shown in Figure 3. Each module presents the student with the
core content in a variety of ways from providing a simple PDF file to the more interactive tools such as
the Lesson Activity Module. According to the Moodle help “The lesson activity module enables a teacher
to deliver content and/or practice activities in interesting and flexible ways. A teacher can use the lesson
to create a linear set of content pages or instructional activities that offer a variety of paths or options
for the learner. In either case, teachers can choose to increase engagement and ensure understanding by
including a variety of questions, such as multiple choice, matching and short answer.” For example, in
Unit Four, the students are presented with a series of scenarios which exposes them to various ethical
situations. The student is prompted to respond to a yes or no question (see Figure 4) which the LMS
stores. Subsequent students can explore prior responses which further engages other students.
According to Song and Hill the final element in the design for SDL is access to resources. As demonstrated in Figure 4 each module provides the student with course material and other resources that
they can visit on their own time.
Figure 3. Module context clues
171
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Figure 4. Learning activities
Flipped Learning
One of the major problems with implanting training online, especially when using an opportunistic
model for delivery, is guaranteeing the outcomes meet the need. As pointed out the self-directed learning
model is flexible and adaptable to the needs of professionals. It can be pursued anytime from anywhere.
However, this necessitates that the learner is self-aware of both their internal and external motivation.
The student must be able to identify what skill or knowledge they are lacking as well as the skill or
knowledge required for the institutional context.
This concern was remedied by the way that the Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) program
is delivered. SANE is a certification program for forensic nurses who have received special training in
the medical, psychological, and forensic examination of a sexual assault victim necessary to conduct
evidentiary exams for rape victims. The SANE program is a closed program. To enroll, each student had
to be a registered nurse (See Ahern & Burgazzoli, 2017).
Because of the needs of professional certification, SANE has both a knowledge component and a
clinical experience. The targeted professionals were diverse in terms of their background knowledge
and experience. Matsui and Ahern (2017) note that in a traditional classroom, the content is typically
taught in a predetermined, fixed amount of time which creates gaps in the students’ learning. Slower
students are forced to speed up before they have mastered the content whereas the faster students are
slowed down. The registered nurses were able to choose when and where they would acquire the necessary content prior to participating in the face-to-face clinical sessions. Consequently, it was decided
that SANE would be delivered using the flipped delivery approach. The flipped nature of the program
along with its restricted enrollment establishes the constraints necessary to meet the needs of both the
student and the situation.
172
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Delivery based on a “flipped” approach happens prior to “class” when students conduct significant
pre-class preparation, including watching pre-recorded lectures or other engaging activities. The traditional class time is reserved for discussion and/or problem solving of the relevant topics” (Tune, Sturek,
& Basile, 2013, p. 316). This delivery approach is consistent with an opportunistic design as well as the
self-directed learning model. Flipping the content reduces the time necessary to deliver content during
the face-to-face meeting which increases the amount of time available for clinical experiences.
The flipped design required a different set of delivery requirements in contrast to the courses within
SASTA. The content for SANE was presented as one complete course with 22 distinct topics (see Figure 5)
To guarantee that each student was receiving the required background knowledge the content was
delivered through “conditional release” technology embedded within the LMS. This technology allows
designers to control access to additional content or resources based on a variety of conditions such as
dates. For SANE the nurses had to receive a target score on a short quiz to move on to additional units.
previous activities, or they can simply hide items from students until they are ready to be used. If the
nurses had the requisite background knowledge they were able to move quickly through the content
Figure 5. List of units for SANE
173
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
whereas other students would need to proceed more deliberately to acquire the necessary information.
This process provided a baseline of knowledge required for entry into the weekend clinical experience.
The design of the topics is typical for a flipped course. The student controls access to the materials
such as watching a recorded lecture, reading an article, or performing an interactive self-reflection as
in the example in Figure 6. The goal was to support content engagement, acquisition, and integration.
Figure 6 depicts a Case Study in Topic Four of SANE. This topic is about ethics. Prior to this activity, the student was presented with content regarding the reporting laws within West Virginia. Once the
student makes their choice and clicks the “Check Answer” button the system responds with the correct
answer with a detailed response. Additionally, the student is then presented with an open-ended followup question (see Figure 7).
This type of interaction has two major goals. First the student has an opportunity to check their
understanding of the previous content. Secondly, it can serve to stimulate a question in the student to
engage the faculty in the clinical experience.
The course used additional types of passive interaction such as a clickable list shown in Figure 8.
As with the questions the student has a chance to test themselves on their comprehension and content
integration. Instead of selecting from a true or false list the student must generate the response from
what they recall.
Figure 6. Self reflection
174
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Figure 7. Follow-up question
Figure 8. Clickable list
175
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Issues, Problems, Concerns
The primary issue for the establishment of an online institution is personnel. As we have seen in our
example the Foundation had a desire to increase access and availability of the content material and had
to make choices regarding the implementation of a plan.
The identification of a lack of available personnel resources presented the Foundation with a set of
decisions necessary to realize the implementation. Consequently, the Foundation needed to make a series
of administrative choices and decide how to effectively deliver the instruction. The decision was made,
based on the flexibility of the learning management system, that each topic would be “free standing”.
The student oversaw their learning so that the individual student could choose among all topics even
those located in different “courses”. The student was free to choose modules on “Sexual Harassment”
or “Gender Bias” to construct “courses” that would meet their own personal or professional needs. Each
module or topic was complete within itself and was grouped with other modules to constitute a “course”
within the academy.
The administrative choices were made easier because of the current LMS technology. The students
were afforded, on completion of each module, a certificate of completion that awarded continuing education units (CEU). The Foundation was able to effectively deliver the type and quality of instruction
across the state anywhere at any time.
The next crucial decision was design and was constrained by the content. The more traditional delivery style of a teacher in front of a classroom was simply not possible – even if that classroom was
virtual. The Foundation did not have the requisite personnel to deliver the instruction nor did the target
audience have the ability to go to class when the instruction was offered.
One of the major problems with implanting training online, especially using an opportunistic model
for delivery, is guaranteeing the outcomes meet the need. As pointed out the self-directed learning model
is flexible and adaptable to the needs of the professional. However, this necessitates that the learner is
self-aware of their internal needs but also the external needs of their situation. This concern is remedied
by how SANE was structured.
The flipped delivery of the course provided the necessary control due to its restricted access. Conditional
release of content provided for the needs of both the student and the situation. The key to implementing
this design choice is first understanding the instructional goal of the content - - what is the knowledge or
skill necessary for an individual to do a job in the real world. The second key to implementing a flipped
delivery would be to create an approach that would manage the gaps of knowledge in the targeted audience.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Forty years ago, the place where learning happened – the learning environment - was more concerned
with how to arrange the desks – whether in rows or circles - in the physical space of a classroom. Today
the learning environment has evolved from a physical space to a virtual one. Instruction happens in the
cloud, anywhere at any time.
Along with the technological evolution there has been a similar development in learning theory.
Historically as Jonassen and Land (2012) point out, many educators believed that knowledge and skill
are simply transmitted from teachers to students. The more skilled and knowledgeable the teacher the
better the learning so that as Jonassen and Hill suggest (2012) “teaching is a process of conveying ideas
176
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
to students. Good teaching means more effective communication” (p. viii). Consequently, it was reasoned
that effective instruction is achievable through faster and better communication technologies. However,
these modern delivery technologies in and of themselves are no better than simply moving around the
chairs in the classroom of an earlier time. What is crucial is to understand how educational technologies
support a more student-centered notion of learning that is not simply a transmissive process but rather
a dynamic reciprocal activity that integrates knowledge with prior experience.
Technology is only the beginning. The modern LMS as we have seen provides flexible and very powerful tools for collaboration and interaction. However, as we have also seen, creating a truly supportive
learning environment of the twenty-first c entury requires not only a clear understanding of the goal and
purpose of the instruction, but also a careful design of the learner’s engagement with that content. Technology directed by design is a powerful force that creates a unique and effective learning environment.
REFERENCES
Ahern, T. C. (2016). A Waterfall Design Strategy for Using Social Media for Instruction. Journal of
Educational Technology Systems, 44(3), 332–345. doi:10.1177/0047239515615853
Ahern, T. C., & Burgazzoli, J. Jr. (2017). Enrollment Management Strategies for Online Learning Environments. In Handbook of Research on Technology-Centric Strategies for Higher Education Administration
(pp. 17–36). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2548-6.ch002
Bates, A. T. (2005). Technology, e-learning, and distance education. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203463772
Diaz, V. (2010). Web 2.0 and emerging technologies in online learning. New Directions for Community
Colleges, 2010(150), 57–66. doi:10.1002/cc.405
Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18–33. doi:10.1177/074171369704800103
Garrison, R.D. (1987). Self-directed learning: Facilitating self-directed learning beyond the institutional
setting. International Journal of Lifelong learning, 6(4), 309-318.
Hannafin, M., & Land, S. (1997). The foundations and assumptions of technology-enhanced studentcentered learning environments. Instructional Science, 25(3), 167–202. doi:10.1023/A:1002997414652
Jonassen, D., & Land, S. (2012). Preface. In D. Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of
learning environments (2nd ed.; pp. vii–x). New York: Routledge.
Klemz, J., Simon, G., & Kumar, A. (2003). IS Planning in non-profit organizations: An exploratory
study. In Proceedings of the 2003 International Association for Computer Information Systems Conference (pp. 216-222). Academic Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Association Press.
Land, S., Hannafin, M., & Oliver, K. (2012). Student-centered learning environments: Foundations,
Assumptions and Design. In D. Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203813799
177
Implementing Technology and Designed-Based Solutions to Create an Online Learning Environment
Larreamendy-Joerns, J., & Leinhardt, G. (2006). Going the distance with online education. Review of
Educational Research, 76(4), 567–605. doi:10.3102/00346543076004567
Machado, M., & Tao, E. (2007, October). Blackboard vs. Moodle: Comparing user experience of learning management systems. In Frontiers in education conference-global engineering: knowledge without
borders, opportunities without passports, 2007. FIE’07. 37th annual (pp. S4J-7). IEEE.
Matsui, H., & Ahern, T. (2017). The effect of choice of instruction in personalized flipped learning. In
P. Resta & S. Smith (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education
International Conference (pp. 240-246). Austin, TX: Association for the Advancement of Computing
in Education (AACE). Retrieved January 25, 2018 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/177295/
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass.
Song, L., & Hill, J. R. (2007). A conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online
environments. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(1), 27–42.
Spencer, T. (2002). The potential of the Internet for non-profit organizations. First Monday, 7(8).
doi:10.5210/fm.v7i8.976
Tune, J. D., Sturek, M., & Basile, D. P. (2013). Flipped classroom model improves graduate student
performance in cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal physiology. Advances in Physiology Education,
37(4), 316–320. doi:10.1152/advan.00091.2013 PMID:24292907
178
179
Chapter 10
Applying Universal Design
for Learning to Create
a Transformational and
Accessible Learning Framework
for a Technology-Driven
International University
Kim K. Floyd
West Virginia University, USA
Neal Shambaugh
West Virginia University, USA
ABSTRACT
Universal design for learning (UDL) guides the developers of the technology-driven international
university to design flexible academic programs and design features of the supporting academic units.
Faculty, staff, and administrators share a moral responsibility to enable all people to access educational
opportunities. Adherence to UDL guidelines ensures accessible academic programs and acknowledges
that humans vary in their capacity and location to receive educational and research experiences. The
chapter first examines transformational features of the technology-driven internal university, describes
the UDL framework, and applies the UDL guidelines to academic programs (UDL-C) and administrative units (UDL-A). Recommendations and further research are suggested applying UDL across a
technology-driven international university.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch010
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
TRANSFORMATIONAL FEATURES OF THE TECHNOLOGYDRIVEN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
The aim for this book claims that “Launching accessible technology-driven higher learning institutions
that offer a transformational educational and research experience can effectively prepare future leaders
with the knowledge resources and tools to meet the demands of the 21st century (Khosrow-Pour, 2018).
Key words from this statement include “accessible…institutions” and “transformational educational and
research experience.” The term “accessible” acknowledges that humans vary in their capacity and location
to receive educational and research experiences. Institutions share a moral responsibility to enable people
to access educational experiences that acknowledge global change and human diversity. Accessibility
is a term used increasingly to hold distance learning programs accountable to the student’s ability to
matriculate through a program. Responsive curriculum for the 21st century develops in individuals not
only foundational knowledge and multiple skills (e.g., communication, problem solving), but the affective capacity to attend to emotions and attitudes underlying beliefs and action. The editor also identifies
the value of implementing institutional core values across programs, including “educational excellence,
student-centered course development, lifelong learning, a respectful environment, flexible learning,
diversity, global leadership, research contributions, entrepreneurship, partnership, excellent service, and
quality.” If these core values are important, then how are these core values integrated into programs?
The mission of this book specifies that “the goal of every university should be to create a transformative impact on society through continual innovation in education, research, and entrepreneurship.” The
term “transformational” describes ongoing psychological, cognitive and behavioral changes in people
that connect to the moral values of people who are committed to improvements in society (Burns, 1978).
Sometimes connected to the development of institutional leaders, a transformational stance can be applied to the design of flexible curriculum responsive to ongoing global change and learner diversity but
also to the structure of educational institutions as a means to assist people in both academic programs
and administrative units.
Transformational features of a curriculum ensure that educational experiences remain accessible
to individual learner differences, including cultural, physical, and cognitive dimensions. In addition, a
transformational curriculum may include across all academic programs personalized learning assistance
and accelerated plans for program completion. Learning experiences in a 21st century university respond
to the needs of students and business incorporating programs which address business and community
workforce needs. Resident and distant learning environments are developed to support student lifespan
career needs tapping technological tools and authentic problem solving situations. Learning outcomes
in a transformational university need to broaden and include foundational knowledge, skills, but also
affective dispositions that support groups, business, and community activity. Skills can also include
communication and leadership skills, technological literacy, and metacognitive awareness.
A transformational feature within university structures would be to ensure that the purpose of the
institution is to serve its audience or constituents across their lifetimes, embracing for students a “cradle
to grave” stance. Another transformative feature would ensure that all stakeholders have input into
determining issues and options, and that administrative policies and procedures address collaborative
decision-making at all levels. Consequently, all constituents would be responsible for ongoing data collection and analysis, so that change and program improvement taps collective data gathering efforts. In
particular, technology infrastructure must be secure and enable people to do the jobs they were hired to
180
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
do. For example, technology systems can be implemented that free faculty for teaching, research, and
applying what they know and research to societal problems.
How can the above value statements that constitute a transformational university be implemented
across an institution? Institutions frequently develop a list of value statements, but the actual enactment
of these guidelines requires both leadership, buy-in of all participants, and supportive structures. One
value statement may address a good-faith intention to provide “instruction for all learners,” but the
implementation of this statement requires structural support across curricular programs and administrative units. The stance underlying this chapter is that a transformational international university values
the ongoing development of the learner, staff, and faculty by designing, implementing and evaluating
academic programs and administrative units that support the growth of both people and institution. This
belief statement acknowledges that institutions are human-designs and that life-span issues should address not only the design of academic programs but design of the institution itself. One way that ongoing
transformational development can be addressed for people within academic programs and the administrative units that manage these programs is to use Universal Design for Learning (UDL) guidelines as
a thinking and designing tool to guide the developers of the technology-driven international university.
Before elaborating on UDL as a tool for designing 21st century curriculum and supporting administrative
structures, what follows is a summary of the legal and administrative context for accessibility.
STUDENT ACCESSIBILITY OF LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Both F2F and online deliveries of instruction require attention to the legal requirements governing access
of students to learning environments. These legal specifics will vary from country to country, but the
underlying issue of access remains a major issue for any educational institution. A summary of major
legislation for accessibility, best practices for web accessibility standards, and the institutional review
of courses and curriculum follows.
The major relevant legislation in the United States, for example, includes the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and Sections 504 (rights to persons with disabilities) and 508 (eliminate barriers
in technology and ensure accessibility by Federal agencies) of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of
1973 (and as amended in 1992 and 1998). Both pieces of legislation protect individuals with disabilities
from discrimination. Technical standards of Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act cover accessibility
of software, web-based information, and technology applications such as audio and video. Section 508
addresses legal compliance of Federal agencies and units doing business with the Federal government.
Section 508 also includes technical standards against which products can be tested to determine if they
meet technical compliance.
It is likely that online delivery of curriculum will be a major feature of the 21st century international
university (Haynie, 2015). Online access to instruction is supported world-wide by the Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), one component of a series of web accessibility guidelines published
by the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium, the main international
standards organization for the Internet. The guidelines, which can be viewed as a set of best practices for
institutions, specify how to make content accessible for people with disabilities but also for devices, such
as smartphones and tablets. In January 2017, the U. S. Access Board approved a final rule to update Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The new rule adopted seventeen WCAG 2.0 success criteria,
although 22 of the 38 existing A-level and AA-level criteria were already covered by existing Section 508
181
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
guidelines (United States Access Board, 2018). Four WCAG principles specify that information and user
interface components be presentable to users in ways they can perceive, that user interface components
and navigation be operable, that information and the user interface be understandable, and that content
is robust enough to be interpreted by a wide variety of applications, including assistive technologies.
Governmental oversight of implementing specific legal and guidelines for accessibility will vary. In
the United States, higher education institutions and agencies specific guidelines for reviewing online
programs for their adherence to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and the Rehabilitation
Act amendments of 1973. Regional accrediting agencies, such as the Southern Association of Colleges
and Schools (2000) and individual states, may have Higher Education Coordinating Boards, such as the
Texas Electronic and Information Resources (EIR) Accessibility Policy (Texas, 2015).
Institutional review of UDL implementation tends to be one category of a larger concern to address
quality concerns of online teaching (Allen & Seaman, 2016). The unit of review remains the individual
course, still the fundamental unit of delivery in both F2F and distance education programs. Course criteria
addresses specific issues of accessibility, rather than adherence to UDL principles. Review processes
vary across institutions (e.g., Chua & Lam, 2007), but national or statewide evaluation processes do
exist. A review of national and state online review processes revealed similar instruments, as most were
developed by reviewing other online course rubrics (Baldwin, Ching, & Hsu, 2018). Their intent is provide best practices, one of which is that a course includes accommodations for learners with disabilities.
As an example, the Quality Matters (QM) program (2014) includes a specific standard for accessibility
(“all learners have access to courses”) and usability (“all learners can navigate and use course components”). The QM standard addresses course navigation, accessibility of course technologies, alternative
means of access to course content for diverse learners, readability, and ease of use. Another framework
that addresses accessibility within program context is the Quality Scorecard 2014 Handbook (Shelton &
Saltsman, 2014) from the Online Learning Consortium (formerly the Sloan Consortium). Across course
development and instructional design, course structure, student support, evaluation and assessment, the
Quality Scorecard prompts review of policies and design features to ensure that students with disabilities
have access to online courses (Cavanaugh, 2002). The Quality Scorecard framework goes beyond a QM
approach and situates course design within overall program curriculums and institutional policies, such
as institutional, faculty, and technology support.
Another example of institutional framework for accessibility and some UDL principles is the California State University-Chico’s (2015) guidelines, which are organized as Quality Online Learning and
Teaching (QOLT). A Quality for Online Instruction rubric evaluates online and hybrid courses. The
rubric structures accessibility as categories of online organization and design, instructional design and
delivery, and faculty use of student feedback. The UDL issues of flexible visual, textual, kinesthetic and
auditory activities are also addressed.
UDL Application to the Design of the 21st Century International University
Because a transformational institution inherently embraces a set of moral commitments to thrive, specific
structural supports are needed to keep these values in play. The Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
framework is suggested as one structural support to guide developers of the 21st century university. UDL
is based on Universal Design (UD), which has been used in architecture and interior design to charac-
182
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
terize design processes and designed products that serve people across their lifespan. UD is sometimes
applied to educational products, such as the design of learning management systems (LMS) or mobile
devices. UD can also be applied to entire curriculums to “enhance a product’s usability for the broadest
audience without diminishing the function” (Burgestahler, 2008, p. 213). UD is sometimes discussed
within the context of distance education courses and programs ensuring that communication and course
content are accessible to all users. UDL, however, tends to be regarded as a framework for special education rather than as a broader structure to guide curriculum and institutions. Universal Design suffers
the same narrowed view in the design of homes or health facilities for the elderly. However, the UDL
framework provides a proactive design approach to develop a curriculum for all students, not just those
with special needs (CAST, 2011; Rose, Meyer & Hitchcock, 2005). UDL can be used in a broader context
than UD guidelines for digital devices; namely, developing flexible instructional programs, curriculums,
and learning experiences. This chapter advocates that the design and implementation of a 21st Century
technology-driven international institution requires a transformational framework of which UDL can be
a tool to ensure accessible programs and support units. The chapter specifies how the transformational
development of the individual, consisting of students, staff, and faculty members, and the institution
can be accomplished by using UDL guidelines for both academic programs and institutional units. UDL
application for the 21st century university is noted in this chapter as UDL-C for curriculum and UDL-A
for administrative units.
APPLICATION OF THE UDL FRAMEWORK TO
ACADEMIC CURRICULUM (UDL-C)
The Center for Applied Special Technologies (CAST, 2011) developed a framework for applying UD to
educational settings. The UDL framework provides a proactive design approach to develop a curriculum
for all students, not just those with special needs (Rose, Meyer & Hitchcock, 2005). UDL is based on
what has been learned in brain science on individual differences and the networks in the brain that help
the individual understand what is to be learned, how one learns best, and why one should learn (Rose &
Meyer, 2002). Three UDL principles guide the development of flexible curriculum. These three UDL
principles specify the need for multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression, and multiple means of engagement (Rose & Gravel, 2010). Multiple means of representation
tap the brain’s recognition network, multiple means of action and expression tap the brain’s strategic
network, and varying forms of engagement tap the brain’s affective network. For each UDL principle
three operational guidelines help to “maintain those desirable difficulties while reducing or eliminating
‘undesirable difficulties,’ barriers to learning that arise and that are irrelevant to the goals of learning”
(Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2012, p. 10).
Curriculum: What Is to Be Learned?
UDL becomes relevant for the 21st century university that adopts the stance in which flexible curriculum,
rather than a one-size-fits-all approach, best serves the full range of 21st century student needs. The UDL
framework suggests ways that courses and programs are designed in which teaching strategies and as-
183
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
sessment decisions are selected and monitored to address learner differences (e.g., differentiated instruction), and that multiple types of materials [and technology] are selected to address student differences
(Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose & Jackson, 2005). A stance that embraces flexible curriculum also requires
everyone at the table (faculty, students, staff, administrators, institutional and community constituents),
an implication for true collaborative input on the curriculum (Hall, Meyer, & Rose (2012).
Curriculum addresses what is to be learned, specified as learning outcomes. Curriculum planners
ask the question: What knowledge, skills, capabilities and capacities, and values do students develop in
programs from a 21st century technologically-driven university? Educational experiences that support
these outcomes typically involve a set of courses, each comprising a set of decisions about learning
outcomes, teaching methods, assessment, and supporting materials and technology. A great deal of
discussion is likely to occur in what is to be learned at a 21st century institution, one whose purpose is
to serve the society at large with human “literate” graduates. The issue of human and cultural differences, a focus for the UDL framework, becomes a learning outcome for the 21st century learner. Given
that change is a perennial issue for the constituents of the 21st century learning institution, a taxonomy
of significant learning is suggested from Fink (2003), one which includes the learning outcomes of
foundational knowledge, application, integration, learning how to learn, caring, and human dimension.
Teaching Methods: How Is the Curriculum to Be Taught?
These teaching decisions comprise how the learning outcomes will be achieved through instruction.
Barriers to accessibility begin early in the design of academic programs and the teaching decisions that
are made for individual courses and other learning experiences. Instructors in the 21st century institution
acknowledge the scope of teaching decisions cannot rely solely on content features, but also involve the
range of student differences, and the context of the instructor and student within the institution (both
physical and virtual features) and the academic program. UDL raises an awareness of the instructor and
administrator to a range of teaching options that cover the full range of learner differences. When used
proactively UDL informs the design of learning environments, such as physical classrooms and online
learning management systems, and the features of the academic program itself. These features, which
might include dynamic adaptive instruction through artificial intelligence tools or personalized attention
and mentoring, become competitive attributes to attract students and governmental and corporate support.
UDL provides a framework for re-examination of teaching methods. The design of a 21st century
technologically-driven university, one that is responsive to the needs of a changing society, implies that
such a re-examination is possible. However, the status quo and the primacy of the instructor are realities in public schools through higher education. UDL could be used to provide an entre’ point for such
discussions by briefing instructors first on student differences along human developmental, cognitive,
behavioral, and physical dimensions. The biopsychosocial model from medicine and psychology (Engel,
1980) and the transformative lens from special education (Mertens, 2003) become informative here in
the discussion of human differences and the myth of homogeneity. Acknowledging student differences
guides the discussion on teaching approaches to ways to address these learner differences through assistive technology, providing a range of student activities and materials, and matching assessment tools
to learning outcomes.
184
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
UDL Principles and Guidelines
Principle 1: Using Multiple Means of Representation to
Support Resourceful, Knowledgeable Learners
A major challenge for teaching is presenting material in a manner in which the students can learn. Students differ in how they perceive and comprehend information and need different mediums. An example
is teaching using audio or videos in an online environment. Some students who not see well or at all will
need an audio narration that adequately addresses the message of the video. Some students will need
a text script to review or to follow along with. Some students may need captions on the video to help
them process the meaning of the video or accumulation of important points. Most students benefit from
periodic review, which may include lists of text items, annotated pictures, and audio reinforcement. The
three implementation guidelines for Principle 1 include the following: (Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2012):
•
•
•
Guideline 1: Provide accessible options for perception.
Guideline 2: Provide options for language, mathematical expressions, and symbols.
Guideline 3: Provide options for comprehension.
Examples of accessible options for student perception of the content or the what is to be learned
would tap text-to-speech (TTS) software, graphics, and videos for struggling readers and the use of video
files, possibly stored in archives, for students who are hard-of-hearing or those who find difficulties in
processing information. In particular, TTS software enables students to decode text, to click on a word
and have it read aloud at a rate that works for them. Some students may need assistance in understanding
different languages, mathematical expressions, or discipline-specific language and symbols. Options here
include language translation software and physical or media references for terminology. Mathematical
symbols and discipline and content-specific languages can be communicated using visual reinforcement
in media use. All students differ in their abilities of verbal comprehension. Assistance can be provided
using digital media, including digital stories and books, digital links for additional explanation and
review. Gaming is increasingly being used to visualize the nature of content.
Principle 2: Applying Multiple Means of Action and Expression
to Support Strategic, Goal-Directed Learners
This principle addresses how students learn the content using multiple means of representations. To
determine or assess what students with varying learning characteristics truly understand, educators need
a variety of options to demonstrate their understanding. Another way to state this need is that instructors should provide different tools of assessment, tools that first match the purpose for assessment but
then take advantage of the strengths and learning characteristics of each student. Thus, one activity for
an instructor, one that could be considered a best practice for teaching, is to continually learn from the
student about the student and that student’s challenges with the content. Students can be characterized
in terms of a broad context that involves knowing a students’ historical and cultural heritage, and their
family and community settings. To better understand student differences, an instructor can develop a
learner profile (Shambaugh & Magliaro, 1997). The profile serves to make explicit a student’s learning
characteristics, which include age, gender, educational level, achievement level, prerequisite knowledge
185
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
and skills, socioeconomic background, learning style preferences, motivation, attitudes, and expectations
(Seels & Glasgow, 1990). This information can be obtained from the setting itself, from records, other
instructors, and administrative records. Experts can also be informative about students in terms of their
development and reactions to learning tasks and what students know. Frequently, these items become
clearer or more detailed as a result of educational activities, all of which can assist the instructor in the
re-design of learning activities. The three implementation guidelines for Principle 2 include the following: (Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2012):
•
•
•
Guideline 4: Provide accessible options for physical action.
Guideline 5: Provide options for expression and communication.
Guideline 6: Provide options for executive functions.
Typically, students demonstrate learning performance through writing and oral responses. Some students will require accessible options for physical action, what are known as assistive technologies. These
options can include audio, voice recognition software, and alternative keyboard entry devices. In addition
to options for physical action, students may need teaching adjustments to help them communicate and
demonstrate their knowledge recall, application, problem solving and fluency in reading, writing and
other skills. Some media may enable the student to highlight and paste text or images into a word processor to demonstrate understanding through text responses. Teaching adjustments may involve assistive
technology but also additional assisted and solo practice and adjustments in assessment practices. Here,
guidance from literacy and content-specialists can be helpful (e.g., Gordon, Proctor, & Dalton, 2012).
An important guideline in Principle 2 are the executive functions, which include setting goals, planning
responses, implementing strategies, and monitoring one’s progress. Developing executive functions is
a learning goal for all students, particularly in the 21st century institution. Thus, this guideline reminds
curriculum developers and administrators of the need to incorporate executive function learning in all
programs. Instructors will need to build into content learning assessment options, including self-directed,
peer assessment, and tools that match the nature of what is to be learned (i.e., learning outcomes).
Principle 3: Applying Multiple Means of Engagement
to Support Purposeful, Motivated Learners
Strategic learners make conscious decisions on their responses to learning tasks. Learning preferences
(sometimes referred to as learning styles) help to guide the learner in personal performance and expression. Also helpful is having the students learning how to learn (metacognition), which becomes a meaningful learning outcome for instructors. Such metacognitive activities, sometimes labeled as notetaking
strategies, take instructional time but they work best when integrated along with content as opposed to
isolated study skills strategy sessions (Shambaugh, 1995).
Students are often more engaged with content when the topic is interesting. Content and learning activities can be designed to achieve a personal connection in order for them to persevere and see a broader
connection from their work to practical life application. The long-term goal becomes the development
of strategic, goal-directed and self-directed learners. The three implementation guidelines for Principle
3 include the following: (Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2012):
•
186
Guideline 7: Provide options for recruiting interest.
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
•
•
Guideline 8: Provide options for sustaining effort and persistence.
Guideline 9: Provide options for self-regulation.
Guideline 7 addresses the motivational challenge faced by all educators and UDL, which embraces
all learners, encourages educators to learn about student differences, provide choices and options, and
modify curriculum for student capabilities and interests. Learner characteristics evolve over time, based
partly on societal changes, and new generations of students are drawn to authentic learning situations
and opportunities to apply what they are learning immediately. Such a shift to an apply-what-they-learn
requires educators share control in learning activities and shift assessment to forms that monitor and
provide support, such as project-based learning (PBL). Within new forms of student activity and engagement, instructors must attend to safety and distractions within the learning environment, shifting teacher
activity from talk to observation, and peer learning where students assist each other.
Related to the motivational challenge of Guideline 7, is the need to assist all learners with appropriate ways to keep students motivated through sustained effort and persistence. Peer learning activities
can be used with great effect here, but instructors need to be observant and intervene as needed or make
adjustments in learning tasks. One approach is to be clear and open with students on the value of the
activity an explain “why we are doing this?” A key teaching activity to support persistence is the quality of instructor and peer feedback; namely, feedback that is prompt, consistent, and responsive to the
learner in terms of the performance (Shambaugh & Magliaro, 1997).
Developing self-regulation, the ability of students to monitor and make their own decisions on learning, is related to developing executive functions in students. Self-regulation becomes a key learning
characteristic for curriculum developers to address in all programs. The degree of self-regulation will
vary across all humans, based partly on developmental differences and prior educational experiences.
Improving graduation rates can be addressed by developing the self-regulation abilities of students. How
this integration occurs in courses will be new to many faculty members.
APPLICATION OF THE UDL FRAMEWORK TO ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS (UDL-A)
UDL is not usually discussed when designing administrative units, but it is those units that include human educators and support staff, and if an institution of the 21st century is to model “lifelong learning,”
than those individuals will benefit from UDL principles. Through explicit attention to UDL principles
and their supporting guidelines in the design and operating features of administrative units, collaborative design, implementation, and evaluation of responsive and flexible curriculum can occur. This next
section provides some examples to alert designers of the 21st century institution to how UDL can be
applied to administrative units.
How UDL-Administrative Supports “Resourceful,
Knowledgeable” Faculty, Staff, and Students
Many of the “workplace issues” for faculty and staff are addressed by human resource units in most
institutional units. Faculty and staff require professional development for ongoing improvement in their
job responsibilities, and the UDL framework organizes those issues in terms of “learning for all.” Providing staff options for the display of information, both auditory and visual, is a technical problem that
187
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
can be addressed with TTS software, graphics, audio, video, and other presentation formats. Technical
approaches, using assistive technology, also addresses differences in capabilities for communication, the
sharing of information, clarifying terminology and assumptions, communicating across languages, and
using multiple media. By attending to this UDL guideline, administrators invite all institutional constituents to determine the social commitments on the transparency of information for problem solving and
decision-making. Thus, attending to UDL issues at the administrative level illuminate new approaches
for understanding, to documenting data, and analyzing this data numerically and/or visually for patterns,
“big ideas,” and decision-making.
How UDL-Administrative Supports “Strategic, GoalDirected” Faculty, Staff, and Students
As above, this second UDL principle recommends providing options for physical action in physical and
technology settings, including physical/digital tools and assistive technologies. Communication options
may need to be provided for teaching, research, and administrative groups. Such options evolve technologically but currently include video conferencing and Google doc-like features/sharing info between
documents. Executive functions performed by these groups will involve committee decision-making and
problem solving. These tools will feature open access to information, ease of information access, and
digital tools for information display, such as dashboards, and the benchmarking/monitoring of progress.
How UDL-Administrative Supports “Purposeful,
Motivated Learners” Across the Institution
This third UDL principle cuts across faculty, staff, and students. UDL, as implemented across flexible
curriculum advocates providing options for gaining student interest. The administrative focus across
courses and programs is to provide within administrative and learning management systems (LMS)
adequate orientation for new students, consistent online course and program design with sufficient tools
to address student learning differences. To provide options for sustaining effort and persistence, F2F and
online courses need features that increase options for instructor-student activity, policy and procedures
to ensure effective student feedback (timely, consistent, responsive), and monitor student performance.
In the near future artificial intelligence features may be built into online LMS’s, features that provide
data from learner performance for ongoing teaching adjustments. Teaching guidance and online tools
may increase the development of self-regulation in students recommending study skills strategies, new
forms of assessment, including self-assessment and reflection.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR APPLYING UDL TO 21ST CENTURY INSTITUTIONS
Leading a Transformational Stance
The design of any transformational-based curriculum requires the design of administrative features that
are themselves transformational and support agreed-upon purposes for the institution. Transformation
here implies changes in the psychological, cognitive and behavior of people (Burns, 1978), as they design and grow a 21st century institution, one whose focus is education, research, and entrepreneurship.
188
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
The transformation stance will require leadership of the strongest character to spearhead the growth of
an institution who embodies in its mission, programs, and people ongoing human-centered and growthoriented change.
Another benefit to considering UDL across the design and growth of a 21st century institution, at least
based on UDL’s over-arching perspective of flexibility and responsiveness to human differences, is the
development of leadership capacity across all individuals. The implementation of UDL as a framework
or even the use of UDL as a design tool will need people who are not afraid to participate and who are
not overly tasked out to invest in a transformative process.
Unfreezing Prior Stances on Curriculum and Administrative Support
Underlying the design of a technology-driven international university and applying a UDL framework to
both curriculum (UDL-C) and administrative units (UDL-A) requires designers and leaders who revisit
assumptions, a process labeled by Kurt Lewin as unfreezing, and recognizing a need for change and
challenging the status quo. Kotter (1996) provides eight steps that are needed by people to jointly agree
on a stance to seriously address learner diversity and to begin this initiative.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Establish a sense of urgency.
Form a guiding, powerful coalition.
Create a compelling vision.
Tap multiple approaches.
Empower others to act on a new vision.
Plan and enact short-term wins.
Consolidate improvements and continue.
Institutionalize new approaches.
An implication from the Kotter steps to think differently is that collaborative action needs a collaborative process of like-minded individuals. While differences in views and approaches must exist,
the collaboration to address these differences cannot exist in a toxic environment, which we define as
one where the needs of the institution or groups outweigh the needs of the people who work and learn
within that institution.
One collaborative process that could be tapped for ground-level meetings where design decisions
will be made is that of frame reflection (Schön & Rein, 1995). The idea behind frame reflection is that
people possess different “frames” or ways of looking at problems and solutions. Frame reflection, as
practiced by group leaders, gets these different frames out in the open to better understand individual
perspectives. Group members can now work across acknowledged differences and to look beyond only
data analysis to make professional judgments.
Implement Metacognitive Strategies Into Teaching
One goal for the 21st century institution is to genuinely embrace all learners across all learning characteristics. One of those learning characteristics is student self-regulation. Such assistance in the form
of teacher observation and other assessment practices can take place across all programs and within
189
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
content-specific courses. Study skills strategies where self-regulation is addressed in terms of notetaking
and other approaches work best when implemented within the subject to be taught.
Accountability Using a Systematic Approach
The design and implementation of a transformational technology-driven university requires systematic
evaluation to review design features and lessons learned over time, so that the institution continues to
be responsive to human needs over time. A systematic approach can include program/curricular/instructional design to guide design, implementation, and evaluation. A tool of evaluation, such as logic
modeling (Knowlton & Phillips, 2013), can be used to monitor the progress of growth and how change
is ultimately moving towards an agreed upon goal (Collins & Porras, 1994). Another value to systematic
re-examination of purpose and action is to ensure that that “scope creep,” or expansion of the project
beyond the original mission, does not occur (Roberto & Levesque, 2005) because of a lack of a process
to manage the change.
Transparent Access and Use of Data to Inform Decisions
Data can be used to guide curricular and administrative decisions. Data collection and collective decisionmaking must be ongoing and a part of everyone’s job description. Open access to data must exist and
be readily available for benchmarking, monitoring of progress, and decision-making. The transparency
of the data produces a social benefit for working groups whose members value and contribute what is
part of and not evident in the data, itself a transformative feature.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Future research directions are specified in terms of research questions.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How does UDL contribute to transformational design of curriculum and administration?
How are mission features monitored and studied over time?
How is the design, implementation, and evaluation of a 21st century technology-driven international university documented for program growth and institutional dissemination?
How might quality indicators, currently applied to online education, be applied across F2F instruction and other educational experiences?
How might artificial intelligence innovations support customized teaching?
How do logic models support transformative institutional goals?
What cognitive technology tools support self-regulation in learners?
CONCLUSION
Launching a technology-driven university that provides a “transformational educational and research
experience” (Khosrow-Pour, 2017) necessitates a transformational structure akin to a smart-learning ecosystem, which considers processes, competence, places, and monitoring as key issues (e. g., Krummheuer
190
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
et al., 2018). The eco-sites for learning in the 21st century now include schools, universities, virtual
environments, and working places. Overall, the feature of a transformational institution is a change in
perspective, an opportunity to re-think, re-design, and re-engineer learning for all.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) provides a pro-active thinking tool and framework to support
the development of the technology-driven international university. The specific guidelines within the
three UDL principles provides an over-arching tool to assist curriculum developers for all learners and
the people who teach and provide administrative support for these learners. The UDL framework exists
for all learners, not just students who need special accommodations. If the mission of the 21st century
institution is to serve human society, then this framework can help to guide this stance across the entire
institution. UDL is typically addressed in special education settings or online assistive technology applications, but UDL provides a framework for the design of flexible curriculums and flexible learning
environments. People engineer innovation and flexible educators attend to the needs of learners. As
Root-Bernstein (2003) has written, “… the future of innovation will reside, as it always has resided, in
the minds of multiply talented people who transcend disciplinary boundaries and methods” (p. 276).
REFERENCES
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2016). Online report card: Tracking online education in the United States.
Wellesley: Babson Research Group.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 328.
Baldwin, S., Ching, Y., & Hsu, Y. (2018). Online course design in higher education: A review of national
and statewide evaluation instruments. TechTrends, 62(1), 46–57. doi:10.100711528-017-0215-z
Burgestahler, S. E. (2008). Universal design of technological environments. In S. Burgestahler & R. Cory
(Eds.), Universal design in higher education: From guidelines to practice (pp. 213–224). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard Education Press.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper Collins.
California State University – Chico. (2015). Exemplary online instruction. Retrieved from http://csuchico.
edu/eoi/
CAST. (2011). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. Wakefield, MA: Author.
Cavanaugh, C. (2002). Distance education quality: Success factors for resources, practices and results. In
R. Discenza, C. D. Howard, & K. Schenk (Eds.), The design & management of effective distance learning programs (pp. 171–189). Hershey, PA: Information Science; doi:10.4018/978-1-930708-20-4.ch011
Chua, A., & Lam, W. (2007). Quality assurance in online education: The Universitas 21 Global approach.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1), 133–152. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00652.x
Collins, J., & Porras, J. (1994). Built to last. New York: Harper Collins.
191
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
Engel, G. L. (1980). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. The American Journal of
Psychiatry, 137(5), 535–544. doi:10.1176/ajp.137.5.535 PMID:7369396
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing
college courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gordon, D., Proctor, C. P., & Dalton, B. (2012). Reading strategy instruction, universal design for
learning, and digital texts: Examples of an integrated approach. In T. E. Hall, A. Meyer, & D. H. Rose
(Eds.), Universal design for learning in the classroom: Practical applications (pp. 25-37). New York:
Guilford Press.
Hall, T. E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (2012). Universal design for learning in the classroom: Practical
applications. New York: Guilford Press.
Haynie, D. (2015). Study shows sluggish online learning growth for second year. U. S. News and World
Report. Retrieved from http://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2015/02/05/studyshows-sluggish-online-learning-growth-for-second-year
Hitchcock, C. G., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2005). Equal access, participation, and progress
in the general education curriculum. In D. Rose, A. Meyer, & C. Hitchcock (Eds.), The universally
designed classroom: Accessible curriculum and digital technologies (pp. 37–68). Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Education Press.
Jonassen, D. H., Beissner, K., & Yacci, M. (1993). Structural knowledge: Techniques for representing,
conveying and acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Khosrow-Pour, M. (2018). Call for chapters: Handbook of research on challenges and opportunities in
launching a technology-driven university. Retrieved from https://www.igi-global.com/publish/call-forpapers/call-details/2913
Knowlton, L. W., & Phillips, C. C. (2013). The logic model guidebook: Better strategies for great results
(2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
Krummheuer, A. L., Rehm, M., Lund, M. K. L., Nielsen, K. N., & Rodil, K. (2018). Reflecting on cocreating a smart learning ecosystem for adolescents with congenital brain damage. In O. Mealha, M.
Divitini, & M. Rehm (Eds.), Citizen, Territory and Technologies: Smart Learning Contexts and Practices: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional
Development (pp. 11-18). Academic Press. 10.1007/978-3-319-61322-2_2
Mertens, D. M. (2003). The inclusive view of evaluation: Visions for the new millennium. In S. I. Donaldson & M. Scriven (Eds.), Evaluating social programs and problems: Visions for the new millennium
(pp. 91–108). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
192
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x
PMID:26162104
Pritchard, A. (2014). Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (3rd ed.).
New York: Routledge.
Quality Matters. (2014). The quality matters higher education rubric. Retrieved from https://www.
qualitymatters.org/qa-resources/rubric-standards
Roberto, M., & Levesque, L. (2005). The art of making change initiatives stick. MIT Sloan Management
Review, 46(4), 53–59.
Root-Bernstein, R. (2003). The art of innovation: Polymaths and universality of the creative process. In
L. V. Shaavinina (Ed.). International Handbook on Innovation (pp. 267-278). Academic Press.
Rose, D. H., Meyer, A., & Hitchcock, C. (Eds.). (2005). The universally designed classroom: Accessible
curriculum and digital technologies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Ryle, G. (1949). Collected papers.: Vol. 2. Critical essays. London: Hutchinson.
Schön, D. A., & Rein, M. (1995). Frame reflection: Toward the resolution of intractable policy controversies. New York: Basic Books.
Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Shambaugh, R. N. (1995). The cognitive potentials of visual constructions. Journal of Visual Literacy,
15(1), 7–24. doi:10.1080/23796529.1995.11687714
Shambaugh, R. N., & Magliaro, S. G. (1997). Mastering the possibilities: A process approach to instructional design. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Shelton, K., & Saltsman, G. (2014). Quality scorecard 2014 handbook criteria for excellence in the
administration of online programs. Newburyport, MA: Online Learning Consortium.
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges. (2000). Best practices for electronically offered degrees and certificate programs. Retrieved from http://www.sacscoc.org/pdf/081705/
commadap.pdf
Texas. (2015). EIR Accessibility Policy. Retrieved January 24, 2017 from http://dir.texas.gov/ViewAbout-DIR/Pages/Content.aspx?id=19
United States Access Board. (2018). Final regulatory impact analysis: Final rule to update the Section
508 standards and Section 255 guidelines. Retrieved January 24, 2017 from https://www.access-board.
gov/guidelines-and-standards/communications-and-it/about-the-ict-refresh/final-regulatory-impactanalysis#_Toc471376817
193
Applying Universal Design for Learning to Create a Transformational and Accessible Learning Framework
ADDITIONAL READING
Bolkan, S., & Goodboy, A. K. (2011). Behavioral indicators of transformational leadership in the college classroom. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 12(1), 10–18. doi:10.1080/1745943
5.2011.601520
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing
college courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Heath, C., & Heath, D. (2007). Made to stick: Why some ideas survive and others die. New York: Random House.
Knowlton, L. W., & Phillips, C. C. (2013). The logic model guidebook: Better strategies for great results
(2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. U. S. Department of
Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service
website. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Accessible: Capability of humans to be able to use and interact with devices, media, and systems.
Assistive Technology: Hardware and software which address individual physical and learning needs.
Logic Models: A program evaluation tool which identifies first an end goal and benchmark progress
to reach that goal.
Project-Based Learning: A teaching model in which student curiosity informs a topic for student
inquiry, where peers assist each other during the inquiry, and student products provide the assessment
for learning.
Smart Learning Ecosystem: Integrated system of educators which embraces teaching and technology to support the individual’s learning process and performance.
Transformational: A shift in people’s views and capabilities.
Transformational Leaders: Those individuals who embrace the full range of human needs within
organizations.
Transformative Paradigm: A focus on marginalized groups, such as women, ethic/racial minorities,
poor, and people with disabilities, and the impacts of social inequity and social justice.
Universal Design (UD): Characterizing design processes and designed products that serve people
across their lifespan.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL): A framework of ensuring that diverse learners have access
to and receive appropriate education.
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG): Guidelines for making web content accessible to
diverse learners, published by the Web Accessibility Initiative, now in a 2.0 version.
194
195
Chapter 11
Prospective Students’
ZMOT in ICT-Based
International Universities:
An Application to a Mexican HEI
Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6435-9600
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Spain
Oscar Alberto Hoyos-Villa
Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia
ABSTRACT
The zero moment of truth (ZMOT) is a concept related to marketing that is changing gradually the
traditional strategy used to select a product or service offered in the market. This concept has gained
popularity among consumers due to the internet, but ZMOT has been barely analyzed during the selection process of prospective students choosing an international HEI (higher education institution). The
objective of this chapter is to reflect how the combination of ZMOT, FMOT (first moment of truth), and
SMOT (second moment of truth) is a successful strategy for global universities based on digital marketing to attract prospective students. An educational procedure that can be followed by technology-driven
international HEIs, and by universities aiming to attract prospective students. In this sense, the authors
propose a brand-new concept entitled PSA (potential for student attraction) that they apply to two campuses (Guadalajara and Mexico City) of the Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico.
INTRODUCTION
Rooted in a social perspective, higher education is perceived not only as a process of personal identity
but also of the place that will occupy people in society, regardless of their family of origin. Choosing
the most appropriate higher education institution (HEI) is a relevant decision affecting social networks
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch011
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
(Orellana et al., 2017) and socioeconomic wealth. In fact, the most advanced countries in the world
tend to have the most efficient education systems on the planet, as educational efficiency is the degree
of transfer and retention of quality information to students, what results in low school dropout rates.
The strengthening of education is given, to a large extent, not only by the amount and quality of
knowledge acquired during the learning process, but also by the application of emotional intelligence
in the knowledge transmission, as the latter determines the acquisition of competencies by students
(Bisquerra, 2005; Cejudo, & López-Delgado, 2017; Wong, Wong, & Peng, 2010). Also, emotional intelligence determines the emotion regulation process (social sharing) (Bucich, & MacCann, 2019). As well
as happens with mass customization (Aichner, 2012), prospective students follow a decision-making
process based on a sort of multi-channel choice procedure, where they have the possibility of choosing
among different HEIs using the integration of offline and online channels. Millennials or Y-Gen and
centennials or Z-Gen mainly use digital circuits based on mobile technologies and social networks to
decide, where the Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT), defined as the previous research made on the Internet carried out by future consumers, shoppers, and/or students to gather quality information about the
product or service that the individual wants to acquire or enjoy. The ZMOT is complemented with the
FMOT (First Moment of Truth), defined when consumers buy the product or service they want, and the
SMOT (Second Moment of Truth) determined by the post-service experience. At this respect, Wolny and
Charoensuksai (2014) affirm that the combination of ZMOT, webrooming, and showrooming, define
how digital-based multi-channel influences across different stages of decision making to determine the
journey towards the student election of an HEI.
The intense competitive process between HEI worldwide has transformed the vision of institutions
towards their students, who are no longer considered as merely passive, to become end customers who
must receive a quality-based educational service with the best price-quality relationship. This change
of perspective from being treated as a passive student to become a client is not always well understood
in HEIs anchored in the past or located in very isolated regions. This resistance to change leads to the
fact that, on many occasions, these HEIs can decay and even disappear.
Because of this process, HEIs are now competing in “glocalized” (think globally, act locally) markets,
as students have been transformed into clients, while universities (private and public) are increasingly
viewed as firms working in the education industry. The role played by private HEIs is increasingly remarkable, because the competition between them to survive is generating higher levels of educational
quality and research in these organizations. Besides, more top excellence HEIs in teaching and research
incentives their internationalization. A process that is especially intense in small and medium-sized
countries, as Popescu and Helsen (2019) show for the Netherlands. In this nation, and regarding HEI’s
internationalization, 59 percent have a central-level internationalization plan, 17 percent are developing
central-level internationalization policies, 15 percent do not have a separate central-level plan, and only
9 percent are not interested in developing an internationalization plan.
This process of snowballing internationalization is increasingly being complemented with experiential
learning. In fact, developing practical knowledge about the industry makes acquainted students with
their responsibilities in their profession, and improves students’ understanding of industry expectations
what benefits experiential learning (Aliu & Aigbavboa, 2019). An additional benefit is that HEIs are
drivers of socioeconomic change to diminish poverty by creating wealth through education, so achieving higher educational levels is one of the cornerstones to decrease poverty and corruption in emerging
countries. Good quality education combined with experiential learning using technology and virtual
communication is crucial to insert HEIs in the global educational market, as cross-cultural experiences
196
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
are being especially impulsed when reputation increases (Popescu, & Warmenhoven, 2019). In fact, the
education-based process directly links to globalization and the use of digital tools.
Given these premises, we will ask the following research questions,
1.
2.
3.
Are international HEIs in global educational markets more successful than non-internationalized
ones?
How are digital tools used by millennials or Y-Gen and centennials or Z-Gen changing the strategic
policies focused on student recruitment by HEIs?
How ZMOT, FMOT (First Moment of Truth) and SMOT (Second Moment of Truth) are linked
mutually in HEIs?
The objective of this chapter is to analyze how students use the Internet and social networks to determine their ZMOT prior to choosing their studies. To reach this goal, first, we will describe the role
played by international universities in global educational markets. Second, both ZMOT and the FMOT
are studied, as they are critical to understanding the process of choosing a certain HEI, and the student’s
permanence in the university. Third, we will go deep into the reasons for selecting a certain HEI and
how the economy grounded on student experience determines SMOT. Finally, we will use the standard
breaking-point formula derived from Converse (1949) into the educational sector to propose seminally a
formula entitled PSA (Potential for Student Attraction) that we will apply to Tecnologico de Monterrey,
one of the most reputed HEIs in Mexico with has a total number of 91,285 students (data 2018) and more
than 10,000 professors (more than 2,200 tenured) in its 26 campuses in Mexico and 18 offices around
the world. Besides, more than a quarter of a million students have graduated since its foundation, and
4,200 businesses have been released to the market from the incubation model program, and there are 8
accelerators in the Tecnológico de Monterrey’s Accelerator Network combined with 12 entrepreneurship and innovation parks privately owned by this university. Finally, we will draw some conclusions.
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITIES IN GLOBAL EDUCATIONAL MARKETS
According to the Webometrics data (January 2017 edition), there are 26,368 universities from all over
the world, mainly in India (4,004), USA (3,281), China (2,310), Russia (1,306), and Brazil (1,507). Although HEIs are divided traditionally between private and public, we suggest adding a new sort of HEI:
global universities. This new type of HEI is defined as being highly-reputed, have a global impact, and
being internationalized. Only the HEIs located at the top 200 in the QS (Quacquarelli Symonds) World
University ranking for 2019 or in the 2019 QS Top 50 under 50, belong to this category.
The world of higher education is drastically changing from the 1990s, and we can observe this fact,
precisely, if we compare the top 25 universities in the QS World University ranking and the first ten HEIs
ranked in the QS Top 50 under 50, both for the year 2019. Thus, while in the first ranking, 38 percent of
the top 50 universities in the world are located in the United States, in the second ranking, the thrust from
Asia (16 universities), the Europe Union (the UK excluded)(13 universities), and Oceania (9 universities)
is evident, as recently are the most dynamic regions in creating HEIs, but there is not any US university
under 50 in the Top 50, what is a sign of maturity of the US educational market, market saturation, a
sign of quality improvement occurred outside the USA, and the generally prohibitive academic fees in
the US HEIs compared to other European and Asian HEIs (Table 1).
197
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Table 1. QS world university ranking vs. QS Top 50 under 50 for 2019
QS World University
QS Top 50 under 50
Country
Number
In %
Country
Number
In %
United States
19
38
Australia
9
18
United Kingdom
8
16
Hong Kong
4
8
Australia
5
10
Malaysia
4
8
Canada
3
6
Spain
3
6
China
3
6
South Korea
3
6
Hong Kong
3
6
United Arab Emirates
3
6
Japan
2
4
Taiwan
3
6
South Korea
2
4
Singapore
2
4
Switzerland
2
4
Finland
2
4
Singapore
2
4
France
2
4
France
1
2
Pakistan
2
4
Portugal
1
2
Kazakhstan
1
2
Argentina
1
2
Russia
1
2
Denmark
1
2
Sweden
1
2
Netherlands
1
2
Belgium
1
2
Japan
1
2
Italy
1
2
Brunei
1
2
Qatar
1
2
United Kingdom
1
2
Israel
1
2
Source: QS World University Ranking and QS Top 50 under 50
A drastic process of educational change is currently happening in the UK, where is expected that
Brexit will weaken the UK university system, especially if a hard Brexit is chosen, because of migration
(of students and staff). These profound consequences can be softening if the UK opts for the soft Brexit,
that is, by implementing the European Economic Area option (Panzaru, 2017), but this possibility is quite
challenging to achieve. In fact, Brexit is a colossal disaster for UK universities, due to the expected lower
volume of funds received for R&D and innovation from the European Union (EU), the elimination of
European mobility programs for students and professors within the EU, the relocation of highly-reputed
academic journals to other countries (mainly to Germany, Singapore, and India), and the existence of
an outflow of professors and researchers (primarily from other EU countries) to the continent, as well
as to a lesser mobility of professors within HEIs in the UK. Today in the UK, 37.6 percent of students
198
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
of Business & Administrative studies are non-UK, followed by 32.5 percent in Engineering & Technology, and 26.4 percent in Law (Horvath, & Courtois, 2018), and almost all these students will choose an
EU-member when electing their student mobility.
A significant negative impact will be suffered in R&D after Brexit, as the UK has traditionally obtained over 15 percent of FP7 awards and 20 percent of the European Research Council (ERC) awards
from the EU budget. As Mayhew (2017) tacitly affirms,
Overall the country has received more funds from EU research budgets than its contribution to the
overall EU budget might warrant. It is estimated that UK universities get between 2.5 and 3 percent of
their total annual income from EU research and development funding, accounting for about 16 percent
of their research income. (p. S158)
Coming back to the USA, as seen in Table 2, HEIs located in the USA, UK, and Australia have more
than 60 percent of the Top 50 World Universities according to the QS World University Ranking, and
this percentage is only reduced by 4 percent between 2004 (68%) and 2019 (64%). This fact shows strong
stability in the number of HEIs belonging to a specific nation.
All top 50 HEIs listed in the ranking are global universities defined by the existence of substantial
and extensive collaborative networks between complementary partners, secure national and international
professors’ mobility, the attraction of public and private research funds, and fluid relations with industries
and governments. All these facts incentive the preparation of courses, seminars, conferences, congresses,
and research projects to reduce the poverty gap, and especially in emerging countries.
Table 2. QS world university ranking: Comparative 2004–2019
2004
2009
Country
2014
Country
2019
Country
Country
USA
20
USA
18
USA
18
USA
19
UK
8
UK
8
UK
8
UK
8
Australia
6
Australia
6
Australia
5
Australia
5
Canada
3
Canada
3
Canada
3
Canada
3
Japan
2
Japan
3
Hong Kong
3
China
3
Singapore
2
Hong Kong
3
Switzerland
2
Hong Kong
3
Switzerland
2
Switzerland
2
Singapore
2
Japan
2
France
2
France
2
Japan
2
South Korea
2
Hong Kong
2
Singapore
1
France
2
Switzerland
2
Germany
1
Holland
1
South Korea
1
Singapore
2
India
1
South Korea
1
Denmark
1
France
1
China
1
China
1
China
1
Ireland
1
Germany
1
Netherlands
1
Legend: USA (United States of America), UK (United Kingdom)
Source: universityrankings.ch
199
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
The arrival of the Internet has meant a radical change for the HEI thanks to the implementation of a
rapid digitalization process. Many universities no longer compete in local environments, but globally,
where the exchange of foreign students, in many cases, is increasing and is an essential income for universities. Without this mobility, many universities could not be able to survive over time, which would
even suppose the disappearance of HEIs in these regions.
Educational quality supports avoiding this problem. A close supervision process must be carried
out, not only by the institutional control exerted by the state but also by private HEIs of international
prestige. Examples of this type of authority made by educational agencies that complements the mandatory public inspections exercised by the State, are the highly prestigious Triple Crown accreditation,
formed by AACSB (The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, USA), AMBA (The
Association of MBAs, United Kingdom), and EQUIS (EFMD Quality Improvement System, European
Union). While AACSB is mainly focused on HEI, EQUIS directs to business schools and AMBA roots
in the portfolio of MBA programs. Of the 13,670 schools offering business degree programs worldwide
(The Economist, 2011), only 90 grant the Triple Crown accreditation as of August 2018, which just
represents 0.66 percent only of the HEIs offering postgraduate programs in the world, and the Mexican
EGADE Business School-Tecnologico de Monterrey is one of them.
Educational quality impacts positively on reputation. The Internet has magnified the impact exerted by
HEIs’ reputation (good or bad) in the world. Fame is distributed almost real-time on the web, especially
if it goes viral and the institution is well-known worldwide. As a result, HEIs must take special care of
their reputation if they wish to remain and grow in a highly-competitive educational market, where social
networks focused on education and research (Academia, Google Scholar, Research Gate, and LinkedIn),
complemented with popular and widely used social networks (Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, Instagram,
WhatsApp, QQ (only China), WeChat, QZone, Tumblr, Google+, Baidu Tieba, Skype, Viber (only China),
Line, Snapchat, VKontakte (only Russia), Pinterest, Telegram, Reddit, Taringa, Foursquare, Renren (only
China), Tagged, Badoo, and MySpace, to name just a few) have a fundamental role to play (Table 3).
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ICTS
ICTs give more significant exposure to vocational and workforce skills for users, especially professors
and students. These skills are mainly strengthening when the class is transformed into a digital classroom
where students interact digitally, and contents are complemented externally with the use of ICTs. As a
result, the amount of information increases, and the quality of education tends to improve.
As a result, the main advantages of using ICTs by students and professors in the HEIs are (a) lessons
are transformed into digitalized, flexible, and highly dynamic sessions defined by the use of interactive
maps, external interaction, and videoconferences; (b) students have an endless amount of information
to be more ‘on duty’ to motivate them for preparing homework and exams; (c) the possibility of remote
team teaching that shares resources and enriches the expertise, knowledge, and advice born from the
professor-student interaction; (d) teaching has a lasting impact on students; (e) more natural planning
and preparation of updated lessons; (f) enhancement of professional image projected to colleagues; (g)
students increase their teamwork, skills, motivation, confidence, comprehension, and enthusiasm for
learning; and (h) encouragement of self-responsibility and active learning anytime and anywhere.
200
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Table 3. Top 15 social networking sites in the world (in a million users)
Network site
Monthly users
Network site
Monthly users
Facebook
2230
Ask.fm
160
Youtube
1900
Tumblr
115
Instagram
1000
Flickr
112
Qzone
563
Google+
111
Weibo
376
LinkedIn
106
Twitter
336
VK
97
Reddit
330
Odnoklassniki
71
Pinterest
200
Meetup
35.3
Source: https://www.dreamgrow.com (Updated: August 2, 2018)
Despite these advantages, the three main disadvantages are (a) the high dependency on technology
diminishes students’ capacities on mental abilities connected to mathematical content that need memory;
(b) Isolation in extreme cases, defined by experiencing social anxieties when they come to face to face
interactions, but are perfectly fine socializing online; and (c) the risk of cyberbullying. The importance
of ICTs on education oblige HEIs to be specially inserted in the process of constant digitalization with
the use of the latest technologies if they wish to survive in a global educational environment.
In the next section, we will analyze how digital marketing can contribute to HEIs success in their
recruitment process, regardless of the public or private ownership of the university, and how digital
marketing based on ZMOT, FMOT, and SMOT can benefit the organization.
DIGITAL MARKETING IN HEIS
Reputation can be enhanced with the use of digital marketing. In this sense, the implementation of policies based on digital marketing is becoming more critical, not only because of its lower relative costs
compared to traditional advertising. HEIs carrying out the best digital marketing policies rank at top
positions on the web, which give them more significant advantages in attracting students to grow HEIs
in a healthy and sustainable way.
The democratization of the Internet has developed the decisions linked to ZMOT, FMOT and SMOTrelated election processes (Figure 1). Although these terms are mainly applied to digital marketing, they
can also relate to other areas of knowledge, including decisions related to education. Decisions in the
choice of educational centers determine the future of a person, as well as influence, in some cases in a
significant way, on their professional and personal future.
Education determines to a large extent the level of economic, social and cultural development of
a country. In this respect, Namugenyi, Nimmagadda, and Mani (2019) show there is a powerful positive connection between female education and socioeconomic development. When learning is focused
on business creation, entrepreneurship education has been considered one of the main instruments to
increase the entrepreneurial intentions of both potential and nascent entrepreneurs to create start-ups
(Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard, & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011). And when a large number of start-ups are being
generated, it affects economic wealth positively.
201
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
According to Koellinger, Minniti, and Schade (2013), the lower rate of female business ownership is
primarily due to women’s lower propensity to start businesses resulted from risk aversion (Fossen, 2012).
As they are less confident in their entrepreneurial skills, women tend to have different social networks,
but as they have not followed training programs to improve their managerial skills (Kodama & Odaki,
2011), women have a higher fear of failure than men. In fact, the female entrepreneurial intention is
limited by barrier perceptions (Shinnar, Giacomin, & Janssen, 2012).
Despite this fact, women have been increasingly integrated into the HEIs, what has benefited their
societies, independently of their size, history or traditions. As a result, in many developed countries, a new
concept of entrepreneurial HEI has emerged with the aim to promote the transfer of academic knowledge
and new discoveries derived from research with the final scope of fostering economic development.
To this respect, Dalmarco, Hulsink, and Blois (2018) affirm there are three main waves that have
ended creating entrepreneurial universities. The first wave happened at pioneering and highly-reputed
universities in the United States in the mid-1980s, most of them belonging to the Top 10 in the QS World
Ranking Universities. These HEIs are defined by establishing a technology transfer policy towards firms
and research centers to set up university-industry partnerships rooted in clusters and startups. The second
wave occurred ending the 1990s in Western European’s old and traditional universities, while the third
wave is recently composed of increasingly transformed HEIs located in emerging countries, mainly in
Asia and Latin America.
The rapid transformation of these HEIs located in emerging countries has been made possible due
to the burst and the democratization of the Internet. Humanity is living in the era of communications
defined in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Table 4) demarcated by the Industry 4.0, and determined
by the 6 D’s (digitized, deceptive growth, disruptive, dematerialized, demonetized, and democratized)
(Saito, 2016), where the planet has become a global village (McLuhan, 1989). In fact, and digitally working in global HEIs, many professors and researchers work simultaneously in several countries thanks
to the Internet, the knowledge of foreign languages, and the possibility of carrying out a fast, efficient,
and high-quality displacement capacity. This fact is especially visible in the European Union, and in the
US to a lesser extent.
As one of the consequences of this fourth Industrial Revolution is that both students and professors
apply ZMOT as their first step prior to taking a decision. Applied to education, the ZMOT refers to
the Internet-related moment in the buying or choice process when the individual researches, using the
web, a product or service prior to purchase it or to be enrolled. No financial transaction is made at this
moment. Later, when purchases or elects a product or service (e.g., to enroll in a University or College),
the potential student is converted into an enrolled student (FMOT). Finally, the third moment of truth appears when students have practiced (student experience) and are more advanced in their studies (SMOT).
Table 4. Industrial revolution in history
Revolution
Year
Characteristics
First
1784
Steam, water, mechanical production equipment
Second
1870
Division of labor, electricity, mass production
Third
1969
The computer, electronics, and the Internet
Fourth
2015
The barriers between man and machine dissolve
Source: Adapted from Saito (2016)
202
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
It is critical to be aware that SMOT can attract more and more students grounding their decisions on
word-of-mouth communication. In fact, this word-of-mouth determines “buzz marketing” in organizations that can be strengthened by applying social media marketing techniques, being SMO (Social Media
Optimization) and CCW2 (Content Creation Web 2.0) the most widely used.
ZMOT diverges from FMOT because the ZMOT process is preliminary to a purchase action, whereby
the FMOT begins with the intention to act (purchase or choose) and ends with that action. In fully digital
channels where information, purchase/payment, and fulfillment are made in the single digital system,
the two MOTs will genuinely merge.
Especially for digital users (mainly millennials or Y-Gen, and centennials or Z-Gen), HEI’s reputation is increasingly becoming more critical, as the ZMOT is the most used place to focus marketing
efforts for all products. As the ZMOT core, prospective students research nearly everything online, and
if they find that an HEI has a poor review, they tend to reject it immediately. Granted, they navigate the
discussions to determine their authenticity, and only when they pass the test, these prospective students
will be enrolled, either physically or online. As a result, for most digitally native brands the pop-up or
retail showroom is essential to help HEIs to increase their number of students enrolled.
As a result, and given “glocalization,” the ZMOT is more critical than the FMOT because the relationship is built with the product and service offered by the HEI, which leads to decision making with any
product. This is the stage where you can find out the quality and reputation of an HEI, especially if it is
brand new. So, basically, the ZMOT can be used on any product and service offered in the market with
the use of the Internet. In fact, the FMOT is still essential when choosing an HEI, but only if prospective
students have a direct source of information emerged, for example, from alumni, direct observation, or
relationship with professors and/or personnel working in the organization.
Although the FMOT is still relevant in the XXI century, it just no longer has the same impact. As a
result, the ZMOT has a larger window now, because millennials and centennials are using the Internet
intensively to discover HEIs online, and to read alumni’s commentaries on the organization after having
completed their studies (SMOT). Only when students are stimulated with high-quality web pages defined
by their content, the SMOT tends to be getting merged with the ZMOT, as students’ decision-making
using online sources is digitalized almost entirely.
Figure 1. The student decision journey
Source: own elaboration
203
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Both ZMOT and FMOT happen almost instantaneously nowadays with the use of smartphones and
computers. HEIs must realize that the ZMOT is the most effective tool they have for understanding what
students (enrolled and prospective) search for before choosing their studies. Combining the ZMOT and
the FMOT is especially crucial for private HEIs, as students from public institutions first consider the
cost of the university when selecting a career, followed by deciding on the desired program. In fact,
University students from low-income families often end up in cheaper public universities, especially in
the EU where undergraduate public education is almost free.
After the advent of the Internet, digital users started analyzing the products’ features, advantages, and
benefits much better than earlier, so the ZMOT window is getting larger compared to the FMOT and the
SMOT, but it works not with all the products and services offered in the market. Despite this fact, the
ZMOT is absorbing the FMOT, but not completely, as it depends on the consumer’s age, as non-digital
matured consumers still tend to be choosing HEIs by using traditional FMOT, especially when money
is a financial constraint.
Today, the FMOT is hardly separated from the ZMOT, as students are gathering information about a
University, they can proceed with their purchase, or not. Within this new era of increasingly achieving
better connectivity, prospective students can review the information found online on their mobile devices
and proceed with their election.
It is essential to affirm that, as HEIs are mainly looking for student experiences, the SMOT is becoming stronger to be converted into a new FMOT, mostly when students’ expectations are very high. As a
result, the ZMOT and the SMOT are converging increasingly. As a result, they are becoming more and
more indistinguishable, as the combination of online product and service research that students (and
shoppers) carry out on the Internet is replacing the brick and mortar physical visit to HEIs. Despite this
behavior in the making decisions process, in practice, many students use both strategies simultaneously
to combine ZMOT in an online space and the FMOT through a physical channel. Consequently, the
ZMOT is nothing but a pseudo FMOT stage where customers have started utilizing digital exposure to
make much-informed choices.
Universities can boost the ZMOT if they keep their web pages updated and attractive. In fact, web
pages are the main point of attraction of future students who, a clear majority are digital natives, which
is a real challenge for universities that must be continuously adapt their knowledge and digital customs to
transmit knowledge effectively to the new generations with the help of technological tools. In fact, good
web usability can be achieved when HEIs dispose of a friendly user interface for navigation usability
and functionality, while images and videos are used to support content. Also, proper web usability by
prospective students will help to attract them to enroll in the HEI. We will see this fact in the next section.
STUDENTS ATTRACTION AND REASONS FOR CHOOSING AN HEI
Every academic year, The National Research Center for College and University Admissions (NRCCUA) analyze the reasons why new college students (more than 100,000 each year in average, only in
the US) choose their HEIs. According to this Center, the central seven reasons are (1) affordability; (2)
disposal of the desired program to study; (3) reputation and academic quality; (4) job opportunities upon
graduation; (5) good quality-price relationship; (6) social pressure, and (7) proximity to home. These
reasons of choice are very similar to results obtained by Troisi et al. (2018), as these authors affirm that
the primary variable capable of influencing the selection of the university is training offer, followed
204
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
by a physical structure, work opportunities, prestige, affordability, communication, organization, and
environmental sustainability.
Contrary to the EU, where undergraduate education is primarily covered almost free by the state,
and private HEIs must reduce their prices as much as possible if they do not want to lose students, in
the Americas the achievement of a reasonable price-quality relationship is crucial for HEIs, as tuition
fees are generally higher compared to other regions of the world. As a result, digital marketing has
increasing importance in a real-time intercommunicated society, and where the possibilities of choice
for students increase.
Given the high levels of specialization existing in the market, having an attractive and updated training
offer is a crucial factor in determining enrollment by prospective students. However, excessive specialization entails, on many occasions, the use of more significant economic and human resources and efforts
to find new students and to build up loyalty to those already enrolled. Because of this situation, HEIs
must be conscious of choosing carefully in what area of knowledge they want to specialize with the final
scope of making their best in their fields and, consequently, to acquire a sustainable academic reputation.
Despite this risk, one of the significant advantages of focusing on strengthening a selected group of
areas of knowledge is that its growing reputation positively affects the entire organization, which creates
stability throughout the system. HEIs must assure academic integrity and the best price-quality relationship, so digital-based course materials are increasingly used in universities (Moro, 2018), independently
of their nature (private, public, or global). Elements complemented, in some cases, with blended learning
(or b-learning), and with the lively participation of professionals actively working in the business. At
this respect, in a study related to graduate management information systems (MIS) education, Thouin,
Hefley, and Ragunathan (2018) indicate that students prefer a program with an even mix of business and
technical coursework taught by full-time faculty featuring frequent guest lectures by industry professionals. In fact, this collaboration between professors and the industry is a tendency to be followed for
the future, if HEIs want to offer a better quality-price relationship for their students.
On the other hand, Ma and Wen (2018) reveal in a recent study that the international students’ personal traits and cross-cultural environment interact with their psychological mechanisms to produce and
influence their learning experiences. This fact is especially important in universities and research centers
defined by having many foreign professors, researchers, and students. The exchange of vital experiences
of students, professors and researchers belonging to different cultural environments enrich the students’
experiences at HEIs and open new perspectives of academic development to all those involved. As a
result, the learning process improves, and new capacities are developed in teachers and researchers to
transmit them to their students.
The result of this process is the improvement of educational quality. In this respect, Carlson, Lavery,
and Hughes (2018) indicate that “the achievement of open enrollment participants gradually declines
in the years leading up to their transfer. After open enrolling, students whose participation is permanent
exhibit small achievement gains, but those who re-enroll in their district of residence exhibit further small
declines. On average, those who use open enrollment as a long-term education option tend to enroll in
districts that are more advantaged on traditional measures of educational quality than their district of
residence” (p. 1089).
Student attraction that can be accelerated when digital marketing and reputation is combined with
Gravity Models. Although they are widely applied to study retail location, Gravity Models can be used
to analyze students’ attraction to a certain HEI. In this regard, Anderson, Volker, and Phillips (2010) affirm that “the most common and widely used Gravity Models include Reilly’s Law of Retail Gravitation,
205
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Converse’s revision and Breaking-Point Model, Huff’s Model of Trade Area Attraction, and Christaller’s
Central Place Theory” (p. 2). According to Converse (1949), an applied to the attraction of prospective
students; the ability to appeal them between two cities is in inverse proportion to the distance between
the cities, and in direct proportion to the square root of their populations. By applying the most popular
Converse’s breaking points, we can study the process of choosing students when they must choose between campuses separated from each other endowed with the same studies.
According to INEGI (2018), the total population in Mexico (Dec 2017) amounts to 129,163,276, and
total population between 17 years old (beginning of the High School) and 29 years old sums 28,164,222
as shown in Table 5.
This last number is equivalent to 21.8 percent of the total population. We use this percentage to
estimate the potential young people in the states shown in Table 6.
Finally, the distances (T) in kilometers between both campuses and their neighboring states are
shown in Table 7.
To apply the breaking point formula derived by Converse [1], we use the data shown for the young
population only, as shown in Table 6, columns 3 and 6.
Table 5. Young population in Mexico (December 2017)
Range
Population
In %
Male
Female
Male
Female
15-19 years
5,967,114
5,777,843
4.62
4.47
20-24 years
5,809,912
5,666,198
4.50
4.39
25-29 years
5,478,421
5,337,213
4.24
4.13
Total
17,255,447
16,781,254
13.36
12.99
Source: INEGI (2018)
Table 6. Population in the neighboring states to Guadalajara and Mexico City campuses (December 2017)
Population
City
Population
Total
Young
(17-29 y.o.)
City
Aguascalientes
1,316,032
286,895
Colima
715,095
155,891
Total
Young
(17-29 y.o.)
Morelos
1,912,211
416,862
Nayarit
1,188,671
259,130
Guanajuato
5,864,777
1,278,521
Queretaro
2,043,851
445,559
Jalisco
7,880,539
1,717,957
San Luis Potosi
2,723,772
593,782
Mexico City & Mexico
State
25,210,748
5,495,943
Zacatecas
1,581,575
344,783
TOTAL
50,437,271
10,995,323
Legend: y.o. (Years old). Source: INEGI (2018)
206
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Table 7. Distances (in kilometers) from Tecnológico de Monterrey’s Campuses of Guadalajara and
Mexico City, to the capitals of their neighboring states
Capital
Campuses
Guadalajara
Mexico City
Aguascalientes
221.4
266.6
Colima
195.7
679.2
Guadalajara
---
550.2
Guanajuato
292.4
461.9
Mexico City
550.2
---
Morelia
288.5
579.0
Santiago de Querétaro
363.6
552.3
San Luis Potosí
336.6
335.6
Tepic
208.6
688.9
Zacatecas
342.2
149.4
Source: Adapted from INEGI (2018) and Google Maps
Figure 2. Multiple choosing areas in the Guadalajara-Mexico City axis
Source: Population data for 2015. INEGI and Google Maps being P1 (Guadalajara), P2 (Mexico City and State of Mexico),
P3 (Colima), P4 (Tepic), P5 (Zacatecas), P6 (San Luis Potosí), P7 (Aguascalientes), P8 (Guanajuato), P9 (Queretaro), and
P10 (Morelia)
207
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Dba =
Dab
(1)
P
1+ a
Pb
As a result, the corresponding breaking points for Campus Guadalajara (P1 in Figure 2) and Campus
Mexico (P2 in Figure 2) are as follows,
Guadalajara (point 1, j = 1)
D21 =
D41 =
D61 =
D81 =
D101 =
D12
P1
1+
P2
D14
P1
1+
P4
D16
P1
1+
P6
D18
P1
1+
P8
D110
P1
1+
P10
=
=
=
=
550.2
1, 717, 957
1+
5, 495, 943
208.6
1, 717, 957
1+
259, 130
336.6
1, 717, 957
1+
593, 782
292.4
1, 717, 957
1+
1, 278, 521
=
288.5
1, 717, 957
1+
416, 862
= 475.8 kms D31 =
= 48.3 kms D51 =
208
P1
1+
P5
= 174.9 kms D91 =
being kms (kilometers)
Mexico City and Mexico State (point 2, j = 2)
P1
1+
P3
D15
= 137.6 kms D71 =
= 94.3 kms
D13
D17
P1
1+
P7
D19
P1
1+
P9
=
=
195.7
1, 717, 957
1+
155, 891
342.2
1, 717, 957
1+
344, 783
=
=
221.4
1, 717, 957
1+
286, 895
363.6
1, 717, 957
1+
445, 559
= 30.1kms
= 98 kms
= 55.4 kms
= 124.2 kms
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
D12 =
D42 =
D62 =
D82 =
D102 =
D21
P2
1+
P1
D24
P2
1+
P4
D26
P2
1+
P6
D28
P2
1+
P8
D210
P2
1+
P10
=
=
=
=
550.2
5, 495, 943
1+
1, 717, 957
208.6
5, 495, 943
1+
259, 130
336.6
5, 495, 943
1+
593, 782
292.4
5, 495, 943
1+
1, 278, 521
=
288.5
1, 717, 957
1+
416, 862
= 211.7 kms D32 =
= 59.4 kms D52 =
= 59.6 kms D72 =
D23
P2
1+
P3
D25
P2
1+
P5
D27
P2
1+
P7
= 146.7 kms D92 =
D29
P2
1+
P9
=
=
=
195.7
5, 495, 943
1+
155, 891
342.2
5, 495, 943
1+
344, 783
221.4
5, 495, 943
1+
286, 895
=
= 36.5 kms
= 16.7 kms
= 25.2 kms
363.6
5, 495, 943
1+
445, 559
= 77.1kms
= 76.3 kms
being kms (kilometers)
The corresponding distance matrix for both Campuses is shown in Table 8.
Finally, by combining Tables 7 and 8, we calculate the Potential for Student Attraction (PSA) as
PSA =
Dba
Tba
×100
(2)
Applying [2] for data shown in Tables 7 and 8, the PSA (in %) is indicated for both campuses in Table 9.
As expected, the PSA of the Guadalajara Campus is higher compared to Mexico City in the cities
located closest to Guadalajara (Aguascalientes, Colima, Guanajuato, Morelia, Santiago de Querétaro,
and Tepic) which shows that distance is a crucial factor for choosing an HEI. However, also students
from San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas prefer Guadalajara than Mexico City, although the latter is closer
to their place of residence. Among other factors, the reasons for this potential behavior are grounded in
non-educational issues, such as
209
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Table 8. Distance matrix
Guadalajara Campus
Mexico City Campus
Aguascalientes
55.4
25.2
Colima
30.1
36.5
Guadalajara
-
211.7
Guanajuato
174.9
146.7
Mexico City
475.8
-
Morelia
94.3
76.3
Queretaro
124.2
77.1
San Luis Potosi
137.6
59.6
Tepic
48.3
59.4
Zacatecas
98.0
16.7
Source: own calculations
Table 9. Potential for student attraction (in %)
Capital
Campuses
Guadalajara
Mexico City
Aguascalientes
25
9
Colima
15
5
Guadalajara
---
38
Guanajuato
60
32
Mexico City
86
---
Morelia
33
13
Santiago de Querétaro
34
14
San Luis Potosí
41
18
Tepic
23
9
Zacatecas
29
11
Source: Own calculations
1.
2.
3.
210
The existence of greater delinquency rates in Mexico City compared to Guadalajara. According
to the Mexican Peace Index for 2018, elaborated by the Institute of Economics & Peace, Jalisco
ranks #15 while Mexico City ranks #20.
Compared to Guadalajara, earthquakes in Mexico City are more frequent, highlighting the tremor
that occurred on September 19, 1985 (Richter Scale: 8.1) causing more than 10,000 dead, 50,000
injured, 770 buildings collapsed, and a national GDP loss of 2.1 percent (Meza, 2015).
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the maximum acceptable air pollution is 10
for each PM2.5, which refers to particulate matter concentrations above the air quality guidelines
of 2.5 micrograms per square meter. In this respect, Guadalajara, with 19 micrograms per square
meter, and Mexico City, with 22 micrograms per square meter, almost double the maximum acceptable air pollution (SDP Noticias, 2018).
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
4.
With a congestion level of 66 percent, a morning peak of 96 percent, and an evening peak of 101
percent, Mexico City has the highest congestion index worldwide, according to the TomTom
Traffic Index for 2018. This daily congestion results in an extra travel time of 59 minutes per day
equivalent to 227 hours per year.
Given these deficiencies, it would be very positive for Mexico in general, and the city of Mexico in
particular, to solve these socioeconomic problems, and especially crime and insecurity, to increase the
quality of life of its population. Notably, the improvement of security levels is a fundamental factor to
increase the number of foreign students studying in Mexico.
CONCLUSION
Given the current process of university internationalization, global HEIs in worldwide educational markets
are more successful and recognized in the planet than non-internationalized HEIs. The combination of
knowledge of foreign languages and digital tools have enlarged the scope set by HEIs and have contributed to attracting international and national talents. HEIs should be conscious that they are responsible
for the future of the new generations, partly at least, so they should use the necessary pedagogical tools
to transmit knowledge effectively. Therefore, it is essential to achieve continuous collaboration between
the private sector and the public sector to maximize the common good and, consequently, to increase
the standard of living of a society, avoiding social discrimination.
Digital tools used by millennials or Y-Gen and centennials or Z-Gen are changing HEIs’ strategic
policies focused on student recruitment. As a result, it is essential for universities and research centers
to be communicated with the world through updated, efficient, and easy to use web pages and, as far as
possible, to be interactive with Internet users. In fact, the web page is the letter of presentation of an organization, in such a way that it must be conceived and updated with the most modern, fast, comfortable,
and efficient web design programs. In fact, when a university or research center website is obsolete or
unattractive, it expels out visitors, since nearly all students are now digital natives. Students who, when
using technology, tend to be at the forefront.
The digitization of resources increases efficiency, improves student attraction, accelerates the processes of information search, and optimizes productivity. Therefore, most digitized universities are the
most efficient.
As digital marketing techniques, all ZMOT, FMOT, and SMOT are linked mutually in HEIs. In fact,
the ZMOT determines the initial interest (or even choose) of prospective students where web information
is crucial to attracting them. In this phase, inspiring marketing is vital where emotional-based messages
incite future students to decide on an HEI firmly. The decision process that continues with the use of
social media engagement where students are chiefly guided by commentaries appeared in the web and
ends when students enrolled in a certain HEI. As a result, the FMOT is achieved.
Nevertheless, the implementation of an efficient SMOT-based organizational policy is what differentiates global universities. The SMOT is defined by the experiences lived after graduation, with the
formation of alumni associations, and the creation of an extensive network of professional contacts to
favor HEIs’ stakeholders, especially alumni.
211
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
REFERENCES
Aichner, T. (2012). The Zero Moment of Truth in Mass Customization. International Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management, 3(4), 173–178.
Aliu, J., & Aigbavboa, C. (2019). Upscaling construction education: The role of construction site experiential learning. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 785, 472–479. doi:10.1007/978-3319-93882-0_45
Anderson, S. J., Volker, J. X., & Phillips, M. D. (2010). Converse’s Breaking-Point Model Revised.
Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 3, 1–10.
Bisquerra, R. (2005). La educación emocional en la formación del profesorado. Revista Interuniversitaria
de Formación del Profesorado, 54, 95–114.
Bucich, M., & MacCann, C. (2019). Emotional Intelligence and Day-To-Day Emotion Regulation
Processes: Examining Motives for Social Sharing. Personality and Individual Differences, 137, 22–26.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.08.002
Carlson, D., Lavery, L., & Hughes, T. (2018). Should I Stay or Should I Go? Open Enrollment Decisions
and Student Achievement Trajectories. Social Science Quarterly, 99(3), 1089–1104. doi:10.1111squ.12478
Cejudo, J., & López-Delgado, M. L. (2017). Importancia de la inteligencia emocional en la práctica
docente: Un estudio con maestros. Psicología Educativa, 23(1), 29–36. doi:10.1016/j.pse.2016.11.001
Dalmarco, G., Hulsink, W., & Blois, G. V. (2018). Creating entrepreneurial universities in an emerging economy: Evidence from Brazil. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 135, 99–111.
doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2018.04.015
Fossen, F. M. (2012). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Choice and Risk Aversion-A Decomposition based on a Microeconometric Model. Applied Economics, 44(14), 1795–1812. doi:10.1080/0003
6846.2011.554377
Guijosa, C. (2018). Qué motiva a los estudiantes a elegir su universidad? Observatorio ITESM. Tecnológico de Monterrey.
Horvath, A., & Courtois, A. (2018). United Kingdom: The Impact of Brexit on UK Higher Education
and Collaboration with Europe. In A. Courtois (Ed.), Higher Education and Brexit: Current European
Perspectives (pp. 159–184). London, UK: Centre for Global Higher Education.
Institute of Economics & Peace. (2018). Índice de Paz México 2018. Ciudad de México.
Kodama, N., & Odaki, K. (2011). Gender difference in the probability of success in starting business
turns negligible when controlling for the managerial experience. Applied Economics Letters, 18(13),
1237–1241. doi:10.1080/13504851.2010.532097
Koellinger, P., Minniti, M., & Schade, C. (2013). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Propensity.
Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 213–234. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00689.x
212
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial
Intention Levels: A Role for Education. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal,
7(2), 195–218. doi:10.100711365-010-0154-z
Ma, J., & Wen, Q. (2018). Understanding international students’ in-class learning experiences in Chinese
higher education institutions. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(6), 1186–1200. doi:10.1
080/07294360.2018.1477740
Mayhew, K. (2017). UK Higher Education and Brexit. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 33(S1),
S155–S161. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx012
McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The Global Village. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Meza, N. (2015). 18 de septiembre). Los ocho sismos más catastróficos en la historia de México. Forbes, 8.
Moro, J. (2018). The Emergence of Digital Course Materials in Higher Education and Their Effectiveness
in Teaching and Engaging Students. Publishing Research Quarterly, 34(3), 417–429. doi:10.100712109018-9594-z
Namugenyi, C., Nimmagadda, S. L., & Mani, N. (2019). On a smart digital gender ecosystem for
managing the socio-economic development in the African contexts, Smart Innovation. Systems and
Technologies, 97, 139–149.
SDP Noticias. (2018, May 2). Mueren por contaminación 25 mil personas al año en México: OMS.
SDPnoticias. Retrieved from www.sdpnoticias.com
Orellana. V., Guzmán, C., Bellei, C., Gareca, B. y Torres, F. (2017). Elección de carrera y universidad
en Chile: sentido y utilidad de la acreditación. Santiago de Chile: Comisión Nacional de Acreditación.
Panzaru, E. (2017). Academic Leave? The Impact of Brexit on British Higher Education. Policy Briefs
Series, 3. Bucharest, Romania: European Institute of Romania.
Popescu, F., & Helsen, E. (2019). Comprehensive internationalization at HAN University of applied
sciences. Curriculum, co-curriculum, and learning outcomes. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 783, 36–45. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94709-9_4
Popescu, F., & Warmenhoven, R. (2009). Use of technology and virtual communication via global virtual teams at Arnhem business school. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 783, 239–248.
doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94709-9_24
Saito, W. H. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution. Rewriting the Rules of Business, Leadership, and
Sovereignty. In OECD NAEC (New Approaches of Economic Challenges) Seminar. Paris, France: OECD.
Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial Perceptions and Intentions: The Role
of Gender and Culture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 465–493. doi:10.1111/j.15406520.2012.00509.x
The Economist. (2011, October 15). Trouble in the middle. Author.
Thouin, M. F., Hefley, W. E., & Raghunathan, S. (2018). Student Attitudes toward Information Systems
Graduate Program Design and Delivery. Journal of Information Systems Education, 29(1), 25–36.
213
Prospective Students’ ZMOT in ICT-Based International Universities
Troisi, O., Grimaldi, M., Loia, F., & Maione, G. (2018). Big data and sentiment analysis to highlight
decision behaviors: A case study for student population. Behaviour & Information Technology, 37(1011), 1111–1128. doi:10.1080/0144929X.2018.1502355
Wolny, J., & Charoensuksai, N. (2014). Mapping customer journeys in multichannel decision-making,
Journal of Direct. Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 15(4), 317–326. doi:10.1057/dddmp.2014.24
Wong, C.-S., Wong, P.-M., & Peng, K. Z. (2010). Effect of Middle-level Leader and Teacher Emotional
Intelligence on School Teachers’ Job Satisfaction. The Case of Hong Kong. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 38(1), 59–70. doi:10.1177/1741143209351831
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Distance Matrix: Primarily used in the Converse’s breaking-point model, this matrix represents the
breaking point of the institutional influence of a firm working in a highly competitive market.
FMOT: Acronym of first moment of truth, it consists of the purchase or election act done by consumers or students, respectively.
Global University: Type of HEIs defined by being internationally recognized, have a global impact
and being primarily internationalized with agreements with more than 50 foreign universities. Only
the HEIs located at the top 200 in the QS World University ranking for 2019 or in the 2019 QS Top 50
under 50 belong to this category.
Glocalization: Formed by two terms, globalization and local, this concept expresses the idea: think
globally, act locally.
SMOT: Acronym of second moment of truth, and applied to HEIs, this concept is being determined
primarily by the post-service experience, reputation, and alumni. When the university has a good SMOT,
future enrollment accelerates.
Triple Accreditation: Also known as the Triple Crown, it is formed by HEIs being accredited by
AACSB (The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, USA), AMBA (The Association
of MBAs, United Kingdom), and EQUIS (EFMD Quality Improvement System, European Union). Only
90 HEIs have achieved this accreditation, which represents 0.66 percent of active HEIs worldwide.
ZMOT: Acronym of the zero moment of truth is defined by the previous research made on the
internet carried out by future consumers, shoppers, and/or students to gather quality information about
the product or service that the individual wants to acquire or enjoy.
214
215
Chapter 12
Virtual Reality Applications
as an Innovative Educational
Practice in Adult Education:
A Case Study on Training
Hellenic Air Force Pilots
Ioannis Lignos
Hellenic Air Force, Greece & Hellenic Open University, Greece
Maria Pavlis Korres
Hellenic Open University, Greece & Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
ABSTRACT
Virtual reality educational applications are supporting educational systems to provide better and
more realistic training. Military training systems have incorporated such applications in their training
programs having positive results in terms of training outcomes, safety, and cost efficiency. The aim of
the chapter is to present the benefits of using virtual reality applications in connection to the modern
learning theories. More specifically, the chapter summarizes the concepts of experiential, active and
constructive learning theories conjoining them with the results of a research conducted to the Hellenic
Air Force training pilots concerning their virtual reality training via flight simulators. As derived from
the research, virtual reality educational applications are very helpful as far as it concerns acquiring
new knowledge, developing skills, with predominant flexibility in decision making and more effective
task prioritization and changing trainees’ attitudes at the level of self-confidence, understanding, and
self-reflection.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch012
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
INTRODUCTION
The technological evolution of the past decades could not leave the educational community unaffected,
let alone Adult Education. Intelligent Tutoring Systems and educational applications of Virtual Reality
(VR) have already in the past been adopted in formal, non-formal and informal education. A typical
example is military educational systems, which allow for realistic training without putting human life
at risk.. The educational outcomes of these applications appear more than promising when it comes to
gaining new knowledge, developing new skills and changing the educational attitudes of the trainees
(Mayrose, 2012; Pantelidis, 2009).
The purpose of this chapter is to provide insights of the educational potential and the characteristics
of Virtual Reality applications in Adult Education. More specifically, the survey focuses on the training
of Hellenic Air Force pilots, via Virtual Reality applications, such as Flight Simulators. Moreover, the
research investigates the trainees’ and trainers’ views on key issues of VR education as well as on the
requirements of a VR based educational environment in the context of proper function as a training tool
and difficulties that may arise.
Although fighter pilots are definitely adult learners their training through VR applications stands
closer to formal education as it is mandatory and very closely controlled. The first section of the chapter
focuses on Adult Learners’ characteristics associating them to the learning theories of experiential and
constructive learning (Rogers, 1996) and the VR educational environment. In the second section of the
chapter the results of an empirical research conducted in 2018 are presented. The research was carried
out at the 120 Air Training Wing in Kalamata, Greece, during the period between February and March
2018, investigating the educational outcomes of the training through the implementation of a Virtual
Reality application, the participants being the trainee pilots. For the collection and interpretation of the
results, the use of convergent design of mixed research methods was chosen. Quantitative and qualitative
data were collected at the same time from two different research tools: a quantitative data questionnaire
and face-to-face interviews.
The results of the research reveal that training through Virtual Reality offers the trainees the advantage to gain new knowledge, to develop new skills, with predominant flexibility in decision-making and
more effective task prioritization and, finally, to change their attitude at the level of self-confidence,
understanding and self-reflection. According to the participants’ views, the benefits of using Virtual
Reality as an educational tool in the field of Adult Education are important and have, mostly, to do with
decoding some obscure concepts of theory, making education more attractive and improving understanding of inaccessible or tricky mechanical systems. The ability to practice in environments or situations
that are difficult or dangerous to deal with in real conditions and the serious cost reduction have been
also highly appreciated.
Furthermore, this chapter points out the limitations that may arise and the prerequisites that should
be established, so that VR applications could be developed and implemented according to the specific
needs of each educational domain, being military training or university education.
216
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
BACKGROUND
Adult Learners’ Characteristics
In order to better understand the qualitative characteristics of Adult Learners, someone should bear in
mind that they are in a stage of their lives where they change roles at social, professional and personal
level, while physical and mental changes may also take place in their body or mind. Additionally, Adult
Learners are going through various crisis periods, easy or difficult to overcome, according to each individual’s personality (Rogers,1996).
Kokkos, (2005) and Pavlis Korres and Leftheriοtou, (2017) classify the special characteristics of
Adults Learners into five categories, which are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Adult Learners Start the Educational Process Having Predetermined Goals: Usually, when
adult learners decide to participate in an educational program, they do so due to certain circumstances or needs according to the phase of their life. Thus, they attend an educational program
having specific goals which could be professional, social, or personal development.
Adult Learners Carry a Wide Range of Experiences: Adults carry a wide range of experiences
stemming from adult life situations such as family affairs and obligations, social responsibilities
and professional activities.
Adult Learners Originally Know Their Preferred Ways of Learning: Each individual prefers
to learn in a way that reflects their personality, capabilities and experiences. This is something that
should be taken under consideration during the educational process at the Adult Education field.
Adult Learners Tend to Actively Participate During the Educational Process: Due to their need
for self-determination, emancipation, active participation, adults prefer to express their opinion
when it comes to curriculum, the content of a program, and how they work with the trainer.
Adult Learners Face Educational Barriers: Adult learners face barriers during the process, which
have to be effectively surpassed both by themselves and their trainers so that the effectiveness of
the educational process remains strong.
Experiential-Active-Constructive Learning
Learning can be defined as the process of continuous experiences processing, resulting in the transformation of these experiences into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and feelings (Jarvis, 2004).
It can also be defined as an educational process where the learner acquires experiences that he or she
is reflecting on, which results in redefining or developing new attitudes, thoughts and abilities (Lewis &
Williams, as cited in Kokkos 2005). Dewey (2007) identifies experiential learning as the process, that
has as its main element the reflection on the experience and learning from it.
Kolb (1984), leaning on Dewey’s, Lewin’s, Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories formulated his own
theory of learning through experience. This theory has four stages as shown in Figure 1, below:
217
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Figure 1. Kolb’s learning cycle
Stage 1: the individual prepares to make decisions, desires to act
Stage 2: the individual acts, faces real situations, acquires new experiences
Stage 3: the individual examines and processes the new experiences, understands their meaning
Stage 4: the individual classifies the new experiences and connects them with the preexisting knowledge
(Nikolopoulou, Leftheriotou, Pavlis Korres, Papadantonakis, & Pavlakis, 2013).
Kolb’s learning cycle may begin at any stage and should be repeated continuously so that the outcomes
of each stage feed the next and so forth (Kokkos, 2005).
Silberman (2007), in conjunction with the above, identifies experiential learning as the process that
engages trainees with activities that help them experience what they are learning, whilst afterwards they
reflect on them. These activities can be based on experiences in the real work / social environment as
well as on experiences that simulate the real work / social environment. It distinguishes some experiential learning methods such as creative play, role play, experience rewriting and simulation (e.g. flight
simulators).
Researchers such as Beard and Wilson (2013) are assisting in the above, expressing the view that
learning through experience is a basic and one of the most normal learning processes whether we refer
to collective or individual learning. What is particularly important is that the concept of experience is
composed of two complementary concepts, those of theory and practice. According to researchers such
as Dewy (1980), Beard and Wilson (2013) and Cuffaro (1995), theory and practice are two concepts that
218
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
one feedbacks the other until the stimuli of practice in the real world come to an agreement with what
theory proposes, even after a change in the perceived perceptions has occurred. The above creates the
experience. Learning then comes through reflecting on the experience gained. This means that learning
comes not only from experience but from our mental engagement with these experiences. It is necessary
to get involved with the experience in such a way that we reflect what happened, how it happened and
why it happened (Beard & Wilson, 2013). Without this kind of reflection, experiences will be merged
with all the other daily stimuli without becoming a reason for acquiring new knowledge.
At this point it is necessary to emphasize that experiences need not only be derived from external
stimuli, but may also be internal in the form of pre-existing knowledge (Moon, 2004). The combination
of external and internal experiences can lead to a more integrated learning process, since an external
experience can trigger a plethora of internal pre-existing experiences with similar content. Then, reflecting and combining critical thinking towards all will create the conditions for effective learning.
From the above we understand the trainees’ need for gaining experience and reflection on them, so
that the learning process is constructive. Experiences may come from sources outside the learning process
or may be an element of it in the form of educational methods, such as Virtual Reality
In parallel ways with the experiential learning, the characteristics of which were discussed above,
active learning approaches the educational process by suggesting methods of active participation in
learning processes. A learning process can be defined as active, when the trainee is actively involved
and is not receiving passively messages through the trainer, as during a lecture or while reading (Mayrose, 2012). As Mayrose mentions, Virtual Reality is a computer-based technology that offers highly
interactive active learning experiences that would be extremely expensive or dangerous to perform in
real-life situations. Active learning helps to achieve a process that will lead to “deep learning” where
learners associate ideas and concepts with experiences and then critically evaluate emerging knowledge
by correlating it with motifs and meanings (Yew, Dawood, Jen, & Hoay, 2016).
The theories of experiential and active learning come in complement with the theory of constructivist
learning by Piaget and Dewey (Kaufman, 1996). The philosophy of constructive learning refers to those
learning processes in which the learner conquers knowledge through his/ her personal interaction with
the environment. The theory of constructive learning argues that the subject learns through processing the combination of information he/ she receives from the senses, pre-existing knowledge and new
situations, so that to develop a new vision and perception of things through active and related learning
activities. Additionally, supporters of constructive learning believe that learners are actively involved in
building new knowledge through a “learning through implementation” process. Virtual Reality is one
of the methods that can support constructive learning, as, through it, trainees can interact with virtual
environments and situations that correspond and accurately reflect reality while at the same time they
are accepting the stimuli of this interaction in real time (Chen, 2009).
In conclusion, experiential/ active learning helps trainees gain an excellent ability to perceive complex
concepts contrary to passive learning that does not. The use of Virtual Reality seems to enhance learning
in the above sense, since it offers realistic experiences in a virtual environment. Especially in the field of
Adult Education, it seems that educational techniques that promote the processes of experiential-energetic
and constructive learning such as Virtual Reality can help the learning process through experience,
something that will be useful in the later working life of adult learners.
219
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Virtual Reality
According to Lepouras, Antoniou, Platis, & Charitos (2015, p.3) Virtual Reality is “…the use of technological means in order to create an artificial, interactive environment, which when in its best form,
a person- user would perceive it as real”. One of the most important features of Virtual Reality is the
interaction of the user with the virtual 3D environment in such a way that the user’s actions change it in
real time and the user accepts the effects of these changes as if in a real environment. The means needed
to achieve user immersion in a virtual environment are computers that will be used to create and control
the virtual environment and peripheral systems that will be used to interact with it.
In order to avoid confusion between conventional computer systems with virtual reality systems,
Bouras and Tsiatsos (2006) differentiate them by emphasizing the fact that in virtual reality the user
directly affects the virtual world and what is happening there depends directly and primarily on the user,
since his/ her actions are counted in the result. In contrast to this, in a conventional computing system,
behavior and outcome can be predicted. The basic features of virtual reality can be traced to three levels:
•
•
•
Immersion
Interaction
Real time
Immersion refers to the degree of the user’s sense of being in a three-dimensional virtual environment
rather than in the real world. Interaction concerns the ability of the computing system to change the virtual
environment according to user’s inputs. Real time refers to the immediacy with which changes can be
made to the virtual environment according to the user’s inputs (Bouras & Tsiatsos, 2006). Lepouras et al.
(2015) report yet another feature of virtual reality systems, which refers to the Information Intensity, i.e.
the amount of information that the system can extract to the user, as well as the ways (visual, acoustic,
tactile, etc.) in which the system communicates the information to the user.
From the above, it is realized that the basic elements on which Virtual Reality is based is that it creates an entirely artificial environment, which may correspond to reality or not, but which, through its
representation, seems very realistic. This way, the user enters an experiential learning environment, since
he/ she can act and receive direct feedback by acquiring plausible experiences, which are related to the
theories of experiential, active and constructive learning, as mentioned above.
Virtual Reality as an Experience
“The kinesthetic capabilities of our body, acquired through real-world experience can be exploited to
understand spatial perception through physical activity in the virtual space” (Lepouras et al., 2015, p.
13). These real world experiences can be also experienced in virtual reality environments where, through
immersion, the artificial environment is perceived as real. This means that the experiences that have
been gained in the real world and the way in which they are perceived, will also influence the way in
which the experiences in the artificial world will be perceived. The above abilities of perception and the
results in senses go through an internal process of evaluation and enrichment through past experiences.
In order to achieve a similar situation in artificial virtual reality environments, it is necessary for these
artificial environments to exhibit a very high accuracy of visualization of reality (Ellis, 1995).
220
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Flight Simulators and Virtual Reality
Flight simulators are devices that are used to train pilots of different types of aircrafts. They represent
accurately the cockpit space and switchology and their functions. In addition, modern flight simulators
have the potential to realistically represent the flight environment, such as airports and airport runways,
flight conditions with clouds or bad weather and various lighting conditions depending on time of flight
(night, twilight, etc.) (Valentino, Christian, & Joelianto, 2017). To achieve the utmost realism, flight
simulators are engineered to take into account parameters such as an aircraft’s response to each movement on the controls, results of these movements in the operation of other aircraft systems, and the way
an aircraft can be affected according to the external conditions (turbulence, air density, etc.). The flight
simulator user receives information in many senses, such as sight, sound, touch, and the sense of movement. In aviation training, trainee pilots learn this way the operation of all aircraft systems, as well as its
volatile features before flying with the actual aircraft. Thus, trainee pilots are more secure and they are
given the chance to test flight situations, which in real life would be dangerous even for their lives, or
situations that are extremely unusual to actually occur without causing damage to the aircraft. It appears
that a constructive Flight Simulator flight hour could equal a real-flight flight hour, which is extremely
important for economic reasons (Valentino, Christian, & Joelianto, 2017).
By comparing the characteristics of flight simulators with the basic characteristics of virtual reality,
which were mentioned above, it becomes obvious that flight simulators can be considered as virtual
reality devices. More specifically, the immersion experience can be obtained, as there is a 360-degree
view of the flight environment with realistic depiction of the real-world 3D movements. At the same time
there is interaction, since whatever input is put from the pilot to the controls, it corresponds to a specific
response of the aircraft, equal to that of a real aircraft response. In addition, each change in switchology
brings proportionate changes in the flight environment. Finally, the changes to the aircraft and the flight
environment are direct in relation to the operator inputs and thus the real time criterion is achieved.
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER: VIRTUAL REALITY
AS AN INNOVATIVE EDUCATIONAL TOOL
Virtual Reality and the Modern Learning Theories
In recent years there has been a shift in educational systems towards modern learning theories, which
support the active participation of the trainee in the learning process, leaving back the educational processes, which wanted the trainee as an observer of an “authority” teacher. As mentioned above, modern
learning theories highlight as their most important learning elements the experiential learning, direct
interaction with the subject and the approach of abstract notions through as many senses as possible.
A virtual reality education system enables users to experience the learning process in a more empirical
way. In addition, interacting with objects that cannot be detected by our senses in the real world, such
as DNA chains, can help in actively building thoughts about the real environment from the learners
themselves, which helps self-act and offers additional incentives in the learning process. As discussed
above, in the theory of constructive learning, the active participation of the trainee in the educational
process is of significant value. According to studies such as Mayrose (2012), a virtual reality applica-
221
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
tion with an educational purpose can provide these elements in the learning process, leading students
to learn better and acquire more learning stimuli. Pantelidis (2009) advocates the above, pointing out
that at each level of education and thereby adult education, virtual reality has the potential to make a
difference in the educational process, as it motivates trainees by helping them actively participate in the
processes of learning.
Virtual Reality in Education
Pantelidis (2009) reports that there are many advantages when using virtual reality in education and
further specifies where it can be used by making the following suggestions as to whether it is legitimate
or not to use virtual reality applications in education by case:
•
•
222
Use virtual reality if:
◦◦
A simulation can be used
◦◦
Teaching or training using the real thing is dangerous, impossible, inconvenient, or difficult
◦◦
A model of an environment will teach or train as well as the real thing
◦◦
Interacting with a model is as motivating as or more motivating than interacting with the
real thing
◦◦
Travel, cost, and/or logistics of gathering a class for training make an alternative attractive
◦◦
Shared experiences of a group in a shared environment are important
◦◦
The experience of creating a simulated environment or model is important to the learning
objective
◦◦
Information visualization is needed, manipulating and rearranging information, using graphic symbols, so it can be more easily understood
◦◦
A training situation needs to be made real
◦◦
Needed to make perceptible the imperceptible
◦◦
Developing participatory environments and activities that can only exist at computer-generated worlds
◦◦
Teaching tasks involving manual dexterity or physical movement
◦◦
Essential to make learning more interesting and fun
◦◦
Needed to give the disabled the opportunity to do experiments, and activities that they cannot do otherwise
◦◦
Mistakes made by the learner or trainee using the real thing could be devastating and/or demoralizing to the learner, harmful to the environment, capable of causing unintended property damage, capable of causing damage to equipment, or costly
Do not use virtual reality if:
◦◦
No substitution is possible for teaching/training with the real thing
◦◦
Interaction with real humans, either teachers or students, is necessary
◦◦
Using a virtual environment could be physically or emotionally damaging
◦◦
Using a virtual environment can result in “literalization” (stuart, 1992), a simulation so convincing that some users could confuse model with reality
◦◦
Virtual reality is too expensive to justify using, considering the expected learning outcome
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
An important aspect in the educational process is the emotion (Nissim & Weissblueth, 2017). The
theory of self-efficacy comes to reinforce the feeling in the educational process. Self-efficacy theory
asserts that the performance and motivation of a trainee depends, among other things, on how effective
he feels that he/ she is in what he / she is asked to do or learn. The higher the Self-Efficacy, the more
actively can one be involved with demanding situations (Nissim & Weissblueth, 2017). In the results
of the same research it is stated that using virtual reality applications in their education, the trainees’
feelings started from negative to become more positive while at the same time their self-efficacy was
strengthened. Moreover, Chen, Toh, & Ismail (2005) investigated whether different learning styles
would affect the effectiveness of Virtual Reality based education. What was found is that students and/
or trainees seemed to benefit when using VR educational applications irrespective of their learning style.
Problems Emerging When Using Virtual Reality for Educational Purposes
As already shown, the use of Virtual Reality applications in the general educational process, and more
specifically in the field of Adult Education, has many advantages and offers possibilities that could not
be obtained using conventional learning practices. However, there are some problems that need to be
overcome in order for the Adult Learning Educational Community to obtain the benefits of using Virtual Reality as an educational tool. As Pantelidis (2009) mentions, the main drawbacks of using Virtual
Reality as an educational tool have to do with the cost of use, the time required to learn various virtual
reality education applications by both trainers and learners, as well as possible “Negative mood” of
incorporating the required changes into the curriculum of educational organizations, which may tend to
adhere to the already well-known and tested educational programs. Pantelidis also predicts that, as with
any new technology, there will be a mitigation of the concerns on VR as this technology will increasingly be used, even in areas outside education. Finally, it is necessary to emphasize that, as with any new
technology, virtual reality should be used in a cost-effective way and through a critical eye, in order to
promote learning and respond to the needs of adult learners (Imel, 2001).
CASE STUDY: THE USE OF VIRTUAL REALITY APPLICATIONS
ON TRAINING HELLENIC AIR FORCE PILOTS
Methodology: Research Purpose
From the literature review, it has become apparent that the use of virtual reality as a learning method
has many advantages over traditional adult learning methods (Mancuso, Chlup, & McWhorter, 2010;
Mouzakis, 2006; Mellet-d’Huart, 2009). It is believed that Virtual Reality will be a step to the future of
education and it is important to take advantage of the positive contribution it can make to educational
work and learning outcomes in Adult Education as well.
The purpose of the conducted research was to investigate the contribution of Virtual Reality to the
effective learning. For the purposes of the research, effective learning is defined as learning, generated
by an educational process, which results in the acquisition of new knowledge, the development of new
skills, the change of learners’ attitudes and the achievement of the initially defined learning goals. More
specifically, the target of the research was to investigate the views of the air force trainee pilots and their
223
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
trainers on the effectiveness of VR as an educational tool. Moreover, as a separate target of the research,
the views of the participants on the potential benefits that can be gained through the use of VR in Adult
Education training programs has been explored, as well as the requirements of an educational environment
using VR as an educational tool, in order to work properly, along with any possible difficulties that may
arise. The basic hypothesis of the research is that the use of the possibilities offered by VR contributes
positively to the learning outcomes, which will greatly help to develop new skills and knowledge and to
change the attitudes of adult learners.
It should be understood that one of the main goals of air force pilots training through flight simulation
is to enhance subconscious abilities (Courau, 1994) and reflective response to the highest possible level, a
task that would incur tremendous operational cost and extremely high risk of human and equipment loss.
Through this research, it is tried to make it clear that Virtual Reality helps to deepen the learning
process and to realize that, by using VR in education, situations which may arise in reality can be dealt
better with when they have already been faced realistically through immersion in virtual environments.
Finally, specific ways of introducing Virtual Reality into Adult Education are proposed.
In the effort to investigate the use of Virtual Reality applications as educational tool, it was decided
to use both quantitative and qualitative research methodology. In this direction, quantitative and qualitative data were collected at the same time by two different research tools. For the quantitative data, a
questionnaire was used, which, apart from the closed questions, included some open-ended questions
to collect quality data, while the main way of collecting the quality data was through semi-structured
interviews. The data collection period was limited to one month, namely February 2018.
Research Population and Sample
The research population for the investigation of the study objectives was trainee pilots of the Hellenic
Air Force. As specific sample of the target population, the trainee pilots of Kalamata Air Training Base
were approached, being a fully representative sample of the Hellenic Air Force pilot trainees, since the
Kalamata Air Base is the largest training base. No mathematical size determination or sample size tables
were used to determine the size of the sample because of the absence of data from previous surveys, but
the initial target was to meet the minimum numerical requirements (n = 30), considered to be a satisfactory number of participants in a quantitative survey (Creswell, 2016). Finally, the participants were (79)
seventy-nine in a total of (82) eighty-two trainees, resulting to a participation percentage of 96.34%.
The participants volunteered to take part in the survey and there was no need of any special permission
to participate, since they would participate anonymously and the results would not contain confidential
information. In addition, a consent form was added in the questionnaire distributed to them. A special
license to conduct the survey was requested and given by the 120 Air Training Wing commanding authorities, provided that sensitive personal or confidential military data would not be published.
In order to carry out the interviews, the methodology of deliberate sampling, and more specifically
the sampling of dimensions, was used (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000), since the participants had
different experiences, starting from the Squadron commander who had the highest training and flying
experience, to an instructor who had average training experience and, finally, to a trainee who had little
flying experience. In addition, it is important to stress out that the three participants occupied, respectively, different hierarchical positions. More specifically, they corresponded to the senior management
level of a training Squadron, the level of an average trainer and finally the trainee level. The choice of
224
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
the participants, which were three (3) in total, was done in a way that each corresponded to one of the
above-mentioned levels of experience. Permits for access to them were the same as those mentioned
above for the quantitative part of the survey. A form of consent and voluntary participation was signed
by the participants after the purpose of the investigation and the procedure had been explained to them.
Validity and Reliability
In order to examine the reliability of the research’s questionnaire, a check for internal validity was conducted that gave a value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient which is very high (a =0. 914), as shown at the
Table 1 below and shows high internal consistency and consequently reliability for the research tool used.
RESEARCH RESULTS
Quantitative Results Analysis
Contribution of Training via Virtual Reality in Acquiring Knowledge,
Developing Skills, and Changing Attitudes of Air Force Pilot Trainees
The following table shows the five responses, which relate to the contribution of training via Virtual
Reality in acquiring knowledge, developing skills, and changing attitudes of air force pilot trainees
which show the highest average values in the Likert five-point scale. From Table 2 it becomes apparent
that the highest average response is that of the flight simulator’s effectiveness in relation to instrument
flight procedures (Mean = 4.85). An equally high average has the response to the fact that participants
considered flight simulator training a necessary element of their flight training (Mean = 4.62). Another
parameter of training via VR, which is considered to be important to the research and which gets many
Table 1. Questionnaire reliability measurements
Cronbach’s Alpha
N of Items
0.914
36
Table 2. Highest average values
Question
Mean
I implement more effectively instrument flight procedures through my Flight Simulator training.
4.85
I consider training with the Flight Simulator a necessary element of my flight training.
4.62
My Flight Simulator training helped me to perform more correctly the normal procedures during the flight.
4.43
Interacting with the instructor during my Flight Simulator training helped me to understand better aspects of the
flight, which would otherwise be difficult to grasp (e.g. solving emergency procedures).
4.39
Through my Flight Simulator training I gained a better understanding of the aircraft systems.
4.39
225
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
positive responses with Mean value = 4.39, is that the participants support that interacting with their
instructor during the training with the flight simulator is an important factor that helps them to understand
better aspects of the flight, which without the trainer would be difficult to grasp.
Table 3 below, shows the five responses which relate to the contribution of training via Virtual Reality
in acquiring knowledge, developing skills, and changing attitudes of air force pilot trainees and show the
lowest average values. The smallest Mean = 2.68 corresponded to the question as to whether the trainees
when flying with the flight simulator have the feeling that they fly with a real airplane. It is important
to note that questions about whether learners get more aware of the challenges they will encounter on
a real flight and whether they feel more confident in handling the actual aircraft after training with the
flight simulator are rate as two of the five responses with the lowest average values, however their mean
values (Mean = 3.54 and Mean = 3.63) are located in the Neither disagree- Nor agree / Agree area
showing a positive sign.
Figure 2 below, shows the mean values of the questions related to the contribution of training via
Virtual Reality in acquiring knowledge, developing skills, and changing attitudes. It shows that, with
little exceptions, most answers land between point 4 and 5 of the 5-point Likert scale. That manifests
the fact that, according to the participants, Virtual Reality training helps indeed knowledge acquirement,
skill development and attitude change during the training process.
Table 3. Lowest average values
Question
Mean
My flight simulator training gave me the feeling that I was flying on a real airplane.
2.68
Flight Simulator training helped me to comprehend the aerodynamics of the flight more easily.
2.71
Through my Flight Simulator training, I better understood the flight characteristics of the aircraft.
2.99
Through Flight Simulator training, I became more aware of the challenges I will encounter on the actual flight.
3.54
After my Flight Simulator training, I feel more confident in handling the actual aircraft.
3.63
Figure 2. Mean values (the contribution of training via Virtual Reality to acquiring knowledge, developing skills, and changing attitudes)
226
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Attributes of Virtual Reality That Support Its Usefulness in the Educational
Process and Benefits of Its Introduction to Adult Education
Table 4 hereafter shows the five answers which relate to the attributes of Virtual Reality that make it
useful in the educational process and the benefits of introducing it to Adult Education that show the
highest average values in the Likert five-step scale. The highest Mean = 4.67 corresponds to the question
of whether trainees believe that VR has a place in the educational process. It is important to note that
many positive responses correspond to the question requesting of VR systems to display a high degree
of accuracy regarding the environment they represent (Mean = 4,42). An interesting fact is that trainees
would prefer ground training to be implemented through VR systems at a Mean = 4.18, while more VR
programs during the educational process would help them to get more involved with its theoretical part
(Mean = 4.09).
Table 5 below, shows the five answers which relate to the attributes of Virtual Reality that make it
useful in the educational process and the benefits of introducing it to Adult Education that show the
lowest average values in the Likert five-step The smallest Mean = 2.72 corresponded to the question of
whether participants believed that Flight Simulator training could replace some real-time flight hours.
Interestingly, the question of whether the Flight Simulator training is found realistic (Mean = 3,33) is
in the five answers with the lowest average values, which is in line with the answers to the question of
the first research question concerning that training with the flight simulator made them feel they were
flying on a real plane (see Table 3 above), where the answers were also negative (Mean = 2.68). Finally,
it is worth mentioning that four of the five answers, even though they are among those with the lowest
average values, are moving in the Neither disagree- Nor agree / Agree area.
Table 4. Highest average values
Question
Mean
I believe that Virtual Reality has definitely a place in the educational process
4.67
I believe Flight Simulator training needs to be started before the actual flights start
4.63
I believe that Virtual Reality systems must have a high degree of fidelity to the environment they represent in order
to be efficient in the educational process.
4.42
I would prefer ground training to be done through Virtual Reality applications rather than in the form of lectures.
4.18
More Virtual Reality programs during the educational process would help me get more involved with the
theoretical part.
4.09
Table 5. Lowest average values
Question
Mean
I believe Flight Simulator training can replace some real-time flight hours in exercises such as Instrument Flying.
2.72
I consider training Flight Simulator a pleasant process.
3.33
I find Flight Simulator training realistic.
3.33
Training with Flight Simulator helped me to decode more easily some points from the Flying Technique notes.
3.44
I immediately adapted to the Virtual Reality system (Flight Simulator).
3.61
227
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Figure 3 below, shows the mean values of the questions related to the attributes of Virtual Reality that
make it useful in the educational process and the benefits of introducing it to Adult Education. It shows
that, with little exceptions, most answers land between point 4 and 5 of the 5-point Likert scale. This
shows that, according to the participants, VR training could be incorporated in adult education training
programs, as it is considered useful in educational process.
QUALITATIVE RESULTS ANALYSIS
This section presents the results of the analysis of the qualitative data collected and, more specifically,
of the three semi-structured interviews conducted. The data were processed using the content analysis
method.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
New Knowledge Acquirement After Training via Virtual Reality: Regarding the extent to
which new knowledge was developed during or after Virtual Reality training, the three interviewees reported that this was achieved through understanding the reasons for flight errors, through
covering some knowledge gaps and through better understanding of the context of theory.
Developing Skills After Virtual Reality Training: Analyzing the answers of the interviewees,
it was observed that a development of skills occurred after the Virtual Reality training. This involved greater ability to run procedures in the cockpit, development of flexibility regarding decision making, and enhancement in coping with emergencies that may occur in a flight.
Attitude Change After Virtual Reality Training: Analyzing the answers of the interviewees,
it was observed that all three agree that Virtual Reality training resulted in a change of learners’
attitudes. More specifically, responses have shown that changing learners’ attitudes has to do with
a better understanding of the theoretical part of education, previous error reflection and increase
of self-confidence, while the presence of the trainer was found to play an important role in the
whole process.
Benefits of Introducing Virtual Reality in Adult Education: In relation to how Virtual Reality
training could be helpful in Adult Education, the answers to the interviews show that the benefits
of this process can expand into three areas:
Understanding of inaccessible / tricky mechanical systems
Cope with situations that are not often met or are considered dangerous
Training cost reduction
Figure 3. Mean values (Attributes of Virtual Reality that make it useful in the educational process and
benefits of introducing it to adult education)
228
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The analysis of the research results showed that the main research hypothesis is confirmed as the majority
of respondents replied that they acquired new knowledge, developed new skills and changed attitudes
following Virtual Reality training, while at the same time they believe that the introduction of more
Virtual Reality applications in education would result in significant improvement. The findings of the
survey are presented in detail below.
New Knowledge Acquirement After Training via Virtual Reality
According to the participants, Virtual Reality training has positively contributed in acquiring new
knowledge on specific subjects of education, as a large percentage (73.42%) replied that Flight Simulator training required pilots’ preparation at a level corresponding to that of a flight with a real aircraft,
while at a great rate (88.6%) they responded positively that they understood aircraft systems better. In
addition, the participants expressed, with a large percentage of positive responses (84.81%), that more
practice using Virtual Reality during their training would help them obtain a deeper understanding of the
theoretical part of their education. The analysis of the open questions in the questionnaire also shows that
Virtual Reality offers a greater degree of depth in the subjects taught and offers a deeper understanding
of the offered knowledge. The above are further reinforced by the answers of the three interviewees in
the corresponding questions, where it was reported that Virtual Reality allows the trainee to be re-trained
in situations that, if happened in reality, as in the case of errors, would not allow any chance of repeating,
all this resulting in a better understanding. It was also reported that Virtual Reality based training helped
to have a better understanding of the theory and the various handbooks, and to fill learning gaps. The
above comes in line with what is supported by the theorists of experiential-active learning, since through
Virtual Reality the trainee seems to acquire experiences, which he processes, creates new knowledge
and links them to the existing one (see Figure 1. Kolb’s Learning Cycle).
In conclusion, Virtual Reality systems seem to be of great help in acquiring new knowledge, based
on experiential-active learning, depending on how closely these systems relate to reality (Ellis, 1995).
Developing Skills After Virtual Reality Training
After analyzing participants’ answers to questions on whether they have developed new skills after VR
training, it seems that VR has contributed positively to that direction. In particular, high rates of positive
responses are found in issues related to the development of skills when it comes to the improvement of
aviation vocabulary (69.6%), more effective implementation of the Instrument flight procedures (100%
positive responses) and the best execution of normal flight procedures (87.3%).
The answers of the three interviewees also reveal that Virtual Reality education can lead to the development of new skills. In particular, the interviewees’ answers confirmed the development of flexibility
with regard to decision making, the efficient prioritization of the procedures within the cockpit, as well
as the ability to better manage the switchology of the aircraft when dealing with emergency procedures.
229
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Attitude Change After Virtual Reality Training
After analyzing the results of the questionnaire replies and the interviews concerning the change of the
trainees’ attitudes through their training via Virtual Reality systems, it is observed that these changes
are mainly concerning the level of self-confidence and reflection. More specifically, the participants
agreed at a rate of 73.5% to the fact that the Flight Simulator training makes them feel that they will
perform better in the next flight than in the previous one, thus strengthening their self-confidence. In
support of this view, they respond positively (60.7%) that after training with the flight simulator they
feel more confident in handling the actual aircraft. This gets in line with the literature, which states that
through the use of Virtual Reality systems in education, positive emotions, self-confidence and hence
self-efficacy of trainees are strengthened (Nissim & Weissblueth, 2017). At this point, it should be
stressed that the answer of one of the three interviewees contradicts the above, but it is believed that it
falls within the normal dispersion of responses without seemingly influencing itself the fact that Virtual
Reality increases the self-confidence of learners.
Regarding reflection, which is essential in the learning process based on experiential learning it appears that Virtual Reality has a positive effect (Lewis & Williams, as cited in Kokkos 2005; Beard &
Wilson, 2013; Nikolopoulou et al., 2013). More specifically, it appears that the Flight Simulator guided
the trainees in spotting points that were difficult to spot in flight and prepare better for coping with
them. Positive answers to the above question reached 84.8%. In addition, the question whether the flight
simulation training experience was a cause for error correction and processing had a very high percentage of positive responses (79.7%). Finally, a large percentage of positive responses (63.3%) was also
awarded to the answer whether, after training with the simulator, the trainees reviewed some mistaken
opinions they had raised in relation to flight safety. From the interviewees’ answers, it appears that the
trainer plays an important role in the reflection process, since, with his help, the trainee understands his
mistakes and is prompted to reflect on his training through feedback in order not to repeat it. Pantelidis
(2009) supports that that the use of VR is not proposed when it is necessary to interact with humans.
The above view does not always apply and as interaction with a person in a Virtual Reality training
environment may have a consultative and supportive character and could be an educational parameter
for developing critical thinking and reflection in relation to the experience which is experienced through
Virtual Reality, similar to the positive effect of the adult educator (Rogers, 1996). This is supported by
the respondents’ answers.
Benefits of Introducing Virtual Reality in Adult Education
From the analysis of the answers to the questions of the questionnaire and the interviews, regarding the
benefits of Virtual Reality training, we observe an extremely high level of learners’ views that positively
favor the use of even more Virtual Reality systems in their education. In relation to the answers, we come
to the following benefits of using Virtual Reality in the field of Adult Education
•
•
•
230
More Virtual Reality programs during the learning process help trainees to engage with the theoretical part
Virtual Reality helps to decode some obscure concepts of theory
Theoretical training becomes more attractive
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
•
•
•
•
Virtual Reality helps in better understanding of inaccessible or tricky mechanical systems
Allows trainees to practice in environments or situations that are difficult or dangerous to deal with
under real circumstances
Helps reduce the cost of education, as it prevents possible costs that could derive from mistakes
made in training, in areas such as aviation training (i.e. hard landings, structural damages etc.)
Virtual Reality is exciting to learners
The above results are derived both from the answers of the questionnaire and from those of the participants in the three interviews and show significant homogeneity. The preference of participants in
education by using Virtual Reality systems is also reinforced by the Pearson correlation indexes (r =,
546) in questions about whether Virtual Reality would help in different aspects of education and whether
more Virtual Reality programs would encourage trainees to become more involved with the theoretical
part of their education.
All the above are in consistency with the literature and come to reinforce the view that the introduction of Virtual Reality applications in Adult Education, will have significant positive results.
Introducing Virtual Reality to Adult Education and Other Education Fields
From the analysis of the answers related to how a Virtual Reality educational application could be
introduced in Adult Education, it is observed that the participants have distinguished features that they
consider important. A large percentage of positive responses (93.7%) adopted the view that Virtual
Reality systems need to have a high fidelity to be efficient in the learning process, which confirms
the theory (Ellis, 1995). Another point, which seems to make Virtual Reality an important tool in the
Adult Education training process, is the cost reduction and the possibility for distance and personalized
training, which confirms the relevant theoretical approaches (Blow, 2012; Pantelidis, 2009; Valentino,
Christian, & Joelianto, 2017).
According to Valentino, Christian, and Joelianto (2017) an hour of constructive flight in the Flight
Simulator can be matched to one hour flying by real airplane. From the answers of the participants a
relatively negative attitude (46,15%) emerged, when the positive responses to this issue are in a percentage
of 38,42%. This differentiation can be attributed to the participants’ view that Flight Simulator cannot
be attributed realistically to the emotional load and the pressure environment of a real flight, which is
understandable as the participants were fighter pilots.
In conclusion, it is understandable that Virtual Reality systems can become important educational
means in the field of Adult Education, provided that the systems achieve an acceptable level in realistic
reproduction of the environment they simulate. In order for the above systems to be helpful in the learning
process, it is necessary that they guide the learner through the steps of experiential-constructive learning (see Figure 1). More specifically, it is necessary for the user to be able to set a learning objective
that will be achieved through the action. This action will be determined in relation to the technological
possibilities of the Virtual Reality system. After understanding the new situation in which the user will
be found, the Virtual Reality system should help the user assess this new situation and evaluate whether
the original target has been achieved.
The high cost of Virtual Reality systems has understandably restricted their use in areas where the
cost of operation and the risk of destroying very expensive equipment or losing lives of highly trained
231
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
personnel justify the use of high-level simulators. Civil aviation companies and military air forces
around the world have been investing on this technology shifting as much of the training of their pilots
as possible to high-tech Flight Simulators (Blow, 2012; Valentino, Christian, & Joelianto, 2017). As
Information Technology has progressed VR training seems to flow down to other technology dominated
fields, namely F1 teams and pilots. What they all have in common is that training takes part within the
field of adult education.
Further evolution of VR technology has resulted in the development of cost-efficient systems designed
for a variety of uses from domestic to educational. This is expected to make the use of VR training systems
affordable to formal education institutions from kindergartens to universities in the imminent future.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Future research on the topic of this chapter should be directed in two main areas. The first one should
evolve in relation to the Air Force, whose personnel and facilities were at the heart of the present research,
and it is suggested that further research should be undertaken to explore the way and applications with
which Virtual Reality can be involved in the training of other specialties, such as aircraft engineers and
air defense controllers. In addition, it is proposed to investigate the importance and way of introducing
Virtual Reality applications into the theoretical training of Air Force pilots, since it appears to enhance
their engagement with the theoretical part of training and makes it more understandable. Another parameter, which through the research results seems to need further investigation and is considered to be of
great importance is the way in which realism can be achieved at the level of emotion. That is, the extent
to which the representation of the actual flight stress could be achieved in Flight Simulator training and
whether this would have a positive impact on dealing with it.
The second area for future research should focus on the potential of VR applications as educational
tools in other fields of education, including formal, non-formal and informal, taking advantage of the
rapid technological progress which makes the use of such applications affordable.
A third area for future research could be the investigation of the role of the trainer in Virtual Reality
training processes and the skills and cognitive background required. In this point, the use of Artificial
Intelligence agents and or Intelligent Tutoring Systems as tutor’s substitutes could become a matter of
further research. Finally, the nature of problems and barriers the learners would face and the ways to
overcome these barriers should attract future researchers’ interest.
CONCLUSION
Virtual Reality seems to be the means for developing an educational system based on experiential, active and constructive learning theories especially in the field of Adult Education. By using educational
Virtual Reality applications, the user actively participates in the educational process, gains new, realistic
experiences and reflects on previous ones and interacts with the environment in a virtual world. Still reallife training should be the core of every educational program, but Virtual Reality is indeed supporting
and enhancing the efficiency of real-life training. This is portrayed by the answers of the participants
in the conducted research, who stress the fact that they would prefer more Virtual Reality applications
232
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
to be part of their training curriculum without, however, shortening the real life training by replacing it.
Furthermore, the participants emphasized the importance of the tutor’s participation during the Virtual
Reality training sessions in a way that the trainer would be the one to guide them and solve whatever
questions may arise.
In conclusion, as previously shown, Virtual Reality in all its forms would have extremely positive
results when introduced as an educational tool both in general and Adult Education. The positive outcomes for trainees are primarily consisting in gaining new knowledge, developing new skills and changing attitudes during and after the Virtual Reality training process. As far as the benefits of introducing
Virtual Reality in Adult Education are concerned, these would include cost reduction, safety and deeper
theory understanding. Finally, the realism and the ease of use of the Virtual Reality applications should
follow the technological progress in order to provide the best possible real-life representation, for users
to earn the most.
REFERENCES
Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2013). Experiential learning: A handbook for education, training and coaching. London: Kogan Page Publishers.
Blow, C. A. (2012). Flight School in the Virtual Environment: Capabilities and Risks of Executing a
Simulations-Based Flight Training Program (No. ATZL-SWV). Army Command and General Staff Coll
Fort Leavenworth KS School of Advanced Military Studies.
Bouras, C., & Tsiatsos, T. (2006). Educational virtual environments: Design rationale and architecture.
Multimedia Tools and Applications, 29(2), 153–173. doi:10.100711042-006-0005-7
Chen, C. J. (2009). Theoretical Bases for Using Virtual Reality in Education. Themes in Science and
Technology Education, 2, 71–90.
Chen, C. J., Toh, S. C., & Ismail, W. M. F. W. (2005). Are learning styles relevant to virtual reality?
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38(2), 123–141. doi:10.1080/15391523.2005.10782453
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education (5th ed.). London:
Routledge Falmer.
Courau, S. (1994). Les outils d’ excellence du formateur (2nd ed.). Paris: ESF.
Creswell, J. W. (2016). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, And Evaluating Quantitative And
Qualitative Research. Athens: ION. (in Greek)
Cuffaro, H. K. (1995). Experimenting with the world: John Dewey and the early childhood classroom.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Dewey, J. (2007). Experience and education. Simon and Schuster.
Ellis, S. R. (1995). Virtual environments and environmental instruments. In Simulated and virtual realities: Elements of perception (pp. 85-101). Bristol, UK: Taylor & Francis Inc.
233
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Imel, S. (2001). Learning Technologies in Adult Education. Myths and Realities. Washington, DC: ERIC
Publications.
Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult education and lifelong learning: Theory and practice. New York: Routledge.
doi:10.4324/9780203561560
Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning in teacher education. Action in Teacher
Education, 18(2), 40–50. doi:10.1080/01626620.1996.10462832
Kokkos, A. (2005). Adult Education Methodology. Theoretical Frame and Learning Prerequisites. Patra:
HOU. (in Greek)
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lepouras, G., Antoniou, A., Platis, N., & Charitos, D. (2015). Developing Virtual Reality Systems.
Athens: Kallipos – Hellenic Academic Ebook Publications. (in Greek)
Lewis, L. H., & Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past and present. New Directions for Adult
and Continuing Education, 62, 5–16.
Mancuso, D. S., Chlup, D. T., & McWhorter, R. R. (2010). A study of adult learning in a virtual world.
Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 681–699. doi:10.1177/1523422310395368
Mayrose, J. (2012). Active Learning Through the Use of Virtual Environments. American Journal of
Engineering Education, 3(1), 13.
Mellet-d’Huart, D. (2009). Virtual Reality for Training and Lifelong Learning. Themes in Science and
Technology Education, 185-224.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. Psychology Press.
Mouzakis, Ch. (2006). Adult Education. New Information and Communication Technologies in Adult
Education. Athens: Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs. (in Greek)
Nikolopoulou, V., Leftheriotou, P., Pavlis-Korres, M., Papadantonakis, A., & Pavlakis, M. (2013).
Training of Adults’ Educators. Educational Program Notes. Athens: Greek National Centre for Public
Administration and Local Government (E.K.D.D.A.). (in Greek)
Nissim, Y., & Weissblueth, E. (2017). Virtual Reality (VR) as a Source for Self-Efficacy in Teacher
Training. International Education Studies, 10(8), 52. doi:10.5539/ies.v10n8p52
Pantelidis, V. S. (2009). Reasons to use virtual reality in education and training courses and a model to
determine when to use virtual reality. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 2, 59–70.
Pavlis-Korres, M., & Leftheriotou, P. (2016). Building Interaction in Adults’ Online Courses: A Case
Study on Training E-Educators of Adults. In L. Kyei-Blankson, J. Blankson, E. Ntuli, & C. Agyeman
(Eds.), Handbook of Research on Strategic Management of Interaction, Presence, and Participation in
Online Courses (pp. 185–215). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9582-5.ch008
234
Virtual Reality Applications as an Innovative Educational Practice in Adult Education
Rogers, A. (1996). Teaching Adults (2nd ed.). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Silberman, M. L. (Ed.). (2007). The handbook of experiential learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Valentino, K., Christian, K., & Joelianto, E. (2017). Virtual Reality Flight Simulator (Vol. 9). Internetworking Indonesia Journal.
Yew, T. M., Dawood, F. K., Jen, L. S., & Hoay, K. C. (2016). Stimulating Deep Learning Using Active
Learning Techniques. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(3), 49–57.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Decision-Making: When multiple options are available, and someone has to make the most logical
choice. The process of making the best decision shall pass through weighing the positives and negatives
of each option and consider all the alternatives. The ability of forecasting the outcome of each option is
also very important in decision making process.
Deep Learning: A way of learning something in its completeness, thus fully understanding it and
not forgetting it in the future.
Intelligent Tutoring System: A computer-based system that provides customized and personalized
instruction or feedback to learners without enabling a human teacher during the process. A variety of
computing technologies in conjunction with cognitive learning theories are used to provide learning in
a meaningful and effective manner.
Self-Reflection: The activity of thinking about your own feelings and behavior and the reasons that
may lie behind them.
Spatial Perception: The ability of being aware of our own physical relationship with the environment around us. There are two interconnected ways of perceiving our relationship to the surrounding
environment; the exteroceptive, which create representations about space through our feelings and the
interoceptive, which create representations about space through our body position and orientation.
Task Prioritization: It is the process of evaluating a group of items and ranking them in their order
of importance or urgency.
235
Section 4
Impact
237
Chapter 13
Impact of the European
Higher Education in the World
Initiative on Higher Education:
Brexit and Higher Education
Andrew S. Herridge
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7305-0584
Texas Tech University, USA
Lisa J. James
Texas Tech University, USA
ABSTRACT
This chapter looked at the implications of Brexit on the recruitment of international faculty, students, and
the ability to obtain research funding. Higher education stakeholders have legitimate concerns regarding the impact of the UK’s separation from the EU. In preemptive moves, students are transferring to
institutions outside the UK and EU to universities that are welcoming and accommodating the special
needs and circumstances of international scholars. Researchers are prematurely dissolving collaborative
partnerships with colleagues to mitigate complications and lost funding expected, as a result of Brexit.
There are universities exploring possible locations for new satellite campuses in other countries. Through
the development of policies and treaties such as the Bologna Process, Lisbon Strategy, European Higher
Education in the World initiative, the European Union has demonstrated the importance and purpose
of higher education both in Europe and at the international level.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch013
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to explore current literature focused on the United Kingdom’s (UK) decision
to separate itself from the European Union (EU) and the impact it may have on the ability to recruit
international faculty, students, and obtain research funding within higher education. This chapter will
present an overview of what Brexit is, and identify five concerns that higher education institutions and
its stakeholders have related to the UK’s decision. The chapter will address these concerns in greater
detail. The overarching question posed here is: What are the implications of Brexit on the recruitment
of international faculty, students, and the ability to obtain research funding?
To accommodate the estimated increase of international students enrolled in higher education worldwide to 7.2 million by 2025, institutions are enhancing their international partnerships and educational
approach (Heyl & Tullbane, 2012; Knight, 2012; Rumbley, Altbach, & Reisberg, 2012). Institutions of
higher education in the United States (US) have demonstrated their desire to increase access to postsecondary education by collaborating with foreign institutions in an effort to enhance curriculum and
attract more students from around the world (Heyl & Tullbane, 2012; Redden, 2017). Similarly, the EU
has enacted new policies such as the European Higher Education in the World initiative, the Bologna
Process, and the Lisbon Strategy with the goal of providing access to higher education and professional
training to individuals around the world without requiring them to move or incur large debts (Heyl &
Tullbane, 2012).
BACKGROUND
The UK (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) located off the northwestern coast of mainland
Europe, was an independent country in Western Europe from May 1, 1707 until December 31, 1800
(United Kingdom National Archives, 2018). The Treaty of Union of 1706 authorized by the Acts of
Union 1707 (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018; Hanham, 2017), united the domains of England, Northern
Ireland, Scotland, and Wales to form a single kingdom incorporating the island of Great Britain and its
neighboring islands, with the exception of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands (United Kingdom
National Archives, 2018). The ratification did not include Ireland, which remained a separate republic
(United Kingdom National Archives, 2018).
The United Kingdom and Northern Ireland is a monarchy led by Queen Elizabeth II since her rise
to the throne February 6, 1952, after the death of her father, King George VI (Johnson, 2018). Elizabeth, at the age of 26, became Queen of seven countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Pakistan,
South Africa, the United Kingdom, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka) (Johnson, 2018). The UK
is governed by a parliamentary democracy system consisting of the House of Commons and the House
of Lords (Johnson, 2018). Since the 1920s, the UK has been guided by two dominant political parties:
the Conservative Party and the Labour Party (Johnson, 2018).
After World War II, the EU formed consortiums, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
and the European Economic Community (EEC), in an effort towards economic and political integration (McBride, 2017). In the 1970s, the UK appeared to have second thoughts, and became a hesitant
member of the EEC, spurring critics to have suspicions that the group was moving beyond economic
integration and attempting to form a “superstate” (McBride, 2017). Although the UK became part of
238
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
the EEC, it elected not to join the common currency or the Schengen area, an agreement between 26
European countries that officially abolished passport and other types of control at their mutual borders
(Schengen, 2017). Eventually, the UK successfully negotiated a reduction of its budget contribution to
the EEC (McBride, 2017), and during the 1980s and 1990s, the UK began pressing the consortium for
opt-out considerations as well (McBride, 2017).
THE VOTE
On June 23, 2016, in a referendum, 51.9% of those participating in the UK electorate voted to leave the
EU (Eggins, 2018). Advocates for the British separation argued that by leaving the EU, the UK would
reclaim national sovereignty, be in a better position to manage ongoing immigration issues, free itself
from demanding regulations, and stimulate economic growth (Johnson, 2018; McBride, 2017). On the
contrary, opponents to the separation countered that membership in the EU strengthened the UK’s trade
and investments, and supported the UK’s standing as one of the world’s economic leaders (McBride,
2017). Great Britain was divided politically on Brexit, but it was divided geographically, as well. Although
a majority of England (51.9%) voted to leave the EU, opponents to the separation London, Northern
Ireland, and Scotland voted to “remain” in the EU (McBride, 2017). Scotland voted to remain in the EU
after an unsuccessful independent referendum in 2014 (McBride, 2017).
Following the June 23, 2016 referendum, Prime Minister Theresa May, on behalf of the British government, invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (McBride, 2017; New York Times, 2017).
The European Union (Withdrawal) Act of 2018 announced an “exit day” of March 29, 2019 (McBride,
2017; New York Times, 2017). Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (a clause in the 2007 Treaty
of Lisbon), is the legal and political process whereby a member of the EU ceases to be a member of the
union (McBride, 2017; New York Times, 2017). Article 50 “triggers a negotiation period of up to two
years” in which time the country electing to leave the EU must agree on the terms of its withdrawal with
the remaining member countries (McBride, 2017; New York Times, 2017). McBride (2017) surmises
that financially and politically, “The UK could face the loss of preferential access to its largest trading
partner, the disruption of its largest financial sector, an extended period of political uncertainty, and the
breakup of the UK itself” by implementing separation from the EU (McBride, 2017).
Although the vote to leave was supported by a majority, an overwhelming 90% of those working in
higher education in the UK and those eligible to vote, 15% UK higher education staff and EU nationals, voted against Brexit, pitting the government against the universities (Becker, Fetzer, & Novy, 2017;
James, 2016; Kinstler, 2016). Moreover, 75% of students aged 18 – 24 who were eligible to vote opted
to remain in the EU as well (James, 2016).
EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE WORLD
The 2013 communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament stated that by
2030, access to higher education will be “within the reach of hundreds of millions of citizens around the
world” (European Commission, 2013, p. 2). In regards to the Europe 2020 Strategy, higher education is
a key component in that it aids in the advancement of both individuals and society, maintains an impact
239
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
on research and innovation, and “it provides the highly skilled human capital that knowledge-based
economies need to generate growth and prosperity” (p. 2). With an approximate 45% internationally
mobile student population, Europe must not only maintain the reputaion of their higher education, but
also increase it by developing new opportunities (European Commission, 2013).
The Commission stated that with regard to higher education, a one-size-fits-all approach will not work
(European Commission, 2013). Each nation involved in the initiative must work to tailor their system
based on “identified national and intercultural skills shortages and bearing in mind the knowledge and
research needs of their developing partner countries” (European Commission, 2013, p. 4). With 21% of
mobile students seeking higher education in North America, it was recommended that the institutions
within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and Bologna Process work to ensure credits and
degrees are transferable. Additionally, the Commission states that it is a desire for students to have the
ability to obtain skills and education from around the world without having to leave their home country.
This process is refered to as “internationalisation at home” (p. 6). It is hoped that access to higher education within Europe will increase through the use of digital learning (European Commission, 2013).
The European Higher Education in the World initiative consists of many key elements designed to
assist the EU member nations in the fulfilling the belief that higher education in Europe is vital in becoming a “smart, sustainable and inclusive economy” (European Commission, 2013, p. 2). In addition
to internationalization policies already in place, the European Commission recommends that member
nations place a focus on curriculum, research, international collaboration, digital learning, funding, and
attracting new students (European Commission, 2013).
The effort to develop an international curriculum should focus on placing attention on current global
research and educational strategies (European Commission, 2013). Additionally, students would benefit
from obtaining the knowledge needed to be competitive in the current economy. Enhancing curriculum
and research could potentially be achieved by developing partnerships with international institutions.
Through the development of international partnerships and collaboration, institutions would have the
ability to enhance their offered curriculum and develop strategies for the recognition and transferring
of course credits (European Commission, 2013).
The European Higher Education in the World initiative also emphasized the importance of digital
learning (European Commission, 2013). Access to digital learning would potentially allow for students
unable to travel to foreign countries or to access the needed curriculum in their home country to be able
to participate in higher education (Altbach & Knight, 2007; European Commission, 2013). Additionally,
the European Commission asked member nations to increase the amount of support available to researchers seeking to enhance the internationalization of higher education (European Commission, 2013). The
final element of the European Higher Education in the World initiative, attracting more students and
researchers to move to the EHEA, would potentially be achieveable upon the successful incorporation
of each key element proposed by the European Commission (European Commission, 2013).
EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION POLICIES
The European Commission proposed, in 2005, the development of a European Research Funding Council
in an effort to support the goals of “the reforms of degree structures, credit transfer, quality assurance
and curricular development, which are transforming the ‘European Higher Education Area’” (Keeling,
2006, p. 203-204). The proposed council was met with widespread public approval when brought to
240
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
the member universities. By October 2005, it was announced, by the European Commission, that approximately 90% of European universities had begun using the ERASMUS mobility, cooperation and
thematic networks (Keeling, 2006). The goal of ERASMUS was to provide students with the ability to
obtain academic experiences internationally (Huisman & van der Wende, 2005).
The literature explained that in the development of the Constitutional Treaty during the creation of
the EU, the responsibility of managing higher education was placed upon each EU member state (Keeling, 2006). However, over the course of 50 years, the European Commission’s Directorate General for
Education and Culture became more involved in higher education, leading to the addition of provisions in
future treaties, giving increased power to the European Commission for the oversight of higher education.
In 1987, the ERASMUS mobility program launched, providing European higher education institutions
with the ability to transfer credits and network with other universities (Keeling, 2016).
In 2002, the EU developed a ten-year plan for enhancing higher education (Keeling, 2016). The
‘Work Programme for Education and Training 2010’ focused on three elements, “improving quality and
effectiveness; facilitating access; and opening up national education and training systems to the world”
(Keeling, 2016, p. 204). Since 2010, the European Commission increased their efforts in enhancing European higher education through the incorporation of the Lisbon Strategy and the Bologna Process. The
Lisbon Strategy placed a focus on growth and jobs while the Bologna Process supported “institutional
and structural reform of the tertiary education sector” (Keeling, 2016, p. 205).
Lisbon Strategy
The 2000 Lisbon Strategy was “intended to make Europe the world’s most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy by 2010” (Maassen & Stensaker, 2011, p. 759). The literature explained
that the development of the Lisbon Strategy focused on three main elements. The first element was “the
role of R&D for economic competitiveness and growth” (Maassen & Stensaker, 2011, p. 760). Second,
“the role of education as a core labour market factor as well as a factor in social cohesion” (Maassen &
Stensaker, 2011, p. 760). The third element was for attention to be placed on “common concerns and
priorities” (Maassen & Stensaker, 2011, p. 760).
Bologna Process
The Bologna Process was initially developed in 1999 by 29 European nations in order to reform higher
education and create the EHEA (Keeling, 2016). By 2007, 45 European nations and the European Commission were full members of the Bologna Process. In addition to the member nations, representative
organizations, such as “representatives of students (ESIB), higher education institutions (EUA and
EURASHE), quality assurance agencies (ENQA), employers (UNICE) and the academic trade unions
(Education International)” were included within the Bologna Process membership (Keeling, 2016, p.
207). Through the Bologna Process, the European higher education systems began transitioning toward
a standard three-tiered degree structure, Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral (Keeling, 2016). The Bologna Process also encouraged members to use a form of academic credits that students would be able to
transfer between institutions and countries (Keeling, 2016).
Through the development of and continued contributions to the Bologna Process, the European
Commission has indicated that higher education is considered “purposeful, progressive, successful,
economically beneficial, collaborative and international” (Keeling, 2016, p. 211). With the incorporation
241
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
of a key point in Bologna Process objectives, “higher education leads somewhere – for the individual
and for wider society,” the European Commission displayed their desire to enhance higher education for
the benefit of all (Keeling, 2016, p. 209).
The European University Association
As a result of the Bologna Process maintaining the goal of establishing the EHEA, the European University Association (EUA) was created (Nokkala & Bacevic, 2014). The EUA was developed in 2001
after the merger of the Association of European Universities (CRE) and the Confederation of European
Union Rectors’ Conferences (EURec) in order to create “one voice for the university sector in Europe
in terms of the changing European higher education policies” (Nokkala & Bacevic, 2014, p. 700). The
EUA was part of the E4, a “group of consultative members to the Bologna Process” (Nokkala & Bacevic,
2014, p. 700). The EUA, the European Association of Institutions in Higher Education (EURASHE),
the European Network for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) and the European Students’
Union (ESU) all make up the E4 (Nokkala & Bacevic, 2014).
The EUA has worked to assist the 850 member institutions measure the level of implementation of the
Bologna Process as each institution (Nokkala & Bacevic, 2014). The EUA developed the ‘Institutional
Evaluation Programme’ to assess each institution’s performance, publishing the Trends report for the
Bologna Process (Nokkala & Bacevic, 2014).
IMPACT OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY
Since the late 1990s, higher education has seen an increase in internationalization (Altbach & Knight,
2007). The increase in internationalization has included study-abroad programs, cultural related curriculum, and providing access to higher education in areas that did not have access before. The globalization of higher education has led to an increase in international research, the use of English as the
dominate language, international collaboration, and the use of technology. The literature explained that
the globalization of higher education tends to benefit nations with developed education systems. While
the process of globalization does benefit both sides, with students utilizing their education and skills
back to their home countries, the countries with developed education systems maintain control of the
process (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
Profitability of the Internationalization of Higher Education
In terms of free-trade higher education is often viewed as a private good, and not the responsibility
of tax payers (Altbach & Knight, 2007). As a result of this notion, the internationalization of higher
education tends to be utilized as a profit-making opportunity. As of 2003, countries such as Australia,
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States charged international students a higher tuition rate
in order to increase profits. In terms of funding for international students, most students tend to fund
their own education, not obtaining government or institutional funding. It was found that in the United
States, international students added an estimated 12 billion dollars to the economy (Altbach & Knight,
2007; Davis, 2003).
242
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
An important component of international programs is that they generate revenue, or, at minimum,
do not cost the institution extra resources (Heyl & Tullbane, 2012). While attempting to maintain a level
of profitability for international programs, it remains important to balance the cost of international programs for the students versus the benefit the students will receive from participating in the programs.
Institutions may potentially see a decline in participation and struggle to attract international students if
the perceived value of the programs drops below the cost of participating in the international programs.
Access to Higher Education
Across the world, higher education has seen an increase in demand (Altbach & Knight, 2007). To enhance
their reputations, curriculum offerings, and to attract more students, Redden (2017) explained, institutions of higher education increased their partnerships with foreign institutions and developed degree
programs that could be completed through partnerships with other institutions. The rise in demand was
credited to the increase in availability of access to higher education through “branch campuses, franchised foreign academic programs or degrees, or independent institutions based on foreign academic
models” (Altbach & Knight, 2007, p. 293). In an effort to increase access to higher education through
international campuses, the number of campuses maintained in foreign countries has risen in the last
five years (Redden, 2017). Robin Helms, director of the American Council on Education’s Center for
Internationalization and Global Engagement, stated that when it comes to the internationalization of
higher education, institutions “are making progress” and are continuing to work towards internationalization (Redden, 2017, p. 3).
The decision to develop international programs and to create a branch campus is often based on available funding and the amount of time that must be dedicated (Rumbley et al., 2012). However, institutions
also must consider “issues of academic quality, academic freedom, and the basic rights of individuals”
prior to allocating resources for the development of branch campuses (Rumbley et al., 2012, p. 11). The
literature explained that in addition to being profitable, branch campuses must be able to meet the expectation of upholding the same academic integrity and performance as the main campus. Additionally,
institutions must ensure any students and staff at the branch campus receive the same access to the academic environment as would be allowed in the institution’s country of origin. As such, institutions must
analyze the social and political environment prior to developing programs abroad (Rumbley et al., 2012).
Institutions of higher education have begun utilizing technology as a means for building partnerships and expanding access to students (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Through this process, students have
the ability to attend an institution in another country without ever leaving their home country. Utilizing
online courses, students have the ability to access programs that may not have previously been offered
in their home country (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
Perceptions of the Internationalization of Higher Education
Some US higher education institutions incorporate international programs into their curriculum as a way
to “provide international and cross-cultural perspectives for their students and to enhance their curricula”
(Altbach & Knight, 2007, p. 293). The traditional components of internationalization, “study-abroad
experiences, curriculum enrichment via international studies majors or area studies, strengthened foreignlanguage instruction, and sponsorship of foreign students to study on campus,” may not increase profits for
243
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
institutions of higher education, but could enhance their competitiveness in attracting students (Altbach
& Knight, 2007, p. 293). It was estimated, as of 2007, approximately 175,000 American undergraduate
students traveled outside the US for higher education (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
Redden (2017) analyzed a survey looking at the internationalization efforts of more than 1,100 institutions of higher education in the US. The survey, conducted every five years by the American Council
on Education’s Center for Internationalization and Global Engagement, consisted of five elements of
comprehensive internationalization. The five elements were “the flow of American students abroad and
of international students to the US, administrative structures and staffing, incentives for faculty involvement, international partnerships, and the curriculum” (Redden, 2017, p. 1).
Of the more than 1,100 institutions that participated in the survey, the four driving factors for internationalization that were most commonly reported were increasing diversity, providing students with
global experiences, attracting more students, and increasing revenue (Redden, 2017). While Altbach and
Knight (2007) explained that international students often must fund their own education, Redden (2017)
stated that institutions have started offering scholarships and grants to students in order to entice them to
study abroad. Additionally, Redden (2017) explained that in an effort to support international students,
approximately 60% of institutions provided individualized support and an orientation to American academics to their international students (Redden, 2017).
The literature explained that support for international engagement has risen due to the belief that in
order to receive a well-rounded education, students need to have a better understanding of global cultures and be knowledgeable of the impact different cultures have around the world (Heyl & Tullbane,
2012). Interacting with international students on campus or in courses and experiencing other cultures
by studying abroad, students would potentially have the ability to enhance their worldview, through an
increased understanding of other cultures.
BREXIT AND HIGHER EDUCATION
In November 2016, Lord Soley discussed the potential impact of the UK withdrawing from the EU on
higher education before the House of Lords (European Union – Foreign Relations, 2016). It was stated
that to prevent the loss of momentum in terms of research and higher education, action would need to
be taken prior to the exit of the UK from the EU. Within the higher education community, two main
concerns appeared to exist: the ability for students and staff to move between the UK and the EU and
the ability to obtain funding (European Union – Foreign Relations, 2016).
Focusing on the possible threats both financial and political that Brexit poses for international and
domestic higher education, a previous paper briefly identified and discussed four areas of concern. University students, faculty, researchers, higher education staff and administrators at domestic and international
institutions are among the stakeholders who will be impacted by the UK’s decision to leave the EU. The
four areas of concern identified and presented here are institutional ranking, research collaborations and
funding, free-movement and immigration issues, and academic credit exchange.
244
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
Institutional Rankings
According to Dear (2017), the World University Rankings use 13 indicators to identify the top institutions.
In the most recent announcement of the university rankings audited by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC),
the UK has risen and holds the top two positions (University of Oxford and University of Cambridge)
for the first time (Dear, 2017; Times, 2018).
Brexit has the potential to impact the ranking of universities in both the UK and the EU by causing
them to fall from favor, thus limiting European institutions from attracting the best and brightest students,
faculty, and researchers. In 2014, over 50% of European research grants were awarded to researchers at
UK universities originally from the EU (Eggins, 2018). In the wake of Brexit, European institutions’
positions in the rankings may falter, giving Asian universities the opportunity to advance and replace
European universities, threatening to undermine the nations’ elite positions (Dear, 2017; Times, 2018).
A slip in the rankings has the potential to devastate the nations’ financial bottom line. Almost 25% of
Cambridge University’s research funding from competitive grants comes from the EU, and approximately
one fifth of Oxford University’s research funding (Dear, 2017, p. 3).
The literature explained that researchers were unsure of their ability to apply for and obtain future
funding through Horizon 2020 and the European Research Council (European Union – Foreign Relations, 2016). While it was explained that existing research would still be honored by Horizon 2020,
researchers continued to report feeling unsure about their future (European Union – Foreign Relations,
2016). It was reported that approximately 16% of researchers at UK universities originated from other
EU counties (Stokstad, 2016). A concern shared among many researchers was their legal status and
the ability to obtain funding. UK based researchers expressed nervousness regarding their ability to
collaborate with researchers around the EU without being considered a liability for obtaining funding.
However, after withdrawing from the EU, the UK will have the ability to “buy into Horizon 2020 as an
associate member” (Stokstad, 2016).
The literature reported that approximately 20% of the post-doctoral fellows at Cambridge originated
from other countries within the EU (European Union – Foreign Relations, 2016). As a result, it was
explained that the UK would need to ensure the availability of jobs in order to continue attracting researchers from the EU (European Union – Foreign Relations, 2016).
Research Collaborations and Funding
British higher education institutions are already feeling the effects of Brexit, experiencing premature
loss of research funding and the early departure of international researchers due to Brexit-related concerns. The economic uncertainty of the UK and its separation from the EU may well affect the ability
to secure funding for ongoing and future research collaborations with peer institutions. Some areas of
higher education are expecting to face a loss of over one billion Euros annually in EU research funding
(Eggins, 2018). The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports that over the past decade, “the UK
received approximately £8 billion in research funding from both the European Commission and the European Research Council” (BBC, 2017). Academic researchers report being removed from EU research
projects (Kinstler, 2016). Results from surveying researchers on the subject suggest that approximately
75% of researchers responding to the survey reported they are likely to choose early termination of
245
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
existing collaborations, in advance of the UK finalizing Brexit (Eggins, 2018). One such researcher,
Sara Hagemann, a European professor at the London School of Economics, was told “she was no longer
qualified to advise the government because she is not a British citizen” (Kinstler, 2016). Kinstler (2016)
reports, “All five of the UK’s 2016 Nobel Laureates have accepted positions in the US, where funding and
facilities are easier to obtain.” Furthermore, more than 90% of Europeans on staff at University College
of London have been contacted by universities overseas, asking them if they would consider relocating
(Gardiner, 2018). In addition, Gardiner (2018) reports, “Recruiting new researchers has proven even
harder than retaining existing researchers.” In one fellowship program for young researchers, 30 out of
100 applicants come from the EU. In 2018, there were none (Gardiner, 2018).
One long-term research collaboration involving multiple research institutions is the Horizon 2020
project, a £77 billion funded (over 7 years) collaborative focused on cutting-edge science (Kinstler, 2016;
Savage, 2017). The Horizon 2020 project, an initiative currently supporting 14% to 19% of British research, is designed to secure Europe’s global competitiveness by making it easier for public and private
sectors to collaborate and cultivate innovation (European Commission, 2017; Kinstler, 2016). By pairing research and innovation, Horizon 2020 facilitates this through its objectives: “stimulating excellent
science, building industrial leadership, and providing solutions to the challenges that our society faces”
(European Commission, 2017). Nevertheless, in 2016 the proportion of UK participation in the project
was 15% of the total, while it received just under 16% of the share of funding, according to government
figures compiled by Universities UK (Savage, 2017). Over the same period, UK participation fell to
12%, and funding fell to 13% (Savage, 2017).
Free Movement and Immigration Issues
Universities are dependent on students, faculty, researchers, and staff from around the world, and Brexit
may threaten their mobility (James, 2016). Currently, students from EU countries are able to travel
freely throughout the region to study, live, and work (James, 2016). Mobility freedom is one of the
core principles of the EU, and means that students can easily travel abroad to complete their studies at
another EU institution. However, if the UK leaves the EU, students may find it difficult to travel freely
from their home country to other countries for educational purposes. Consequently, the number of undergraduate students applying for admission to UK universities have decreased by 5% since 2016, and
applications from undergraduate EU students have dropped for the first time since 2012 (Dear, 2017;
Gardiner, 2018; James, 2016).
Great Britain’s Prime Minister, Theresa May, vowed “to end the freedom of movement between
Britain and Europe,” citing national security as the primary motivation after recent terrorist attacks on
European cities (Kinstler, 2016). Great Britain’s Home Secretary, Amber Rudd, recently announced
plans to “restrict all student visas in an effort to decrease overall immigration” (Kinstler, 2016). This
crackdown threatens some universities where between 15% to 50% of their students are foreign students
who pay higher tuition and fees, which will have a devastating effect on higher education’s revenue
(Kinstler, 2016). Consequently, UK students will find it difficult to study in countries other than their
own due to increased costs and fees levied against them as non-EU members (James, 2016). From 2014
to 2015, EU, non-UK, and international student enrollment equaled 440,000, making up about 20% of
the nation’s student population (Kinstler, 2016, p. 3). Furthermore, Kinstler (2016) reports that 13% of
undergraduate students, 38% of postgraduate students, and 28% of academic staff nationwide are from
246
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
outside the UK. International students, in addition to paying higher tuition and related fees, contribute
£2.7 billion to the British economy annually in housing costs, transportation, and other miscellaneous
purchases, as well as supporting 19,000 jobs (Dennis, 2016). The implications for the British economy
of the loss of this revenue should be obvious (Dennis, 2016).
In another attempt to control immigration, the House of Commons voted against legislation to “protect
the rights of EU passport holders to live and work in a post-Brexit UK,” potentially revoking the right
and jeopardizing the fiscal, cultural, and intellectual future of British universities (Kinstler, 2016). Anand
Menon, professor of European politics at King’s College London said, “People from abroad won’t necessarily want to come here, because they think we’re racist and xenophobic” (Kinstler, 2016). A group
of academics and researchers campaigned for the UK to remain in the EU “for the sake of scientific
research” (Kinstler, 2016). However, in response to the group’s pleas, they were told “foreign experts,
students, and workers, are no longer welcome in Britain” (Kinstler, 2016). It has been reported that since
the Brexit vote, hate crimes in Britain have escalated (Kinstler, 2016). As a result, the consensus of EU
students (82%) was that the UK has become a less welcoming and hospitable place for foreign students
after the Brexit vote (Dennis, 2016; Gardiner, 2018).
University students may find some relief in recent news that announced “the UK government has
confirmed that EU students will remain eligible for financial support in academic year 2018 to 2019”
(Gov.UK, 2017; TopUniversities, 2018). If Prime Minister May succeeds in her quest to close the nation’s
borders and limit student mobility, it is expected that 2019 enrollment numbers for EU students will
drop by as much as 25% (Eggins, 2018). Additional concern of mobile university students is the ability
to successfully transfer academic credits earned at a university outside their home country post-Brexit.
Academic Credit Exchange
There are two types of study mobility: Credit Mobility and Degree Mobility (James, 2016). Credit-mobile
students may study at a university in a different country for a semester or two, earning credit towards a
degree at their home university (James, 2016). Degree-mobile students, which make up approximately
5.5% of students at UK universities (about 125,000 students), elect to go abroad for three or four years
to complete part or all of their degree through Joint Study Programs like ERAMUS (James, 2016).
Established in the 1970s, ERAMUS Program (EU’s Flagship study abroad program) promotes short
academic study at universities in different countries, allowing students to complete a semester or two
abroad while completing the majority of their degree courses at their home university (James, 2016).
As a part of the program, ERAMUS students do not pay fees to their host university (James, 2016). The
hosting university, as part of its ERAMUS Charter (a seven-year obligation), commits to supporting
students participating in the program (James, 2016). Students earn academic credit while abroad, which
is then counted towards their degree through the European Credit Transfer System (James, 2016). However, on some occasions, academic credits do not transfer or are not accepted by the home university
(James, 2016).
Moreover, once the UK separates from the EU, students may not have the support of the EU, ensuring academic credits earned while studying aboard will transfer and be counted towards their academic
degree (James, 2016; Mayhew, 2017). This development may cause a delay in degree completion, requiring students to take additional courses and accrue additional unexpected financial debt. According to
reports, EU students represent 5.3% of all full-time undergraduates, 12% Master’s students, and 14.3%
247
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
doctoral students (Mayhew, 2017). In 2013, it was reported that three million students had participated
in the ERAMUS Program since its introduction in the 1970s (James, 2016). Furthermore, in 2014 alone,
over 300,000 students studied abroad through the program (James, 2016).
HIGHER EDUCATION POST-BREXIT
The full impact of the decision for the UK to withdraw from the EU appears to be unknown. The literature
explained that the UK would allow foreign residents to remain in the country and maintain their legal
rights (Stokstad, 2016). While the announcement from the UK government potentially reduced some
uncertainty held by students and researchers, Stokstad (2016) and European Union – Foreign Relations
(2016) explained that many still held anxiety regarding their future. It was explained that as the withdrawal from the EU progresses, the UK government needs to work to strengthen its relationships and
partnerships with institutions and organizations within the EU in order to continue attracting researchers
and students (Stokstad, 2016). Additionally, to ensure funding remains available for research, Stokstad
(2016) stated that the UK needs to replace lost funding or buy-in to the research grant programs offered
through the EU, ensuring funding remains available to researchers.
While the literature could not estimate the full impact withdrawing from the EU would have on higher
education in the UK, it was not apparent that the decision would have an overall effect on the European
Commission’s goals outlined in the European Higher Education in the World Initiative. Through the
collaboration of EU member nations to fulfill the goals set forth in the Bologna Process and Lisbon
Strategy, the EHEA will progress towards the ability to provide worldwide access to higher education.
To achieve the outcomes set forth by the European Higher Education in the World Initiative, the EHEA
would potentially benefit from placing a focus on enhancing technology, providing access to higher
education through digital learning. An emphasis on digital learning would allow for increased access to
higher education in countries without developed higher education systems and for students seeking to
study at foreign institutions to access courses without having to move.
The future of the UK and the EU (particularly for universities, colleges, faculty, students, and researchers impacted by unforeseen changes) is hanging in the balance of the UK’s decision to leave the
EU. Higher education is a major global export, contributing £73 billion annually to the British economy
and approximately 2.8% of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Kinstler, 2016). Furthermore,
international students spend £4.9 billion off-campus in addition to £4.4 billion in tuition and fees, accounting for 20% of university revenue (Kinstler, 2016).
Looking forward, James (2016) presents three possible relationship options for the EU and the UK
after Brexit: to stay in the EU, not to stay in the EU, or some combination of the two. The UK must weigh
each option carefully against the implications and possible outcomes for all stakeholders. The first option
would require the UK to negotiate with the EU to continue as a member of the Single Market, though it
would no longer be an EU member state (James, 2016). Under this option, UK nationals would appreciate the same freedom of movement rights as EU citizens, and would be entitled to equivalent treatment
as EU citizens under European Economic Area (EEA). Furthermore, under this option students would
ideally pay fee rates equivalent to what is charged to non-EU students, and would be entitled to access
to financial support through grants or loans. Under the second option, the UK would not remain in the
Single Market after Brexit. This option would result in students who wish to study in the UK likely being
subject to the same treatment as students from non-EU countries. Such students may have to apply for
248
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
student visas, they may be charged higher tuition and fees than EU nationals, and they may no longer be
protected by the EU non-discrimination principle. Furthermore, they may no longer have rights under
EU law to financial support for fees or maintenance from the host country (James, 2016).
Finally, the third option would redefine the UK’s relationship with the EU and may become similar
to the EU’s relationship with Switzerland (James, 2016). Under this option, the UK would continue as
a European Free Trade Association (EFTA) member, but not remain an EEA member. This relationship
would be ruled by a series of specific mutual agreements, which would give the UK limited access to
the Single Market. One possible agreement under the third option may include free movement for people
between the EU and the UK, which is fundamentally the same agreement between current EEA and
EFTA member states (James, 2016). A free movement agreement may be extended to students studying
in the EU member states, however it would not influence students’ eligibility for financial assistance or
consideration for grants or loans.
FUTURE RESEARCH
Within international higher education, there is a clear lack of research and literature focusing on the use
of technology. There has been a call for additional research to be conducted with a focus on technology
within international higher education (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Tsiligiris & de Ruyter, 2018). Future
research would also benefit from looking at the impact of Brexit on the use of technology in higher
education within the United Kingdom and the European Union.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
As discussed, higher education stakeholders have legitimate concerns regarding the impact of the UK’s
separation from the EU. Academics feel the decisions made by the government do not reflect their
wishes, and are already showing signs of detrimental consequences to higher education and its stakeholders. Higher education contributes approximately 10% of the UK’s export of services, 28% of the
UK’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and 2.7% of the country’s employment (Mayhew, 2017). Many
students, faculty, and researchers are clinging to a “wait and see” attitude towards the potential fallout
of Brexit, while others are taking proactive approaches by planning for worst-case scenarios. Students
concerned with the limitations Brexit may have on their educational mobility and academic funding are
waiting for additional unexpected changes that hinge on Brexit’s outcome. A French student studying
at University College London commented that “Brexit might make it harder to stay in London after
graduation,” but because she is a French citizen, she thinks she will have many other choices, unlike her
British classmates (Gardnier, 2018).
In preemptive moves, students are transferring to institutions outside the UK and EU to universities
that are welcoming and accommodating the special needs and circumstances of international scholars.
Researchers are prematurely dissolving collaborative partnerships with colleagues to mitigate complications and lost funding expected, as a result of Brexit. There are universities exploring possible locations for
new satellite campuses in other countries (Kinstler, 2016). Universities are “advocating for uninterrupted
funding streams, open visa regimes for researchers and students, and continued mobility via programs
like Erasmus, which allow European students to study abroad in any other member state, free of cost”
249
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
(Kinstler, 2016). There is a glimmer of hope for the victims of Brexit; Australia, Germany, Ireland, and
Scotland are among some of the countries aggressively vying for “Brexit refugees” (Kinstler, 2016).
With access to higher education increasing around the world, it is imperative that institutions of higher
education review their current practices and work to enhance the services provided. The European Union
has moved to ensure higher education within the European Higher Education Area meets the changing
demands placed on higher education in order to continue producing valuable research and attracting
more students. Through the development of policies and treaties such as the Bologna Process, Lisbon
Strategy, European Higher Education in the World initiative, the European Union has demonstrated the
importance and purpose of higher education both in Europe and at the international level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research received no specific grant or financial support from any funding agency in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
REFERENCES
Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3/4), 290–305. doi:10.1177/1028315307303542
Becker, S. O., Fetzer, T., & Novy, D. (2017). Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level
analysis. Economic Policy, 32(92), 601–650. doi:10.1093/epolic/eix012
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2017). What could be the effect of Brexit on the UK Education
market? BBC Active. Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/ImpactofBrexitonFurtherEducation.aspx
Davis, T. M. (2003). Atlas of student mobility. New York, NY: Institute of International Education.
Dear, P. (2017). Brexit could ‘undermine’ UK’s elite education status. euobserver. Retrieved from https://
euobserver.com/education/138885
Dennis, M. (2016). Consider implications of Brexit for international student mobility. Enrollment
Management Report: Realities & Innovations, 20(6), 3-3. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.
com.lib-e2.lib.ttu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=194c155a-2d18-4740-b994ec7894bbf393%40sessionmgr104
Eggins, H. (2018). Leaders in the UK respond to the shock of Brexit. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from:
https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/leaders-uk-respond-shock-brexit
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Act of Union, 1707. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from: https://
www.britannica.com/event/Act-of-Union-Great-Britain-1707
European Commission. (2017). Horizon 2020 in full swing: Three years on, Facts and figures 2014-2016.
Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/sites/horizon2020/files/h2020_threeyearson_a4_horizontal_2018_web.pdf
250
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
European Commission. (2013). European higher education in the world. Brussels: Author.
European Union – Foreign Relations. (2016). Brexit’s impact on higher education and research. Education Journal, 286, 17.
Gardiner, B. (2018). U.K. Universities face uncertainty as Brexit looms. The New York Times. Retrieved
from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/05/education/learning/uk-universities-brexit.html
Gov.UK. (2017). Government confirms funding for EU students for 2018 to 2019. Gov.UK. Retrieved from
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-confirms-funding-for-eu-students-for-2018-to-2019
Hanham, A. A. (2017). England, Scotland, and the Treaty of Union, 1706-08. The History of Parliament: British Political, Social & Local History. Retrieved from: http://www.historyofparliamentonline.
org/england-scotland-and-treaty-union-1706-08
Heyl, J. D., & Tullbane, J. (2012). Leadership in international higher education. In D. K. Deardorff,
H. de Wit, J. D. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp.
113–130). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n7
Huisman, J., & van der Wnde, M. (Eds.). (2005). On cooperation and competition II: Institutional responses to internationalization, Europeanization, and globalization. Bonn, Germany: Lemmens Verlag.
James, C. (2016). Brexit: What now for study mobility between the UK and the EU? Pécs Journal of
International and European Law, 2016(2). Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.
journals/pjiel2016&id=84&collection=journals&index=
Johnson, B. (2018). Kings and Queens of England & Britain. Historic UK: The history and heritage
accommodation guide. Retrieved from: https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/KingsQueensofBritain/
Keeling, R. (2006). The Bologna Process and the Lisbon Research Agenda: The European Commission’s expanding role in higher education discourse. European Journal of Education, 41(2), 203–223.
doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2006.00256.x
Kinstler, L. (2016). Brexit is jeopardizing Britain’s intellectual legacy. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://
www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/ImpactofBrexitonFurtherEducation.aspx
Knight, J. (2012). Concepts, rationales, and interpretive frameworks in the internationalization of higher
education. In D. K. Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. D. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp. 27–42). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n2
Maassen, P., & Stensaker, B. (2011). The knowledge triangle, European higher education policy logics
and policy implications. Higher Education, 61(6), 757–769. doi:10.100710734-010-9360-4
Mayhew, K. (2017). UK higher education and Brexit. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 33(S1), S155–
S161. doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx012
McBride, J. (2017). What Brexit Means. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from: https://www.
cfr.org/backgrounder/what-brexit-means?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI-_KVmfeK3AIVk7bACh3cwQLeEAAYASAAEgKENvD_BwE
251
Impact of the European Higher Education in the World Initiative on Higher Education
New York Times. (2017). Theresa May’s Letter Invoking Article 50. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/29/world/europe/theresa-may-letter-article-50.html
Nokkala, T., & Bacevic, J. (2014). University autonomy, agenda setting and the construction of agency:
The case of the European University Association in the European Higher Education Area. European
Educational Research Journal, 13(6), 669–714. doi:10.2304/eerj.2014.13.6.699
Redden, E. (2017, June 14). Survey of more than 1,100 U.S. colleges looks at state of internationalization
efforts. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/06/14/surveymore-1100-us-colleges-looks-state-internationalization-efforts?width=775&height=500&iframe=true
Rumbley, L. E., Altbach, P. G., & Reisberg, L. (2012). Internationalization within the higher education
context. In D. K. Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. D. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp. 3–26). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n1
Savage, M. (2017). Fears grow over EU university funding as grants decline even before Brexit: Participation in Horizon 2020 project ‘already shows downward trend’. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://
www.theguardian.com/education/2017/dec/03/eu-university-funding-grants-decline-brexit-horizon-2020
Schengen Area. (2017). List of Schengen Area Countries. Schengen Visa Information. Retrieved from:
https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/schengen-visa-countries-list/
Stokstad, E. (2016). Uncertainty reigns in Brexit Britain. Science, 353(6298), 437.
doi:10.1126cience.353.6298.437 PMID:27471289
Times. (2018). World university rankings 2018. Times Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.
timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2018/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/
rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats
TopUniversities.com. (2018). What does Brexit mean for students? Retrieved from https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/university-news/what-does-brexit-mean-students
Tsiligiris, V., & de Ruyter, A. (2018). What the higher education Brexit debate has not covered. University World News, 525. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.
php?story=20180111085339886
United Kingdom National Archives. (2018). United Kingdom Legislation. Union with Scotland Act 1706.
Retrieved from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/Ann/6/11
252
253
Chapter 14
MOOCs and the Challenges
They Pose to Higher Education
Victor Wang
Liberty University, USA
Linda Ellington
Southern New Hampshire University, USA
ABSTRACT
Technologies come and go at an alarming rate, and the length of time any one technology exists before
being supplanted by a newer technology is growing even shorter. In colleges and universities, this rapid
technological replacement rate can hold immense implications for both the development and delivery
of education. When technology transience is considered, institutions of higher education look at how
specific incarnations of technology come and go, the length of time they are in existence, and their
use within a given context. And because education has historically been so closely intertwined with
technology, it becomes an investigation into not only education but also lifespan development, societal
adaptation, and a myriad of other factors in which technology driven international universities will exist
and or cease to exist.
TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
As educators advanced into the 21st century, we realized that teaching, especially teaching adult learners,
is completed not only in the traditional classroom, but also in the electronic classroom, or what is called
“virtual environments”. Since technology can provide convenience and flexibility, adult learners try to
maximize their learning via technology. Malcolm Knowles predicted that teaching of adults in the 21st
century would be delivered electronically (Knowles, 1975). His prediction was warranted as more and
more universities have begun to deliver courses via technology. One logical inference as to why Knowles
made such a precise prediction is that mature learners cannot come to the traditional classroom to receive
their education and training because of their multiple work/family responsibilities. Yet, they must retool
their knowledge and skills in order to survive and thrive by continually updating their skills and coping
with changing demands in the job market. Knowles further predicted that the de-institutionalization of
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch014
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
education, in the form of open and independent learning systems, would create a need for learners to
develop appropriate self-directed learning skills. Students entering into these programs without having
learned the skills of self-directed inquiry will experience anxiety, frustration, and, often failure, and so
will their teachers (as cited in Wang, 2005, p. 35). Self-directed learning skills will help mature learners learn in the virtual environments where they have no face-to-face meetings with course instructors.
However, there are potential drawbacks of learner centered MOOCs such as the danger of learners
forming themselves into echo chambers, in disregarding resources with which they disagree, of importing
fake news as resources, the danger of students trolling, flaming or bullying other learners, of the blind
leading the blind, of wasting time on poorly or incorrectly formulated research questions, and generally
degenerating into dysfunction. Teacher-centered models do not eliminate those dangers and may be
worse if the instruction degenerates into propaganda, but by noting these potential issues (albeit briefly)
designers may be more alert to them and build structures to mitigate these dangers.
The purpose of this chapter is to dialog about traditional (pedagogical) teaching and innovative (andragogical) teaching so that both learners and instructors can determine whether andragogical online
teaching is a better fit than pedagogical online teaching. Without knowledge of pedagogical or andragogical teaching, instructors may find it difficult to “prescribe” the right instructional design, let alone
the right teaching methodologies in virtual environments. Although scholars and researchers recognize
the distinction between the education of adults and the education of children, step–by-step guidelines
for andragogical teaching need to be provided. More importantly, practitioners in the field may want to
follow andragogical teaching steps in order to achieve effective teaching of adults online. Educators can
measure and observe student learning outcomes in behaviorist terms; however, andragogical teaching
may prove to be a more powerful tool in helping adults learn in the electronic classroom
Theoretical Framework
Traditional teaching methodologies (e.g., Tyler’s 1949 four fundamental questions for curriculum development) were derived from Skinner’s behaviorism (1968). Behaviorism’s influence on instructional
technology “led to the design of piecemeal instruction with immediate feedback and reinforcement, drill
and practice procedures, and self-paced programmed instruction (as cited in Dewald, 2003, p. 48). As
Dewald (2003) further indicated, behaviorist instructors made an effort to measure learning outcomes.
They also want student learning outcomes to be observable and measurable. Educators who base their
practice on behaviorist assumptions tend to believe that if they fail to measure and observe student learning outcomes, students have failed to learn.
Among other modifications, Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revision of the original Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956) redefines the cognitive domain as the intersection of the Cognitive
Process Dimension and the Knowledge Dimension. Although the Cognitive Process and Knowledge
Dimensions are represented as hierarchical steps, the distinctions between categories are not always
clear cut. For example, all procedural knowledge is not necessarily more abstract than all conceptual
knowledge; and an objective that involves analyzing or evaluating may require thinking skills that are
no less complex than one that involves creating. It is generally understood, nonetheless, that lower order
thinking skills are subsumed by, and provide the foundation for higher order. Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy
of educational objectives (based on behaviorism) informed educators’ practice for decades and yet children were successful in their learning which one would then question the belief that failing to measure
and observe the learning outcome has any validity to failure or success.
254
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
While the education of children focuses on pedagogy (the art and science of teaching children), the
education of adults should also refer to andragogy (the art and science of helping adults learn). The
juxtaposition of pedagogy and andragogy represents the essential issue of teacher-centered methods
versus learner-centered education. As Knowles (1970) argued that adults have andragogical learning
characteristics whereas children have pedagogical learning characteristics, his comparison of two models generated much controversy in the field. It is important to recognize that not every adult learner is
a self-directed learner. Therefore, teacher-centered methods are still useful especially when an adult is
entering a totally new content area (Dewald, 2003, p. 49). However, no one can doubt the benefits of a
learner-centered education when adult learners are self-directed and task-oriented in either the traditional
or the electronic classrooms. And no one can doubt the value of helping adults move from teacher-directed
to learner-directed education (Smith, 2012). When learners are capable of self-directed learning in an
online learning environment, educators need to work within Knowles’ andragogical model in order to
maximize learning. Making the switch from a pedagogical to an andragogical model is essentially a
paradigm shift for educators (Weimer, 2012). Table 1 contains Knowles’ (1995, pp. 89-90) comparison
of the two teaching models.
Using their practical virtual classroom experience, their knowledge of pedagogical and andragogical
assumptions of learning, and a content analysis (literature review), the goal was to direct readers to adopt
either pedagogical principles of instructional design or andragogical principles of instructional design
(or some combination of both) in either the traditional classroom or virtual learning environments. This
includes offering an opportunity to think afresh about new models that include elements of all aspects
of open education.
This opportunity opens a particular question in mind; namely, are universities using the MOOC
delivery method to become transnational businesses, seemingly driven by a primary concern for marketing educational commodities? Or as Singh and Han (2005) suggested that universities have nowhere to
hide from the winds of change, and therefore new delivery models need to be pressed into colleges and
universities being recognized as a technology driven international university.
Table 1. Knowles’ comparison of two models
Pedagogical Model
Andragogical Model
The learner is dependent on the teacher to decide what will be
taught and how it will be taught.
The learner prefers to be self-directed, so the learner and teacher
should plan together what will be learned.
The learner has little experience to contribute to the learning effort,
so the goal is to transmit knowledge through lectures, assigned
readings, and presentations.
The learner brings a wealth of experience to the learning
situation, and therefore learning should include elements such as
experiments, discussion, case studies, and simulations.
Learning is organized by the logic of the subject matter.
Learning is organized around a task to be completed or problem to
be solved.
Learners are considered ready to learn when they attain prescribed
ages.
Learners are considered ready to learn when they have a need to
know something, and learners want to be able to apply what they
learn to their lives.
Motivation is inspired by external rewards such as punishment,
grades, and pressure from teachers and parents.
Motivation is inspired by internal incentives such as selfconfidence, better quality of life, and curiosity.
The teacher is responsible for content design, determining
coverage, and efficient transmittal methods.
The teacher, as facilitator, is responsible for process design,
creating the climate for learning, and making resources available.
255
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
MAKING SENSE OF MOOCS
Learning is about change, and adult learning is also about change. “Adult learning theory helps faculty to
understand their students and to design more meaningful learning experiences for them” (Cercone, 2008,
p.6). Thus, a massive open online course (MOOC) engages networked learning methods but not within
the typical structure of a traditional course. More like an online event, MOOCs invite open participation
around a topic of interest and a schedule or agenda, facilitated by people with a reputation or expertise in
the topic of discussion, relying on successful formations of learning networks to assist people studying
the topics (Kop, Fournier, & Mak, 2011). The promise of MOOCs is that they will provide free access,
openness in education, knowledge shared freely, cutting edge courses that could drive down the cost of
university level education and potentially disrupt the existing models of higher education (Li & Powell,
2013). MOOCs, in contrast to traditional university online courses, have three key features:
1.
2.
3.
Open Access – Anyone can participate in an online course for free;
Scalability – Courses are designed to support an indefinite number of participants;
Desire to learn should be met without demographic, economic and geographical constraints (2013).
When Stephen Downs and George Siemens coined the term in 2008, massively open online courses
(MOOCs) were conceptualized as the next evolution of networked learning. The essence of the original
MOOC concept was a web course that people could take from anywhere across the world, with potentially
thousands of participants. The basis of this concept is an expansive and diverse set of content, contributed by a variety of experts, educators, and instructors in a specific field, and aggregated into a central
repository, such as a web site; thus, the use of social media is central to a MOOC. As such, participants
use a variety of web-based tools (de Waard, Koutropoulos, Keshin, Abajian, Hogue, Rodriguez, & Gallagher, 2011). As a MOOC is a gathering of people with generally no prior connection, it has a unique
social advantage that relates to a more open and connected way of thinking (2011). A common thread in
MOOCs are tools such as WikiSpaces, YouTube, and Google Hangouts, among many others, to foster
discussion, create and share videos, and engage in all the other activities that have become essential to
teaching in a modern online learning environment (Johnson, Becker, Cummins, Estrada, Freeman, &
Ludgate, 2013). Meaningful learning occurs if social and teaching presence forms the basis of design,
facilitation, and direction of cognitive processes for the realization of personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes (Kop, Fournier, & Mak, 2011).
The MOOC has morphed into a juggernaut often acclaimed as a revolution in higher education (Pappano, 2012 as cited in Stewart, 2013). However, the open education movement has roots in the open source
movement of the late 1980s and early 1990s (Corous, 2006, Wiley, 2006) the enlightenment (Peters 2008),
Dewey and Piaget’s work (Sherman, 2009), Karl Popper’s views on feedback and in the inquisitive style
of Socrates (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982 as cited in Baker & Surry, 2013). As discovered in the original
open education movement, pinning down a solid definition of openness is not an easy task. There have
been attempts (Tunnell, 1975; Wiley, 2012 as cited in Baker & Surry, 2013) and the results tend to include contextually based caveats. However, Baker and Surrey posit that it is still possible to arrive at an
operational, although still admittedly limited, understanding of the open education environment through
considering goals and tenets of what openness means (2013). Concepts like open are becoming a value
in the discussions within higher educational institutions. “Open” continues its diffusion as a buzzword
256
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
in education, and it is increasingly important to understand the definition. Often mistakenly equated
with ‘free,’ open education advocates are working towards a common vision that defines ‘open’ as free,
copyable, remixable, and without barriers to access or interaction (Johnson et al., 2013).
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOOCS
MOOC courses exhibit common defining characteristics that include: massive participation; online and
open access; lectures formatted as short videos combined with formative quizzes; automated assessment and/or peer and self-assessment, an online forum for peer support and discussion; online fora a for
peer support (Glance, Forsey, & Riley, 2013). The content and discussion in a MOOC reflect the open,
networked and distributed structure of the Internet. While a classroom-type model is evident in open
courses through the use of readings and recorded lecturers, participants have control and autonomy of
moving beyond the planned structure of the course through the use of open educational resources, the use
of personal blogs, and the formation of sub-networks around areas of personal interest (Siemens, 2013).
Tunnell (1975) identified rules common to open educational practice: students should have agency over
their educational endeavors, known as the freedom rule and instructors must create rich environments
full of resources and opportunity, the environment rule (as cited in Baker & Surry, 2013).
MOOCs allow learning to happen across space and time due to its mainly asynchronous and online
architecture (de Waard et al., 2011). According to Siemens, learning is now happening “through communities of practice, personal networks and through completion of work-related tasks in an environment
in which know-how and know-what is being supplemented with know-where to find knowledge needed”
(2005, p. 4 as cited in de Waard et al., 2011). MOOC platform facilitates understanding of knowledge
by connecting learners, information, and tools at a point and time of the learner’s choosing (de Waard
et al., 2011).
According to McAuley, Stewart, Siemens, and Cormier:
A MOOC integrates the connectivity of social networking, the facilitation of an acknowledged expert in a
field of study and a collection of freely accessible online resources. Perhaps most importantly a MOOC
builds on the active engagement of several hundred to several thousand students who self-organize their
participation according to learning goals, prior knowledge and skills, and common interests. Although
it may share in some of the conventions of an ordinary course, such as pre-defined timeline and weekly
topics for consideration, a MOOC generally carries no fees, no prerequisites other than Internet access
and interest. (2010, p. 5 as cited in Siemens, 2013, p. 6)
Even though MOOCs were initiated and guided by very specific pedagogical assumptions, the
phenomenon has spread out without necessarily following their initial associated pedagogy (Clara &
Barbera, 2013). This fact led Siemens (2012) to differentiate between cMOOCs and xMOOCs (as cited
in Clara & Barbera, 2013). Pioneers of cMOOCs (mainly Siemens and Downes) argued that none of
behaviorism, cognitivism, or constructivism could adequately explain learning as it happens on the Web.
Consequently, they articulated some psychological assumptions that they argued led them to propose
the pedagogy that in 2008 gave birth to the first MOOC (Mackness, Mak, & Williams, 2010 as cited in
Clara & Barbera, 2013). xMOOCs, a traditional model, tend to demonstrate a behaviorist philosophy.
257
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Siemens (2012) states that xMOOCs emulate the existing educating system, choosing instead to transfer
it online rather than transform it online (as cited in Jurenas, 2014, pp. 38-51).
In the cMOOC approach the instructor assumes the role of facilitator, with students actively interacting with each other. It is not a knowledge transfer from teacher to student, but learners are self-organized
and participate in self-defined learning goals according to prior knowledge, skills, and common interests
(Kop, 2011; Stevens, 2013; as cited in Jurenas, 2014, pp. 38-51). Based on the Kolb Learning Cycle
(Kolb, 1984), Kop emphasizes that the adult learner has an experience or a thought and would like to
find out more or might want to get involved in an activity that requires exploration; at which time he
or she then aggregates information, plans the learning activity, and might call on others to discuss the
generated ideas and ask for assistance (as cited in Kop, Fournier, & Mak, 2011).
Stewart focused on MOOCs from a social communications and learning-focused perspective rather
than an instrumental or technologically centered approach. She suggests that it is the ways in which
MOOCs open up questions of goal, purpose and teacher/student roles that make their massive scale so
powerful and she further proposed that MOOCs can help acculturate learners to a form of new literacy
development for the digital age (2013). The communications approach focuses on the Internet not as
a technology but as a medium for human engagement. “The internet encourages discussion, dialogue
and community that is not limited by time or place. The role of educators in this world is to facilitate
dialogue and support students in their understanding of resources” (Waller, 2007, p. 6 as cited in Stewart, 2013). In this sense, the MOOC allows a new model of learning based on adaptive responses to
both discursive and active feedback from facilitators and participants with the potential for engagement
in a continual flow of dialogue and exchange and for reflective action on the part of the learner (Kop,
Fournier, & Mak, 2011).
IMPACT OF MOOCS ON TECHNOLOGY DRIVEN UNIVERSITIES
Online learning continues to outpace the enrollment growth in traditional university students (Allen &
Seaman, 2011 as cited in Siemens, 2013). The competition inherent in the rush to offer MOOCs will
create a sea change by obliging participating institutions to revisit their mission and focus on teaching
quality and methodologies of teaching as never before (Daniel, 2012). This then begs a question on the
technology transience and challenges it poses to higher education. The question being: technology has
stood the test of time - - or has it?
The most compelling aspect of the proliferation of MOOCs is that it is helping frame important
discussions about online learning that simply could not have taken place before the advent of actual
experiments in learning at scale (Johnson, et al., 2013). MOOCs are at the forefront of these discussions,
enabling students to supplement their education and experiences at brick and mortar institutions with
increasingly rich and often free, online offerings. As these new platforms emerge, however, there is a
need to evaluate the current models and determine how to best support collaboration, interaction, and
assessment at scale (Johnson, et al., 2013).
Kop, Fournier, and Mak highlighted that not so long-ago educators would try to help learners in
the development of conceptual frameworks by direction communication and social interaction within a
classroom community, be it virtual or face-to-face. They emphasized that emergent technologies, such
as MOOCs, provide different models and structures to support learning. They disrupted the notion that
learning should be controlled by educators and educational institutions as information and knowledge
258
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
are readily available on online networks through a press of a button for anyone interested in expanding
his or her horizon (2011). Singh & Han would identify this as learners’ desire to engage in learning and
relearning throughout their lives (2005).
Massive open online courses impact a power shift toward increased equity between educator and
learner. Figure 1 details how the traditional faculty-content-learner role is increasingly augmented
through open educational resources and external experts. The emerging educator-learner power shift
is also reflected in access to learning content, social media and content creation tools reflective of the
participatory nature of the Web (Siemens, 2013).
De Waard et al. captured well the essence of the nature of MOOCs:
The growing importance of collaborative learning is supported by constructivism, connectivism and its
practical implementation the MOOC by all their ability and focus on communication, more specifically
dialogue, to construct knowledge and create collaborative networks. This new knowledge age demands
new formats and frameworks to be drawn up. When looking at this shift in learning which is happening as a result of the rise in social media, ubiquitous cloud computing and new technologies, a MOOC
complements all these changes. (2011, pp. 30-39)
In terms of the proliferation of MOOCs, as an educational approach, there is a risk that it is being
driven by a self-selecting group of highly educated, IT literate individuals who are able to navigate the
sometimes complex, confusing and intimidating nature of online learning (Li & Powell, 2013). Having
said that, there are concerns about the pedagogy of MOOC courses with a clear distinction between
process and content-based approaches (2013). Thus, there is a significant question for higher education
institutions to address: is online teaching, such as MOOCs, heralding a change in the landscape that
poses a threat to either model, conventional or innovative, and are educators accepting this change in
their teaching models? For example, instead of teaching either or, is the combination of conventional
and innovative (blended style) the future of online teaching and learning? Maybe we coin this term to
be pedandrogy style and use the combination of wider societal adoption of communication and internet
technologies to leverage this opportunity to teach and develop curriculum differently.
Figure 1. Faculty-content-learner
259
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Students already spend much of their free time on the Internet, learning and exchanging new information – often via their social networks. Institutions that embrace MOOCs have the potential to leverage the online skills learners have already developed independent of academia (Johnson et al., 2013).
MOOCs open-ended unstructured time encourages experimentations, exploring topics based on their
own motivations. This type of open learning will become increasingly important to higher education
decision makers.
According to the NMC Horizon Report (2013) MOOCs are expected to grow in number and influence within the next years. Big name providers including Coursea, edX and Udacity count hundreds of
thousands of enrolled learners. One of the most appealing promises of MOOCS is that they offer the
possibility for continued, advanced learning at zero cost, allowing students and professionals to acquire
new skills and to improve their knowledge and employability (2013).
In some ways the impact of MOOCs is not so much due to the way they are designed nor in what
the instructor ‘assigns’ participants, but rather due to the spaces for engagement made possible by the
course. The real impact of MOOCs lies in the flexibility of pathways and options for lifelong learning
to occur (Kitsiri, 2013, Bali, 2013 as cited in Bali, 2014). Shedroff (2009) argued that in current design
practice, the main focus should be on creating environments that encourage relationships with individuals, experiences that connect on an emotional and value level; the design must include the building of
connections, collaborations between resources and people (as cited in Kop, Fournier, & Mak, 2011).
MOOCS IN THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS
Before we can discuss conventional online teaching and andragogical online teaching in detail, the word
“conventional” must be defined. According to Newbury House Dictionary of American English (“Newbury
House Dictionary of American English,” 2013), “conventional” is defined as “based on or conforming
to accepted ways of doing things, (syn.) traditional.” One definition provided by Merriam-Webster’s
Online Dictionary (“Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary,” 2013) indicates that “conventional” means
lacking originality or individuality. Compared with conventional online teaching, andragogical online
teaching offers an approach in the following way.
Following Knowles’ andragogical model, Baumgartner (2008) advocated that
In a truly andragogical setting, the learners would plan their own curriculum. They would decide the
courses, their content, the organization and sequence of content and they would evaluate themselves
on their learning. The facilitators would provide learning contracts, help students become more selfdirected, utilize the learner’s own experiences to help them plan their goals, assess their needs, and
plan a course of action. (p. 42)
What Baumgartner suggested runs contrary to the conventional online teaching where the teacher
would do everything regarding the instructional design process. While adults have a deep psychological need to know what to learn, why to learn, when to learn, and if anything has been learned, children
may not have such a need at all. Children may simply learn when their teachers or parents tell them to
learn. To state this first principle of adult learning in Knowles’ original terms, “adults need to know why
they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it” (Knowles, 1989, p. 83). To satisfy such a
260
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
need in learning, not only do instructors provide learning objectives, but more importantly they need to
clarify the practical relevance of the course material and objectives to learners’ lives. Although this has
been questioned, and is a critique of Knowles’ work, teachers may not need to tell children how course
materials are related to their lives.
When adult learners are recognized as having valuable prior experience andragogical online instructors can call on learners’ experiences to draw out course relevance (Baumgartner, 2008). Knowles suggested that methods that help learners tap into those experiences such as “group discussion, simulation
exercises, problem-solving activities, case method, and laboratory methods” work best (Knowles, 1989,
p. 84). We call these instructional methods andragogical instructional methods.
Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own lives (the psychological definition of
adult)” (Knowles, 1989, p. 83). Therefore, it is an adult educator’s responsibility to help adults transition
from being dependent to being self-directed learners. In the online andragogical teaching environment,
instructors can organize learning around a task to be completed or a problem to be solved. This approach
is more akin to constructivism, which places its emphasis on the internal process of the learner’s mind
(Dewald, 2003, p. 53).
The importance of learners’ self-concept follows from Rogers’ (1951) basic hypothesis: Learning
is a completely internal process controlled by the learner and the learner engages his [her] whole being
in interaction with the environment as he or she perceives it (as cited in Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,
2005, p. 50). While organizing learning by the logic of the subject matter is helpful in the education of
children, this method may frustrate online adult learners as it violates humanism from which andragogy
directly flows (Nuckles, 2000). According to Wang (2007) adult learners with a humanistic orientation
assume responsibility for learning and self-development. Translated into andragogical online teaching,
instructors must establish a context for learning and serve as a flexible resource for adult learners (Elias
& Merriam, 1995, 2005). Further, humanistic online instructors see themselves as facilitators, helpers,
and partners in the learning process. Even in virtual learning environments the relationship between
instructors and learners is a helping relationship where instructors assume the role of facilitators, helpers,
or consultants. Humanistic online instructors do not depend on lectures or PowerPoint presentations.
Rather, they link students to learning resources, encourage learners to be self-directed, and enjoy being
a guide rather than an authority figure.
Adults become ready to learn what they need to know or to be able to do in order to cope effectively
with their real-life situations. An especially rich source of readiness to learn is the developmental tasks
associated with moving from one developmental stage to the next (Knowles, 1989). For adult learners,
learning objectives must be connected to their developmental challenges as they have a need to know
something, and they want to be able to apply what they learn to their lives. Adults are life-centered (or
task-centered or problem-centered) in their orientation to learning (Knowles, 1989). Baumgartner suggests that course planners should recognize a balance between theory and application. Online instructors
should ask themselves a fundamental question: Are my problems/tasks for my online adult learners out
of the everyday context? If not, this principle of andragogical online teaching is violated and online
instructors of adults switch back to a behaviorist mode of teaching.
Adult learning addresses motivation. While adults respond to some extrinsic motivators (better jobs,
promotions, salary increases, etc.), the more potent motivators are intrinsic motivators (the desire for
increased self-esteem, quality of life, responsibility, job satisfaction, etc.) (Knowles, 1989). Does this
mean that the teacher is not responsible for content design, coverage, and efficient transmittal methods?
261
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
According to Baumgartner (2008), the teacher still has to intrinsically appeal to learners’ self-esteem
or have the potential to enhance learners’ quality of life. Facilitators of adult learning can help learners
recognize this appeal by creating the climate for learning and making resources available.
DILEMMAS IN TEACHING METHODS
In a traditional classroom or traditional online course, learning designers and educators structure the
readings, learning resources, lectures and activities of learners. As a result, learning is directed toward
clearly articulated goals and outcomes. The educator provides shape and direction to the learning experience by forming groups and providing assessment assignment focuses or guidelines (Siemens, 2013).
Burton et al. state:
Little hesitation existed about the pedagogical approach to learning; instructors guided the learning to
submission learners. In pedagogy the value of real-world familiarity is diminished. As individuals develop,
their self-direction progresses. Without a shift in instructors’ thinking and teaching delivery pedagogy
moves towards incongruent and unfit states. The values of educational methodologies progressed from
single models to being multi-disciplinary, to inter-disciplinary frameworks. Today we are experiencing
trans-disciplinary models. This methodology negotiates across cultural boundaries and disciplines and
is progressive student-centered and constructivist. Through adult education, andragogy and electrified
technology, society has the perspective to learn in a global sense. (2013)
Adoption of progressive pedagogies is often enabled through exploration of emerging educational
platforms and technologies, and thus a change in attitude among academics is imperative (Johnson et
al., 2013).
Through the discussion of conventional online teaching and andragogical online teaching discussed
in the above section, two models have been developed: Traditional Teaching Model and Innovative
Teaching Model.
The model presented in Figure 2 illustrates the dynamic interaction of variables that contribute to
measurable/observable learning outcomes in an instructor-centered approach to teaching and assumptions
about the learners. Instructors have been using this model in their traditional and electronic classrooms
since Skinner advanced and popularized behaviorism. Since online teaching occurred in the early 21st
century, most universities and colleges including some businesses and government agencies simply
have moved this model to computer screens. Since Bloom (1956) developed his Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, educators have been using Bloom’s Taxonomy to develop instructional outcomes.
The goal of this model has been very clear: learning objectives for learners must lead to measurable
and observable learning outcomes. Instructional methods focus on teacher-centered methodologies.
Teachers believe that it is their responsibility to provide stimuli and learners respond to those stimuli.
If students provide correct answers, their behavior is rewarded. That is, instructors prescribe instruction
and learners assume a submissive role of following their instructors (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,
1998, 2005, 2011). Further, instructors treat learners as dependent learners (Grow, 1991; Wang, 2007).
They believe in external rewards such as punishment, grades, and pressure from teachers and parents.
Instructors believe that they are authorities. Therefore, they create instructional designs according to
their own prior experience. Learner input is not taken into consideration. For those adults who follow
262
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Figure 2. Traditional teaching model
a behaviorist philosophy of learning, this model can work when adult learners have practical deadlines
to meet in a short period of time. Adults new to a subject area may also benefit from this approach to
teaching and learning. This model works best especially in adult basic education where mature learners
may not be self-directed in learning as they may not even have entry level knowledge in terms of learning a new subject. For example, since the emphasis in vocational education is on identifying the skills
to perform in an occupation, teaching those skills, and requiring a certain standard of performance,
this model can prove to be effective. According to Elias and Merriam (2005), education in this arena
of practice is concerned with the outcomes rather than the process of learning, exit rather than entrance
requirements, and criterion-referenced evaluation rather than norm-referenced evaluation. This model
works well in certain cultures such as Confucius-heritage societies where all learners are required to
pass standardized tests in order to be matriculated into as middle schools, high schools or universities.
Elias and Merriam (2005) argue that,
Criterion-referenced evaluation is an important concept in behavioral psychology. In criterion-referenced
evaluation, the learner’s process or accomplishments are compared to a fixed standard or criterion of
mastery rather than to the performance of other students. It is based on the assumption that learning
objectives can be predetermined, and that given sufficient time and proper reinforcements nearly all
students can meet the objectives. (p. 99)
As educators know, teaching is a complicated practice that requires an interweaving of many kinds
of specialized knowledge. In this way, teaching is an example of an ill-structured discipline, requiring
263
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
teachers to apply complex knowledge structures across different cases and contexts (Mishra, Spiro, &
Feltovich, 1996; Spiro & Jehng, 1990). Teachers practice their craft in highly complex, dynamic classroom
contexts (Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986) that require them constantly to shift and evolve their understanding.
Thus, effective teaching depends on flexible access to rich, well-organized and integrated knowledge
from different domains (Putnam & Borko, 2000; Shulman, 1986, 1987), including knowledge of student
thinking and learning, knowledge of subject matter, and increasingly, knowledge of technology.
Teaching with technology is complicated further considering the challenges newer technologies present to teachers. In our work, the word technology applies equally to analog and digital, as well as new
and old, technologies. As a matter of practical significance, however, most of the technologies under
consideration in current literature are newer and digital and have some inherent properties that make
applying them in straightforward ways difficult (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Most traditional pedagogical
technologies are characterized by specificity (a pencil is for writing, while a microscope is for viewing
small objects); stability (pencils, pendulums, and chalkboards have not changed a great deal over time); and
transparency of function; the inner workings of the pencil or the pendulum are simple and directly related
to their function. Over time, these technologies achieve a transparency of perception (Bruce & Hogan,
1998); they become commonplace and, in most cases, are not even considered to be technologies. Digital
technologies—such as computers, handheld devices, and software applications—by contrast, are protean
(usable in different ways; Papert, 1980); unstable (rapidly changing); and opaque (the inner workings are
hidden from users; Turkle, 1995). On an academic level, it is easy to argue that a pencil and a software
simulation are both technologies. The latter, however, is qualitatively different in that its functioning
is more opaque to teachers and offers fundamentally less stability than more traditional technologies.
By their very nature, newer digital technologies, which are protean, unstable, and opaque, present new
challenges to teachers who are struggling to use more technology in their teaching. Also complicating
teaching with technology is an understanding that technologies are neither neutral nor unbiased. Rather,
particular technologies have their own propensities, potentials, affordances, and constraints that make
them more suitable for certain tasks than others (Bruce, 1993; Koehler & Mishra, 2008). Using email
to communicate, for example, affords (makes possible and supports) asynchronous communication and
easy storage of exchanges. Email does not afford synchronous communication in the way that a phone
call, a face-to-face conversation, or instant messaging does. Nor does email afford the conveyance of
subtleties of tone, intent, or mood possible with face-to-face communication. Understanding how these
affordances and constraints of specific technologies influence what teachers do in their classrooms is not
straightforward and may require rethinking teacher education and that relationship to learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes (knowledge, skills, and attitudes and/or behaviors) have been associated with
competency-based education. In competency-based education, instructors must set criteria to be used in
assessing student competency. The assessment of a student competency used performance as the primary
source of evidence (Elias & Merriam, 2005). Elias and Merriam further indicate that student progress is
determined by demonstrated competency rather than time periods or course completion. Figure 3 below
is a finding of the research conducted by Glance, Forsey and Riley that concluded that MOOCs have a
sound pedagogical basis (2013).
It is important to note that MOOCs basic pedagogical approaches are:
1.
2.
264
Course materials are located in a hub or a central repository
MOOCs all use automated software to assess student performance through quizzes and homework
assignments
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Table 2. Characteristics of MOOCs and their related pedagogical benefits
MOOC characteristic
Pedagogical benefits
Online mode of delivery
Efficacy of online learning
Online quizzes and assessments
Retrieval learning
Short videos and quizzes
Mastery Learning
Peer and self-assessment
Enhanced learning through this assessment
Short videos
Enhanced attention and focus
Online forums
Peer assistance, out-of-band learning
3.
Social structures of MOOCs have students participating in online forums, study groups, and in
organized student meet-ups (Johnson et al., 2013)
The danger in using a conventional model in the instruction of adult learners online is that it fails to
recognize adult learners as the center of the educational process, which reflects a democratic spirit of
individualism in Elias and Merriam’s terms (2005). Andragogy, connected with adult learning, is learnercentered education as opposed to teacher driven and the actual learning progression should include the
entire emotional, psychological, and intellectual being (Burton et al., 2013). The model of Andragogical
Online Teaching illustrated in Figure 3 demonstrates a more powerful learning process for adult learners
in the online learning environment.
Figure 3. Adult learning process in virtual learning model
265
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Andragogy is also grounded in humanistic learning theory (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). This model
has five assumptions to be considered in an online (virtual) learning environment. This model promotes
cooperation and communication among individuals as a vehicle for interpersonal growth and cooperation
is a necessity for making democracy work (Elias & Merriam, 2005).
The first assumption underlying andragogy refers to adult learners’ independent self-concept and
ability to direct their own learning. Adult learners are autonomous, independent, and self-reliant, and they
are self-directed toward goals. According to Fidishun (2000), adults with previous schooling have been
constructed as “dependent” learners, and it is up to the educator to move students from their old habits,
shape them into self-directed learners, and encourage them to start taking responsibility for their learning.
Second assumption. The second assumption underlying andragogy is that “an adult accumulates a
growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999,
p. 272). Cognitivist learning theory supports this concept. The second assumption is based on the need
to attach instruction to relevant schemata, which are considered internal knowledge structures. Adult
students can build on previous knowledge and experience by relating new information to past events and
experience. Instructors should strive to get this information from students and should then relate students’
experiences to the concepts being learned. It is important for the instructor to recognize the value of
experience (Knowles, 1989). Fidishun (2000) stated that “adults want to use what they know and want to
be acknowledged for having that knowledge” (Section: Technology and The Assumptions of Andragogy,
¶7). Kolb (1984) recognized that learning is a continuous process that is based in experience. “Learning
is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, p. 38).
Experiential learning is an active process that can be a powerful method for teaching adult learners.
Third assumption. The third assumption of andragogy is that “the readiness of an adult to learn is
closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p.
272). Merriam (2001) stated that learning needs should be closely related to changing social roles. Adult
students are relevancy oriented; they want to see a reason for learning something and learning should
be applicable to work or home.
Fourth assumption. The fourth assumption of andragogy is that “there is a change in time perspective
as people mature—from future application of knowledge to immediacy of application. Thus, an adult
is more problem-centered than subject-centered in learning” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272).
Learners need to know why they should learn something and how it will benefit them (Knowles, 1989).
The instructor should ask the online student to do “some reflection on what they expect to learn, how
they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals” (Fidishun, 2000, Section
Technology and the Assumptions of Andragogy, para. 2).
Fifth assumption. The fifth assumption of andragogy is that “adults are motivated to learn by internal
factors rather than external ones” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272). Some factors that motivate adults
include the promise of increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life.
The goal of this model is the self-actualization of individual learners rather than measurable or observable learning outcomes in behaviorist terms. Instructors use this model to assist individuals to grow
and develop toward self-actualization and toward becoming fully functioning persons (Maslow, 1954;
Elias & Merriam, 2005). Elias and Merriam (2005) further address this model by saying,
The notion of growth, development, and change is integral to much of the psychological literature on
adult development. Adults are no longer viewed as finished products at the age of sixteen, eighteen,
or twenty-one. Rather, adulthood is a period of change, psychologically, socially and physiologically.
266
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Adult educators have begun to respond with activities designed to take into account adult development.
One of the assumptions underlying andragogy is related to meeting the needs of adults and many of
these needs are the direct outgrowth of the developmental tasks salient to the various changing stages
of adulthood. (p. 144)
Instructors who have adopted this humanistic approach tend to emphasize the psychological growth
of learners more than the content of programs. Many adult educators who have adopted this approach
value the prior experience of adult learners, and are committed to educating the whole person—these are
not readily measurable in behaviorist terms (Elias & Merriam, 2005). Since the advent of this model in
the early 1970s, adult education programs have begun to center on the needs and interests of the learners
and this approach is dedicated to the development of human beings. Since adults are considered to be
self-directed or potentially self-directed in their learning, rigid approaches such as immediate feedback,
drill, and informational lectures are not appropriate. Educators are seen as facilitators and consultants
in the learning process. Upon the basis of this model and Table1, Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998,
2005, 2011) have specified the following educational implications for instructors in the traditional and
electronic classrooms:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Adults need information and involvement before learning the how, the what, and the why of learning.
Although it can be argued that any learning has the effect of building autonomy in a person, there
may be learning events in which there is not a core aim to build autonomy in a learner. However,
when adults become self-directed, both the learner and the instructor should plan what will be
learned together.
Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience, which means that all learning can be
seen as relearning. This is particularly true for adults who have such a large reservoir of experience.
Therefore, discussion, case studies and simulations should be included in the instruction of adults.
Learning is related to one’s developmental tasks and life situations create a need to know. Therefore,
adult educators need to anticipate and understand adults’ life situations and readiness for learning.
Adults learn best when information is presented in real-life context. Experiential learning approaches
have the dual benefit of appealing to the adult learner’s experience base as well as increasing the
likelihood of performance change after training.
Adults are more motivated by internal motivators than external motivators. Instructors should help
arrange learning that will help adults with a problem or issue that is important in their life. (pp.
183-203)
Obviously, the andragogical online teaching model goes beyond the conventional online teaching
model guided by behaviorism. Not only do instructors assume different roles and responsibilities, but also
adult learners are heavily involved in the planning process of learning. Learners are able to negotiate with
their instructors at the beginning of each semester their course content, course assignments, and grading procedures. Learning is designed to meet the needs and interests of adult learners. All instructional
approaches are geared to helping learners achieve self-actualization. Novel instructional approaches
such as assigning students a learning contract is not only doable, but also effective. The andragogical
online teaching model has not emerged in a vacuum. Rather, it revolves around the andragogical model
popularized by Knowles in the early 1970s. Knowles’ andragogy is established around the following
deductions: (1) self-directedness, (2) need to know, (3) use of experience in learning, (4) readiness to
267
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
learn, (5) orientation to learning, and (6) internal motivation (Burton, et al., 2013). Burton, et al., research
drew a parallel of Knowles’ evolving transference about the education angle in andragogy to education
explorations on the evolution of learning through technology (2013).
Depending on what to teach online, the conventional teaching model guided by behaviorism can
prove to be effective in many ways. When it comes to helping adults learn online, it is more advisable
for instructors to utilize the andragogical online teaching model because about it focuses on releasing
the energy of adults (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005, 2011) so that they could achieve a full
development of their individual potentiality. Again, this is not to say the andragogical model is superior
to the pedagogical model or the pedagogical model is inferior to the andragogical model. Rather, the
goal is to use a model in virtual learning environments that can help maximize learning. The more we
understand the differences between these two models, the better we can make decisions about which
model (or combination of models) to adopt and adapt to either the traditional classroom or the virtual
learning environments. Both models have been in existence for their own particular reasons and they
are both derived from both pedagogical and andragogical assumptions of learning. The dialectical relationship between the two models does help educators of children and adults make a sound decision as
to which model to employ in order to teach children or help adult learners learn to maximize learning
outcomes. To employ the innovative teaching model, the following quote discusses what andragogical
teaching and learning embodies.
Burton (2013) et al. voiced:
Moreover, the broadening of the mind leads to Knowles’ other three postulations – readiness to learn
orientation to learning and internal motivation. For instance, constructivists hypothesize that learners
construct information by their experiences and understandings. True andragogy allows learners to review and learn through educational web-sites while employing the six postulations. Genuine andragogy
practitioners, support education as informal yet vital breaks to garner learning and education. Learners’
knowledge and ideas must be broadened via practice and independence for them to grow and develop,
and learners could include faculty, students and administrators. The significance of andragogy comes
in the contextualization of adult learning theory in concrete teaching and learning methodologies that
includes continuous learning through social network sites.
FUTURE RESEARCH
This chapter is not intended to present ideas and concepts that have contradicted one another. Rather, it
has presented a dialectical relationship between pedagogical principles and andragogical principles so
that educators will design and deliver their online courses accordingly. Scholars will continue to address
why self-directed learning is derived from humanism, not from behaviorism. Such an endeavor will shed
more light on the differences between behaviorism and humanism.
Given the magnitude of online teaching and learning and the globalizing flexible work within universities, and the wide use of pedagogical online teaching and andragogical online teaching, it is possible
that we may produce more scholars such as Knowles, Rogers, and Skinner in the field of adult education
It is assumed that university administrators may engage in studying pedagogical and andragogical
principles in the near future so as to ensure the appropriate framework is used based on learners’ and
situational needs. These principles will equip administrators with the necessary skills, knowledge, and
268
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
attitudes to make sound decisions in order to deliver the best possible online courses to maximize learning for learners.
MOOCs have captured the imagination of senior administrators and trustees like few other educational
innovations have and will influence technology driven universities. MOOCs are increasingly seen as a
very intriguing alternative to credit-based instruction; or is there an opportunity in the future to reward
college credits for this type of mass learning? The prospect of a single course achieving enrollments in
the tens of thousands is bringing serious conversations on topics like micro-credit to the highest levels
of institutional leadership (Johnson et al., 2013).
With various models of instruction what facilitates or impedes learner motivation to learning during
an MOOC course? How can course content and its delivery support student’s self-efficacy for learning?
Do intervention such as metacognitive prompts and guided reflection improve student achievement or
increased retention? The optimists see MOOCs expanding access to previously disenfranchise groups
of students developing new methods of pedagogy or andragogy for deeper more sustained learning and
building global communities focused not on the latest fad but on education.
By virtue of their sheer size, MOOCs, represent a new learning context, and open avenue for expanding interest in new approaches and possibilities, including interest in games and gamification, learning
analytics and heutagogy.
Johnson (2013) et al. observes:
There is a growing interest within higher education to teach by using games and gamification, and the
further refinement of learning analytics. These types of teaching are already having a clear and immediate impact on practices in higher education. Games in higher education aim to engage learners,
providing them with digitally enhanced scenarios that challenge their understanding of new concepts in
their field. Elements of game design are informing curricula. Learning analytics is a burgeoning body of
work rooted in the study of big data, which aims to use analytic techniques to gain insights about student
behavior and learning. Information derived from learning analytics can inform instructional practice in
real time, as well as aid in the design of course management systems that personalize education. (p. 5)
Heutagogy Is the Study of Self-Determined Learning: An Area of
Interest That Has Emerged Directly From the Popularity of MOOCs
From 2012, when MOOCs were propelled to education’s center stage, MOOC participants were understood to be highly motivated and highly skilled learners who have the capacity to choose their own study
resources and their own paths (Beaven, Hauck, Comas-Quinn, Lewis, & de los Arcos, 2014). Defined
over a decade ago by Hase & Kenyon (2000) as the study of self-determined learning, heutagogy “sees
the learner as the major agent in their own learning, which occurs as a result of personal experiences
(Hase & Kenyon, 2007, p. 112 as cited in Beaven, Hauck, Comas-Quinn, Lewis, & de los Arcos, 2014).
Beaven et al. (2014) introduce the concept of heutagogy, a theoretical approach that illuminates the
nature of learning in MOOCs and highlights the critical role played by participatory literacy skills in
MOOCs. Participatory literacy is the ability to contribute to blogs, wikis, social networking and sharing
sites, virtual worlds, and gaming environments, which rely upon creativity, reasoning, focus, critical
thinking, and capacity to collaborate (Pegrum, 2009 as cited in Beaven et al., 2014).
In the research conducted by Beaven et al. (2014) asked the question how do educators create MOOCs
that will optimize students’ learning experiences developing the collaborative and individual skills needed
269
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
to become active members of the online communities? The heutagogical approach to learning stands
at the end of a continuum that progresses from pedagogy to andragogy, with self-directedness as a key
attribute to heutagogy (Knowels, 1975; Blaschke, 2012; Canning, 2010 as cited in Beaven et al., 2014).
Movement along the continuum is marked by ever-increasing learner autonomy, a greater flexibility in
course structure, and a decrease in tutor control. Drawing on Mezirow (1997), and Blaschke (2012) argue
that heutagogical framework accelerates learners’ cognitive development, strengthening their capacity
for critical reflection (as cited in Beaven et al., 2014) as shown in the Figure 4 below.
One of the main principles of heutagogy is that people know how to learn. It therefore is a particularly
apt theoretical approach to describe learning in open and distance education contexts in general and
to assess learning based on the use of social media in particular (Beaven et al., 2014). Wheeler (2012)
suggests that “the ethos of heutagogy extends to learner choice, where students can create their own
programs of study, a feature often seen in the loose and unstructured aspects of some MOOCs (para, 3
as cited in Beaven et al., 2014).
CONCLUSION
Hase and Ellis (2001) indicated learning to provide courses by distance education was assisted by pioneers
such as Knowles (1970). Since then, instruction using study guides and books of readings became the
norm for distance education learners. When online teaching and learning moved to the forefront of education in the 21st century, this kind of instruction was moved onto computer screens. Most instructional
design for online teaching has been guided by behaviorism. Instructors tend to prescribe learning objectives, the whole teaching process is characterized by a teacher-centered approach, and student learning
outcomes are measurable and observable. As leaders in adult education try to popularize principles of
andragogy (the art and science of helping adults learn), especially self-directed learning, instructional
Figure 4. Heutagogy as an extension of andragogy and pedagogy
Source: Blaschke, 2012, p. 60, based on Canning, 2010 as cited in Beavan et al., 2014
270
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
design seemed to have made the switch from behaviorism to humanism in order to develop the potential
for adult learning (Hase & Ellis, 2001). More recently, new terms have emerged in the field of distance
education. For example, learning and teaching anywhere, anytime, with flexible delivery and distributed
learning has become popular. It is not surprising that some universities in the United States are grounded
in principles of adult learning. . To keep educational promises to adult learners, the online instructional
methods must reflect andragogical assumptions of learning.
Although scholars and practitioners talk about andragogical approaches to teaching online, it is hard to
establish a learner-focused approach to learning. In other words, most instructors still cannot go beyond
the conventional online teaching model guided by behaviorism and characterized with measurable and
observable learning outcomes. Instructors depend heavily on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives to delineate the learning process (Wang & Farmer, 2008). Researchers found that most distance
education programs were highly teacher-directed and dominated by pedagogical rather than andragogical
approaches (Hase & Ellis, 2001, p. 28). Nowadays researchers seem to emphasize the importance of
using social constructivism and interactive learning environments to increase the control of the learner
over learning. If researchers admit that learning is an internal process and self-directed learning is the
goal of adult learning, then the development of self-actualizing individuals cannot be measured or observed. The ultimate goal in learning should increase learners’ control over their own learning. How can
instructors do this when they are separated from their learners in the online learning environment? The
andragogical online teaching model offers a viable option for today’s instructors. For example, instructors can use this model to increase learners’ internal motivation through self-directedness. As Shuttler
and Burdick (2006, p. 173) indicated, “learning is difficult to gauge from the results of a rote quantitative examination: this practice is seemly better suited to assessing memorization.” They advocate that
course and programmatic curriculum should include highly participative and engaging activities and
assessments that assist the faculty member in facilitating active learning practices. In the conventional
online teaching model, an instructor assumes the role of an unchallengeable figure. As online education
is evolving quickly in the 21st century, the teacher moves from an acting authority figure to become . . .
“the guide, the pointer-out, who also participates in learning in proportion to the vitality and relevance
of his [or her] facts and experiences” (as cited in Mezirow, 1991).
Since much of online learning involves adult students, many scholars and researchers suggested that
online teachers use a more asynchronous and self-directed learning approach to meet adult students’
needs and interests (Berge, 2007). Naturally, the andragogical online teaching model has emerged as
a more powerful tool in addressing the learning needs of adults; thus, this model requires that online
teachers go beyond the conventional online teaching model, which is guided by the behaviorist philosophy. Whichever teaching model is used, educators need to encourage the emergence of scholarship of
teaching alongside the scholarship of discovery (research), integration (multidisciplinary) and application (development) (Daniel, 2012).
A challenge associated with the educational use of the Web, social networking, and media, based on
the MOOC distributed learning model, is that the open, emergent, chaotic nature of online interaction
might conflict with the rigidly organized social structure of formal education, which involves prescriptive learning, standardized goals and curricula, fixed schedules, age-based grouping, classroom-based
organization, and examinations (Kop, Fournier, & Mack, 2011). Changing the teaching model to fit the
MOOCs will require major shifts in attitudes as much as they will in policy in higher education (Johnson,
et al., 2013). They posit that a one-size-fits all teaching method is neither effective nor acceptable for
today’s diverse students. Technology can and should support individual choices about access to materi271
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
als and expertise, amount and type of educational content, and methods of teaching (2014). The various
types of emerging open education environments each have different design contexts, and goals for the
learners and the lack of a common framework from which to differentiate these is causing some issues
in the teaching methodology in MOOCs. For instance, the term MOOC is being applied generally to all
open education environment designs regardless of the individual design characteristics (Baker, Surry,
2013). Siemens (2006 as cited in Ross et al., 2014) identified challenges for educators as: (a) defining
what learning is, (b) defining the process of learning in a digital age, (c) aligning curriculum and teaching with learning and higher-level development needs of society.
A change in thinking, philosophy, design, and pedagogies of institution-based online courses may be
necessary if the affordances of emerging technologies are embraced and adopted within formal educational institutions and considerable effort will be required to ensure an effective balance between openness and constraints when an online institutional course is fused with social networks (Kop, Fournier, &
Mak, 2011). Being massive and open are the challenges unique to MOOCs as opposed to other online
courses; the result is a potentially very large participant population with diversity of age, experience
culture, language preparedness, and motivation (Bali, 2014). However, if instructors continue to design
MOOCs as they would design their regular F2F courses, or even non-massive/non-open online courses,
they fail to maximize learning for the greatest number of students because it means they are not putting
the students at the center of the learning experience (Bali, 2014). Bali postulates that both the ‘massive’ and ‘open’ aspects pose obvious challenges to designing and delivering online courses, but they
also offer unprecedented opportunities for enriching the learner and also teacher, experience (2014).
Not every course needs to follow the best practices of Chickering and Gamson, but there needs to be
some consideration of where these good practices fit into the subject matter and learning outcomes of
the course, particular in relation to developing higher order thinking. It is important to provide students
with the space to engage with beneficial learning opportunities, but these opportunities need to first be
accessible to these students (Barnett & Coate, 2005 as cited in Bali, 2014).
Future MOOCs could be based on the learner-in-dialogue model in which the MOOC is a ‘place’
with activities that would reinforce the orientation for learners, such as the development and practice of
peer facilitation, mentoring and coaching, the development of a personal network and digital literacies,
and the building and development of personal and social networks and communities (Kop, Fournier, &
Mak, 2011).
REFERENCES
Amirault, R. J. (2015). Technology transience and the challenges it poses to higher education. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 16(2), 1–17,147. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://
search.proquest.com/docview/1705959064?accountid=14129
Anderson, L. W. (Ed.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Baker, F. W., III, & Surry, D. (2013, March). Open education designs: A taxonomy for differentiating and
classifying open learning environments. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for
information technology & teacher education international conference (Vol. 2013, No. 1, pp. 189-194).
Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
272
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Bali, M. (2014). MOOC pedagogy: Gleaning good Practice from existing MOOCs. MERLOT. Journal
of Online Teaching and Learning, 10(1), 44–55.
Baumgartner, L. (2008). Andragogy: An introduction and implications for curriculum and instruction.
In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Strategic approaches towards curriculum development for adult learners in the
global community (pp. 34–57). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Beaven, T., Hauck, M., Comas-Quinn, A., Lewis, T., & de los Arcos, B. (2014). MOOCs: Striking the
right balance between facilitation and self-determination. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and
Teaching, 10(1), 31–43.
Berge, Z. L. (2007). Motivate and manage: Key activities of online instructors. In J. M. Spector (Ed.),
Finding your online voice: Stories told by experienced online educators (pp. 73–77). London, UK:
Routledge.
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. London, UK: Longman.
Brookfield, S. D. (2013). A critical theory of adult and community education. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.),
Handbook of research for improving the 21st century workforce: Tools for lifelong learning (pp. 141–156).
Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2181-7.ch010
Bruce, B. C. (1993). Innovation and social change. In B. C. Bruce, J. K. Peyton, & T. Batson (Eds.),
Network-based classrooms (pp. 9–32). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bruce, B. C., & Hogan, M. C. (1998). The disappearance of technology: Toward an ecological model of
literacy. In D. Reinking, M. McKenna, L. Labbo, & R. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 269–281). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Burton, S., Bessette, D., Brown-Jackson, K., & Grimm, F. (2013). Transforming the mental paradigm
on digital literacy through understanding andragogy and maximizing continuous education. ICERI2013
6th International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation.
Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE
Journal, 16(2), 137–159.
Clarà, M., & Barberà, E. (2013). Learning online: Massive open online courses (MOOCs), connectivism, and cultural psychology. Distance Education, 34(1), 129–136. doi:10.1080/01587919.2013.770428
Daniel, J. (2012). Making sense of MOOCs: Musings in a maze of myth, paradox and possibility.
Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 3. Retrieved from http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/jime/article/
viewArticle/2012-18/html/
de Waard, I., Koutropoulos, A., Keskin, N., Abajian, S. C., Hogue, R., Rodriguez, O., & Gallagher, M.
S. (2011). Exploring the MOOC format as a pedagogical approach for mLearning. Proceedings from
mLearn. Retrieved from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn/source/ten_outstanding_papers/Exploring%20the%20
MOOC%20format%20as%20a%20pedagogical%20approach%20for%20mLearning.pdf
Dewald, N. H. (2003). Pedagogy and andragogy. In E. A. Dupuis (Ed.), Developing web-based instruction:
Planning, designing, managing, and evaluating for results (pp. 47–68). New York, NY: Neal-Schuman.
273
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Djokovic, D., & Souitaris, V. (2008). Spinouts from academic institutions: A literature review with suggestions for further research. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 33(3), 225–247. doi:10.100710961006-9000-4
Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (1995). Philosophical foundations of adult education. Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (2005). Philosophical foundations of adult education (3rd ed.). Malabar,
FL: Krieger.
Fidishun, D. (2000, April). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach
with technology. In Proceedings of the 2000 Mid-South Instructional Technology Conference. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University. Retrieved from https://scholarsphere.psu.edu/concern/
generic_works/8s45q881f
Formica, P. (2005). Knowledge transfer from universities to the SME sector. I-manager’s Journal of
Educational Technology, 2(2), 49–59.
Formica, P. (2005). Knowledge transfer from universities to the SME sector. I-Manager’s Journal of
Educational Technology, 2(2), 49-59. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.
proquest.com/docview/1473900467?accountid=14129
Glance, D., Forsey, M., & Riley, M. (2013). The pedagogical foundations of massive open online courses.
First Monday, 18(5). doi:10.5210/fm.v18i5.4350
Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125–149.
doi:10.1177/0001848191041003001
Gunthrie, D. (n.d.). The chronicle of higher education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/
Jump-Off-the-Coursera Bandwagon/1363087/
Hase, S., & Ellis, A. (2001). Problems with online learning are systemic, not technical. Retrieved from
https://epubs.scu.edu.au/comm_pubs/51/
Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H. (2013). NMC
horizon report: 2013 higher education edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophy paradigm?
Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5–14. doi:10.1007/BF02296434
Jurenas, A. (2014). Massive open online courses: An educational revolution. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.),
Handbook of research on education and technology in a changing society (pp. 38–51). Hershey, PA:
Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6046-5.ch002
King, K. P. (2009). Teachers of adults in the global community. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Strategic approaches towards curriculum development for adult learners in the global community (pp. 91–119).
Malabar, FL: Krieger.
King, K. P., & Gura, M. (2007). Podcasting for Teachers: Using a new technology to revolutionize teaching and learning. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
274
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New
York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S. (1995). Designs for adult learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and
Development.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, TX: Gulf.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier
Butterworth Heinemann. doi:10.4324/9780080481913
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult
education and human resource development (7th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Koehler, J. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in
Technology & Teacher Education, 9(1), 60–70.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing TPCK. In AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Ed.), The handbook of technological pedagogical content knowledge for educators (pp. 3-29).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kop, R., Fournier, H., & Mak, J. S. F. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings? Participant support on massive open online courses. International Review of Research in
Open and Distance Learning, 12(7), 74–93. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i7.1041
Lee, K. (2010). Philosopher or philistine? In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Assessing and evaluating adult learning
in career and technical education (pp. 27–52). Academic Press. doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-745-9.ch003
Leinhardt, G., & Greeno, J. G. (1986). The cognitive skill of teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 75–95. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.78.2.75
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learners: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89(89), 3–13. doi:10.1002/ace.3
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam-Webster. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.merriam- webster.com/
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
275
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Mishra, P., Spiro, R. J., & Feltovich, P. J. (1996). Technology, representation, and cognition: The prefiguring of knowledge in cognitive flexibility hypertexts. In H. van Oostendorp & A. del Mul (Eds.),
Cognitive aspects of electronic text processing (pp. 287-305). Academic Press.
Newbury House Dictionary of American English. (2013). Newbury house dictionary of American English. Retrieved from http://nhd.heinle.com/Home.aspx
Nuckles, C. R. (2000). Student-centered teaching: Making it work. Adult Learning, 11(4), 5–6.
doi:10.1177/104515959901100403
Oh, E., & Park, S. (2009). How are universities involved in blended instruction? Journal of Educational
Technology & Society, 12(3), 327. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.
proquest.com/docview/1287037690?accountid=14129
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers and powerful ideas. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London, UK: Routledge.
Putnam, R. T., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about
research on teacher learning? Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4–15. doi:10.3102/0013189X029001004
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Ross, J., Sinclair, C., Knox, J., Bayne, S., & Macleod, H. (2014). Teacher experiences and academic
identity: The missing components of MOOC pedagogy. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and
Teaching, 10(1), 56–68.
Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher,
15(2), 4–14. doi:10.3102/0013189X015002004
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational
Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi:10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
Shuttler, R., & Burdick, J. (2006). Creating a unified system of assessment. In Online assessment and
measurement: Foundations and challenges (pp. 165–173). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Siemens, G. (2013). Massive open online courses: Innovation in education? Open Educational Resources:
Innovation. Research and Practice, 5, 5–15.
Singh, M., & Han, J. (2005). Globalizing flexible work in universities: Socio-technical dilemmas in
internationalizing education. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 6(1).
Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1634502876
?accountid=14129. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v6i1.218
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Smith, R. O. (2012). Fostering transformative learning online. In E. W. Taylor & P. Cranton (Eds.), The
handbook of transformative learning: Theory, research and practice (pp. 408–422). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
276
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Spiro, R. J., & Jehng, J. Ch. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the
nonlinear and multidimensional traversal complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition,
education, and multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology (pp. 163–204). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Stephenson, J. (Ed.), Teaching & learning online: New pedagogies for new technologies. London, UK:
Routledge.
Stewart, B. (2013). Massiveness+ openness= new literacies of participation. MERLOT Journal of Online
Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 228–238.
Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Wang, V. (2005). Perceptions of teaching preferences of online instructors. Journal on Excellence in
College Teaching, 16(3), 33–54.
Wang, V. C. X. (2007). How contextually adapted philosophies and the situational role of adult educators
affect learners’ transformation and emancipation. In K. P. King & V. C. X. Wang (Eds.), Comparative
adult education around the globe: International portraits and readings of the history, practice philosophy,
and theories of adult learning (pp. 139–150). Hangzhou, China: Zhejiang University Press.
Wang, V. C. X., & Farmer, L. (2008). Adult learning methods in China and Bloom’s taxonomy. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 1–15. doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2008.020213
Weimer, M. (2012). Learner-centered teaching and transformative learning. In E. W. Taylor & P. Cranton
(Eds.), The handbook of transformative learning: Theory, research and practice (pp. 439–454). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Yuan, L., Powell, S., & Cetis, J. (2013). MOOCs and open education: Implications for higher education. Cetis White Paper. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UK. Retrieved from http://publications.
cetis.ac.uk/2013/667
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Andragogy: Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy and was popularized in the US
by American educator Malcolm Knowles. Knowles asserted that andragogy (Greek: “man-leading”). In
the tradition of Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is a specific theoretical and practical approach, based on a
humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners and teachers as facilitators of learning.
Behaviorism: Also called the behaviorist approach, was the primary paradigm in psychology between
1920s to 1950 and is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like
thinking and emotion.
Heuratogy: Sees the learner as the major agent in their own learning, which occurs as a result of
personal experiences.
277
MOOCs and the Challenges They Pose to Higher Education
Humanism: A variety of ethical theory and practice that emphasizes reason, scientific inquiry, and
human fulfillment in the natural world. Origin: 1805–15; human+ism.
MOOCS: Massive open online course: Massive: Involving hundreds and thousands of students. Open:
Students can access the course content and participate in guest lectures without fees. Online: Exclusively
online (distance learning). Courses: Have a set start and stop time. Archives are made available after
the course and social interactions in f rums and blogs occur during he set times of the course offering.
Massive is used as a synonym for the concept of scale or the vast growth potential reputedly offered by
digital technologies.
Participatory Literacy: The ability to contribute to blogs, wikis, social networking and sharing
sites, virtual worlds, and gaming environments, which rely upon creativity, reasoning, focus, critical
thinking, and capacity to collaborate.
Pedagogy: The word comes from the Greek παιδαγωγέω (paidagōgeō), in which παῖς (país, genitive
παιδός, paidos) means “child” and άγω (ágō) means “lead”; literally translated “to lead the child.” The
art, science, or profession of teaching, especially children.
278
279
Chapter 15
Assessment of Opportunities
and Implementation of
Blended Learning Strategies
in Nigeria Higher Education:
A Case Study of Obafemi
Awolowo University
Francisca O. Aladejana
Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
Simeon O. Olajide
Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The chapter investigated the facilities available, extent of usage, and the various methods, perspectives,
and strategies of blended learning used as well as possible challenges in Nigeria higher education using
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife as a case study. The descriptive survey research design was adopted. An instrument titled “Questionnaire on Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning”
was administered on 216 lecturers selected by simple random sampling technique. Data collected were
analyzed using frequency counts and simple percentages. The results showed that facilities are fairly
available and there is moderate extent of usage of the available facilities for incorporating blended
learning strategy. Lecturers used 21 different methods, the five blended learning perspectives, and four
different strategies. Various challenges were identified. The study concluded that opportunities were
available for lecturers to implement blended learning strategy into the classroom instruction delivery if
the major challenges faced are properly addressed.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch015
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
INTRODUCTION
The quality of graduates of higher education largely determines the quality of the workforce of a nation; hence success in education is highly contributory to the development of any nation. Therefore,
major concerns in higher education have included poor performance especially in courses with large
classes and getting courses across to distance learners as well as the need for internationalization of
higher education. The general consensus now is that the standard of education in Nigeria has fallen; this
may not be unconnected with the general poor performance of students (Bamidele & Bamidele, 2013).
Crosnoe, Johnson and Elder (2004) identified various factors that could affect students’ performance
to include: social factors (peer group; family background; religion; home problems; break ups of parent and economic issues); infrastructure for learning; learning environment (class size; environmental
condition e.tc); teaching and training methods, students’ personal factors (reading habit and reading
plan; playing and wasteful time spending; lack of self-discipline; bad attitude towards school; lack of
initiative and use of imagination; poor literacy skills and inadequate or poor examination preparation);
academic factors (lack of provision of a bridge between theory and practical and heavy course workload).
Internationalization of higher education has been largely affected by various factors amongst which are
teaching methods that do not take care of distance learners and inadequate policy provisions (Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2012).
The National Policy of Education (2014) clearly states that no educational system may rise beyond the
quality of its teachers. According to Najimi, Sharifirad, Aminu and Meftagh (2013), the most important
factors affecting educational failure from students’ point of view were the curriculum, factors related to
educator, learning environment, family factors and socioeconomic factors. According to Olatunji, Aghimien, Ayodeji and Oke (2016), parents and lecturers are of much relevance and can highly influence the
performance of construction related undergraduate students in Nigeria. Olajide and Aladejana, (2016)
reiterated that of all the various factors, the teacher is the most singular important factor that determines
the success of a school as it is widely acclaimed that the best educational policy can be made or marred
by the teacher. Aladejana (2015) has however identified teacher’s pedagogy as a very important parameter
that can affect students’ performance.
In spite of the importance of pedagogy, teaching is still largely done using the old conservative approach
of lecture method with the teacher in most cases acting as the repertoire of knowledge and the students
the dormant recipients in Nigerian higher education. There is over-reliance on textbooks with only occasional demonstrations and experimental classes with classrooms often times a cycle of memorization
and note coping. This traditional teacher-centered learning approach often favours passive reception of
knowledge as against interactive technology which encourages active learning. Obviously, the educational
practices of the traditional classroom are no longer effective and this method of teaching does not seem
to be meeting the needs of the present generation recognizing the technological development to which
these students are exposed to all around. A pedagogical shift is therefore the answer where teaching
can incorporate technology to make learning active and teaching student-centered, (Aladejana, 2018).
Education and learning are dynamic fields which have always been associated with the physical
presence of schools, classrooms, teachers, textbooks and examinations (Eddy, Nor-Aziah & Jasmine,
2014). However, innovations in technology have resulted in new trends of learning environments and
introduced more modern conceptions of learning. From the traditional face-to-face learning, technology
has transformed our education positively and brought us to the e-learning and web-based programmes.
According to Aladejana (2007), there have been very little efforts in the integration of ICT into the Ni280
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
gerian higher education classroom. Various identified barriers to the use in most schools include: poor
infrastructure; epileptic power supply; lack of electricity; lack of trained personnel; financial constraints
of learners; inadequate funding by government and limited or no internet access (Aladejana, 2007; Jegede,
2005). Advocating a total shift to technology-assisted classroom might therefore be unrealistic. Blended
learning can however be a better alternative (Aladejana, 2009).
BACKGROUND
Blended learning is generally applied to the practice of using both online and in-person learning experiences when teaching students. Blended learning has also been defined as the combination of multiple
approaches to learning (Liebman, 2005; Griffin, 2006). Blended Learning can be defined as the organic
integration of thoughtfully selected and complementary face-to-face and online approaches and technologies (Graham, 2006). This can be achieved by having technology-based materials and face-to-face
sessions used together to deliver instruction. Such method of providing many options for learners to learn
increases what they learned (Rosette et al. 2003). According to Caner (2012), blended learning has been
viewed as an effort in educational delivery which capitalises on the advantages of both face-to-face and
online learning environment instructional modalities and minimizes the disadvantages, by blending the
elements of these two separate learning environments and can include many different ways of combining
pedagogical approaches in order to produce optimal learning outcomes. Thus, students learn from their
teachers as well as from their computers. This hybrid type of learning actually modifies the role of the
teacher from reservoir of knowledge to facilitator who empowers students with the skills and knowledge
required for online learning, and other needed experiences for learning.
There seems to be lack of a single accepted definition for the term blended learning as there are many
designs adopted for use. Oliver and Trigwell (2005) proposed three different definitions of blended
learning which are applicable in higher education: first, the combination of media and tools employed
in an e-learning environment; secondly, the combination of a number of pedagogic approaches, irrespective of the learning technology used and thirdly, the integrated combination of traditional learning
with web-based online approaches. The third definition has been regarded as the most common and the
most classic, reflecting the historical emergence of blended learning. Ali, Sheard and Carbone (2014)
identified three distinct approaches for designing blended courses: low-impact blend which involves
adding extra activities to an existing course; medium-impact blend which involves replacing activities
in an existing course and high-impact blend which involves building the blended course from scratch.
Teachers with no experience in designing blended learning should start with the low-impact blend approach and when they gain more experience the can move to the medium-impact, and only when they
have enough confidence, knowledge and experience in blended learning design, can they try the highimpact blend approach.
Differences of thoughts, adaptation and caliber has made university teaching a more challenging job,
learning styles and preferences vary; all these differences call for individual attention. Blended learning
can take care of some of these differenced as it enables the delivery of education with the help of technological integration and also keeps the traditional methodology of teaching alive, (Gupta, 2016). Small
group discussion, individual study, computer-assisted/web-based learning are blended together in order
to accommodate a variety of learning styles. Various benefits of blended learning have been identified
to include: provides for individualized support for the students as teachers can connect individually; that
281
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
students can access material at anytime and anywhere; provides richer, more interactive learning experiences; provides more time for collaboration with the students and teachers and gives students more time
to learn beyond the classrooms, (Gupta, 2016).
Various advantages have been identified to accrue from blended learning. It can serve to optimize
resources in that one can have a big impact with very low investment, combine the strengths of many
methods, low cost as a teacher can build his/her own and produce optimal educational benefit (Bersin
and Associates, 2003; Manganas, 2006). According to Paterson (2016), blended learning approach
provides ultimate flexibility in presenting content; complex topics can be presented in the classroom,
while other subject matter can be available online. Also, it has the proven potential to enhance both the
effectiveness and efficiency of meaningful learning experiences, can provide cost-effectiveness as well
as personalization in terms of a seamless transition from classroom to computer or vice-versa. Blended
learning can provide extended reach by reducing classroom teaching time and potential to reach more
people with high-quality content at a fraction of the cost. It covers and caters for all learning styles
through a variety of mediums and techniques.
According to Bright (2015), there are many benefits of blended learning which include increased
student engagement, successful evaluation, better communication with and between students, flexible
accessibility for teachers and students as materials can be accessible anywhere and anytime, encourages
student collaboration and team work opportunities and personalized learning to meet every student’s
individual needs and unique way of learning. Blended learning has been found to significantly improve
academic performance. Vaughan (2007) found that blended learning model provides greater time flexibility and improved learning outcomes. In an experimental study involving Nigerian secondary school
Biology students, Aladejana (2008) found a significant difference in the performance of students taught
using blended learning and those taught with the traditional method with those in the experimental group
performing better.
Akpan (2015) also identified benefits of blended learning to include: that courses using blended
learning delivery method contribute to improved learning outcomes for the students; the increased flexibility of access to learning which facilitates review and learners’ control of the learning environment;
offering of transformational potentials to higher institutions; cost and resource effectiveness and promotes students’ interest, perceptions and satisfaction in the learning environment. According to Vaughan
(2007), students indicated that a blended learning model provides them with greater time flexibility and
improved learning outcomes but that initially they encounter issues around time management, taking
greater responsibility for their own learning, and using sophisticated technologies. Faculty suggested
that blended courses create enhanced opportunities for teacher-student interaction, increased student
engagement in learning, added flexibility in the teaching and learning environment and opportunities
for continuous improvement. From an administrative perspective, blended learning presents the opportunity to enhance an institution’s reputation, expand access to an institution’s educational offerings and
reduce operating costs.
However, Akpan (2015) also identified that despite the opportunities provided by blended learning,
the students, instructors and institutions face some challenges with its implementation. He identified
some challenges faced to include technical, organizational and instructional design challenges. Other
challenges consist of aligning blended learning with institutional goals and priorities, resistance to organizational change and lack of organizational structure and experience with collaboration and partnerships. Specifically, he identified that students enrolled in blended courses can sometimes have unrealistic
expectations, assumed that fewer classes meant less work and have inadequate time management skills.
282
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Such students have also reported feeling isolated due to the reduced opportunities for social interaction
in a face-to-face classroom environment.
Opportunities for blended learning are often limited by poor internet connectivity which has been
reported to inhibit students’ ability to engage in online discussions, which could lead to considerable
frustration and have a negative impact on learning. The challenges for implementation of blended learning in higher institutions are time commitment, insufficient funds for the development of a Learning
Management System (LMS) and lack of technical support for course design, (Akpan, 2015). In Tanzania, Africa, Mtebe and Raphael (2013) identified challenges of blended learning as outdated learning
resources, unavailability of instructors during live online sessions, under-utilization of learning centres,
technical difficulties, that instructors do not update learning resources on time and general lack of expertise
and experience of the instructors in higher education. In Nigeria, Africa, Olelewe (2017) identified the
following challenges: finding the right blend, that is identifying the instructional strategies that match
well for learning and are cost effective; increased demand on time; overcoming barriers of institutional
culture as well as not being sure that of getting the support of administration; limited availability of infrastructure especially telecommunication networks and services and limited access to internet facilities.
Vaughan (2007) identified the challenges faced in developing a blended learning course to include
lack of time, support and resources for course redesign, acquiring new teaching and technology skills,
plus the risks associated with delivering a course in a blended format. Other challenges consist of aligning blended learning with institutional goals and priorities, resistance to organizational change and lack
of organizational structure and experience with collaboration and partnerships. Amrien and Mohammed
(2016), based on the data gathered from the review of publications, divided the issues and challenges in
implementing blended learning into four categories namely institutions, instructors, students and technological aspects. For the institutions, four issues identified are culture, policy, technology and support.
However, the most prominent challenge comes from the institutional culture itself. The instructors have
to deal with several other issues like increased workload, increased time devotion, lack of pedagogical
and technological skills to conduct blended learning and difficulty in finding the right blend for their
curriculum. As for the students, the issue of participation becomes the most outstanding barrier for
the implementation of blended learning. In terms of technological aspects, it is observed that internet
connection fault has posed the greatest challenge for blended learning as well as the inability to view
students’ body language in online environment.
According to Kaur (2013), the concept of blended learning can be viewed from different perspectives
such as holistic, educational, pragmatic, corporate training and Chief Learning Officer (CLO) perspectives. Holistic perspective involves the delivery of instruction using multiple media; the integration of
instructional media into a traditional classroom, or into a distance learning environment. It also includes
any combination of media that supports instruction, regardless of the mix of synchronous or asynchronous media (Holden & Westfall, 2006). Educational perspective means courses integrate online with
traditional face-to-face class activities in a planned pedagogically valuable manner; and where a portion
of face-to-face time is replaced by online activity. It is primarily focused on integrating two separate
paradigms, the classroom – synchronous, and online – asynchronous (Laster, 2005). Pragmatic perspective has courses taught both in the classroom and at a distance and uses a mix of different pedagogic
strategies. It combines various pedagogical approaches such as constructivism, behaviourism, cognitive
learning approaches to produce an optimal learning outcome with or without the use of instructional
technology. It could also combine any form of instructional technology such as CDs, films, web-based
training with face-to-face instructor-led programming (Blended Learning, 2009). Corporate training
283
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
perspective involves the use of multiple instructional media to deliver one course or curriculum such as a
sales training course involving pre-reading, lectures and role play practices (Wexler, 2008). CLO - Chief
learning officer perspective is executing a learning strategy that integrates multiple delivery modalities
(both synchronous and asynchronous) and, in doing so, creates the best possible learning solution for
the target audience, (Peters, 2009).
Various blended learning strategies have been identified to enable effective implementation. According to McGraw-Hill Education (2017), some strategies which enable the educator to creatively and
purposefully use technology and face-to-face instruction are •
Station Rotation where the educator breaks a class of students up into smaller learning communities, where each small group of students collaborates on a single task in each station, and rotates
to complete each task in the allotted class time
Whole group rotation which is similar to station rotation, in that it allows educators to move from
task to task, but does not require that students form small groups and
Flipped Classroom which focuses on the use of online and distance learning.
•
•
Andriotis (2017) identified five blended learning strategies that can boost engagement to include•
•
•
•
•
Flipped classroom which merges two highly successful training approaches, virtual with face-toface learning
Live Virtual Training is especially designed to deliver training entirely through distance learning
approaches
‘Shared Team goals’ is used when there is very limited window of availability to enable students
to come together in a classroom setting for training. Various teams with members that that have
geographical proximity with each other are formed with the course moderators setting a series
of shared goals for each team to accomplish, consultation sessions about these shared goals and
projects can then be held with the course moderators, either in-person or virtually.
Personalized Blending involves the use of teleconferencing technology to engage one-on-one with
individual learners while using in-person sessions or virtual group meet-ups or chats for collective
engagement and
Blend with Productivity where talented groups of people are brought together to brainstorm and
solve problems.
Blended learning is closely related to the attainment of internationalization of higher education; a
top stage of international relations among universities which is no longer regarded as a goal in itself,
but as a means to improve the quality of education, (Jibeen and Khan, 2015). Another major concern
in higher education is the need for internalization of higher education, which usually refers to exchange
programmes and student mobility in order to get benefit from the global trend. The scope of internationalization of higher education ranges from traditional study abroad programmes, taking courses at
colleges or universities in other countries through internet or face to face arrangements, international
partnerships, academic programmes and research activities that emphasize advancement of international
students’ perspectives and skills, promotion of foreign language programmes and access to cross-cultural
understanding (Edmonds, 2012). Effective use of blended learning thatincorporates on-line learning can
284
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
enhance internationalization. Jibeen and Khan (2015) identified potential benefits of internationalization of higher education to include sustaining and growing science and scholarship through dynamic
academic exchanges, building social and economic capacity in developing countries, improved academic
quality, internationally-oriented students and staff, and national and international citizenship for students
and staff from underdeveloped countries, revenue generation, brain gain and the attainment of global
career-readiness competencies.
Generally, most educational institutions place a high importance on internationalization especially
in Europe, North America, the Middle East, the Latin America and the Caribbean; whereas the developing world struggle to meet internal demand and patronize the developed world, (Kreber, 2009). The
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife is highly interested in internationalization of education as there
are great efforts to have collaborations at the individual, departmental, faculty and university levels with
international organisations and institutions. There are also a few student exchange programmes and the
management is intensifying efforts to improve these collaborations. Internationalization of higher education will be highly enhanced by technology using virtual exchange, collaborative online international
learning and similar on-line methods. ICT has been identified as an effective tool for internationalization of higher education as education-targeted ICT use enables global academic cooperation which in
turn builds human capacity, connects networks and information beyond their immediate environment,
(Magzan & Aleksic-Maslac, 2011).
The roles of internationalization of higher education have been described by Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (2012) to include contributions to the world by using
knowledge of universities to resolve the issues which international society faces; encourages competitiveness among international universities in which percentages of foreign nationalities amongst teachers and
students are significantly high; brings in world-class professional skills; establishes “knowledge base”
toward the global-level issues, such as environmental problems, improving education and research and
the promotion of social contributions at home and abroad. They also identified specific initiatives that
cold enhance internationalization in different countries to include quality assurance, enhanced mobility
of students and good student international policies.
For blended earning to be effectively entrenched in the teaching culture of an institution, there must
be the required organizational structure. The university management should put in place a unit that can
assist in developing on-line classes and helping in the implementation. The deans of faculties and heads
of departments must also be actively involved. The curriculum content must be so designed to accommodate this mode of delivery. Administrators, faculty and other institutional personnel have major roles
to play in the implementation of blended learning, (Porter, Graham, Spring & Welch, 2014). Successful
blended learning implementation requires advocacy among administrators, faculty, and other institutional
personnel (O’Dowd, 2013; Taylor & Newton, 2012). Institutions seeking to implement blended learning
must provide the core technological infrastructure required for an effective course management system
that is user friendly for faculty and students (Taylor & Newton, 2012). Prior to each semester, institutions
should coordinate and clearly communicate the scheduling of blended courses (Niemiec & Otte, 2010).
When institutions do not provide sufficient opportunities for professional development, many faculty
members will likely fail to fully embrace a blended format and will instead replicate their conventional
teaching methods. After completing a professional development course, faculty may benefit from continued assistance as they incorporate blended learning instructional design principles and practices into
their courses (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Martin, 2003).
285
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
The need to improve students’ performance, access to learning especially distance learning, improve
students’ attitude to learning and accommodate a variety of learning styles and internationalize higher
education has made pedagogical shift to active learning, student-centered strategy imperative. This
chapter therefore looks at opportunities and the challenges university teachers have in exploring the
integration of the face-to-face mode of delivering instructions with interactions using appropriate ICTs
in blended learning.
Statement of the Problem
Face-to face presentation, visual materials, paper-based assessments, group activities, research activities
and the likes have been the mainstay of classroom teaching in higher institutions in developing nations
for many decades. More recently, mobile technologies and collaborative web tools have expanded opportunities for learning and so some university lecturers have now incorporated blended learning strategy
into the teaching-learning activities. This study therefore seeks to investigate the facilities available and
extent of use for successful incorporation of blended learning; the perspectives and strategies used by
the university lecturers and the challenges that are likely to hinder its full incorporation using Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria as a case study.
Purpose of the Study
The study aims at investigating the facilities and challenges facing the implementation of blended learning strategy in higher institutions. The specific objectives of the study are to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Investigate the facilities available for incorporating blended learning strategy into classroom instructions by lecturers in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria;
Assess the extent of usage of the available resources by the university lecturers in Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria;
Identify the various perspectives and strategies of blended learning used by the lecturers; and
Examine the challenges facing the implementation of blended learning strategies in instruction
delivery by the university lecturers in the study area.
Research Questions
The following research questions are raised to guide the study:
1.
2.
3.
4.
286
What are the facilities available for incorporating blended learning strategy into classroom by
university lectures?
To what extent are the lecturers using the available resources in their teaching?
What are the various perspectives and strategies of blended learning used by the lecturers; and
What are the challenges faced by university lecturers in the implementation of blended learning
strategy into teaching and learning?
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The study population comprised all the 13
faculties in the university. The sample population consisted of two hundred and sixty (260) lecturers
across all the faculties in the university. Twenty lecturers were selected randomly from each of the
faculties using simple random sampling technique. A well-structured instrument titled “Questionnaire
on Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning” (QOIBL) was used to collect data for the
study. The QOIBL consists of three sections. Section A sought for demographic characteristics of the
respondents, Section B consists of questions on various facilities available for implementing blended
learning into the classroom and challenges that may hinder the usage of the available facilities while
Section C has items on a Likert rating scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree to determine the
various perspectives and strategies of blended learning used by the university lecturers. It also elicited for
the various methods used to complement each other for blended learning. The instrument was validated
and pilot tested on a random sample of sixty (60) lecturers who were selected randomly from another
university outside the scope of the study. The reliability of the instrument was determined using KuderRichardson formula (K-R21) which yielded reliability coefficient of 0.82. Data collected were analysed
using frequency counts and simple percentages.
RESULTS
Research Question One: What are the facilities available for incorporating blended learning strategy
into the classroom by university lecturers?
In order to answer this research question, data collected on the facilities available for incorporating
blended learning strategy into the classroom were subjected to descriptive analysis. As shown in Table
1, the frequency out of 260 participants and the percentage of lecturers that have the different facilities
available to them are indicated.
The descriptive analysis of facilities available for incorporating blended learning strategy into classroom by university lecturers in the study area indicate that out of the 23 items listed, only nine of them
were found to be readily available to the lecturers with percentage availability above 50%. These include:
mobile phones, internet, wireless internet, electricity, laptops, iPad/tablet, Electronic mail, chalkboard
& flipcharts and Prints (hand-outs, manuals, study guides etc.). These ones that are readily available are
at 260(100%), 184(70.8%), 180(69.2%), 165(63.5%), 151(58.1%), 135(58.1%), 248(95.4%), 260(100%)
and 260(1005) respectively. Fourteen of the items listed were not readily available to most lecturers with
percentage availability between 1.9 - 42.3%. These include generator, projector, fund, adequate space,
small class size, desktop, CD-ROM, Radio station, magnetic board, slides & tapes, television & video
and Charts, real objects & photographs, digital camera and scanner. Their percentage availability are
65(25.0%), 84(32.3%), 75(28.8%), 82(31.5%), 45(17.5%), 110(42.3%), 83(31.9%), 15(5.7%), 10(3.8%),
31(11.9%), 5(1.9%), 45(17.3%), 11(4.2%) and 41 (15.7%) respectively.
Research Question Two: To what extent are the lecturers using the available resources in their teaching?
287
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 1. Descriptive analysis of the facilities available for incorporating blended learning strategy into
the classroom
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
1.
S/N
Electricity
Blended Learning Facilities
165
63.5
2.
Laptops
151
58.1
3.
Internet
184
70.8
4.
Generator
65
25.0
5.
Projector
84
32.3
6.
Wireless internet
180
69.2
7.
Adequate Space
82
31.5
8.
Fund
75
28.8
9.
Small class size
45
17.3
10.
Students’ mobile phones
260
100.0
11.
Ipad/Tablet
135
51.9
12.
Desktop
110
42.3
13.
Electronic Mail
248
95.4
14.
CD-Rom
83
31.9
15.
University Radio Station
15
5.7
16.
Magnetic Board
10
3.8
17.
Chalkboard & Flip charts
260
100.0
18.
Slides, Tapes
31
11.9
19.
Television & Video
05
1.9
20.
Prints (handouts, manuals, study guides etc)
260
100.0
21.
Charts, real objects, photograghs
45
17.3
22.
Digital cameras
11
4.2
23.
Scanners
41
15.7
In order to answer this research question, data collected on use of the various facilities by respondents
were subjected to descriptive analysis.
Table 2 presents the descriptive analysis showing the frequencies of use of the resources by the lecturers that have them and the percentages and ratings. The calculated percentages of extent of use were
graded on the following scale: Low: 0.0 - 39.9%, Moderate: 40.0 - 59.9%, High: 60.0 – 69.9% and Very
High: 70.0% and above.
As shown in Table 2, of the 22 available resources to lecturers, nine (9) have very high rate of usage
with ratings above 70%, one has high usage (60.0 - 69.9%), three are moderately used (40.0 – 59.9%)
while nine have low rate of usage (0.0 - 39.9%). Resources with very high usage are electricity, laptop,
internet, wireless internet, space, fund, electronic mail, chalkboard & flip charts and prints (hand-outs,
manuals, study guides etc.). The only one with high usage is student mobile phone. Moderately used
resources are iPad/tablet, desktop and charts, real objects and photographs. Resources of low usage are
288
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 2. Descriptive analysis of the extent to which lecturers use available resources in teaching at
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Rating
1.
S/N
Electricity
Blended Learning Facilities
135
81.8
Very High
2.
Laptops
145
96.0
Very High
3.
Internet
140
76.1
Very High
4.
Generator
10
15.4
Low
5.
Projector
14
16.7
Low
6.
Wireless internet
143
79.4
Very High
7.
Adequate Space
82
100
Very High
8.
Fund
75
100
Very High
9.
Students’ mobile phones
157
60.0
High
10.
Ipad/Tablet
70
51.9
Moderate
11.
Desktop
60
54.5
Moderate
12.
Electronic Mail
188
75.8
Very High
13.
CD-Rom
40
36.5
Low
14.
University Radio Station
0
0.0
Low
15.
Magnetic Board
10
3.8
Low
16.
Chalkboard & Flip charts
260
100
Very High
17.
Slides, Tapes
10
32.2
Low
18.
Television & Video
01
25.8
Low
19.
Prints (handouts, manuals, study guides etc)
260
100
Very High
20.
Charts, real objects, photographs
25
55.5
Moderate
21.
Digital cameras
03
27.3
Low
22.
Scanners
10
24.4
Low
generator, projector, CD-ROM. Radio station, magnetic board, television and video, digital camera and
scanners.
Research Question Three: What are the various perspectives and strategies of blended learning used
by the lecturers?
In order to answer this research question, data collected on the multivariate techniques and technologies used by the respondents in teaching were subjected to descriptive analysis and used to deduce the
various perspectives and strategies of blended learning used by the lecturers. The calculated percentages
of extent of use were graded on the following scale: Low: 0.0 - 39.9%, Moderate: 40.0 - 59.9%, High:
60.0 – 69.9% and Very High: 70.0% and above.
As shown in Table 3, descriptive analysis of the various methods used by the lecturers to complement
each other to achieve blended learning were analysed as frequencies of the sample of 260 lecturers with
the percentages and ratings are listed.
289
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 3. Descriptive analysis of methods complemented into blended learning strategy by the lecturers
of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
S/N
Methods Combined as Blended Learning
Strategy
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Rating
1.
Mail group
170
65.4
High
2.
Chat group
168
64.6
High
3.
Turn-it-in
30
11.5
Low
4.
Social media chat
152
58.5
High
5.
You-tube classes
20
7.7
Low
6.
E-mail
248
95.4
Very High
7.
Search engines
182
70.0
Very High
8.
Word processing packages
165
63.5
High
9.
Teleconferencing
47
18.1
Low
10.
Chalk-Talk/Lecture
260
100
Very High
11.
Radio Broadcast
10
3.8
Low
12.
Television/Video programme
29
11.2
Low
13.
Cooperative Learning
101
38.8
Low
14.
Collaborative Learning
123
47.3
Moderate
15.
Simulation games
25
9.6
Low
16.
Computer- assisted learning
75
28.8
Low
17.
Interactive multimedia
60
23.1
Low
18.
Project-based learning
240
92.3
Very High
19.
Inquiry based learning
147
56.5
Moderate
20.
Team teaching
188
72.3
Very High
21.
Web-based training
10
3.8
Low
As shown in Table 3, out of 21 different methods, five had very high usage by the lecturers (E-mail,
Search engines, Chalk-Talk/Lecture, Project-based learning and Team teaching), four had high usage
(Mail group, Chat group, Social media chat and Word processing packages) and two had moderate usage (Collaborative learning and Inquiry-based learning). There are ten methods with low usage namely
YouTube classes, Teleconferencing, Radio Broadcast, Television/Video programmes, Cooperative Learning, Simulation games, Computer-assisted learning, Web-based training and Interactive multimedia.
Based on the usage of these various methods to complement each other for blended learning strategy, the classification of the different perspectives by Kaur (2013) was used in classifying the various
perspectives of blended learning used by the lecturers.
As shown in Table 4, the ways lecturers combined various methods to complement each other as
blended learning strategy are provided as frequency and percentages.
The results of the study show that most of the lecturers use the holistic perspective (69.2%) and the
educational perspective (66.9%). Very few lecturers use the pragmatic perspective (4.2%) and the Chief
Learning Officer perspective (0.3%). Some lecturers were found to use both the holistic and educational
290
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 4. Classification of blended learning perspectives used by the lecturers of Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
S/N
Methods Used
Holistic
1
Integration of instructional
media into traditional
classroom
2
Integration of online with
traditional face-to-face class
activities
3
Classes taken both in class and
by distance learning
4
Use of multiple instructional
media for one course
4
Using multiple delivery
modalities
5
Integration of instructional
media into traditional
classroom & Integration of
online with traditional face-toface class activities
135 (51.9%)
5
None of the perspectives
(purely traditional classroom)
60 (23.1%)
Educational
Pragmatic
Corporate
Training
Chief
Learning
Officer
180 (69.2%)
174
(66.9%)
11 (4.2%)
15 (5.8%)
05 (0.3%)
perspectives (51.9%). However, some lecturers used only the traditional chalk-talk/lecture method without
complementing it with any other method (23.1%).
The classifications of McGraw-Hill Education (2017) and Andriotis (2017) were used to identify and
classify the blended learning strategies used by lecturers based on the methods they used in complementing each other to achieve blended learning.
Table 5 shows the frequencies and percentages of the classes of blended learning strategies of the
260 lecturers who constitute the sample for the study.
The analysis of the findings showed that flipped classroom is the strategy that is used by a large
percentage (81.2%) of the lecturers using blended learning in their classes. A few lecturers were found
using Whole Group Rotation (26.9%), Station Rotation (15.4%) and Personalized blending (1.9%). None
of the teachers used Live Virtual training (0%) and Shared Team goals (0%). It was also found that some
lecturers (23.1%) did not use any blended learning strategy at all but used Chalk-Talk traditional faceto-face lecture method only.
Research Question Four: What are the challenges faced by university lecturers in the implementation
of blended learning strategy into teaching and learning?
In order to answer this research question, data collected on challenges faced by university lecturers
in the implementation of blended learning strategies into teaching and learning in the university were
subjected to descriptive analysis. The calculated percentages of the challenges faced by lecturers in the
291
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 5. Classification of blended learning strategies used by the Lecturers of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
S/N
Blended Learning Strategies
Activities
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
1
Station Rotation
Small group on single task and rotates
all tasks
2
Whole Group Rotation
Whole group moves from task to task
70
26.9
3
Flipped classroom
Use virtual and face-to-face methods
211
81.2
4
Live Virtual training
Entirely distance learning approach
00
00
5
Shared Team goals
Virtual for those who cannot meet in
the class setting
00
00
6.
Personalized Blending
Use of teleconferencing Technology
05
1.9
7.
Blend with Productivity
Bring talented groups together to
brainstorm and solve problems
10
3.8
8.
Non-Blended Learning
Chalk-Talk Traditional Lecture method
60
23.1
40
15.4
implementation of blended learning strategy in the classroom were graded on the following scale: Low:
0.0 - 39.9%, Moderate: 40.0 - 59.9%, High: 60.0 – 69.9% and Very High: 70.0% and above.
As shown in Table 6, the percentages out of a total sample of 260, the frequencies and the ratings give
a clear picture of the various challenges faced by the lecturers in implementing blended learning strategy.
Out of all the challenges faced by lecturers in implementing blended learning strategy into their teaching in the university, lack of fund constitutes the major challenge as it is rated very high at 201(77.3%);
these are followed by internet problem and unstable power supply at 127(48.8%), institutional culture
120(44.1%), lack of pedagogical 131(50.4%) and 125(48.1%), all rated moderate challenges.
Table 6 shows that students’ attitude 78(30.0%), lack of interest 67(25.8%), lack of time 66(25.4%),
lack of space 58(22.3%), large class size 45(17.3%), being too stressful 25(9.6%) and inability to use
technology 15(5.8%) were the least challenges faced in the implementation of blended learning into the
classroom by the lecturers as they were all rated low; these therefore do not pose any serious threat to
the use of blended learning in the university.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
From the results of the study, it has been found that some facilities are available in various departments
in the University for incorporating blended learning into classroom by university lecturers in the study
area. Facilities such as electricity, laptops, iPad/tablet and desktop are more readily than other facilities.
This implies that there are ample opportunities to inculcate and implement blended learning with the
available technology facilities This inference is in agreement with the findings of Caner (2012); Kaur
(2013) and Aladejana (2018) who reported that technology facilities are essential tools for incorporating online and face-to-face methods of teaching into the classrooms so as to make the learning process
active and learner-centered and also meet the needs of the present.
The study further revealed a moderate extent of usage of some of the available facilities required for
incorporating blended learning into the classroom teaching by the university lecturers in the study area.
Over 50% of the facilities are adequately used such as laptops, internet, wireless internet, space, fund,
292
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Table 6. Descriptive analysis of the challenges faced by lecturers in the implementation of blended learning strategy in teaching and learning
S/N
Challenges encountered
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Rating
1.
Lack of time
66
25.4
Low
2.
Lack of information
45
17.3
Low
3.
Lack of interest
67
25.5
Low
4.
Unstable power supply
125
48.1
Moderate
5.
No internet access
127
48.9
Moderate
6.
Lack of space
58
22.3
Low
7.
Students’ attitude
78
30.0
Low
8.
Lack of fund
201
77.3
Very High
9.
Large class size
45
17.3
Low
10.
Not competent to use
15
5.8
Low
11.
Too stressful
25
9.6
Low
12.
Lack of organizational structure
172
66.1
High
13.
Institutional culture
120
46.1
Moderate
14.
Lack of pedagogical
131
50.4
Moderate
student mobile phones, E-mail, chalkboard & flipcharts and print media. However many facilities that
could have added value to the strategy are underutilised such as the Radio station, projector, digital cameras, television, video, CD-ROM and magnetic board. The findings is contrary to the finding of Jegede
(2005) and Aladejana (2007) when they found out that very little effort had been made in integrating
ICT facilities into the Nigerian higher education classrooms by the lecturers. All the teachers however
used the chalkboard, flipcharts and prints which reiterates the fact that face-to-face is still largely used.
The results of the study in the university showed that lecturers used as many as 21 methods to
complement each other for blended learning. However only five are very highly used such as E-mail,
Search engine, Chalk-Talk/Lecture method, Project-based learning and Team teaching; five are highly/
moderately used while nine are poorly used. The poorly used ones are essentially technology-based
such as You Tube classes, Turn-it-in, Teleconferencing, Computer-assisted learning, Interactive multimedia and television programmes. This may not be unconnected with factors such as inherited culture
of lecture method, the curriculum design, inadequate computer education, being time-consuming and
lack of knowledge to implement the strategy. This agrees with earlier findings of Olelewe (2014) which
identified the challenge of institutional structure.
The study identified that lecturers used the five blended learning perspectives identified by Kaur
(2013); the two most common ones used are the Holistic and educational perspectives. A few used the
pragmatic, corporate training and chief learning officer perspectives. Perspectives commonly used inculcated media of online into the classroom face-to-face teaching. Few lecturers were found using only
the traditional approach without blending methods. With better exposure and training, most lecturers
may key into the use of these perspectives. Flipped classroom strategy was the only one found to be
used by a large percentage (81.2%) of the lecturers which involved virtual and face-to-face methods.
Four other methods were used at very low levels (station rotation, whole group rotation, personalized
293
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
blending and blend with productivity). Two of the strategies were not used at all. Lecturers are obviously
not conversant with these strategies.
The study finally revealed some significant challenges faced by university lecturers in implementing blended learning strategy into their teaching and learning which include lack of time, information,
interest, space and fund; others are unstable power, poor internet access, poor student attitude, large
class size and incompetence in using technology and lack of pedagogical skill. The challenges of lack
of organizational structure and institutional culture reflect the fact that the university management,
deans of faculty and heads of department have not put in place enough machinery to engender effective
implementation of blended learning.
These findings were in agreement with the findings of Aladejana (2007), Vaughan (2007), Mtebe
and Raphael (2013) and Olelewe (2014) where they identified various challenges that hindered the
integration of ICT and blended learning strategy in the teaching and learning in various institutions of
higher learning.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
•
•
•
•
This research should be carried out to cover a wider scope of universities across the 36 states of
the country and to include state-owned and federal-government owned institutions.
Also, there should be training of some teachers in blended learning strategy and subsequently their
perspectives and strategies can be assessed.
Sample blended learning packages can be developed for the use of lecturers in the various disciplines and used to assess the pedagogical skill of teachers
Students’ perspectives of blended learning should be monitored as well as the effect of the use on
performance.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study found that fairly good opportunities abound for the implementation of blended learning strategy as there are moderate facilities in higher institutions for implementing the strategy into the teaching
and learning process. A few of the lecturers make use of the available facilities in their teaching due to
various difficulties faced by individuals. Lecturers are using various methods for blended learning but
there is the need to incorporate more technology-based methods while some still use purely traditional
lecture method only. Some perspectives and strategies of blended learning are currently being used but
are not adequate for effective implementation of the strategy.
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
1.
2.
3.
294
Curriculum planners should include innovative methods of teaching that involve technology integration into the school curriculum in higher institution.
Government should ensure that education policy statements are translated into reality.
The federal and state governments through National University Commission should ensure adequate
funding of the universities so that facilities meant for integrating technology into the classrooms
are made available by the university authorities.
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
4.
5.
Conference, seminars and workshops should be organised for university lecturers so as to sensitize
them on the need to integrate technology into their classroom activities and build their capacity.
In order to ensure a successful blended learning experience for students; there should be university support for course redesign, which may involve deciding what course objectives can best be
achieved through online learning activities, what parts of the course can best be accomplished in
the classroom, and how to integrate these two.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.
REFERENCES
Akpan, T. E. (2015). Blended Learning Opportunities and Challenges in Mathematics Education: Perspective in Higher Education. South American Journal of Academic Research, 2(1), 1 - 10. Retrieved
from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281509699_BLENDED_LEARNING_OPPORTUNITIES_AND_CHALLENGES_IN_MATHEMATICS_EDUCATION_PERSPECTIVE_IN_HIGHER_
EDUCATION
Aladejana, F. (2007). The Implications of ICT and NKS for Science Teaching: Whither Nigeria. Complex
Systems, 17(1-2), 113 – 123.
Aladejana, F. (2009). Blended Learning and Technology-Assisted Teaching of Biology in Nigerian Secondary Schools. In S. Ao (Ed.), IAENG Transactions on Engineering Technologies (Vol. 2, pp. 133–140).
Melville, NY: American Institute of Physics.
Aladejana, F. O. (2015). Teaching and Learning Science: Imperatives of Specialized Pedagogy in a
Changing World. In 274th Inaugural Lecture Series (pp. 9–24). Obafemi Awolowo, Ile-Ife University Press.
Aladejana, F. O. (2018). The 21st Century Teacher and Pedagogical Shift in Basic and Secondary Education. In WAEC Seminar Series. WAEC Press.
Ali, A., Sheard, J., & Carbone, A. (2014). Blended learning in Higher Education: Three different Design Approaches. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286439617_Blended_learning_in_higher_education_Three_different_design_approaches
Amrien, H. M., & Mohammed, A. E. (2016). Implementation of Blended Learning in Higher Learning
Institutions: A Review of the Literature International Education Studies, 9(3).
Andriotis, N. (2017). 5 Blended Learning Strategies That Actually Boost Engagement. Retrieved from
https://www.efrontlearning.com/blog/2017/02/blended-learning-strategies-that-work.html
Bamidele, M., & Bamidele, A. (2013). Influence of Cognitive Performance on Mathematics Student’s
Level of Achievement. Intestinal Research, 2(1), 142–150.
295
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Bersin., & Associates. (2003). 2003 E-Learning Year in Review. Retrieved from https://immagic.com
Blended Learning. (2009). Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/blended_learning
Bright, S. (2015). 10 Benefits of Teaching in a Blended Learning Classroom. Retrieved from http://blog.
whooosreading.org/10-benefits-of-teaching-in-a-blended-learning-classroom/
Caner, M. (2012). The Definition of Blended Learning in Higher Education. In P. S. Anastasiades (Ed.),
Blended Learning Environments for Adults: Evaluations and Frameworks (pp. 19–36). IGI Global.
doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-0939-6.ch002
Crosnoe, R., Johnson, M. K., & Elder, G. H. (2004). School Size and the Interpersonal Side of Education: An Examination of Race/Ethnicity and Organizational Context. Social Science Quarterly, 85(5),
1259–1274. doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00275.x
Eddy, Nor-Aziah, & Jasmine. (2014). Implementation of Blended Learning in Higher Learning Institutions. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov
Edmonds, L. J. (2012). What Internationalization should really be about? Retrieved from http://www.
universityaffairs.ca/what-internationalization-shouldreally-be-about.aspx
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its Transformative Potential in
Higher Education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001
Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended Learning Systems: Defnition, Current Trends and Future Directions.
In Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Griffin, J. (2006). Effective Elements of Designing Developing and Delivering Blended Learning, In
Conference Proceedings, 1st International Conference on ICT for Development, Education and Training. ICWE, GmbH.
Gupta, P. (2016). Blended Learning and Its Impact on Higher Education. Retrieved from http://edtechreview.in/trends-insights/insights/2438-blended-learning-in-higher-education
Jegede, P. O. (2005). A Study of Teacher Educators’ Behaviour towards ICT in South Western Nigeria
(Unpublished PhD Dissertation). Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Jibeen, T., & Khan, M. A. (2015). Internationalization of Higher Education: Potential Benefits and Costs.
International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 4(4), 196–199.
Kaur, M. (2013). Blended Learning - Its Challenges and Future. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 612–617. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.248
Kreber, C. (2009). Different Perspectives on Internationalization in Higher Education. New Directions
for Teaching and Learning, 118(118), 1–14. doi:10.1002/tl.348
Laster, S. G. (2005). Redefining Blended Learning. Academic Press.
Liebman, K. (2005). Blended Learning: Definition, Controversy and Commitment. Retrieved from http://
gocertify.com/article/blendedlearning.shtml
296
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Magzan, M., & Aleksic-Maslac, K. (2011). ICT as an Effective Tool for Internationalization of Higher
Education. Retrieved from http://www.iiis.org/CDs2008/CD2009SCI/ag2009/PapersPdf/A054CA.pdf
Manganas, A. (2006). Blended Learning Approach to Health Emergency Training of First Responders and Citizens. In Conference Proceedings, 12th International Conference on Technology Supported
Learning and Training. Berlin, Germany: ICWE, GmbH.
McGraw-Hill Education. (2017). Blended Learning: Strategies for Implementation. Retrieved from https://
medium.com/inspired-ideas-prek-12/blended-learning-strategies-for-implementation-8e86e9349ac7
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2012). Internationalization
of Universities and Their Local Contribution. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/
html/hpab200801/detail/1292585.htm
Mtebe, J.S. and Raphael, C. (2013). Students’ Experiences and Challenges of Blended Learning at The
University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. International Journal of Education and Development using
Information and Communication Technology, 9(3), 124-136.
Najimi, A., Sharifirad, G., Amini, M. M., & Meftagh, S. D. (2013). Academic Failure and Students’
Viewpoint: The Influence of Individual, Internal and External Organizational Factors. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 2(1), 22. doi:10.4103/2277-9531.112698 PMID:24083272
Niemiec, M., & Otte, G. (2010). An Administrator’s Guide to the Whys and Hows of Blended Learning.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 14(1), 91–102.
O’Dowd, R. (2013). Telecollaborative networks in University Higher Education: Overcoming Barriers
to Integration. The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.02.001
Olajide, S.O. & Aladejana, F.O. (2016). Effectiveness of ICT Application in the Learning of Basic Science and Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in Ife East Local Government Area of Osun State.
International Journal of Contemporary and Applied Science, 3(3), 68-78.
Olatunji, S. O., Aghimien, D. O., Ayodeji, E., & Oke, E. O. (2016). Factors Affecting Performance of
Undergraduate Students in Construction Related Disciplines. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(13),
5–62.
Olelewe, C. J. (2014). Challenges facing Effective Utilization of Blended Learning Model in Teacher
Education Programmes in Nigeria. Paper presented at 10th Annual National Conference of Qualitative
Education in Nigeria (ASSEQEN) with the Theme Reorienting and Alternative Education to Build a
Better Future for All at the Benue State University Markurdi. Retrieved from http://www.unn.edu.ng/
publications/files/12302_Challenges_facing_Effective_Utilization_of_Blended_Learning_Model_in_
Teacher_Education_Programmes_in_Nigeria.pdf
Patterson, J. (2016). The 7 Most Important Benefits of Blended Learning. Retrieved from http://www.
knowledgewave.com/blog/benefits-of-blended-learning
Peters, M. (2009). Executing blended learning. Retrieved July 31, 2017 from clomedia.com
297
Assessment of Opportunities and Implementation of Blended Learning Strategies
Porter, W. W., Graham, C. R., Spring, K. A., & Welch, K. R. (2014). Blended learning in Higher Education: Institutional Adoption and Implementation. Computers & Education, 75, 185–195. doi:10.1016/j.
compedu.2014.02.011
Rossett, A., Douglas, F., & Frazer, R. V. (2003). Strategies for Building Blended Learning. Retrieved
from http://www.learningcircuits.org/2003/jul2003/rossett.htm
Taylor, J. A., & Newton, D. (2012). Beyond blended learning: A Case Study of Institutional Change
at an Australian Regional University. The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 54–60. doi:10.1016/j.
iheduc.2012.10.003
Vaughan, N. (2007). Perspectives on Blended Learning in Higher Education. International Journal on
E-Learning, 6(1), 81-94. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/6310/
Wexler, S. (2008). E-learning Guild’s Research Report. Synchronous Learning Systems.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Curriculum: Planned and unplanned experiences under the auspices of the teacher.
Internationalization of Higher Education: The practice of using both online and in-person learning
experiences when teaching students.
Learning Environment: Refers to the physical and abstract approach, context and content where
learning takes place.
Pedagogy: Is the principles and practice of teaching; the method, arts or science of teaching.
Performance: The achievement in a set task measured using a set standard.
Perspective: One’s way, viewpoint, or stance on an issue, the way one carries out a particular activity.
Teacher-Centered: A situation where the teacher is active and is the reservoir of knowledge and the
students are the dormant recipients.
Technology: Use of scientific knowledge to produce instruments, devices, and appliances.
Traditional Method: Is the regular chalk-talk method; often face-to face and involves lecture.
298
299
Chapter 16
Learning Management Systems:
Popular LMSs and Their Comparison
Gürhan Durak
Balıkesir University, Turkey
Serkan Çankaya
Balıkesir University, Turkey
ABSTRACT
One of the technologies used in education is the learning management system (LMS). Selecting the
correct LMS is important for all education institutions so that they can avoid a number of difficulties
and problems in future. To be able to select the correct LMS, it is necessary to examine the features
of current LMSs in the market comparatively, to determine their capability of meeting the needs of the
education institution and to follow the trends in LMS use. This chapter presents information about LMS
types, features of commonly used LMSs, the trends in LMS use, and about the results of related studies
in literature. Today, Blackboard, Moodle, Edmodo, and Canvas are among the most commonly used
LMSs. Though these LMSs have many features in common, they also differ from one another in certain
aspects. Therefore, it is seen that different education institutions tend to prefer different LMSs in line
with their needs. In this respect, the selected LMS should be appropriate to the needs of the institution
and to its current resources.
INTRODUCTION
The changes in information and management technologies have also occurred in many areas including
especially education institutions and brought about many innovations and facilities. Adaption to online
education, ne of such innovations, can be regarded as a natural process for 21st century institutions.
Thanks to online education, education institutions support non-traditional learners and life-long learning, whose importance is gradually increasing today. In addition, with the help of online education,
education institutions can provide a lot more learners with good-quality education at less cost. In this
respect, Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have been established with the cooperation of several
universities. Thanks to MOOCs, anyone willing to take online education can take free-of-charge courses.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch016
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Learning Management Systems
MOOCs can be said to be quite successful enterprises that support life-long learning and non-traditional
learner. Therefore, it is fairly important for 21st century education institutions to adapt themselves to
this transformation, to become a part of MOOC enterprises and to provide their own students with the
opportunity to take online education.
One of the online education tools providing facilities in the field of education is the LMS, which
basically allows teachers to plan, execute and evaluate the teaching process online. In its basic meaning,
Learning Management System (LMS), a software program that allows management of learning activities, is one of currently popular web 2.0 tools. When viewed from students’ perspective, LMS provides
them with the opportunity to see traditional learning activities in web environment, to follow the whole
learning process, and to get involved in the process. In terms of administrators of institutions, LMSs are
environments which include planned instructional activities and which allow storing and monitoring these
activities. Today, an increasing number of students willing to take education have also led to an increase
in the demand and need for distance education as well as in the importance of LMSs (Dobre, 2015).
LMSs are widely used especially by higher education institutions (Buffalo, 2016). Today, it is seen
that almost all universities use one or more kinds of LMS. Despite such common use and successful
integration of LMSs in higher education, it is reported that in a period of three years, %15 of higher
education institutions plan to change the LMSs they use (Brown, Dehoney, & Millichap, 2015). In order to use another LMS, it is necessary to prepare the physical infrastructure first. It is also important
to transfer the data in the previous LMS to the new system without any loss of data. The reason is that
faculty members will be willing to see the contents they have prepared before. Lastly, it is necessary to
provide all users with an orientation training on the new LMS. Considering all these, it is a difficult process for higher education institutions to change the LMSs they use. For this reason, selecting the correct
LMS is of great importance for education institutions. In order to select the correct LMs, it is necessary
to examine the features of current LMSs in the market comparatively, to determine their capability of
meeting the institution’s needs and to follow the trends in LMS use.
This part will present information about the commonly-used LMSs in the world to help institutions
select an LMS for use in their institutions. In line with this purpose, information will be given about
LMS types, features of commonly-used LMSs, rates of uses of LMSs, trends in LMS use and about the
results of studies conducted on LMSs in related literature.
STUDIES ON LMSs IN LITERATURE
When the related literature is examined, it is seen that there are a number of studies conducted to examine
the influence of LMS use in education on such variables as academic achievement and attitudes and to
reveal overall views about LMSs. Review of the related literature demonstrated that there are several
studies on LMSs with inconsistent results. It is seen that there are studies revealing the positive effects
of LMS use in the learning environment and that there are still others reporting opposite results.
In literature, many related studies demonstrated that LMSs contributed positively to such variables
as students’ success and their attitudes. One of these studies investigated the variables predicting the
end-of-term exam scores of 41 students who used LMS in South Korea. In the study, it was found that
the number of logins, regular LMS use, homeworks assigned via LMS and the evaluations had positive
influence on predicting the end-of-term exam scores and that such variables as the time spent on LMS,
the content, in-class interaction and interaction with teachers did not have any influence on the predic300
Learning Management Systems
tion of the end-of-term exam scores (Jo et al, 2015). On the other hand, in another experimental study
conducted with 71 students, it was reported that the students’ number of LMS logins did not influence
their academic achievement and that the time spent on LMS was positively influential on the students’
academic achievement. According to the results of the same study, the individual interviews held with
the students revealed that the students believed their academic achievements would increase if LMSs
included such features as interaction, reinforcement, attractive design, social media support, and accessibility (Fırat, 2016). Similar to the results obtained in the present study, there are a number of studies
in related literature demonstrating a relationship between LMS use and academic performance (For
example, Ebardo and Valderama 2009; Filippidi et al., 2010; Macfadyen & Dawson, 2010; Nair and
Patil 2012; Whitmer, 2012; Yu and Jo, 2014).
In related literature, although there are several results demonstrating that LMSs contribute positively
to learning environments, there are some others reporting that LMS use does not have much influence
on the learning environment. One of such studies was carried out by Emelyanova and Voronina (2014) at
Russian National Research University. In the study, the researchers investigated the students’ purposes,
readiness, and efficacies in using LMS and determined their perceptions regarding the effectiveness,
usability, and ease of LMS use. The results revealed that the students did not experience any problems
regarding LMS use. However, the students thought that LMSs were not useful as a learning tool and
that they favored face-to-face learning. The probable reasons for these results could be related to the
quality and structuring of the lessons given via LMS. The quality of teaching via LMSs is important,
and it should be structured based on a certain design. In this way, a course structured on LMS will make
positive contributions to academic achievement. Georgouli, Skalkidis & Guerreiro (2008) point out that
successful application and good design of LMSs increase academic achievement. A similar result was
reported by Cavus (2007), who revealed that effective design of LMSs will increase academic achievement.
Another study examining the effects of LMSs on academic achievement in learning environments
demonstrated that there was a relationship between students’ academic failure and their attitudes and
perceptions regarding Moodle. It was seen that students who intensively and effectively used Moodle
got quite high scores in their exams (Kotsiantis, Tselios, Filippidi & Komis, 2013). Many other studies revealed that effective and intensive use of LMSs will have more positive influence on academic
achievement. One of such studies was carried out with 171 students using Moodle, and the discussion
posts in the study revealed that related exercises and interactions between students had significant effects
on their academic achievements (Mwalumbwe & Mtebe, 2017).
In related literature, there is an increase in the number of studies on the application of SLNs like Edmodo. This situation could be explained with the rapid increase in the number of users of SLNs. Besides
studies investigating the views of teachers or students about the use of SLNs (For example, Brady et
al., 2010; Bynum, 2011; Cankaya et al., 2014; Enriquez, 2014; Kongchan, 2008; Sanders, 2012), there
are other experimental studies examining the effects of these platforms (For example, Durak, Cankaya,
Yunkul & Ozturk, 2017). According to the results of these studies, the most important factor resulting in
successful use of SLNs as an education environment is the fact that students interact and share something
with each other, which allows them to achieve cooperative learning (Inaba & Mizoguchi, 2004; MoraSoto, Sanchez, Medina, & Dominguez, 2009; Tinmaz, 2013). In one study on the use of SLNs in education, the university students reported that their friends’ comments regarding their sharings contributed to
their own learning (Wolf, Wolf, Frawley, Torres, & Wolf, 2012). Another study carried out with 42 high
school students in a chemistry course examined the effects of Edmodo on students’ engagement and on
their taking responsibility of their own learning. The results demonstrated that Edmodo contributed to
301
Learning Management Systems
the students’ engagement effectively as well as to their taking responsibility of learning thanks to certain
features of Edmodo (Sanders, 2012).
Another study investigated university students’ purposes of Internet use, SNSs and Edmodo from
the perspective of Uses and Gratification Theory. In line with this purpose, semi-structured face-to-face
interviews were held with 15 students, and a focus-group interview was held with seven students. The
results demonstrated that the students liked certain features of Edmodo such as assignment, quiz, poll and
announcement/sharing and that use of Edmodo contributed to the educational environment (Cankaya,
Durak, & Yunkul, 2014).
In one other study examining the experiences of academicians using Edmodo, the academicians
experienced in Edmodo reported their views about the benefits of use of the Edmodo in education. The
participants stated that the system would provide the teacher with the opportunity to take control over
the lesson and to save time and that the system would allow receiving timely and systematic feedback
(Durak, 2017).
LMS TYPES
These tools, which appeared in early 2000s, have been exposed to a number of changes until today. LMSs
with different features are also known as course management system (CMS), learning content management system (LCMS), virtual learning environment (VLE), virtual learning system (VLS) and Social
Learning Networks (SLN) (Wright, Montgomerie, Reju, & Schmoller, 2014). However, as required by
the definition of LMS, all these systems can be regarded as LMS. Since those years, such tools have
been categorized as open-source and commercial. Although Social Learning Networks (SLN) are not
regarded in related literature as a kind of LMS, SLNs were taken as LMS in the present study considering the features and usage purposes of SLNs.
1.
2.
3.
302
Open-Source LMSs: Open-source LMSs are open-source softwares. The source code is not hidden,
and the codes can be changed and updated. Most importantly, LMSs are free of charge. In addition,
there are commercial versions of some of these LMSs widely used in the world. Softwares like
Moodle, Canvas and Sakai can be given as examples of open-source LMSs. In such open-source
softwares, there is no technical support provided for their installation. Therefore, the education
institution should employ technical staff or receive technical support.
Commercial LMSs: Commercial LMSs are those which belong to a company and which are
released in a package format with hidden source codes. Such softwares pioneered by Blackboard
Learn and WebCt LMS can be purchased by payment. Since these softwares are not free of charge,
the related company provides support as mentioned in the license agreement.
Social Learning Networks: Social Learning Networks (SLN) can be regarded as the adapted versions of social networks to LMSs. Social learning networks include features of both social networks
like Facebook and LMSs like Moodle. Therefore, social learning networks can be considered to be
LMS as they include the features mentioned in the definition of LMS. These networks have also
reached quite a large user population throughout the World. Edmodo, Sociology, Google Classroom
and Seesaw can be given as examples of social learning networks.
Learning Management Systems
LMS USAGE TRENDS
Zion Market Research (2017) has published a new report about the LMS market with a global perspective. According to the report, the global learning management system market was valued at around USD
5.19 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach approximately USD 19.05 billion in 2022, growing at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of slightly above 24% between 2017 and 2022. Similarly, in
the report published by MarketsandMarkets (2016), it was reported that the LMS market is estimated
to grow from 5.22 billion USD in 2016 to 15.72 billion USD by 2021, at a CAGR of 24.7%. In another
report titled “E-learning Market Trends And Forecast 2017-2021”, it was stated that according to Analyst
Josh Bersin, the learning management system (LMS) marketplace is currently over 3 billion USD in size
(2016), and the market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 24% between 2016 and 2020 (Docebo, 2016).
As can be seen in the above reports, it is seen that the world’s LMS market grows with a rate of 24%
and that this growth is predicted to continue till 2022.
In relation to the usage rates of LMSs in European market, e-Literate prepared the European LMS
Market Dynamics Fall 2016 Report (e-Literate, 2016). LMS usage rates in Europe for the years between
2000 and 2016 can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Historical LMS market share
Source: e-Literate, 2016
303
Learning Management Systems
When the graph in Figure 1 is examined, it is seen that Moodle was the most common LMS in Europe (65%), which was followed by Blackboard (14%). It is also seen that the increase in the popularity
of Moodle has stopped in recent years and that the usage ratio of blackboard has decreased. Figure 2
presents the annual percentages of new implementations of LMSs.
When Figure 2 is examined, it is seen that Moodle was the most installed LMS between 2002 and
2016. Another striking result presented in Figure 2 is that the LMS called Canvas reached quite a high
level of installation in a very short period of time. In 2016, 33% of all the new installations throughout
Europe belonged to Canvas. One other interesting result is that Blackboard was almost never installed
as a new LMS in 2016. When the period of the last 15 years is taken into account, it could be stated that
the LMSs popular in the past are not favored any longer today. Although a decrease was observed in the
new installation rates of Moodle, it has constantly managed to continue its total market share in recent
years as can be seen in Figure 1. This situation can be explained with the gradual growth of the LMS
market. This result is also supported by the growth rates of the LMS market mentioned above.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 present the statistics regarding LMS use in Europe. Another report prepared by
e-Literate examined LMS usages in US and Canada (e-Literate, 2017). Figure 3 shows the data regarding
LMS use in US and Canada markets.
When Figure 3 is examined, it is seen that different from the current situation in Europe, Blackboard
Learn has a larger market in US and Canada. In a period of 10 years starting from late 1990s, Commercial LMSs could be said to be dominant in the market. Among the Open Source LMSs, Moodle has
been revealed to be the most popular LMS in the last 15 years. In addition, it is seen that starting from
2010, Open-Source LMSs have become increasingly common. According to the most important data in
the graph presented in Figure 3, despite its short history, Canvas LMS increased its market share quite
rapidly. If Canvas continues this rapid growth, it may become the most popular LMS in a few years.
Figure 2. Percentage of new implementations by year
Source: e-Literate, 2016
304
Learning Management Systems
Figure 3. LMS market share for US & Canada higher education institutions
Source: e-Literate, 2017
The trends of Canvas in US and Canada are consistent with its trends in Europe. Therefore, it could be
stated that use of Canvas is increasing throughout the world as well.
It is seen that the above report and other similar reports in related literature did not focus on such
leading SLNs as Edmodo, Schoology, Seesaw and Google Classroom. The number of registered users
of Edmodo established in 2008 was about 15 million in 2012, and it increased to 30 million in 2014
and exceeded 90 million in 2018. Considering the fact that the number of users of Moodle was about
125 million in 2018 according to the related data presented in its own website, Edmodo could be said to
have quite a high number of users. When the growth rates are taken into account, it could be stated that
Edmodo grows more rapidly than Moodle. Schoology established in 2009 is one of the leading SLNs
with its around 20 million users.
LMS USAGE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Under this heading, the primary LMSs used by the leading universities in the world are listed.
When Table 1 is examined, it is seen that most of the leading universities throughout the world preferred Canvas LMS. Among these universities Cambridge, Oxford and Anadolu universities preferred
their own LMSs they developed. The reason why Edmodo, with its 90 million users, is not included in
305
Learning Management Systems
Table 1. LMS usage in higher education
Name of Institution
LMS
Harward University
Canvas LMS
Stanford University
Canvas LMS
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Canvas LMS
University of Cambridge
In House (Cambridge Learning Management System)
University of Oxford
In House (Oxford.Learn)
University of Chicago
Canvas LMS
Columbia University
Canvas LMS
Penn State University
Canvas LMS
The University of Edinburg
Blackboard Learn
The California Institute of Technology
Moodle
Technical University of Munich
Moodle
University of Amsterdam
Canvas LMS
Utrecht University
Blackboard Learn
The Ohio State University
Canvas LMS
Michigan State University
D2L
Anadolu University
In House (Anadolum Ekampüs)
this list could be explained with the fact that Edmodo is mostly preferred as an LMS at k12 level. In addition, Anadolu University, one of the universities listed above, gave up using Blackboard Learn LMS
and started to use their own LMS.
COMMONLY-USED LMSs and THEIR FEATURES
This part provides detailed examination of the pioneering LMSs in the categories of open-source, commercial and SLN in line with the related literature.
Blackboard Learn
Blackboard Learn (BL) is one of the most commonly-used commercial LMSs. By 2017, it reached 100
million users in 90 countries (Blackboard News, 2017). BL is a web-based software, and it offers customizable open architecture. Figure 4 presents a screen shot of the educator interface of BL.
BL includes a number of features for LMS learners, and they can use these features of BL easily. It is
pointed out that BL has an innovative navigation system reminding of social networks. In addition, BL
can run on all mobile devices. Blackboard App is an application for students, and Blackboard Instructor
App is for teachers. These applications can be downloaded via Play Store and App Store.
BL includes various tools that allow learners to work cooperatively. It also provides educators with
tools that will increase learners’ motivations and engagement with the help of various methods. BL is
an LMS which not only education institutions but also companies can use to meet their needs for inservice training.
306
Learning Management Systems
Figure 4. Blackboard educator interface
Thanks to BL, online learning is achieved in a simultaneous or non-simultaneous environment. For a
simultaneous communication, it is necessary to use Blackboard Collaborate. Blackboard Collaborate is a
simultaneous virtual classroom application similar to Adobe Connect developed by the same company.
The most important advantage of Blackboard is that the education institution or the company can
receive technical support in line with the license agreement in case of a problem since it is a software
requiring payment. In addition, it provides solutions for 3rd party LMSs like migration or integration for
working together. Also, with the help of extensions, it is possible to add new functions to BL. It can be
easily integrated with a variety of systems, including Pearson LearningStudio, BrainHoney, itsLearning, Epsilen, Moodle Learning Management System, Sakai Collaborative and Learning Environment,
and other tools.
BL is a system requiring payment, and it has a pricing policy based on the number of users (quotabased). Therefore, if the institution is not a big one, then the prices to be paid to BL will be low. The
details regarding pricing are provided on demand, and the company can be informed about the number
of users in the institution via mail or phone to ask for an offer.
BL is a Java-based application. It runs on Linux/Unix- or Windows-based servers, which include
the installation of JDK. As a database, it requires Oracle or Sql Server. In addition, the server must be
dedicated to BL.
Moodle
Moodle, an alternative to the paid BL system, an abbreviated form of the words of ‘Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment’, is a world-wide famous, open-source and free-of-charge LMS,
which is used by a number of institutions and organizations. According to the statistics presented in the
website of Moodle.net, Moodle has over 125 million users and 93 thousand registered websites in 229
countries throughout the world. These statistics demonstrate that Moodle is the LMS with the largest
market share in the world. Figure 5 shows a screen shot of the educator interface of Moodle.
307
Learning Management Systems
Figure 5. Moodle educator interface
It is pointed out that the social constructionist pedagogy was taken into account in the development
process of Moodle. In this respect, Moodle provides powerful learner-centered tools and collaborative
learning environments that empower both teaching and learning. Thanks to the simple design of its
interface, Moodle is a platform that can easily learn and use. Because of its flexibility and scalability,
Moodle can be adapted by institutions of education, business, non-profit organizations, government,
and community contexts.
Moodle is constantly updated since it has a number of developers throughout the world, and it can
rapidly adapt itself to innovations. As it is an open-source system, dealing with the security gaps is
much faster when compared to commercial systems. In commercial softwares, if there is a decrease in
the company’s profits, then the software may not be developed any longer. Since companies do not seek
profit for software development, there is less danger of failure to develop the open-source software. the
biggest problem with open-source softwares concerns technical support. As the software is not purchased,
there is no technical support provided. In this respect, in case of such a need for technical support, it
could be necessary to purchase technical support from different companies.
Moodle is open to development thanks to its modular and flexible structure. Software developers
can easily create plugins for Moodle. In addition, on the webpage of moodle.org/plugins, there are even
hundreds of ready-made plugins to be integrated into Moodle. Such plugins make it possible to allow
adding new functions to Moodle.
Moodle is a scalable system. Just as a few courses and a few hundreds of users can establish a system,
systems including hundreds of courses and thousands of users can be established as well.
Moodle is a web-based LMS, and its default theme is responsive (mobile compatible). Therefore,
Moodle can be easily accessed via different web browsers and devices. Themes for Moodle can easily
be formed in line with the needs.
Moodle has quite a powerful Moodle Community since it is an LMS established in 2002 with its countless number of users throughout the world. Moodle community prepares advanced support documents
regarding Moodle, and these support documents are translated into several languages. Today, Moodle
has been translated into 82 languages. It is also possible to reach support pages and forums presented
to all countries. In case of any problem, overcoming that problem is much faster than in commercial
systems. For this reason, feedback can be received faster than in forums.
In Moodle, courses and users can be categorized easily. In this way, creating courses with learners
can be automated. Therefore, when used by experts, a very serious amount of time can be saved. In ad-
308
Learning Management Systems
dition, users can be added to the courses manually by payment or via e-mail subscription. It supports
logins via various systems like LDAP. In this way, there will be no need for users of Moodle to create a
user name or a password. This means saving quite a considerable amount of time.
Within the system, different user roles can be created, and all users can be authorized in line with
their roles. Thanks to its advanced Log system, use of the system can be monitored in general or based
on the user. Also, it is possible to keep various statistics in the system. Depending on these statistics,
related reports can be prepared (for example, daily user logins, course-based and activity-based interactions, most popular courses, and courses with the highest number of activities carried out).
As in small groups in Edmodo, different homework and discussion groups can be formed within the
scope of courses, and these groups can participate only in the activities defined for them. In this way,
cooperative learning environments can be created by forming project groups.
Another feature of Moodle is that it allows backing up the courses. The courses can be backed up by
the teacher or by the system at the end of the academic term and then arranged for re-use in the following term as well. In this way, an up-to-date content pool is formed for the teacher in a few years. Also,
these contents can easily be adapted to new courses.
In Moodle, it is possible to define/add two kinds of content: resources and activity. With the help
of resources, a number of educational contents can be presented to students. Contents in the forms of
SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Module) packages, pdf, texts and videos can be shared
with students. In addition, by defining folders, the files in these folders can directly be downloaded. As
for the activities, they allow students to interact and share information with each other. In this part, such
activities as assignments, forum, chat and online exams can be prepared.
Moodle was developed using the PHP programming language. Moodle can be served by a PHPsupported web server software like Apache, IIS, nginx and lighttpd running on an operating system
such as Windows, Linux/Unix and MacOS. In addition, it can also run with such databases as MySQL,
PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Oracle and SQLite. The server does not need to be dedicated to Moodle. It is
possible to host Moodle with other sites on the same server.
Edmodo
With the existence of such social networking sites (SNSs) as Facebook and twitter, several studies have
been conducted on the usability of such websites in education (Cankaya, Durak, & Yunkul, 2014). In
literature, there are a number of studies demonstrating that SNSs can successfully be used by transforming them into an online learning environment (Forkosh-Baruch & Hershkovitz, 2012), yet there are still
other studies revealing that SNSs are likely to have negative influence on the learning process when used
in education environments (Cohen, 2011; Junco, 2012). Therefore, several Social Learning Networks
(SLN), which remove the negative features of SNSs, which function with the same logic as SNSs and
which serve only education environments, have appeared today.
Edmodo was established in 2008 as a kind of SLN. Its founders developed Edmodo for the purpose
of filling the gap between how students live and how they learn at school. Edmodo allows using the
power of social media in the teaching and learning environment. For teachers and students, it creates a
safe environment in terms of cooperation, feedback, personalized learning and various other aspects.
With respect to students, Edmodo allows its users to be independent of time and place and to exchange
information and ideas and helps teachers to monitor students’ development and performance thanks to
its features. Figure 7 presents a sample interface of Edmodo.
309
Learning Management Systems
Figure 6. Edmodo educator interface
Edmodo makes the education environment accessible from any place and at any time for both teachers and students as well as for parents. To start a course, once the teacher creates a class on Edmodo, a
unique class code is created by Edmodo. Following this, students register to the class using that class
code. Students can do the tasks assigned to them and interact with the teacher in many ways thanks to
the basic features of the application. In addition, parents can see their children’s scores and the messages
sent by the teachers. In this way, Edmodo can easily help establish interactions between the teacher,
students and their parents. Some of the basic applications to be used by teachers via Edmodo include
sending messages to students, sharing on the news source and making use of several applications related
to homework assignment, exams, surveys and library.
Teachers can award their students for their positive behaviors or their achievements with the help
of badges conveying different meanings on Edmodo or with the visuals the teachers have prepared
themselves. This type of awarding system is a very important feature that allows increasing students’
motivation. Especially at k12 level, such awards can be used effectively.
Edmodo does not require installation, and it runs only on the website of Edmodo.com. It is free of
charge for teachers and students. It is quite easy to start using Edmodo. Using the buttons of “I’m a
Teacher”, “I’m a Student” or “I’m a Parent” under “Create your free account” on the website of Edmodo.
com, the user can create a new account and start using the system directly. In addition, Edmodo also has
its mobile application supporting Android and iOS. With this application, teachers, students and parents
can easily follow and monitor the course processes via their mobile phones.
In Edmodo, schools can create and administrate a school account for free. When the school account is
created, a sub-domain with the domain name of okuladi.edmodo.com is allocated to the school for free.
School managers can administrate the accounts of the teachers and students at school. In addition, once
the school account is created, the teachers will connect the system via a social network on Edmodo. Also,
Edmodo allows teachers to follow the communities related to their fields throughout the world, to get
informed about the related developments in the world and to exchange information with their colleagues.
Chesterfield County Public Schools (CCPS), with its 64 schools and over 60 thousand k12 level
students, preferred Edmodo as their introductory and primary tool for blended learning. CCPS use the
domain name of chesterfield.edmodo.com. In this way, they can monitor and administrate their schools’
usages of Edmodo. Dr. Adam Seldow, the CCPS Executive Director of Technology, wrote down on their
web pages regarding their preference of Edmodo:
310
Learning Management Systems
Not going with a traditional LMS turned out to be a great decision, not just from a fiscal standpoint, but
also in terms of teacher satisfaction and usage. If we purchased a more traditional LMS, a large percentage of our teachers may never have used it, or at least not to its capacity, without extensive training.
Canvas
Canvas is an LMS that has rapidly grown in recent years. Like Moodle, Canvas is an open-source freeof-charge software. According to the statistics on its own web page, it has more than 18 million users.
Considering the fact that it was established in 2010, it could be stated that Canvas has achieved a rapid
growth and obtained a considerable market share. Figure 7 shows a sample interface of Canvas.
There are several ways to use Canvas. If you want to use it independently of an institution, you can
use it without any installation, as in Edmodo, by registering at the system via the website of canvas.
instructure.com/register. Students can register for courses in the system manually with a class code or
via the URL address of the class. If it is an education institution, then the source codes of Canvas can be
downloaded and installed on a server with an operating system of Linux/Unix or MacOS. Canvas was
developed with Ruby programming language, and it requires a Rails server running on ruby. For the
database, there is a need for PostgreSQL server. In order to do all these procedures, it would be better
to have a server computer and technical staff for the installation, maintenance and up-dating of Canvas.
For education institutions, another method of using Canvas is to create a cloud-based institution account
requiring quota-based payment via Canvaslms.com. In this way, the procedures of installation and updating can be done by Canvas via their own servers. As a result, the education institution will not have
to deal with such issues as upgrades, migrations or versions. In order to get detailed information about
the prices, you should call the contact phone number given in the website.
Figure 7. Canvas educator interface
311
Learning Management Systems
Canvas provides quite a customizable platform. Both the educator and the learner can customize the
system in accordance with the teaching and learning activities. Especially the communication between
the educator and the learner is highlighted, and this facilitates cooperation between them in the learning
process.
Canvas LMS allows students to receive notifications, to submit their papers, and to interact with the
learning materials given to them. It is also possible to integrate canvas accounts with social media accounts such as Facebook and Twitter. Canvas allows teachers to provide feedback and to combine videos,
blogs, wikis, and other channels of education while tracking their students’ progress. In addition, Canvas
has such features as Speedgrader used for grading students, which will save teachers’ time.
It is fairly easy to execute a course via Canvas with the help of integrated calendaring and syllabus
system, content modules, and communication stream. The drag-and-drop method commonly used in
Canvas interface helps do several procedures quite easily. Also, discussion forums contribute to the
development of students’ critical thinking and reflection skills. Canvas has an excellent capability of
built-in audio and video recording. This feature can be used for many purposes like homework, exams
and course contents. For example, teachers can record videos while grading, and the related students
can watch these videos. As this feature hinders objections to the scores, it will facilitate the teacher’s
job and prevent waste of time. With the help of the assessment tool in Canvas, it is very easy to grade
students, to monitor their developments and to establish communication with them.
As in Moodle, it is possible to add new features to Canvas using plugins. Canvas is a user-friendly,
safe, fast and robust system that can easily be learned. If the cloud-based servers of Canvas are used,
then it guarantees 99.9% uptime. Canvas also has mobile applications supporting iPhone, iPad and
Android devices.
Stanford University, one of the leading universities in the world which used Sakai LMS between 2005
and 2015, started using Canvas in 2016. Regarding their reasons for changing their LMS preferences,
the following explanation was made on the web page of gocanvas.stanford.edu/about/.
Modern learning management systems offer exciting features and functionalities to create engaging and
meaningful learning experiences. After conducting a review of the current learning management system
landscape, an analysis of Stanford’s needs as well as input and feedback from the 2014-2015 Canvas
pilot, Canvas was selected as our new learning management system.
THE COMPARISION OF LEADING LMSs?
LMSs, which are commonly used today, actually have a number of features in common. For example, all
LMSs include such prerequisite features as user management, content preparation, execution of exams,
homework assignment and making announcements. This part presents the areas in which commonlyused LMSs differ from one another under the sub-headings of pricing, customer service and features.
Pricing
Blackboard Learn: BL is a paid software. It does not provide any information about the payment in its
website. Institutions willing to use BL are expected to contact BL for payment and to ask for offers.
Blackboard offers prices based on the number of learners. In addition, there is a need for a server to use
312
Learning Management Systems
BL. Also, installation, administration, maintenance and up-dating of BL require appointment of related
staff or purchase of related support. In relation to technical problems, customer representatives of BL
can help overcome the problems.
Moodle: Moodle is an open-source and free software. However, though it is free of charge, such softwares might request hidden payments in future. First of all, there is a need for a server to install Moodle,
or a hosting package could be purchased to use Moodle. In addition, there will be a need for staff for the
installation, administration, maintenance and up-dating of Moodle. Also, to overcome probable technical problems and administrate Moodle, support services could be purchased as well. If the institutions
already have an information technology unit and the necessary technical infra-structure, they may not
have to do such payments. As an alternative method, it is possible to use Moodle by paying the price
given in the website of MoodleCloud.com based on the number of learners. In this way, there will be no
need for doing such things as installation, maintenance and up-dating. Currently, a payment of 1000$
is requested for a school of 500 students. Despite all these hidden payments, Moodle is an economical
alternative for education institutions.
Edmodo: Edmodo is free of charge both for teachers and for institutions. Edmodo runs only on
Edmodo.com without requiring any server or installation. If institutions demand advanced analytical
features and integration to a school information system, they may have to do a payment. Except for this,
a free school account can be created and administrated via Edmodo. In this respect, if institutions do not
want to spend any money on LMS and if they lack the necessary technical infra-structure or the related
staff, Edmodo is the most appropriate alternative as an LMS.
Canvas: Canvas is an open-source and free software. However, though it is free of charge, hidden
infra-structure and staff costs may occur as in Moodle. Also, again similar to Moodle, institutions can
use Canvas by paying the price based on the number of learners via the Cloud-based system of Canvaslms.com. For information about the payment, institutions can ask for offers on the phone. Despite all
these hidden payments, Canvas could be said to be an economical alternative for education institutions.
In addition, teachers can use Canvas in their lessons by signing up freely themselves via the website of
canvas.instructure.com independently of an education institution.
Customer Service and Community
Blackboard Learn: Since it is a commercial application, the source codes of BL are closed. Development
of BL and its keeping up with up-to-date technologies depend totally on its related investment decisions.
BL provides various services for the needs of institutions such as integration with the student information system. In addition, thanks to the API support of the software, it is possible to do customization to a
certain extent. Since it is commercial software, the company can always be asked for technical support.
Also, BL provides various orientation training applications to support current and new customers within
the scope of customer satisfaction.
Moodle: Development of Moodle, an open-source software, depends totally on the Moodle community. The Moodle community is made up of software developers who voluntarily support the development of Moodle throughout the world. The infra-structure of Moodle includes free-of-charge softwares
as required by its license. This may bring about several disadvantages besides its advantages. As the
advantages, education institutions can change the source codes of Moodle in line with their needs. In
addition, they can even share this improvement or the changes with the Moodle community as a new
feature of Moodle. The disadvantages include the probable difficulty in following new technological
313
Learning Management Systems
developments due to the obligation to use free software in Moodle. In addition, since it is free software,
there is no technical support provided. Therefore, the 3rd party can purchase technical support service.
Education documents in Moodle are produced by Moodle community.
Edmodo: As it was developed by a company, its further development depends on that company.
Considering the rapidly-increasing number of its users, it could be stated that Edmodo will continue its
existence. Although it is free of charge, it is possible to ask for support since it belongs to a company.
According to the information provided in its website, Edmodo has a dedicated help center for students,
parents and teachers to find answers for common troubleshooting issues and other questions. It is also
possible to request support from Edmodo community.
Canvas: Although Canvas is an open-source and free software, it is executed by the company of
Instructure. In addition, the Instructure company serves Canvas via cloud systems and asks its users to
pay for this service. If Canvas is to be used for free, the issue of technical support could pose a problem
like Moodle. In this respect, as in Edmodo, Canvas Community can be asked for their support, or help
pages can be searched. If Canvas is to be paid for use, it will run on Amazon Web Services Cloud system and all the maintenance and up-date procedures will be carried out by the Infrastructure company.
Features
•
•
•
314
Blackboard Learn: BL has a new feature called Ultra Experience. This feature provides a more
streamlined workflow for users. BL’s Upgraded Assessment tool facilitates creating assignments,
and users will have the opportunity to chat with each other within these assignments. BL has a
learning analytics feature with automatic notifications regarding the course activities. The data
obtained via a survey conducted with BL can be transferred directly to Excel or SPSS. With the
Open Content tool in BL, online contents can be prepared. In this way, users will not have to use
any other tools but BL to prepare a content. The notifications sent to users can be customized. As
a result, users can be provided with better feedback regarding their learning processes.
Moodle: Moodle supports integration with BigBlueButton, which is open-source video/web conferencing software. In Moodle, with the help of plugin quizventure, quizzes acquire the feature of
gamification. Moodle has a number of similar plugins. All these plugins make it possible to set up
Moodle in a way to meet different needs.
Edmodo: Because of its SLN nature, Edmodo provides features that encourage collaboration
and social learning. Learners are divided into small groups to form cooperative learning groups.
Students’ developments can be monitored via micro-quizzes appropriate to K12 level standards in
USA and to common core standards with the help of Edmodo Snapshot tool. Snapshot also provides real time reports that illustrate students’ progress so that teachers can figure out the needs
of students individually. Edmodo Spotlight is an application (app) that can be added to Edmodo.
Edmodo Spotlight includes a number of applications. For example, there is an application called
Math Games to develop students’ mathematics skills. Teachers can add these applications to their
classes and allow their students to use them. Teachers can even develop their own applications and
integrate them into the system. Most of the applications are free of charge, while there are others
costing 1$ to 6$.
Learning Management Systems
•
Canvas: Canvas uses videos as a source of collaboration and content. To upload and share videos, the Arc platform can be used. Besides, it supports conservations by letting students and instructors comment on videos. Canvas also has a web conferencing feature by default. Canvas has
MasteryPaths feature that releases the course content automatically to a learner based on his/her
performance. With the help of Canvas’ Mastery GradeBook, it is possible to assess learners’ performance according to predefined learning outcomes for accreditation or standards-based grading.
CONCLUSION
LMSs, which appeared first in 1990s, have taken an important place in education environments thanks
to the developing Internet technologies. All LMSs have several common features, yet they have distinctive features as well. Education institutions are supposed to prefer an LMS based on its capability to
meet their needs. Changing a wrong selection of an LMS will inevitably cause the education institution
to suffer from loss of time and funds. In addition, it is important for institutions to consider the trends
in LMS use while selecting their LMSs. The usage trends of LMSs help hold a view about the futures
of these LMSs. An LMS with a decreasing rate of use is likely to result in withdrawal from the market
and to fail to provide new updates. In this respect, the chapter examined four LMSs from different categories, which were most popular in the world-wide LMS market, which had the highest user numbers,
and which most rapidly spread throughout the world: Blackboard Learn, Moodle, Edmodo and Canvas.
The LMSs examined in the present study were categorized as follows: BL was in the commercial
category; Moodle and Canvas were in the open-source category; and Edmodo belonged to the category
of social learning network (SLN). BL is a closed-source software requiring payment. If education institutions prefer BL, they are likely to do serious payments depending on their annual number of users.
However, the fact that the software is funded and supported by a powerful company could mean that
users will be able to receive better support from the company within the scope of customer satisfaction
and that the problems will be solved rapidly. Moodle and Canvas are open-source softwares, which are
free of charge. In case of a technical problem, it could be difficult to find a respondent, or the user may
have to pay for technical support. Though they are free-of-charge softwares, education institutions willing
to use these softwares may meet such hidden expenditures as the costs for servers and technical staff.
However, despite these hidden costs, open-source softwares could be generally regarded as economical solutions. It could be stated that universities powerful with their technical infra-structure and with
their technical staff generally prefer open-source softwares more. Moodle and Canvas can be used via
cloud-based systems on payment. In this case, procedures like installation, maintenance and up-dating
of the software are executed by the company. Edmodo is a kind of social learning network, and it runs
on Edmodo.com. It is free both for schools and for teachers. However, there are ads on Edmodo.com,
though few in number. If schools are willing to use certain advanced features, they have to pay for these
features. For Edmodo, which is generally favored by k12 schools, there are a number of contents appropriate to k12 level.
315
Learning Management Systems
When the usage trends of LMSs are examined, it is seen that Canvas and Edmodo have been in an
uptrend in recent years. Though it was established in 2010, Canvas constituted 33% of all the new LMS
implementations throughout Europe in 2016. In addition, usage trends of Canvas are similar in US and in
Canada as well. Also, Canvas is prominent in LMS preferences of the leading universities in the world. If
the usage trends of Canvas continue to increase at this rate, it may get ahead of Moodle in a short period
of time. Similar to Edmodo, Canvas has reached a very large number of users. Edmodo has reached 90
million users by 2018, and the number of its users is rapidly increasing. Moodle, which was established
in 2002, could be said to dominate the LMS market for a long time. By 2016, 65% of the European LMS
market belonged to Moodle. Despite the recent recession in the rate of use of Moodle, it is seen that the
usage rate of Moodle, though lower than in the past, continues to increase. In 2016, 53% of all the new
LMS implementations in Europe belonged to Moodle. On the other hand, the usage trends of BL have
tended to decrease in recent years. It is seen that BL was almost never preferred especially in Europe in
2016. Despite this, BL is the most popular commercial software in Europe, US and Canada. By 2016,
BL constituted 14% of the European LMS market.
Studies conducted on the use of LMSs generally tried to reveal the participants’ views and to investigate the effectiveness of LMSs. It could be predicted that LMSs may not produce good results in terms of
effectiveness in their early years of establishment. With the passing of years, LMSs develop themselves
by adding new features and new technologies, which help increase positive views about LMSs. However,
it would not be appropriate to investigate the effectiveness of a course only via LMS. As mentioned in
studies in related literature, the quality of the course, or the structuring of that course, and the teacher’s
attitudes should all be taken into account.
Considering the pedagogical aspects of online education, it is possible to use the best LMS as a poor
learning environment, while the worst LMS could be used as a much better learning environment. If a
web site can foster communication and sharing, then it can be used as a learning environment. Twitter
is used as an informal learning environment by millions of people seeking information. Whatever the
platform is, what matters is what people. If individuals can share only documents within the scope of
a course on LMS and if interactivity is not encouraged, then this learning environment can be said to
be pedagogically poor. In order to consider an online course to be good in pedagogical sense, it should
involve certain features such as learning objectives, resources for learning, student activities, instructor feedback and peer engagement. In other words, instruction is far more important in online courses.
Instructors can prefer various teaching approaches like learner-centered, practice-based or project-based
approaches so that they can increase effectiveness in their online courses. Many universities giving online
education first require their academicians who will give online education to take the course of “online
learning”. If academicians fail in the course of “Online Learning” that they have taken online, then
they are not allowed to give online courses. In this respect, it could be stated that academicians should
understand online education does not merely mean sharing a document and that they should learn its
pedagogical aspects. Therefore, what education institutions should do is not just to determine the best
LMS for them. They are also supposed to organize various in-service training activities for instructors
to understand the pedagogical aspects of online education.
Another important in choosing LMS is related to future predictions. When the Internet is searched
using the key words of “future of LMS”, it is seen that there are various articles regarding what features
LMSs should have in future. These articles especially point out that LMSs with artificial intelligence will
have more automated, predictive and social features, will become more integrated with other systems
and will support mobile applications better (Burgess, 2017). Also, the structure of the education institu316
Learning Management Systems
tion may have an important place in LMS selection. In this respect, it will be better to make predictions
regarding the future of current LMSs and to consider the future structure of the institution.
Today, the features of current LMSs are almost the same. Therefore, the reasons for institutions’
preferences of LMSs could be said to include their budgets, number of students, institutional policies,
the up-date support of LMSs and the technical support provided via LMSs. The present study is thought
to be important since it aimed to examine the leading LMSs in the world LMS market, to compare them
with each other, and to reveal the market shares of these LMSs. For this reason, the results are considered
to be beneficial for institutions/students willing to use LMS.
REFERENCES
Blackboard News. (2017). Blackboard Delivers Worldwide Growth. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from
http://press.blackboard.com/2017-01-27-Blackboard-Delivers-Worldwide-Growth
Brady, K. P., Holcomb, L. B., & Smith, B. V. (2010). The use of alternative social networking sites in
higher educational settings : A case study of the e-learning benefits of ning in education. Journal of
Interactive Online Learning, 9(2), 151–170.
Brown, M., Dehoney, J., & Millichap, N. (2015). The next generation digital learning environment: A
report on research. EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative.
Buffalo University. (2016). Trends and the Future of Learning Management Systems (LMSs) in Higher
Education. Retrieved from https://www.buffalo.edu/content/dam/www/ubcei/reports/CEI Report - Trends
and the Future of Learning Management Systems in Higher Education.pdf
Burgess, S. (2017). What is the future of the corporate LMS? Retrieved May 25, 2018, from https://www.
quora.com/What-is-the-future-of-the-corporate-LMS
Bynum, S. L. (2011). Utilizing social media to increase student engagement: A study of Kern County
public schools (Unpublished master’s thesis). California State University Department of Public Policy
and Administration, Bakersfield, CA.
Cankaya, S., Durak, G., & Yunkul, E. (2014). Using educational social networking sites in higher education: Edmodo through the lenses of undergraduate students. European Journal of Education Technology,
1(1), 3–23.
Cavus, N., Uzunboylu, H., & Ibrahim, D. (2007). Assessing the success rate of students using a learning
management system together with a collaborative tool in web-based teaching of programming languages.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(3), 301–321. doi:10.2190/T728-G676-4N18-6871
Cohen, A. (2011). Higher education students’ perspectives of the relevance of the online social networking site Facebook to education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Walden University College of Social
and Behavioral Sciences.
Dobre, I. (2015). Learning management systems for higher education - An overview of available options for higher education organizations. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 180, 313–320.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.122
317
Learning Management Systems
Docebo. (2016). Toronto, ON, Canada: Elearning Market Trends and Forecast.
Durak, G. (2017). Using social learning networks (SLNs) in higher education: Edmodo through the
lenses of academics. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(1), 84–109.
doi:10.19173/irrodl.v18i1.2623
e-Literate. (2016). European LMS Market Dynamics. Retrieved from https://mfeldstein.com/new-releaseeuropean-lms-market-report/
e-Literate. (2017). State of Higher Education LMS Market for US and Canada: Spring 2017 Edition.
Retrieved from https://mfeldstein.com/state-higher-ed-lms-market-spring-2016/
Ebardo, R. A., & Valderama, A. M. C. (2009). The effect of web-based learning management system on
knowledge acquisition of information technology students at Jose Rizal University. Proceeding of 6th
International Conference on E-learning for Knowledge-based Society.
Emelyanova, N., & Voronina, E. (2014). Introducing a learning management system at a Russian university: Students’ and teachers’ perceptions. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed
Learning, 15(1). doi:10.19173/irrodl.v15i1.1701
Enriquez, M. A. S. (2014). Effectiveness of the use of edmodo as a supplementary tool for learning. In
DLSU Research Congress (pp. 6–11). Academic Press.
Filippidi, A., Tselios, N., & Komis, V. (2010). Impact of moodle usage practices onstudents’ performance
in the context of a blended learning environment. In Proceedings of Social Applications for Lifelong
Learning (pp. 1-6). Patras, Greece: Academic Press.
Firat, M. (2016). Determining the effects of LMS learning behaviors on academic achievement in a
learning analytic perspective. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 15, 75–87.
doi:10.28945/3405
Forkosh-Baruch, A., & Hershkovitz, A. (2012). A case study of Israeli higher-education institutes sharing scholarly information with the community via social networks. The Internet and Higher Education,
15(1), 58–68. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.08.003
Georgouli, K., Skalkidis, I., & Guerreiro, P. (2008). A framework for adopting LMS to introduce elearning in a traditional course. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(2), 227–240.
Inaba, A., & Mizoguchi, R. (2004). Learners roles and predictable educational benefits in collaborative
learning: an ontological approach to support design and analysis of CSCL. In Seventh International
Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 285–294). Alagoas, Brazil: Academic Press. 10.1007/9783-540-30139-4_27
Jo, I. H., Kim, D., & Yoon, M. (2014). Analyzing the log patterns of adult learners in LMS using learning
analytics. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Learning Analytics And Knowledge,
183-187. 10.1145/2567574.2567616
318
Learning Management Systems
Jo, I. H., Yu, T., Lee, H., & Kim, Y. (2015). Relations between student online learning behavior and academic achievement in higher education: A learning analytics approach. In G. Chen, V. Kumar, Kinshuk,
R. Huang, & S. C. Kong (Eds.), Emerging Issues In Smart Learning (pp. 275-287). Berlin: Springer.
doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44188-6_38
Junco, R. (2012). The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities,
and student engagement. Computers & Education, 58(1), 162–171. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.004
Kongchan, C. (2008). How a non-digital-native teacher makes use of edmodo. Proceedings of 5th Intenational Conference ICT for Language Learning.
Kotsiantis, S., Tselios, N., Filippidi, A., & Komis, V. (2013). Using learning analytics to identify successful learners in a blended learning course. Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 5(2), 133–150.
doi:10.1504/IJTEL.2013.059088
Macfadyen, L. P., & Dawson, S. (2010). Mining LMS data to develop an “early warning system” for educators: A proof of concept. Computers & Education, 54(2), 588–599. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.09.008
MarketsandMarkets. (2016). Learning management system market by application, delivery mode (distance learning and instructor-led training), deployment (on-premises and cloud), user type (academic
and corporate), vertical, and region - global forecast to 2021. Hadapsar.
Mora-Soto, A., Sanchez-Segura, M. I., Medina-Dominguez, F., & Amescua, A. (2009). Collaborative
learning experiences using social networks. In 1st International Conference on Education and New
Learning Technologies, (pp. 4260-4270). Barcelona: Academic Press.
Mwalumbwe, I., & Mtebe, J. S. (2017). ‘Using learning analytics to predict students’ performance in moodle
learning management systems: A case of mbeya university of science and technology. The Electronic
Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries, 79(1), 1–13. doi:10.1002/j.1681-4835.2017.
tb00577.x
Nair, S. C., & Patil, R. (2012). A Study on the impact of learning management systems on students of
a university college in sultanate of oman. International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(2), 379.
Sanders, K. S. (2012). An examination of the academic networking site Edmodo on student engagement
and responsible learning (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of South Carolina College of
Education.
Tinmaz, H. (2013). Sosyal ag web siteleri ve sosyal aglarin egitimde kullanimi [The use of social networking sites and social networks in education]. In K. Cagiltay & Y. Goktas (Eds.), Ogretim Teknolojilerinin
Temelleri: Teoriler, Arastirmalar, Egilimler (pp. 615–630). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Whitmer, J. (2012). Logging on to improve achievement: evaluating the relationship between use of
the learning management system, student characteristics, and academic achievement in a hybrid large
enrollment undergraduate course (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of California.
319
Learning Management Systems
Wolf, M. M., Wolf, M., Frawley, T., Torres, A., & Wolf, S. (2012). Using social media to enhance learning through collaboration in higher education: a case study. In Agricultural Economics Association
2012 Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.
Wright, C. R., Montgomerie, T. C., Reju, S. A., & Schmoller, S. (2014). Selecting a learning management system : Advice from an academic perspective. EDUCAUSE Review.
Yu, T., & Jo, I. (2014). Educational technology approach toward learning analytics: relationship between
student online behavior and learning performance in higher education. In Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (pp. 269-270). Indianapolis, IN: Academic Press. 10.1145/2567574.2567594
Zion Market Reasearch. (2017). Learning management system market (distance learning, instructor-led
trainings, and others) for performance management, content management, communication & collaboration and others applications: global industry perspective, comprehensive analysis and fore. Author.
320
321
Chapter 17
Academic Entrepreneurship
and Its Challenges:
A Re-Look Into Indian Technology
University Context – Role of Indian
Technological Universities in
Academic Entrepreneurship
Bhaskar Bhowmick
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
Rosalin Sahoo
Indian Institute of Technology Khragpur, India
ABSTRACT
An emerging country like India demands a high level of entrepreneurial development for its economic
growth as the scope of entrepreneurship is tremendous here. There is a particular reason that developing
countries are trying to put in to entrepreneurship education in the higher education institutions (HEIs).
Higher education institutions (HEIs) have been playing a major part in current economic development
through innovation grant program. The idea of entrepreneurial university can be seen as the universities those have proved to be the best in critical economic development condition. The prime focus of
this chapter is to understand the concept of academic entrepreneurship efficiently, to analyze the entrepreneurial challenges in Indian technology universities and how it is related to regional growth. The
literature on these entrepreneurial pillars are still quite sparse, and the authors have tried to focus on
all the important aspects of them. These orientations of this archetype for facilitating Indian economic
growth are discussed, and the challenges are identified.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch017
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
1. INTRODUCTION
Academic entrepreneurship has a broader impact on the social and economic growth of a nation through
the distribution of knowledge and contribution to employment. Academic entrepreneurs also made it
simpler to interpret the role of research universities regarding regional economic growth. According to
Fairweather (1990), responding to the social needs and increasing economic development of academic
institutions result in enhancing the public image which gradually reflects in regional and economic
growth. So universities are considered as the most vital element of the innovation eco-system. In India,
the Government has acted an early adopter of Business Incubators as a tool and launched a countrywide
incubation program under the sponsorship of National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board (NSTEDB) in the year 1986 by Department of Science & Technology (DST). NSTEDB
acts as a platform to promote technology and knowledge-driven enterprises and focuses on converting
‘job-seekers’ to ‘job-generators’ through Science & Technology interventions. This aims to develop and
promote high-end entrepreneurship and self-employment conducting different informational services to
encourage entrepreneurship.
The core concept of Academic Entrepreneurship explains the proper utilization of resources in Higher
Education Institutes (HEIs). The best possible commercialization of ideas or research outputs are useful
for academic entrepreneurship as well as the spill over of economic benefit may enlighten the prospect
of regional development. The commercialization concept and the challenges related to it are connected
to two parts. The first one can be stated as external viz. describing market spaces, creating the competitive strategy, adapting to the regulatory framework in the proposed markets, customer clarification, and
communication, managing the distribution channel. The second part is internal which is more applicable
to our discussion of academic entrepreneurship. The internal challenges are development of technology
and deployment (in terms of products and services), defining products and services as well as synthesis
towards new proposed solutions, scaling up technology with the required manufacturing and assembly,
issues of intellectual property management, managing and identifying leadership, culture, and finally
funding and investment requirements.
Figure 1. Academic entrepreneurship in Indian scenario and the constituents
322
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
The environment or eco-system of academic entrepreneurship should find out the challenges associated
and work towards the betterment. The In-depth understanding of Indian academic entrepreneurship with
in higher education institution may be potentially described through orientations which are Innovation
Orientation, Incubation Orientation and Industry Orientation presented in different sections of this chapter.
In this Chapter, we review the existing academic literature and attempt to synthesize these findings.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: In Section 2, we provide a review of the literature
on the understanding of Triple Helix Model as well as role of Higher Education Institutions and Business Incubators definition. In Section 3, we summarize the methodology used in this chapter following
a Case Study approach in the following Section 4. In the final sections. We attempt to synthesize the
Discussion and Findings to create a clear roadmap to the depth of our research.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Innovation & entrepreneurship are being viewed as the most critical constituents in which several models are demystifying the relationship between the knowledge economies with the innovation society
exist and also includes the National systems of innovations. Most of the research on the Triple Helix
of university-Industry-government relations (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 1998, 2000; Etzkowitz et al.,
2000) depicts that the boundaries between actors in science, industry, and government are becoming
increasingly blurred. Triple Helix Model applies the systematic approach to explain the varied nature
of interactions at various levels such as national, regional, technological, and sectors – to explain the
processes by which research capabilities build knowledge, and then transfer the knowledge to support
business development in the context of the Triple Helix of business, government and academic interaction
(Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000). According to (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000) Triple Helix model
is a framework which differentiates knowledge, consensus and innovation spaces. The primary focus
of knowledge spaces in on collaboration of different factors directing at improving local conditions for
innovation by concentrating related Research & Development activities as well as other relevant operations. Consensus spaces create ideas and strategies in a ‘Triple Helix’ of multiple reciprocal relationships
among institutional sectors (academic, public & private). Innovation Spaces describes more about the
goals articulated in the previous phase, establishing and attracting venture capital. The evolutionary
elucidation of the Triple Helix model presumes that within specific local contexts universities, government and industry are learning to encourage economic growth through the development of what has
been called “generative relationships” (Leydesdorff & Etzkowitz, 1997). The Triple Helix interactions
try to renew this juxtaposition that greater innovation interactions between stakeholders of Triple Helix
would lead to higher economic growth. In the current scenario, universities are focusing more on the
entrepreneurial dimension of technology transfer.
According to National Business Incubation Association (2009), one of the primary aspect of business
support is business incubation that accelerates the development of start-ups and evolving companies
by supporting entrepreneurs with an array of targeted resources and services. These services are usually developed by incubator management and offered in the Business Incubation through its network
of contacts. The main goal of a business incubator is to produce well-to-do firms that will leave the
program financially viable and freestanding. It may be summed up that Business Incubator is an entity
executing a start-up development program which accelerates the growth of local economy. It provides
323
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
a series of business building, development and fundraising services to early-stage ventures. Lalkaka
(1990) identified sustainability of the incubator to be an important measure of success, possible through
prudent investments in the building and facilities, careful monitoring of operating expenses and innovative means of raising income. Rice (2002) suggested that a Business Incubator in collaboration with the
community in which it operates is a produce of business assistance programs. It is basically a shared
office space facility that seeks to provide it’s incubates with a strategic, value-adding intervention system
of monitoring and business assistance. This system controls and links the resources with the objective
of facilitating the successful development of new ventures and simultaneously containing the cost of
their potential failure. Acs et al. (2007) emphasize that Business Incubators constitute an environment
especially designed to hatch enterprises. They provide their tenant companies with several facilities from
office space and capital to management support and knowledge. This allows the start-up to concentrate
on the business plan and raise the success rate.
2.1. Role of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
A wide-ranging idea with respect to innovation and entrepreneurship within the Triple Helix has become
a matter of concern and focus among a wide range of the researchers. The particular study is inconsistent
with the fact that the role of government, HEI and industry stakeholders and their ensuing interactions
assumes greater importance for the innovation ecosystem creation. HEIs have been frequently asked by
the government to play an important role in local economic development through innovation grant programme (Cooke et al. 2000). The role of HEIs have been commended by researchers for their expertise
in knowledge generation, maintenance and transfer which has been proven with the establishment of
many industrial/knowledge parks, R&D parks very much closer to the higher education Institutions. The
Silicon Valley at US, Silicon Alley at Bangalore, Shanghai, Hsinchu Science and Technology Industrial
Park at Taiwan etc. are examples of the impetus provided by academia in industry creation. Researchers like Acs (2004) believe that the public knowledge stock and knowledge spillovers are important
economic drivers for regional development and growth (Acs et al. 2004). Literature survey suggests
that the role of Universities in supporting government support program is crucial. Lack of research was
found to be higher in the case of government-supported innovation funding programs and research in
the Indian context related to innovation & commercialization. A major reason for the lack of research
data regarding funding & commercialization support mechanisms in India is because most of them have
been initiated within this past decade. Lack of research content, other than the official website of the
concerned agencies was a major reason for non-availability of government innovation program related
information. Another important reason could be the lack of willingness of individual innovators to part
with information which may be subject to intellectual property laws and trade secrets, apprehension of
copying and other miss utilization by information seekers. This research is trying to re-look in to Indian
Academic entrepreneurship and its challenges to unfold the present dynamics and future Orientation.
3. METHODOLOGY
This research is methodologically adapted the Case Study approach attempting to establish an understanding of the desired concepts through studying the incubation hubs identifying effective framework
for academia, industry and government, creating a link with the most important pillars that drive the
324
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
functioning of Academic Entrepreneurship. The literature on academic entrepreneurship contains some
important lessons for university administrators who wish to stimulate this activity at their institutions.
Before addressing the important aspects of incentives and culture, the university administration must first
make clear that academic entrepreneurship is a strategic priority of the institution. The unit of analysis in
this study being the incubation hubs in three important and old technology Universities (Indian Institute
of Technology). The whole exercise has coordinated essentially to capture important dimensions like
Innovation orientation, Incubation Orientation, and Industry Orientation and the challenges related to
them. The study addressed by starting with exhaustive literature review, identifying parameters, then
doing the in-depth-analysis of the same, taking note of the stakeholder interaction and finally building
an integrated framework. In-depth analysis of identified parameters provides the theoretical foundation
which justifies the relationship of three important dimensions. The cases are selected on the basis of
convenience sampling as these three institutions are older institutions in academics as well the supporting
the incubation roles. The researchers have visited the units, spent time with familiarising the processes
and developments therein. The researchers also taken in-depth interview with the important stakeholders
like the administrative heads, operating heads and the start-up companies within the setup. The interviews
are documented through field notes and follow-up discussions in the emails. The data collected through
field visits are also triangulated with the website information and other published articles.
The research presented here is based on document analysis and interview with key stakeholders.
The starting point was a thematic analysis of existing literature related to Triple Helix organizations to
focus on critical factors. We focused on policymakers and practitioners involved in devising, running
or evaluating Triple Helix Organisations. We developed and followed a standard template using a semistructured interview approach to obtain observations, experiences, and attitudes associated with user
involvement in hybrid organizational firms. The interviews were conducted face-to-face, telephone or
emails. The interview schedule allowed the incorporation of Interviewees’ views, but at the same time,
all the interviewees were asked the same fundamental questions. Hence, data collection was systematic,
ensuring the collected data are complete for each person on the topic addressed. Interviewees included
representatives of funding councils, innovation agencies, industry organizations and competence center
management. The interviews focused on the following themes: Organisational structure, Function of
competence center, governance practices, evaluation, and monitoring, etc. Finally, all the interviewees
were encouraged to bring up any comments or additional thoughts they might have. Interview transcriptions were returned to the interviewees to check for Factual accuracy. Interview materials were analysed
using thematic analysis, reflected against the earlier literature analysis and existing frameworks (Denizen
and Lincoln, 2003).Except that secondary data collection has been done from various sources such as
different websites, articles related to our research.
We studied activities in the following Technical Institutes in India: Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur (IIT Kharagpur), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay), and Indian Institute
of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi). This purposeful sample is appropriate, as each of these Institutions has
well documented, discussed, and formalized networks at the science/industry interface that provide an
infrastructure or service offering regarding the three Triple Helix Approaches presented earlier.
325
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
4. CASES
The universities should create a clear roadmap to coordinate and integrate all the entrepreneurial activities
across existing structures. The university must also decide on which mode of technology commercialization to stress: whether it is licensing, sponsored research, start-ups, or other mechanisms of technology
transfer focused on directly stimulating economic and regional development, such as incubators and
science parks. The act of innovation, incubation, and entrepreneurship building in academics demands
proactive research and relating established grounding with live cases on the creation and managing
Academic Entrepreneurship. This could be able to create economies of scale, increase the efficiency of
operation also leverage the power of Indian Institute of Technology towards entrepreneurship.
4.1. Case A: Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT Kharagpur)
IIT Kharagpur was established in 1951, aiming at training good quality of scientists and engineers after
India got independence in 1947. Being the first of the IIT to be built, it is broadly recognized as an
Institute of National Importance by the government of India. It covers an area of 2,100 acres along with
making different academic departments, schools, and centers actively participating in setting up and
strengthening Technology Incubation Centre within the institution. IIT Kharagpur is a strategic knowledge
partner for an entrepreneurial offering the compensation for technology consultancy, incubation space,
and the tax benefit. It is a combined effort of the various schools of sciences, engineering, management
studies, medical science, intellectual property law and information technology helping and promoting
the incubation.
4.1.1. Science and Technology Entrepreneur’s Park (STEP)
IIT Kharagpur with the support of government instigated an entrepreneurship development program to
support entrepreneurial enthusiasts and talents and the organization is known as science and Technology Entrepreneur’s Park (STEP). It was established in 1986 and it came in to fully operation in 1989
under the overall guidance of National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Development Board
(NSTEDB). STEP has got financial aid from Department of Science and Technology(DST) New Delhi,
DST West Bengal, Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Industrial Finance Corporation of
India (IFCI), ICICI Bank and got its approval in the year 1987 by DST.STEP has paved its success path
by creating an entrepreneurial-Academic ecosystem for emerging entrepreneurs and works in complete
harmony with some other incubation programs such as Technology Incubation and Entrepreneurship
Training Society (TIETS) and Technology Business Incubation (TBI) which acts as a channel between
the technical institute and outer world to give rise to a commercially viable proposition to entrepreneurs.
STEP properly utilises the concept of ‘Academic Entrepreneurship’ to promote better entrepreneurial
facilities for greater benefit of mankind. In the eastern part of India it tries to overcome the difficulties
faced by the emerging entrepreneurs by providing cost-effective and efficient incubation facilities. This
also provides several funding schemes for the different stages of product development. Some of the funding schemes are Promoting Innovations in Individuals Start-ups, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises
(MSME), Technology Incubation and Development of entrepreneur (TIDE) etc.
326
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
4.1.2. Technology Business Incubation (TBI)
TBI functions under Technology Incubation and Entrepreneurship Training Society (TIETS) was registered in 2004 under Government of West Bengal, India. The prime objective of TBI is to promote
technological advancements and linking the gap between Research and development with respect to
commercialisation. TBI connects education and enterprise and fosters product/service based organisations. Some of the infrastructure facilities created under TBI are Entrepreneur infrastructure, Multimedia
facility, separate cubicles and separate administrative complex .The most value-added services offered
by TBI are mentoring, technical support, financial support, fabrication assistance, Market Information,
Networking with Research Laboratories / Institution etc. There are different laboratories functioning
under TBI which are Test & Measurement lab, Design Lab.
4.1.3. E-Cell (IIT Kharagpur)
Entrepreneurship Cell being a student body of IIT Kharagpur was formed in 2006 in order to inspire
and guide emerging start-ups in Kharagpur and to foster entrepreneurial awareness in the campus.
Today E-cell has more than 50 members from the campus as well as members from other institutes.
As Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, is promoting entrepreneurship and
developing entrepreneurial hubs in major educational institutions in India, IIT Kharagpur stands out to
be the pioneering institutions continuously supporting and dedicating resources for the development and
different associations with industries and Academia. Every year new innovative ideas and Young talents
are brewing up to contribute to Indian economic growth in terms of innovation and incubation. Being
a technological hub IIT Kharagpur continues to provide a platform for different business plan competitions and innovation through E-cell with support of academicians who have several years of experience
and they act as the perfect mentors. It also encourages outsiders to be a part of this culture and to get
involved they have created various ways such as mentoring where one can stand a chance to be on the
advisory board of a company and solve the issues with their prior expertise. One can also act as a angel
investor by providing seed capitals to initiate a start-up under innovation platform.
The flagship events E-cell has are Global Entrepreneurship Summit (GES) and Entrepreneurship
Awareness Drive (EAD) to promote entrepreneurship and generating opportunities for young budding
entrepreneurs. GES acts as one of the biggest entrepreneurial platform for emerging entrepreneurs, academicians, venture capitalists etc. to come together and share their experience. Students from different
other colleges and from IIT Kharagpur gathers with the eminent personalities across the world to find
the solutions and conclusions to the evolving problems.GES also hosts Startup camps which can bridge
the gap between the interested students and best start-ups in the country who showcases their products/
students. These start-ups also provide internship or full time job to students. EAD is also an initiative of
E-cell which conducts workshops called as Entrepreneurship Awareness Camp (EAC) in 15 cities. This
is a massive countrywide initiative to promote and foster entrepreneurship.
4.2. Case B: Indian Institute of Technology (IIT Bombay)
In this chapter, we will also be discussing about The Entrepreneurship Cell, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT B) which is working towards a better entrepreneurial ecosystem in India serving as
guiding hand to many individuals to start their new ventures. By their initiative National Entrepreneur327
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
ship Challenge, they have assisted more than 1000 colleges creating own Entrepreneurship cell across
India to promote and foster entrepreneurship and successfully established around 150 E-Cells in about
80 cities. Society for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (SINE), a leading technology business incubator
introduced by IITB provides support to technology-based entrepreneurship developing incubation efforts in Indian technical institutions. Its vision is to provide an entrepreneurial environment to convert
innovation and idea in to creation of wealth and social importance through widely acceptable and successful ventures. This also gives incubation support like technical labs, seed fund, service providers to
IITB- based start-ups.
4.2.1. E-Cell (IIT Bombay)
The Entrepreneurship cell is primarily designed and dedicated to the young entrepreneurs who has to
break all the shackles of prejudices and inertia that has kept them from starting up. It creates an entrepreneurial ecosystem as well as provides a wider platform for young competitive-creative minds to come up
with brainstorming ideas which will be helpful in growth of the nation. The stakeholders in E-cell also
ensures smooth communication and efficient interaction between aspiring and existing entrepreneurs,
Angel Investors, working professionals and venture capitalists. Talking about the till date achievements
of E-Cell, it has achieved many recognitions in past 16 years which has lead E-cell as the Leading
Entrepreneurship Promoting Student Organization in the country by the ‘NEN Achievement Awards’
instituted by the Wadhwani Foundation and felicitated at TiECon 2005.The Entrepreneurship Summit
as the annual flagship event, which has received patronage from UNESCO, Make in India, Digital India
and Start-up India. It drives together the outstanding entrepreneurs of the world and caters to all those
passionate rebels who desire to change the world with their unique ideas, start their own business and
become a trend-setter. Renowned personalities like Sachin Bansal (Co-founder & Executive chairman,
Flipkart), Mr. Travis Kalanick (Founder& CEO, Uber), Mr. NandanNilekani (Co-founder, Infosys), Dr.
Werner Vogels, (CTO, Amazon.com) have been a part of the Summit.
4.2.2. Society for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (SINE)
SINE controls a technology business incubator was built in 2004 acts as a platform to support start-ups
founded by the community of IIT Bombay. SINE extends the role of IIT Bombay by facilitating the
conversion of R&D into entrepreneurial ventures. The infrastructure of SINE spread over 10,000 Sq. Ft
which can incubate 13-14 companies at a time. It is also supported by different government departments
such as Department of Science and Technology (DST), Technology development board and Department
of information technology. The principal activities of SINE To promote the idea of Entrepreneurship
and create support systems and infrastructures for different incubation purpose as well as identifying
technologies which have more significant potential for commercial ventures.
4.2.3. NIDHI-PRAYAS Program
DST promoted National Initiative for Developing and Harnessing Innovation (NIDHI) programs About
NIDHI- Promotion and Acceleration of Young and Aspiring innovators and start-ups (PRAYAS) program aims at helping innovators and entrepreneurs to transform ideas into innovation. This is a great
328
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
program to attract young and talented minds explore their opinions without the fear of failure. NIDHI
along with PRAYAS has created 20 incubation centers. The prime Objectives of NIDHI- PRAYAS are,
1.
2.
3.
To provide a platform to explore and implement ideas to market ventures.
To come up with solutions to local and global problems.
To attract young, enthusiastic minds who bears problem-solving zeal and abilities to work on their
new technology or innovation-based start-ups.
DST aims to support 500 such innovators through PRAYAS centres in established TBIs every year
for next few years. 10 centres, each supporting 10 innovators each year, will be set up over the next 5
years. Within those TBIs addition of Fabrication Lab has been taken in to account. NIDHI has extended
its hands for seed funding as well as managerial learning along with PRAYAS. It has also started some
cross-border initiatives with Switzerland and Russia and the programs are mainly start-up exchange
program through DST where it provides travelling support up to 20 students. SINE has proper structure
of its team which includes Professor in charge (PIC), Chef Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Administrative Officer (CAO and Chief Operating Officer (COO).They have started accelerator program in 2016
in combination with DST, Intel and SINE. At present 14 start-up are activated in this program. They are
having short acceleration program (SAP) in the area of social entrepreneurship where already 5 start-ups
are working. There is another program called BIG which is Biotechnology related has been collaborated
with ICICI and FITT with Bio incubation in life science project.
4.2.4. NIDHI-EIR Program
DST promoted National Initiative for Developing and Harnessing Innovation (NIDHI) programs about
NIDHI-Entrepreneur In Residence (NIDHI-EIR). This program basically encourage the graduating to
take and explore entrepreneurship as a career with supporting fellowship. This also aims to create to
create, strengthen and nurture a pipeline of entrepreneurs for incubators and to create new start-up by
entrepreneurs and progress towards raising funding for the same.
4.2.5. SWISSNEX
There is another program named SWISSNEX, which an initiative of the Swiss Government is currently
acting as a network with nodes across the different firms of globe, where future is being mould-Rio de
Janerio, Shanghai, Bangalore, San Francisco and Boston. The basic motive of SWISSNEX is to promote
public-private ventures where different stakeholders such as sponsors and partners provides essential
financial support. This also partnered with science and technology counsellors based in Swiss embassies
around the world. They are the ‘go-to’ partners in the areas of Science and Arts, Academic Relations
and Education, Innovation and Entrepreneurship.
4.3. Case C: Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (IIT D)
We have also collaborated and extended our research with The Entrepreneurship Development Cell,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT D) who is providing an enriched entrepreneurial environment
to young aspiring students to create a diverse and sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystem. The mission
329
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
of this is to promote entrepreneurship among students and create an exhaustive resource pool to aid potential student entrepreneurs. There are some initiatives that are part of e-DC such as CAMPUS CEO,
START-UP-ER: THE STARTUP JOB FAIR which has been working tremendously.
4.3.1. Foundation for Innovation and Technology Transfer (FITT), IIT Delhi
(FITT) at IIT D works as an industrial interface organisation to promote commercialisation of science and
technology in academic institutes developing innovative ideas to create linkage between community and
business to enable knowledge transfer inoculating industrial relevance on academic institutions. This also
promotes development of technology, industry site visits, corporate relationship, and event participation.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) has identified FITT in terms of Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization (SIRO) for which FITT is entitled for full custom duty exemption for
import of raw material, capital goods, technologies required for carrying our R&D programmes funded
by the industry. FITT invites Innovative Proposals/ ideas/ventures for Financial/Marketing Support
under various schemes of Govt. of India. Some of the schemes are listed further which are NIDHI Seed
Support System – DST, Entrepreneurial & Managerial Development (MSME), Support Mechanism
Technology Development Board (TDB), Technological Incubation and Development of Entrepreneurs
(TIDE), (MCIT),Biotechnology Ignition Grant (BIG) Scheme etc.
4.3.2. Entrepreneurship Development Cell (e-DC IIT Delhi)
The prime vision is to create an entrepreneurial ecosphere in Delhi NCR and to bring up interest and
outlook among the students and provide emerging entrepreneurs to showcase their idea to the city. The
operation structure of this program is e-DC IIT Delhi will chose one/two campus CEOs from different
colleges across Delhi NCR where each of the CEO will work with a startup for a certain period of time
like one month helping them to promote products/services in the local areas near their academic institution. This program runs for five months, hence catering to 5 different start-ups from different sectors.
The responsibility of the CEOs are to work properly with a new start-up every month and helping to
promote the products or services among the students as well as understanding the requirements of the
products in the market. One of the prime focus is to help e-cell to provide a better understanding of
campus culture and build a coordination on campus with students and faculties. The main advantage of
this program is that it got hands-on experience of the entrepreneurial environment and work culture by
working with some of the most promising start-ups of India.
The new initiative, i.e., START-UP-ER: THE STARTUP JOB FAIR where Entrepreneurship Development Cell (eDC) IIT Delhi has recently announced the new proposal “Start-up Campus Placement
Program” which aims at providing a suitable platform to the budding and enthusiastic entrepreneurs
to realize and nurture their dreams. Start-up campus placement programme will see the participation
of 25+ start-ups backed by prestigious Venture Capital Firms like Saif Partners, Matrix Partners, and
Blume Ventures, etc. offering jobs in various profiles like tech, design, content development, business
development, and marketing.
330
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
4.3.3. Women Entrepreneurship and Empowerment (WEE)
There is another program named as women Entrepreneurship and empowerment (WEE) program which
is an initiative in collaboration with IIT Delhi to empower women ECO system. An event organized by
WEE where budding women entrepreneurs were invited 45 of them were picked out of 2000 and solicited IIT Delhi to showcase their ideas before various leading lights. It proved as a wonderful platform to
women entrepreneurs who were addressed by the co-founder of WEE, CEO of NITI Aayog, the young
editor of CNBC and many more. Their powerful insights such are how women are equalling men in every
step of life and quoted the Rio Olympics 2016 as an example. Some dignitaries also felt that IITs are the
only academic institutions where women are yet to strengthen their presence and hoped that they would
make their mark on the prestigious institutions shortly. They also encouraged women entrepreneurs to
break out all the barrios and live their dream in the society.
For different corporate social responsibility (CSR), Corporate can merge with FITT to execute projects
in appropriate technology area and /or fund the technology incubation program at IIT Delhi. Sighting
some incubations at FITT, one is TBIU: The Technology Business Incubation Unit (TBIU) which has
been implemented and programmed by FITT at the institute since 2000 supports different technical innovations and start-ups providing business supports. The other one is BBIF: Biotechnology Business
Incubation Facility (BBIF) which is supported by Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council
(BIRAC) provides necessary experimental facilities, equipment in the healthcare sector. To broaden the
horizon IITD has constructed two science parks for the design and developments of advanced technologies at its two extended campuses at Jhajjar in Haryana and Sonipat and a smaller Park having advanced
incubation facilities at the existing campus.
5. DISCUSSIONS
In academic Entrepreneurship, Incubators vary widely with respect to many factors. Their sponsors vary
from economic development group, state, university, business, venture capitalist, the objectives can either
be empowerment or commercialization of technology, the location varies from urban, suburban, rural to
international, sectorial focus(technology and mixed, now including kitchen and arts incubators) and the
business model can either be not-for-profit or for-profit. While these can serve a variety of businesses,
in the developing countries the main focus has been on technology incubators for commercializing
innovations (LalKaka, Nov, 2001). The types of Business Incubators based on their sponsors and the
percentage showing their presence in India are given in the earlier paragraphs. Majority of the incubators in India are sponsored by Universities or Academic institutions and they play an important role by
catalysing the entrepreneurial talent available in their students. Some of them are sponsored by Science
and Technology Parks, R&D Institutions and Industry Associations. (Source: NBIA, April 10, 2014).The
business of incubation centre in India comes out to be very Exciting and rewarding. Many government
organisations and Higher education Institutions (HEIs) along with the private investors are coming up
with the new business models identifying themselves as incubators, accelerators, start-up ecosystem.
Business Incubators typically utilize a combination of three types of revenue models:
1.
Landlord Model: The first revenue model includes the revenue from rental income from tenants
and other revenues derived from client fees for consulting and other services. This “landlord”
331
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
2.
3.
model can be financially self-sufficient, given “free” buildings and minimum economies of scale.
We find the earlier models of incubation in HEIs like IIT Kharagpur still continuing in this model.
The landlord-based ecosystem generates the revenue from the rent from the incubate companies.
In most of the cases the rents are fixed based on area usage and the value of per unit area in those
locations. The selection process for that remains very simple based on the need of incubate, necessary identity requirements and affiliations. The rents are updated with time as per the judicial
requirements mentioned in the agreement.
Equity-Based Model: The second revenue model involves the incubator taking an equity position
in its more promising client firms and has the potential to generate revenues from sharing in client
success or royalty agreements on gross sales and brokerage fees on raising finance. This method,
however, requires substantial initial investment and a great deal of patience, as it may take up to
10 years to generate revenues. We find the examples in IIT Delhi and IIT Bombay offering this
model. The equity-based model assumes the growth and marketability of the incubate company.
The regular practices are accepting (3-5%) equity from the company. The incubator has a great deal
of involvement in the progress of the company which is additional mentoring from the experts. In
this case, the selection process is more rigorous in identifying the right companies to get incubated.
Sponsor Funding Based Model: The third, and most common, the method is to rely on ongoing
sponsor funding, such as the university, government at the federal / state / local levels, of the private
foundation or industry support (Lalkaka, 2002; Chandra & Silva, 2012). Although the examples
are not a part of our study, still we get many upcoming private Incubators and Accelerators are
proposing these models. The sponsor funding-based model is more indirect way of validating the
incubate companies asking the sponsorship from government or non-government organisations.
Sometimes industries themselves become the sponsor to the incubatee, where they see a direct
linkage and complementary skill sets as the parameter for the selection.
In all these cases the exit route for incubatee and incubator are well defined. The Higher Educational
Institutions (HEIs) in India keeps a timeline for graduating their companies from the campus. Academic
Incubators yields their clients with essential infrastructural support, such as shared office facilities and
workshops, as well as business assistance services. Incubators also offer technology-related support
including technology transfer programs to their tenant firms (Abetti, 2004). Apart from providing essential services and resources to the fledgling venture, the incubator plays a critical networking role in
many cases by linking talent, technology and capital to accelerate the development of new firms (Smilor
& Gill, 1986). Second generation incubators that are run by a mixed group of sponsors are more likely
to have enterprise-oriented managers interested in developing human capital (Chandra & Chao, 2011).
Summarizing the impact of incubators on economy, the incubator impacts the economic growth in
following manner: Jobs Generation, Generate revenue, Wealth Generation, Enterprises development,
Intellectual properties created by (Patent Filed) by Start-ups, Start-ups raising capital from Venture
capitalists, Angel Investors, and Private Equity Firms; Start-ups getting acquired or merged by corporate,
Foster business and entrepreneurial climate, Technology Commercialisation, Diversify local economy,
Community development by retaining firms, Encourage minority or women entrepreneurship and Identify potential spin-ins or spin-offs. One of the unanticipated consequences of this situation is that in
the process of ensuring financial stability for themselves through grants and subsidies, these TBIs have
been spending more time on themselves rather than helping their tenants with managerial advice and
networking assistance. The challenges as mentioned earlier create a broader path for further research in
332
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
this area to find out the extent of entrepreneurship and innovation in academics in the context of developing an economy. This will also create a roadmap towards the challenges that the Indian entrepreneurial
Universities are facing a proposed solution.
6. FINDINGS
This chapter describes several new insights from case study analysis of the Indian Universities, the collaborative research practices and activities to exploit Academic Entrepreneurship. The following model
captures the essence of orientations as discussed in the cases as well as from common ground discussions.
6.1. Innovation Orientation
A better entrepreneurial environment can be stated as one which encourages creativity and innovation,
helps the technologies and ideas to attain the various stages of market commercialization and motivating
young, enthusiastic entrepreneurs to succeed. Innovation can be stated as Invention time commercialization, the use of purposive inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation and
expand the market for external use of innovation respectively. The challenges to innovation orientation
can be viewed in many forms. This may be regarding the attitude of an academician to see new ideas
and products or regarding infrastructure, availability of resources, converting ideas into products, etc.
Sometimes lack of proper mentoring also results in a non-productive outcome. Internationalisation is a
significant part of Indian Technological Institutes, but it is not viewed through an entrepreneurship lens.
University-based start-ups have the most enormous potential to affect the greater economy and realize
the hopes of government R&D policy makers. Entrepreneurial activity through new ventures has been
shown to contribute to competition, economic growth, and job creation and account for a significant
portion of the Gross domestic product (Caree and Thurik, 2003; Global Insight, 2004). The international
networks and engagement with external stakeholders should be further exploited towards strengthening
the entrepreneurship culture of the university. The legislative framework should be amended and enriched
to accommodate studies for academic entrepreneurship and innovation.
6.2. Incubation Orientation
The word ‘Incubation’ is based on a method by the ancient Romans of conveying simple ideas with
them for further expanding them into insightful outcomes over a period. The basic idea of incubators for
start-up businesses is adapted and borrowed from the domain of medicine and indicates clearly to higher
educational institutions that perform an edifying role in the start-phase of new ventures by furnishing
them with different physical facilities and infrastructure, social feedback. (Aernoudt, 2004; Bollingtoft
& Ulhoi, 2005; Smilor& Gill, 1986). In India incubation plays a vital role in economic progress and the
insufficient amount of research has been accomplished in the past, and the practice is yet to be standardized. The government and technical universities of India should encourage researchers to explore more in
this area which will help Indian incubators to develop specific models for the betterment of the society.
Quality Oriented Incubators are not limited to certain advances rather they are unique by location, idea
and their standard practices so it is tough to compare them with one another.
333
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
In favour of creating better growth in economy in their respective state, many state governments have
started sponsorship incubators in their relevant states. Sighting some example, Kerala – Start-up Village,
Techno Park; Delhi- University of Delhi South Campus. Some CSIR laboratories like NCL, Pune have
accepted incubator in order to encourage technical research. Many Angel Networks, VC/PE have also
created for-profit incubators like T Labs, Venture Nursery, GSF and Angel Prime. In United States, the
most common form of incubator model found is University-Based Incubators. In Indian Context, the
urban-based Technology Business Incubators (TBIs) have much scope to initiate decent income through
the rentals and allied services offered to lessee companies. Most of the TBIs have some distinctive approach of attaining self-sufficiency as the recurring operational grant from NSTEDB is available only
during the first five year period (Source NBIA Report, April 10, 2014).
6.3. Industry Orientation
Industry orientation can be explained as a collaborative and interactive arrangement between Industries
and academic institutions for the attainment of a particular mutually inclusive objective. Industry-Science
links have become a key dimension in both innovation management and innovation policy. Emerging
university technologies are usually incomplete and lack of proper direction which results in industries
considering them to be too risky to start any kind of investment. Only the flow of appropriate knowledge
from university to an industry is not enough to improve the flaws related to technology. In today’s date,
universities and industries are coming closer together to create new synergies where higher education
institutions are more focused towards contributing skilled resources as well as innovative ideas. This
constructive needs and mutually interdependent relationship are the cause of a healthy Industry-Academia
relationship. In this chapter, we are trying to study the different dimensions of Industry-Academia relationship and to explore broader areas where contribution of industries to academia would be more
productive. There are some specific areas needs to be identified to be built an effective relationship
Figure 2. Important pillars that drive the functioning of academic entrepreneurship
334
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
between academia and industry promoting to growth and development of both entities. Some certain
difficulties are lack of skilled personnel, poor marketing, and inadequate funds.
The results in the chapter suggest several directions for future research into the value of research
institutes in academic entrepreneurship and represents a significant opportunity for future research. It is
important to integrate research commercialization within the strategies and structure of the universities
as a whole, rather than as an addendum.
REFERENCES
Abetti, P. A. (2004). Government- Supported incubators in the Helsinki region, Finland: Infrastructure, Results, Best practices. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(1), 19–40. doi:10.1023/
B:JOTT.0000011179.47666.55
Acs, Z. J., Audretche, D. B., Braunerhjeln, P., & Carlsson, B. (2004). The Missing link, The knowledge
filter, and entrepreneurship in endogenous. Discussion Paper, No 4783. London, UK: Center for Economic Policy Research.
Aernoudt, R. (2004). Incubators: Tool for Entrepreneurship? Small Business Economics, 23, 127–135.
Aerts, K., Mattyssens, P., & Vandenbempt, K. (2007). Critical role and screening practices of European
Business Incubators. Technovation, 27(5), 254–267. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2006.12.002
Allen, D. N., & McCluckey, R. (1990). Structure, Policy, Services, and Performance in the Business Incubator Industry. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 15(2), 61–78. doi:10.1177/104225879101500207
Allen, T. J. (1995). Managing the Flow of Technology: Technology Transfer and the Dissemination of
Technological Information within the R&D Organization (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
Bhowmick, B., & Ghosh, S. (2017). Innovation and Commercial Orientation: A Case of Premier Technology Institution in India. In Handbook of Research on Technology-Centric Strategies for Higher
Education Administration (pp. 275-294). Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.igi-global.com/
book/handbook-research-technology-centric-strategies/176902
Blumenthal, D., Eric, C., Mellissa, A., Nancyanne, C., & Karen, L. (1997). Withholding Research Results
in Academic Life Sciences. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 1224-28.
Bøllingtoft & Ulhøi. (2005). The Business Incubator in a network perspective. Journal of Business
Venturing, 20, 265–290. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2003.12.005
Career, M. A., & Thurik, A. R. (2003). The impact of entrepreneurship on Economic Growth. In D.
B. Audretsch & Z. J. Acs (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurship research. Boston: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Chandra, A., & Chao, C. A. (2011). Growth and evolution of high-technology business incubation in
China. Academic Press.
Clark, B. (1998). Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation.
New York: Pergamon Press.
335
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
Cooke, P., Boekholt, P., & Todtling, F. (2000). The governance of innovation in Europe. In Regional
Perspectives on Global Competitiveness. London Printer.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Etzkowitz, H. (1998). The Norms of Entrepreneurial Science: Cognitive Effects of the New UniversityIndustry Linkages. Research Policy, 27(8), 823–833. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(98)00093-6
Fairweather, J. S. (1990). The university role in economic development—lessons for academic leaders.
SRA— Journal of the Society of Research Administrators, 22(3), 5–11.
Ghosh, S., & Bhowmick, B. (2015). Academic Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economy Context. In
Competitive Strategies for Academic Entrepreneurship: Commercialization of Research-Based Products
(pp. 29-50). IGI Global. Retrieved from http://www.igi-global.com/book/competitive-strategies-academicentrepreneurship/124015
Gibbons, Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow. (1994). The new production of knowledge:
The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage.
Gnyawali, D. R., & Fogel, D. S. (1994). Environments for entrepreneurship development: Key
dimensions and research implications. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(4), 43–62.
doi:10.1177/104225879401800403
Hackett, S. M., & Dilts, D. M. (2004). A systematic review of business incubation research. The Journal
of Technology Transfer, 29(1), 55–82. doi:10.1023/B:JOTT.0000011181.11952.0f
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ecell.in/2018/ http://sineiitb.
org/sine/home/ http://sineiitb.org/sine/nidhi-prayas-prayas-centre-program/
Indian Institute of technology Delhi. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://fitt-iitd.in/about-us/about-fitt/ http://
www.edc-iitd.org/about1.html http://weefoundation.org/index
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.step-iit.org/about_tiets.
html https://www.step-iit.org/ http://www.ecell-iitkgp.org/
Insight, G. (2004). Venture Impact 2004: Venture capital benefits to the U.S economy. White paper
prepared for the national venture capital association, Arlington, VA.
Leydesdorff, H., & Etzkowitz, H. (1997). A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government relations. In
The future location of Research, Book of Abstracts. Science Policy Institute, State University of New York.
Leydesdorff, L. (2003). The mutual information of university-industry-government relations: An indicator
of the triple helix dynamics. Scientometrics, 58(2), 445–467. doi:10.1023/A:1026253130577
Leydesdorff, L. (2005). The triple helix model and the study of knowledge-based innovation systems.
International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 42, 1–16.
336
Academic Entrepreneurship and Its Challenges
Li, H., Zhang, Y., & Chan, T.-S. (2005). Entrepreneurial strategy making and performance in China’s
new technology ventures – the contingency effect of environments and firm competences. The Journal
of High Technology Management Research, 16(1), 37–57. doi:10.1016/j.hitech.2005.06.003
Manimala, M. J. (2009). Sustainable development through ICT: The need for entrepreneurial action. In
Enterprise Support Systems: An international perspective. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Martin, B. R., & Etzkowitz, H. (2001). The origin and evolution of the university species. Journal for
Science and Technology Studies, 13, 9–34.
NBIA. (2009). What is business incubation? Available at http://www.nbia.org/resource_library/what_is/
Rao, S. L., & Bowondor, B. (2004). Management Education in India, its evolution and some contemporary issues. Research paper published by All India Management Education.
Rice, M. P. (2002). Co-production of business Assistance in business incubators: An Exploratory Study.
Journal of Business Venturing, 17(2), 163–187. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(00)00055-0
Rizvi, I. A., & Popli, S. (2002). Models of Excellence in Business. Institute of Directors.
Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy
of Management Review, 25(1), 217–226.
Sikka, P. (1997). Financing the development of indigenous technology in India. Current Science, 73, 40-48.
Silva, M. A. M. (2012). Business incubation in Chile: Development, financing and Financial services.
Journal of Technology Management and Innovation, 77(2), 1-12.
Smilor, R. W., & Gill, M. D. Jr. (1986). The New business incubator: linking talent, technology, capital
and know how. Lexington Books.
Stefanovic, M., Goran, D., & Milan, E. (2008). Incubators in Developing Countries: Developing Perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Research, 2(3), 157–163.
Stuart, T., & Ding, W. (2004). When Do Scientists Become Entrepreneurs? The Social Structural Antecedents of Commercial Activity in the Academic Life Sciences. Columbia Business School, Columbia
University.
Zucker, L. G., Darby, M. R., & Torero, M. (2002). Labor Mobility from Academe to Commerce. Journal
of Labor Economics, 20(3), 629–660. doi:10.1086/339613
337
338
Chapter 18
Technology Management
Through Artificial Intelligence
in Open and Distance Learning
Serap Uğur
Anadolu University, Turkey
Gulsun Kurubacak
Anadolu University, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Technology management is a management discipline that evaluates the potential of the cutting-edge
technology integration to maintain the competitive institutions, and seeks ways to use these potentials
for the benefit of the organizations. The technologies that use in open and distance learning institutions
for learner enrollment and course follow-ups, software that teachers use both in content presentations
and evaluation stages, etc. They need to use technology in many different services and processes in the
managerial dimension. In this chapter, which is conducted by using interpretive phenomenology method
from qualitative research methods, it was questioned how to integrate artificial intelligence in open and
distance learning systems determined within the scope of technology management for a technology-driven
international university. Suggestions were made for artificial intelligence applications in the management of open and distance learners.
INTRODUCTİON
Changes in the people’s development level through the known human history have been affected by
technology. Many technological developments ranging from the discovery of fire and invention of the
wheel in the Stone Age, paper to the computer, nanotechnological products to robots in our day had an
impact on human life. Major developments in the field of technology, especially from the second half of
the twentieth century onwards, have also influenced economy as well as the society, and such influence
caused this period to be referred to as the age of technology. Informatics and communication technologies
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6255-9.ch018
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
become increasingly important in many sectors from economy to health, food to education. In this age,
technological inventions and developments not only make human life easier but they also significantly
change the social structure.
Learning about technologies, besides, with technologies and for technologies must be one of the most
important focuses of future. Not only can technology management radically change human learning
habits, but also artificial intelligence for learning practices. The foundation of a revolutionary transformation on human learning will be established for the new social networks in Open and Distance Learning
(ODL). Thus, technology management through artificial intelligence in ODL must be sustainable, and
be transforms humans through flexible and individual learning environments. In this context, the main
focus of this paper is to discuss how the primitive technologies transform via artificial intelligence, and
also this radical changes how transform ODL environments in the future.
THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Technology can be described as inventing a new way of doing something for any need. A new technology may only become widespread when it is beneficiary for people who will apply or use them (Albert
& Hahnel, 1994: 265). Technology enables products and services to be produced in higher quantities
with fewer resources and cost. These products, which are produced with better quality and more beneficially, can be introduced to the society by using the technology again. No matter from which need or
motivation the technologies emerged, the society tends to use technology as a component of competition
and development. Thus, technology becomes widespread, is learned by the individuals and masses and
continuously develops with new information.
Technology Management From Primitive Technologies to AI
According to the definition by the US National Research Council in 1987, technology management is
the process of planning, organizing, managing and controlling the development and implementation of
technological competencies in order to coordinate operational and strategical goals of an organization
and to achieve these goals.
Badaway, (1996) defines technology as “as a field of study and a practice concerned with exploring
and understanding technology as a corporate resource that determines both the strategic and operational
capabilities of the firm in designing and developing products and services for maximum customer satisfaction, corporate productivity, profitability, and competitiveness.”
As may be understood from the above definitions, technology management essentially evaluates the
potential of technologies. It seeks the way of using such potentials to the good account of institutions
and organizations. Technology management is a management discipline in nature and is a management
approach that aims to optimize the flexibility and transparency of productive and entrepreneurial systems
with technological dynamics. Technology management, configured to adapt to the technological evolution
in a flexible manner from a passive perspective, contributes to the different types of technical progress
from an active perspective (Chanaron & Grange, 2006). Technology management requires active use of
technical information and competencies for not only producing products and improving processes but
also developing current technology and generating new information and competences in the competitive
339
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 1. Technology management cycle
business environment (Jin & Zedtwitz, 2008). In this regard, technology management may be regarded
as a cycle that consists of the processes of planning, researching, procuring, improving, controlling and
coordinating or disposing of.
Technology management is an approach that draws a frame of stipulated actions regarding how the
institutions can manage their technological competencies instead of presenting or suggesting a single
method or strategy. Technological competences should be planned so as to shape and achieve ultimate
goals of the institutions and organizations. During the implementation of these studies to be conducted
in line with these plans, it is important to associate the disciplines of engineering, science, and management with each other.
Technology management covers technological forecasting, planning, risk analyses, R&D management,
management of technological innovations, technological competition strategies, technology transfer and
selection, commercialization of technology, management of engineers and scientists, technology and
organizational changes. Besides, new product and process development should be included in the scope
of technology management according to Tekin, Burgess, and Güleş (2000) suggests that such activities
as establishing a connection between management and know-how and maintaining management functions should also be covered by technology management. In order to configure the technology strategy
for institutions and organizations and to make it compatible with the company’s operational activities,
actions of identification, selection, protection, acquisition or exploitation are defined as part of technology management (Çetindamar, Phaal & Probert, 2016; Gregory, 1995).
Alternative technologies developed to solve the problems caused by today’s technology and advanced
technologies that produce goods, services and information in the highest quality with the lowest input
per unit (Öğüt, 2001) may help to solve problems in decision-making processes of institutions in line
340
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
with their goals and needs. Monger (1988) suggests that some factors should be put into practice for
the success of technology management. These factors include a diverse range (Tariq et al., 2000:27):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ensuring the participation of employees in the decisions accepted by the management in relation
to technological innovation
Distributing time and energy for each stage of technology management equally
İn cases of competition to last for long periods, creating a vision for a technological infrastructure
capable of maintaining competition
Establishing an infrastructure combined with a continuously developing quality and improving it
with updates
Business administration’s not regarding technology as a cost-element and accepting the expenses
incurred in relation to technology as business investment
Measuring technology proceeds by using appropriate standards, not the accepted ones
Balancing technology management and social, educational, political and economic powers to affect administrative decision-making process
Organizing the technology management in such a way as to monitor the new organization understanding and business goals emerging from such understanding at the enterprise
Creating appropriate events in and out of the organization in order that all technological developments and new information emerging from such developments are adopted in the organization and
harmonizing production and business strategies of the organization
Making technologies that shall affect the change of enterprise, as well as available workforce in a
favorable and positive way
Employing expert personnel for the use of technology, educating existing staff and making use of
a skilled workforce
The technological forecast can be defined as the recognition or prediction of a technological innovation,
a scientific development or an invention; which will carry certain predictable and meaningful benefits,
together with important signs pointing towards when it will occur (Akın, 2001: 161). Important strategic decisions that need to be made in a technological forecast are listed below (Sarıhan, 1998: 54–55):
•
•
•
•
Monitoring new trends in technology
Forecasting what technologies are needed and to which of these investments should be made
Determining which new product or service elements are appropriate to the needs of the user of
the service
Forecasting new ideas that will provide a competitive advantage to the company
Open and distance learning systems are the systems that are heavily needed in the administrative
processes, and offer services and contents to learners. Following up on new technologies and making
technological predictions about which can be determined the right technologies to be used in terms of
both system and learners will help to improve the quality of the services offered, to provide learning
satisfaction, and to provide economy from time and labor.
341
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Artificial Intelligence Processes via Management of New
Technologies in Open and Distance Learning
Open and distance learning, in which the instructor and learner engage in educational activities from
different locations by use of interaction and communication channels, benefits from and develops thanks
to technology (Peters, 1973; Moore, 1973; Holmberg, 1977). In such a situation, the correct usage of
technology is the only way for learners to access correct information as fast and conveniently as possible, for there to be effective and efficient learning and for the distance learning interaction types first
classified by Moore (1989) as learner-learner, learner-instructor, learner-content and learner-interface
interaction to take shape.
Altough it depends on the purpose and the target mass, the open and distance learning system in
general should have the following characteristics (Carr ve Farley, 2003, pp. 408-413):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The definition and management of users
Preparation of course content
Course management
The opening of special programs for learners
Homework and project delivery
The preparation and application of examinations, quizzes and tests
Monitoring and analyzing learner behaviors
The evaluation of learners’ achievement status
Formation and management of interactive communication environments
According to Menchaca and Bekele (2008), the availability of multiple tools add flexibility to the
learning environment; technology tools should appeal to multiple learning styles; collaboration, reflection, and building a learning community is important strategies support by multiple tools and participant
satisfaction, appropriate prerequisite skills, and faculty and administrative involvement ensure programmatic success.
It can be said that open and distance learning has many different dimensions and services linked
to each other. These services can be seen as different processes for both the institution or organization
providing the service and for the person of groups benefiting from the service. While the program design
and development process of an educational program is only a one-sided process pertaining to the side
providing the service, the registration process is two-sided and affects both the provider and the beneficiary of the service. Processes in the institution side of open and distance learning are stated below, as
discussed under eight main headings and compiled with sub-process (Uğur, 2018):
1.
2.
3.
4.
342
Program development process
Registration process
Content creation and production process
a. Book writing, design and publishing process
b. Electronic equipment design and production process
Content presentation, publication and management process
a. Learning Management System
b. Content Management System
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
5.
6.
7.
8.
c. Virtual classes/Live Courses/Interactive materials
Performance Tracking Process
Assessment and Evaluation/Exam Process
Communication processes
a. Fallacy and Feedback collection process
i.
Processes of change planning and implementation in accordance with feedback
b. Help-Support process
i.
For those working in the system
ii. For learners
Quality insurance process
The program design process and the operations of this process as explained by Balcı (2010), which
can be used for open and distance learning are as follows: specification of the project, needs analysis,
deciding on the teaching model to implement, formation of the team, planning, obtaining finances and
deciding on project commencement, development of the design, learner group analysis, identification of
objective and learning outcomes, determination of the interaction dimension, deciding on the structure
of the program, deciding on the progress method, determination of the content distribution method,
determination of how to perform experimental studies, determination of support services, determination
of the systems for evaluating learners’ success, determination of the number of learners, development of
content, usage of pre-prepared learning materials, production of learning materials, preparation of the
relevant Web sites and determination of the assessment and evaluation criterion, management, support,
preparation of the technical structure, testing the program, implementing and updating the e-learning
program and management of the program. Identification of program outcomes and creation of strategic
plans for the program are important in terms of qualifications of the graduates towards employment and
the field, as well as for the programs to obtain accreditation.
The registration and re-registration processes in open and distance learning comprise of stages such
as preparation of the automation system for registration, identification of program fees, payment methods
and channels, preparation of the documents and materials provided during registration on the institution
side. Different types of records can be registered to the system. These record types can be candidates
who are placed to a university for the first time with the central testing system, those who wish to register
and select a school by taking advantage of the second university opportunity and learners who graduated from an associate degree program but desire to pursue an undergraduate program with the external
transfer exam. On the learners’ side, the stages can be specified as inputting/updating information in
the automation, course selection, payment, completing operations at the registration center/office, and
receiving materials such as an ID card or coursebook.
Programs in open and distance education can be designed with such instructor-centered or learnercentered approaches. The decision as to which of these approaches will be the better and correct choice
may vary according to the purpose of the program, course type and the characteristics of the learning
group. There are different types of content that can be presented to learners in open and distance learning programs. These types of content, which are shaped by developing technology, can be developed
for the different learning desires and needs of learners. Types of content that can be presented to learners according to these desires and needs, which are shaped by their learning styles and strategies, can
be classified as text-based, audio based and image-based and interactive materials. Figure 2 shows the
classification of possible course materials.
343
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 2. Classified online course materials
Besides presenting the learners with various types of course content, ranging from printed coursebooks
to electronic course material, provided by the institution; it is also possible to render the learners active
in the process by making them produce different course materials for the lessons and after inspection,
making these materials available to other learners. Another important issue to take into consideration
is keeping track of the increasingly varied and increasingly quantitative course materials, keeping them
up to date and monitoring usage data.
These course materials, which institutions can develop both with their academic and administrative
personnel in their current state of infrastructure and physical environment, can also be obtained through
service procurement, should the need arise. Leveraging the latest technologies at this stage will have a
positive impact on public perception regarding the institution’s technological competence and adequacy.
Given the fact that anticipated learner groups will be formed of individuals who have adapted to new
generation technologies, it can be said that keeping track of existing technologies and predicting future
technologies for later stages will prove important for the content creation process.
It is critical to choose the learning management system most suitable and accurate to both the characteristics and size of the target population and the content, for the planned content presentation. Learning Management Systems, where learners can register to courses/or can be registered by the institution;
which enable the execution of basic functions such as viewing course content online, keeping track of
courses offline and communicating with the institution or other learners, and are accessible over the
internet 24/7; also create data and learning analytics for those who benefit from the service (Watson &
Watson, 2007; Lonn & Teasley, 2009).
A learning management system should include features such as being able to create content in multiple
input types (for example; Scorm, Content Package, MPEG, Office document types, JavaScript, PHP),
containing tools which enable management of content development and introduction, database support,
advanced search and hide header options, support for interoperability with other systems, conformity
with industry standards (like AICC and SCORM), video conference support, a homework module,
Online exam module, monitoring the learner’s education process, multi-language support, calendar,
back-up support, a chat tool, a whiteboard, group work, discussion forums, ease of system setup, adding
a questionnaire, ease of installation and update support. The system’s success rate and usage popularity
will increase as more of these features are present.
344
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 3. Learning management system components
The idea of using recorded data for evaluating the effectiveness of teaching-learning process and
using the outcomes for improvement and enhancing quality lead to the emergence of the field known
as “learning analytics” (Gülbahar & Ilgaz, 2014). These are systems that can record learning analytics,
which bring a more holistic perspective on the learning experience, (Campbell et al., 2007), acquisition/
record, what course materials learners use, how long a material is used, how often a material is used, on
which browser or device it is used, at what time slots it is accessed, how much progress is realized, how
many different sources are accessed, as well as when, how much and to whom things are shared; with
the help of information and communication technologies (Pardo & Teasley, 2014).
Figure 4. Learning analytics
Source: Date of Access: 24.12.2017
345
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Learning Analytics can also be discussed as a field in which advanced data analysis tools are used to
enhance learning and education (Elias, 2011). In this regard, it is clear that the magnitude and variety of
data that can be acquired through learning analytics have unequivocal importance in terms of forecasting the future of both learning technologies and managerial activities, as well as planning for the future.
Data mining methods that will be used for data obtained by way of learning analytics were developed from various literature including mining and machine learning, psychometric and other statistics
fields, information visualization and computational modeling (Baker & Yacef, 2009; Siemens & Baker,
2012). Not only data extracted from learning analytics and the learning management system, but also
big data obtained from the social media accounts and search engine usage data of learners registered
to the system and the like, which has been transformed into meaningful and workable data, has great
importance as it can be set to work in functions such as planning, preparing and presenting services.
Big data can further contribute to setting a course for open and distance learning services by revealing
cultural shifts and differences.
Much effectiveness and efficiency will be gained by accurately configuring learning management
systems, which are set to work at the stage of content presentation to learners, as well as accurately
configuring the stages of authorization for both the presenter and receiver of the service.
The tasks undertaken during all stages by any personnel, be it academic or administrative, who play
a part in providing these services to the learner and their success in performing these tasks are important
both for the system to operate correctly and for administrative functions to be successful.
Performance tracking systems need to be configured to evaluate course content provided by academic
personnel who take a part in the open and distance learning systems, learning materials they helped produce, their works towards researching and developing the usage of new technologies, scientific research
and similar academic activities, as well as for tasks such as technical support to administrative personnel,
material development and production, operation of personnel and learner support systems, technical infrastructure and tracking the processes of learner service systems. Performance assessment, which can be
regarded as an efficient business process that compares the skills, potentials, work habits, behaviors and
similar characteristics of a worker to others, as a systematic measurement and as constituting a method
that should be implemented by all institutions is an organizational information collection process as to
how well an employee works (Waxin & Bateman, 2009); in other words, it is a process used to appraise
Figure 5. Big data
Source: Date of Access: 28.12.2017
346
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 6. Performance management cycle
and support the performance of workers on the job. Performance assessment can also be addressed as a
part of the performance management system, founded on goals set together with employees. Incorporating performance assessment, performance management deals with providing guidance and support for
workers’ current level of development and for the development they need (Armstrong, 2006).
Barutçugil (2004) arranges the purposes of a performance management system into three main groups;
administrative, development-oriented and research-oriented. Administrative purposes can be observed in
administrative decisions such as salaries, promotions, transfers, and dismissals. Development-oriented
purposes come to the fore in processes such as career planning, preparation of education-development
programs, consultancy and guidance support, as well as identification of the strengths and weaknesses
and receiving relevant feedback. Research-oriented purposes are prominent in determining the level of
job satisfaction and motivation, establishing future goals, revealing the factors that affect the level of
performance and reviewing the relationship between employee performance and organizational purposes.
Given such a context, the importance of performance-based evaluation for human resource and management of human resource in the technology management dimension of open and distance learning can
be observed. Decisions on the usage and transfer of correct technologies, as well as who needs to be in
charge of and be educated in these technologies, will be made using the performance reports of personnel whose duties were clearly defined in the process and who have been monitored.
347
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Assessment and evaluation activities, which are important for providing feedback to learners on
whether learning has been accomplished in the open and distance learning, for checking the learning
pace of learners and in terms of the quality of the learning undertaken; can positively contribute to the
performance and satisfaction of the learners (Buzzetto-MoreveAlade, 2006; Lynch, Goold & Blain, 2004).
Evaluation methods used in open and distance learning can be examined under two headings, traditional methods and alternative methods. Anderson (1998:5, et al.) expresses that alternative evaluation
approaches emerge when ideas on how learning occurs are replaced and new concepts spring, as well
as when the concern for impartial evaluation and differences between learners increase.
Among traditional evaluation methods are oral exams, written exams, multiple-choice tests, short
response questions and true-false tests. Traditional evaluation methods are still commonly used in our
day. Face-to-face exams are preferred to minimize any risks present.
Whereas, among alternative evaluation methods one can cite authentic assessment, where learners
face problems from everyday life and display problem-solving skills (Archibald, 1991; Tynjala, 1999);
portfolio assessment, defined by Paulson and colleagues (1991:60) as “a purposeful collection of learner
work that exhibits the learner’s efforts, progress, and achievements;” performance assessment, in which
learners are confronted with problems faced in real life and are expected to offer a solution using the
necessary knowledge and skills (Mueller, 2005); and the method proposed by Olt (2002, et al. Rakes,
2008), which argues that open book exams allowing learners to look at the book can be used to assess
learner success in distance education. Assessment lists, which are expressed in rubrics and where learners
engage in teamwork and thus are able to tangibly assess the performance of both themselves and their
teammates (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004), comprise of assessment and evaluation activities such as peer
assessment, in which learners are assessed by their own friends, as well as teamwork.
Stages in exam organizations for open and distance learning include formation of question pools with
questions obtained from domain experts, randomly designating exam questions from the pool to criteria
such as chapter/difficulty, ensuring the confidentiality of exam questions, typesetting and printing questions that have been checked and approved by domain experts, achieving confidentiality and security
for questions with personnel working in the typography and print process, printing exam booklets and
Figure 7. Exam form
348
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
distributing these, taking security precautions before, during and after the exam, identifying personnel
to be in charge during exams, identifying exam locations and placing learners to the appropriate location
according to their exam center, preparing exam entrance documents, making announcements to learners
and performing the exam.
Additionally, it is possible to model organizations which will allow for the evaluation and assessment
to be carried out remotely, a perk provided by technology. One important dimension of this matter is the
risk of cheating and plagiarism. Various small assessment activities can be scattered across the course
period to minimize or prevent deceit and cheating on the online assessment. Performance-focused evaluations can also minimize deceit. Furthermore, the use of plagiarism detection software and the realization
of video/sound-sharing exams are possible with opportunities presented by developing technologies. In
addition, as with the TESLA project currently conducted at Anadolu University; systems which allow
detection through different characteristic features such as learners’ voice, face and keystroke are also
being tested (Koçdar, Kurubacak, Karadağ & Okur, 2016).
One of the important functions of the program is to enable communication between both personnel
and learners in open and distance learning systems, which have such a vast scope and which make use of
human resources at many different ranks, from the learner and instructor all the way to the academic and
technical staff, as well as to provide support services on many different contexts ranging from technical
issues to course content. Creating a communication configuration and providing services suitable to
the system by keeping track of latest communication technologies will present benefits such as carrying
learner satisfaction to the highest level and ensuring sustainability for the system. This process should
be planned correctly and managed in a coordinated manner; what’s more, technical assistance teams,
control and correction teams, communication officers, as well as synchronous and asynchronous communication software such as online environments organized to serve this purpose, social media platforms,
video narrations prepared as user guide for the system, forums, frequently asked question and monitoring
software are used and support services provided both for personnel who are a part of the system and
learners who benefit from the service (Uğur, 2018).
Figure 8. Online exam project TESLA with face, voice, keystroke detection system
349
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 9. Support and communication services in open and distance learning
It is important to regularly quality insurance registration services, the learning services offered,
preparation and presentation of course content and materials, all data from usage of course material to
learning analytics, and evaluation and assessment processes in a large-scale open and distance learning
system; so as to enable an increase in the service quality and provide sustainability for the processes of
communication, assistance and support, as well as to allow the development of services by benefiting
from recent developments and technologies. These quality insurances can be implemented separately by
domain experts for each stage of every process or can be monitored by parent quality insurance bodies.
With the internal quality insurance, it is also possible to learn about the opinions of learners benefiting
from the service.
Considering the processes involved in the preparation and implementation of services that open and
distance learning institutions have to offer, it would be an accurate judgment to reach the conclusion
that these stages can be conducted via automation. However, taking into consideration developments
on artificial intelligence in today’s world; a fairly realistic solution that emerges, following the example
of how routine operations during the registration period have been automated, is to instantaneously
implement solutions devised towards problems which have arisen so far during these operations within
the automation system. Artificial intelligence consists of applications developed using computers and
comprise studies directed towards their use in fields such as language performance, reasoning, learning
and problem solving (Sowa, 1984). To put it simply, artificial intelligence is a computer or a computercontrolled robot, which has functions allowing it to perform various activities in a manner similar to
intelligent beings. Artificial intelligence applications generally analyze the thinking patterns of humans
and attempt to develop similar artificial instructions. In this way, they can perform tasks carried out by
350
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
humans. The most common example of this is the smartphone. Many of the features on a mobile phone,
from pedometer applications to food tracking programs and from personal assistants to advice systems,
were designed as applications running an artificial intelligence in the background.
Just as with other fields of science, the artificial intelligence field is dynamic, rapidly changing and
affected by developments. Indeed, an observation of literature shows that research aimed at designing
new artificial intelligence techniques is being carried out, with the purpose of solving problems from the
real world or providing more efficient solutions in similar problems by using the formula from problems
already solved. At this point, the need arises to implement new techniques in the field of education as
well, in order to provide an effective solution and to expand relevant literature.
Köse and Koç (2014) explains the relationship between artificial intelligence applications and open
and distance learning systems with the diagram in Figure 11.
According to the diagram, open and distance education intercepts with artificial intelligence, a computer science. It is expected that developments in internet and mobile technologies, which affect modern
living standards, leave an effect on and is itself affected by open and distance learning, which benefits
from these technologies. It is crucial that these technologies are configured correctly, so that artificialintelligence-assisted open and distance learning activities are implemented effectively. Furthermore, it
can be said that open and distance learning software developed with artificial intelligence will become
more effective in the future, in terms of learning activities and education programs. What’s more, it is
possible to foresee that in the future there will be more factors affecting artificial intelligence applications
related to open and distance learning systems and that different components will be set to work in order
to lift the limitations on these factors as well as to make for more stable learning processes. Still, in the
future, research designing specialized artificial intelligence techniques for use only in open and distance
learning systems may be carried out, in fact, a new research area might emerge (Köse & Koç, 2014).
Figure 10. The relationship between open and distance education and artificial ıntelligence
Source: Köse, U., and Koç, D. (Ed.). (2014). Artificial Intelligence Applications in Distance Education. IGI Global, USA. Date
of Access: 12.12.2017
351
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
METHOD
Research Model
Patton (2002) states that in cases where the research question cannot be found extensively in the relevant
literature, qualitative methods might be more suitable than quantitative ones in acquiring comprehensive information on the subject. This study was carried out using a qualitative research method, the
phenomenological approach. Qualitative research is among information production processes directed
at understanding people’s lifestyles, stories, behaviors, organizational structures and social change
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and it looks for answers to the questions of what sorts of meaning people attribute to events, as well as how they characterize the events (Dey, 1993). Phenomenology, which can be
defined as “interpretation of the experiences individuals have gone through regarding a phenomenon”
and which investigates the structure of consciousness in human experiences (Creswell, 1998; 51) focuses on “defining what and how an individual experiences” as well as “describing the essence of an
individual’s life” (Patton 1990; 71). The phenomenological research aims at revealing how participants
perceive, conceptualize and evaluate the event or events pertaining to the subject of investigation. In a
phenomenological study, the researcher attempts to understand how people attribute meaning to external
reality (Greasley & Ashworth, 2007). Obtaining qualitative data in phenomenological research requires
in-depth interviews with people who have directly experienced the phenomenon rather than those who
have lived it indirectly and during the processes of analysis for these data, the researcher must analyze
recorded interview notes in line with the purpose of the study (Patton, 2014; Sart, 2015; Smith & Eatough,
2007). Phenomenological research emerged as a result of the argument that the truth was lost between
the sterile environment and subjective approach of positive science research (Groenewald, 2004). The
two methods used to ensure the validity of the information obtained in phenomenological studies are
“intrasubjective validity” and “intersubjective validity.” In the intrasubjective validation method, the
participant’s consistency in perceiving and defining similar behaviors or opinions that arise in different
situations is investigated. In the intersubjective validity method, a given data is evaluated independently
by experienced phenomenologists and the results are compared (Hall & Lindzey, 1985).
The method applied in this study is Hermeneutic Phenomenological Research method, translated as
“Interpretative” in Turkish. van Manen (1997) states that hermeneutic phenomenology focuses on the
phenomenon experienced and sense-making. Moreover; hermeneutic phenomenological studies, which
can be defined as an attempt to make sense of the texts of life-based on past experiences, is not merely
descriptive, but also comprises of the process to make out meaning from what is described (van Manen,
1997).
Research Area and Participants
According to Sanders (1982), the number of participants in a phenomenological study should be limited to at least three and a maximum of six, suggesting that in this manner sufficient knowledge can
be achieved through intensive interviews. In hermeneutic phenomenology, it is preferable that a group
is formed for the sample to represent the universe according to the research question and thus usually
purposeful sampling is used. In this research, interviews were conducted with 4 experts from the field
of open and distance learning and 1 expert from the field of artificial intelligence.
352
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
The research was conducted face-to-face during the 2017-2018 academic year. The researchers call
the partipiciant via phone to ask the experts whether they would like to participate voluntarily in this
research. The process for conducting the study reported here involved an initial gathering of topics of
interest to ODL followed by communicating the people who would be appropriate participant experts
for the study based on the following general criteria:
•
•
•
•
At least three years work experience in the ODL sector, and/or
A wide variety of experiences and activities of working in settings where educational service
Providers are transforming to ODL, and/or knowledge of design and delivery of ODL, and/or
Comfort with utilizing artificial intelligence.
Data Collection Tools and Process
Qualitative data is all kinds of information obtained through various techniques such as observation
and interview in a natural environment, for specific purposes and includes individual’s perceptions and
thoughts about events (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). In this study, data were collected using the interview method. An interview form was developed for the study, with which participants were interviewed
and interview records were deciphered. To encode the obtained data and identify themes, researchers
initially categorized closely related data into certain groups and deduced themes based on these categories.
Later these themes were checked with the existing data and the analysis process was completed once
codes and themes were organized, upon which findings were defined. At the last step, researchers interpreted the subjects’ perceptions concerning the topic and compiled their opinions in their own words. In
addition, participants’ notable statements regarding the themes were presented by the direct quotation
method. These steps were repeated for each participant. All acquired codes were linked together on an
axis. This endeavor, called axial coding, allows all data to be placed on an axis (Punch, 2011; 203).
Thus, all codes were brought together to create the themes and patterns that are thought to describe the
phenomenon.
At the beginning of the interview, the researchers explained how the interviewee intended and how
they conducted it, and the researcher were allowed to record the interviews with a voice recorder, so
that the data could be gathered reliably. Within the scope of the research, the participants were asked
the following questions and their responses were analyzed:
•
•
•
How can artificial intelligence be leveraged in ODL systems’ management?
How can administrative tools be leveraged for artificial intelligence applications in ODL systems?
How can artificial intelligence be leveraged for technology management in ODL systems?
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
In this research, where opinions on the use of artificial intelligence in the field of open and distance
learning technology management are gathered, the participants were first asked: “How can artificial
intelligence be used in the management of open and distance learning systems?”.
When the views of the Participant 1 on the use of artificial intelligence applications in open and distance learning were examined, it was seen that they focused on the steps to be taken and the preparations
353
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
to be made before that point. These preparations can be regarded as “requirements”. In this context, the
emphasis was put on the importance of the required administrative functions to assess the appropriate
and adaptable practices and methods for the organization, especially by the management by determining
the existing ones, and to estimate and cover the costs related to the process. Underlining that artificial
intelligence applications can be used in different stages and processes, it is expected that many applications can be developed within the framework of system and learners needs, various application fields
can be predicted such as adaptive systems for learning, applications providing automatic update to the
course content according to learners’ reactions, using learning analytics and new learning management
systems to be developed that use big data.
The responses of the Participant 1 seem to be about the administrative requirements, learning support
services, content development and updating according to learners’ responses, adaptive learning systems
for learners, learning analytics and big data. The participant also expressed his/her opinion on artificial
intelligence as the following:
Even those who work on artificial intelligence cannot know how most of the artificial intelligence systems
work, and they try to learn by observing because they are self-learning systems, very complex algorithms.
The main concept and dimensions that the Participant 2 focuses on in response to this question are the
course content, adaptive learning systems, and learning support services. Particularly emphasizing the
importance of customized services for artificial intelligence applications to be used in learner-oriented
learning and distance learning systems, the participant stated that especially the course contents supported
by the learning experiences of individuals, suggestion systems, and support services, smart contents
would have an important place in the future of this field. The participant expressed his/her view on
artificial intelligence as follows, stating that the learners’ learning habits and styles may be a reference
point for algorithms that would generate suggestions in these systems.
Considering that the learner is at the center of distance education, the learners need continuous academic, educational, social, and administrative support throughout the learning experience. For example,
I might like to learn by watching videos, however, I would like to (prefer) learn some kind of contents
by reading. There might be such contents that I can learn by listening ... The artificial intelligence will
follow this… Then, like the wearable technologies counting our steps, the artificial intelligence will also
record the videos we watch and the book we read and thus it will guide us... It will say: “For example,
you have to read this section of the unit by means of learning output or to get ECTS credit or to watch the
video at least three hours a week and you still have not read anything, you’ve never watched anything.
It can be argued that the views of the Participant 3 focus on the use of artificial intelligence in open
and distance learning, and program development processes in particular. The participant predicts that
artificial intelligence can contribute to the system in the planning and administrative processes by stating that the institutions and organizations that will provide educational activities with open and distance
learning method will benefit from the artificial intelligence applications while they decide on these
programs. The participant expresses his/her general opinion on artificial intelligence as the following:
“It should be planned very well by people when the human intelligence will be activated in systems that
use artificial intelligence applications, and when the machine intelligence will be used”
354
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
The response of the Participant 4 to this question was observed to focus on administrative processes
in particular in planning and reporting, process follow-up and analysis. The participant also states that
using manmade intelligence in administrative processes will provide saving by means of both manpower
and time. In addition, the participant’s general opinion, stating that it can be used for the support services
offered to the learners, is expressed in his own words as follows:
Can artificial intelligence evolve to meet all the needs? It can evolve. We will be able to use artificial
intelligence, which will be useful for revealing our method in future periods. Because there will also be
artificial intelligence learning, there will be machine learning, especially when working with large masses
Focusing on process-based use in the dimension of participatory management, the 5th participant
stated that artificial intelligence applications could be employed in many different dimensions, especially in administrative reports, decision making processes, course planning, organization, clustering
and grouping students according to their specific characteristics, determining success criteria for the
course, content evaluation and updating, developing smart contents, determining criteria, adaptive learning systems, adaptive content types, reporting to the learner and reporting the learner/learning activities.
The participant’s opinion on artificial intelligence, stating that different algorithms and optimizations
can be developed for each of these uses, is as follows:
It is crucial that the activities carried out by individuals who learn in an open and distance learningoriented, education-oriented environment are actively managed and guided in the background. Artificial
intelligence has a variety of techniques, including optimization or expert knowledge that provide simulation solutions for a problem just like a real person solves it in the virtual environment.
According to the findings obtained from the participants’ responses to the question “How can we
use artificial intelligence in the management of open and distance learning systems?”, the general belief
is that artificial intelligence applications can be used in different components and processes of open
and distance learning. From the answers, it can be concluded that artificial intelligence applications
in open and distance learning systems are seen as a requirement. It seems to be thought that artificial
intelligence applications can be utilized in a wide range of processes from the management of open and
distance learning programs to the learner’s success. One of the important issues here appears to be the
structure “customized” services. In the context of the present data, it is considered possible to develop
such customized systems through the use of the big data obtained with components such as one’s learning habits, social media usage data, and lifestyle. In the interviews, it was observed that it is thought to
require support from artificial intelligence applications, especially in learning support services.
When the answers of the participants are examined; it is seen that the data and learning analytics
required for the artificial intelligence applications to be developed is in the ready state and that the human resources should be prepared for them and that the right organizations should be structured. It can
be said that it is predicted that intelligent content organizations that self-develop, self-update by analyzing the learner can be structured by using artificial intelligence applications for the content which is
an important component of open and distance learning systems Artificial intelligence can also be used
to determine the success criteria for learners in the sense of learning process, as well as to establish
success criteria for evaluating the system and services in the system in general. The general opinion of
355
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Table 1. The concepts and dimensions for question 1
Question 1.
Themes
Participant
Present situation and the
requirements
1
● Adaptability on
organizational basis
● Big data
● Learning analytics
● Cost
● Administrative functions
2
● Measurement and
Evaluation
● Student Affairs
● Contents
Recommendations
● Smart content
● Next-generation Learning
Management System
● Adaptable systems
● Learner support services
● Machine learning
● Analyzing the learner
Benefits
● Predicting requirements
● Recommendation systems
● Adaptation to new technologies
● Individual learning assistant
● Smart content
● Learner support services
● Adaptable systems
● Customized content
● Student-specific guidance
3
● Planning
● Machine learning
● Program Management
● Minimizing human errors
4
● Administrative reports
● Big data
● Frequently asked questions
● Learner support services
● System reports
● Automatic reporting
● Saving time
● Saving labor
5
● Big data
● Administrative reports
● Learning Management System
● Content organization
● Success criteria
● Adaptable systems
● Adaptable learning materials
● The realization of learning
● Material management
● Evaluation
using artificial intelligence applications in open and distance learning systems will save both by means
of time and manpower.
The general situation has been examined on the basis of the participant’s answers given to the question. The concepts and dimensions are given in the Table 1.
The general situation is separated into themes and sub-themes according to the answers given to the
question, and given in the Table 2.
Secondly, the participants were asked the following question; “How can administrative tools contribute
to artificial intelligence applications in open and distance learning systems?” .
Participant 1 stated that the administrative tools could be evaluated by both institutional and learner,
and responded focusing on the institutional dimension within the scope of the research. The participant,
who stated that human resource needs should be given importance for artificial intelligence applications,
emphasized the training of the existing human resource for expertise on artificial intelligence, and the
needs related to the founding and management of educated and experienced persons. In addition to this,
drawing attention to the necessity of coordination of managerial processes at the point of supply, purchase,
development, adaptation and application of necessary software requirements for artificial intelligence
in open and distance learning institutions and the development of existing infrastructure with the aim of
planning and controlling, he/she made suggestions for the mechanisms aiming sustainability, control of
artificial intelligence, and the development of new techniques to control these systems. In the response
of the participants to this question, the statement related to management is particularly noteworthy.
356
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Table 2. The themes and sub-themes for question 1
Question 1.
Themes
Sub-Themes
Present situation and the
requirements
Management
● Adaptability on organizational
basis
● Cost
● Administrative functions
● Administrative reports
● Planning
● Student Affairs
Recommendations
Benefits
● Program Management
● Student Affairs
● Predicting requirements
● Saving labor
Technology
Management
● Machine learning
● System reports
● Adaptation to new technologies
● Technological forecasting
● Recommendation systems
Content
● Smart content
● Analyzing the learner
● Customized content
● Adaptable learning materials
● Content organization
● Material management
● Different content types
● Next-generation Learning
Management System
● Machine learning
● Analyzing the learner
● Adaptable systems
● Individual learning assistant
Learning
Management
System
● Learning analytics
● Big data
Support
services
● Frequently asked questions
● Learner support services
● Analyzing the learner
● Individual learning assistant
Measurement
and
Evaluation
● Measurement and Evaluation
● Success criteria
● Grouping the learners
● The realization of learning
● Evaluation
● Saving time
As administrative functions are involved in the management of artificial intelligence applications, the
course planning is a matter; ultimately, the management means planning and supervising… obviously,
today, it is hard to say anything clear about the supervision of artificial intelligence…
The Participant 2 has assessed the administrative tools from a different perspective and made predictions about the requirements and possible application of administrative tools for the graduates of the open
and distance learning system. The reason why people prefer open and distance education program, their
expectations from the system, the need for artificial intelligence systems with functions such as guiding
the person to professional life, career structuring and making proposals are emphasized. The participant stated that the systems suggesting suitable university programs, personal open course materials by
analyzing the person by using the data shared by the person on job search sites, social media accounts,
the websites they browse, and even the model of their car. He/she mentioned the availability of using
systems proposing alternative university programs or professions in which individuals can continue their
learning habits in business life, and that such applications can carry the satisfaction to higher levels in
the sense of both university programs and the system. In addition, he/she stated that artificial intelligence
applications that support the learning process of the learners in the measurement-evaluation dimension,
357
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
and that can produce appropriate question types for different learning purposes should also be able to
provide question suggestions to the teaching lecturer. The prominent opinion of the participant on the
satisfaction of learners is given the following:”The quality of the learning process must be sustained
to enhance both success and institutional reputation. This increase also positively affects the student’s
view of open and distance learning.”
The Participant 3 stated that there were human-caused faults in the open and distance learning systems
and made suggestions for recovering these errors and mentioned the importance of using the existing
data. The participant underlined the effect of artificial intelligence on shortening of this decision-making
period and minimizing the probability of error, and emphasized the usage of this data with big data in
decision-making processes. The participant also expressed that the use of artificial intelligence would
be effective in the development of learning management systems. The opinion of the participant, who
emphasized the benefit of the organization of the rightly planned processes with artificial intelligence,
is given below in his own words: “If the process is set up properly and if it is programmed very well,
the computer/artificial intelligence can learn on its own. So, if you enter something wrong into artificial
intelligence at the beginning, it makes the work wrong ... “
The Participant 4 focused on human resources in his/her response to this question. The Participant
who pointed out that artificial intelligence applications that would be used in the management stage in
open and distance learning would benefit especially from labor and said that this saving would contribute to the formation of different business fields for the existing labor. The participant opinion on this
issue is as follows: “People are afraid of being jobless due to artificial intelligence?” My answer is no.
The view of the Participant on the use of artificial intelligence in learning management systems, who
stated that artificial intelligence can also be used in content design, especially in structuring FAQs in
learning support services, and in the construction of learning management systems, is given below in
his own words:”Using artificial intelligence within a single learning management system; saying that I
will use artificial intelligence in a single learning management system, is like a horse-drawn Ferrari car.
It is not necessary. We need to use artificial intelligence wherever necessary. “
The Participant 5 stated that the existing software systems used in open and distance learning systems
and the artificial intelligence algorithms to be created by using the available obtained data could be used
as an intermediate element or evaluation system. The example given by the Participant who stated that
human errors could be minimized in preparing administrative reports is given below.
For example, the fuzzy logic technique allows us to reach the information between 1 and 0 other than
the information that is only 1 and 0 for the computer. Just like we reach intermediate values such as
‘open the door a little bit, heat up the water a little bit as humans without knowing the exact value, the
artificial intelligence can be used by the computer to transform exact values into intermediate values,
and thus to make the administrative data precise at this level.
Participants’ responses to the question “How can we benefit from administrative tools in artificial
intelligence applications in open and distance learning systems” are seen to focus specifically on practices that will save labor and time. There are views that artificial intelligence applications that will be
employed in activity reports, process planning, and decision support systems, which are an important
element in management, will create new employment areas. It has also been expressed that using artificial
intelligence in the organization of support services and course contents offered to learners would save
358
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Table 3. The concepts and dimensions for question 2
Question 2.
Themes
Participant
1
Present situation and the
requirements
● Human resources
● Software resource
● Hardware/infrastructure
resource
2
● Big data
● support activities
3
● Big data
● learner data
● learning management
system
4
5
● learner support services
● frequently asked questions
● learning analytics
● current assessment
systems
● reporting
● data
Recommendations
Benefits
● New control techniques
● Sustainability
● Planning control
● Sustainability
● learning information system
● customized guidance
● career support
● recommendation system
● measurement and evaluation
● learner support services
● increase in the learner’s success
● satisfaction
● organizational reputation
● advanced learning management systems
● process planning with machine learning
● decision support systems
● time-saving
● the minimum error
● content design
● advanced learning management systems
● high-level reporting
● labor saving
● new work areas
● new assessment system
● reporting systems
● labor saving
Table 4. The themes and sub-themes for question 2
Question 2.
Themes
Sub-Themes
Present situation and the
requirements
Recommendations
Benefits
Management
● Human resources
● planning and control
● Big data
● human-driven error
● Sustainability
● New control techniques
● Sustainability
● satisfaction
● organizational reputation
● the minimum error
● time-saving
● new work areas
Technology
Management
● hardware/infrastructure supply
● Software resource
● decision support systems
● time-saving
Content
Learning
Management
System
● content design
● learning analytics
● advanced learning management
systems
● big data integration
● labor saving
Support
services
● career support systems
● learner support services
● time-saving
Measurement
and Evaluation
● Assessment evaluation tools
● recommendation systems
● careers advice services
● new assessment system
● time-saving
● current assessment systems
359
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
time and labor. In the answers to this question, artificial intelligence practices that will be improved by
using existing data, learning analytics and big data are emphasized.
The general situation has been examined on the basis of the participant’s answers given to the question. The concepts and dimensions are given in the Table 3.
The general situation is separated into themes and sub-themes according to the answers given to the
question, and given in the following Table 4.
Within the scope of the purpose of research, the last question asked to the participants was; “How
can artificial intelligence be utilized in technology management in open and distance learning systems?”
and the answers were examined.
The Participant 1 firstly stated the need for labor for artificial intelligence that can be used in the field
of technology management in open and distance learning. He/she stated that a serious human resource
was needed for this and the transfer of existing human resources to this area meant that new personnel
should be trained in this area. In addition, by evaluating the present situation, the participant who stated
that artificial intelligence could be used in the process of predicting the direction of technology and its
development, pointed out the semantic studies tracking all scientific developments in the world in patent
research, the research locating a discovery among all the discoveries in the world, and drew attention to
the availability of artificial intelligence on behalf of following new technologies and locating new technologies. He/she mentioned the existence companies for the future of technology and stated that small
and medium-sized institutions could make progress in technology management by receiving services
from these companies. The situation that the participant emphasizes here is that such large-scale artificial intelligence applications cannot be carried out by medium-sized organizations, for this purpose, the
universities should be structured and directing managerial functions and possibilities to these activities
is the work to be done by universities. The participant’s statements about this situation are given below:
...an institution in the middle level can benefit from these techniques in terms of implementing or making the right decisions, but at the same time, it is the universities that can develop these technologies…
Conducting research and development work from scratch in a stand-alone faculty brings different
requirements, such as a good organization, adequate equipment and human resources and physical environments… If the system is structured in the name of technology development so that all the resources
of university management are supported to support open and distance learning system; For example, if
computer engineering department work on research and development of these technologies, industrial
engineering work on optimization, electronics engineering department develop technological infrastructure related to it and they are applied in open and distance learning system, an effective and efficient
system may be developed… research laboratories, research units, development units, implementation
units are channeled to these artificial intelligence researches in universities. Chances of other institutions are low compared to universities in the sense of opportunities.
In his/her answer, the Participant 2 particularly focused on the management of the technologies,
estimation of available technologies, new technology suggestions, systems that follow the technology
used by the learner and enabling personalized structures. The participant also mentioned smart content
that can notify the need for and update itself, renew itself by following its learners’ habits and new technologies. The participant stated that the use of artificial intelligence applications in open and distance
learning systems would be reflected in the quality of the learning contents, the quality of the learning
360
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
support services and therefore the satisfaction would increase and as a result of these activities, it would
be possible to sell these services to other institutions and organizations. The participant’s own statement
on this subject is given the folloeing:”If you develop the right applications, you become able to sell
the learning material you give to your students to different institutions and organizations on different
platforms. It is a corporate benefit provided by this competition.”
The Participant 3 emphasized the necessity of the central management of artificial intelligence by
mentioning the systems supporting each other and the systems which are different from each other and
referring to a management and coordination in the context of the mutual agreement between the parts
constituting the system. The participant, expressing the need for the process analysis to be very well
done and updating the processes according to the innovations, and indicating the necessity of designing
and internalizing the artificial intelligence in a culturally appropriate manner, expressed his/her opinion
on this situation as the following: “We know that works have been carried out to adapt existing systems
quickly to the artificial systems since it was on the agenda. But besides that, you need to internalize
artificial intelligence. you need to design it according to yourself, your culture and your own data. ”
Participant 4 thinks that the artificial intelligence of the future will be shaped by the Internet of things
and machine learning. Stating that the use of artificial intelligence in technology management will be
beneficial, the participant mentions that artificial intelligence can be utilized in content production and
design processes. The participant’s views on artificial intelligence applications are as follows:
It’s artificial intelligence that allows you to reach your dreams faster. The artificial intelligence level in
ten years from now will be very different from today’s artificial intelligence level. I think that artificial
intelligence can help humankind, in this sense I see a utopic future, I look positive, I do not see a dystopia ..
Participant 5 is particularly stated that artificial intelligence applications to be developed for technology management in open and distance learning systems; services, materials, and technologies could
be used to determine how high-quality and effective it is and how much it is being used. However, he/
she stated that the prediction of which one of the technological developments is a need for an open and
distance learning system requires the establishment of fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, optimization algorithms such as learning feedback and technology identification, using appropriate technologies
in the right services and processes, and so on. An example of the participant’s statement of artificial
intelligence use in technology management is given below.
We can use artificial intelligence as a tool to create sensitive intermediate values to make spot-on predictions like which ones we should continue to work with for the most efficient use of technology by bringing
the feedback from other places together; such as system administrator or human-computer interaction,
what can be effective for us, what is required for this course, how much the use of mobile devices has
given us the advantage of advancing or leveling.
It can be said that participants’ predictions about this situation can be realized when the answers given
to the question are examined; “How can artificial intelligence be utilized in technology management in
open and distance learning systems”? It is also pointed out that the services and materials offered to the
learners will increase in quality. It may be possible to predict which future technologies can be used in
open and distance learning systems by using technology estimation, software and hardware selection and
361
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
technology recommendation systems. Content alert systems for contents, adaptation tests to technology
for new technologies, and centralized management artificial intelligence for management are among the
recommended applications. The systems and services to be prepared for technology management and that
new business areas will be opened are also among the predictions. For artificial intelligence applications,
additional features such as cultural harmony and personalized structure are suggested.
The general situation has been examined on the basis of the participant’s answers given to the question. The concepts and dimensions are given in the Table 5.
The general situation is separated into themes and sub-themes according to the answers given to the
question, and given in the Table 6.
The main themes are given in the Figure 11.
In response to the answers given, large-scale organizations seem to be needed for research in the
field of open and distance learning systems. Artificial intelligence applications are shaped by the needs
and possibilities of systems, and individuals with specific knowledge and accumulation are needed in
the production phase. Educated human resources are needed to prepare the technological infrastructure,
design appropriate systems, and develop the necessary software. When the answers given in general are
examined, it is seen that the answers are given in the technological forecasting, planning, risk analysis,
R & D management, management of technological innovations, technological competition strategies,
technology transfer and selection, commercialization of technology, management of engineers and scientists, technology and organizational changes (Sarıhan, 1998; Ertekin, 2014) dimensions of technology
management.
For such studies, teams including computer, electrical, electronics, software engineers and teaching
designers, open and distance learning specialists, program developers, measurement and evaluation
Table 5. The concepts and dimensions for question 3
Question 3.
Themes
Participant
Present situation and the
requirements
Recommendations
Benefits
1
● Need for human resources
● available semantic works
● organizational
requirements
● hardware requirements
● Training humans
● Technology forecasting
● software forecasting
● hardware forecasting
● system development
● organization of universities
● new working areas
● offering new services
● service purchase/sale
● competition
2
● adaptation test to new
technologies
● hardware requirements
● competitive approach
● technology recommendation systems
● Technology forecasting
● hardware forecasting
● personalized structures
● content warning system
● Increase in service quality
● service production and sale
● Timeliness
3
● coordination
● administrative activities
● Process analysis
4
5
362
● learning and material
diversity
● learning analytics
● central management artificial
intelligence
● updating of processes
● culture-appropriate design
● internalization of artificial
intelligence
● central management
● machine learning studies
● deep learning researches
● technology management
● production and design activities
● feedback from the learner
● technology recommendation systems
● the use of artificial neural network
● technology management
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Table 6. The themes and sub-themes for question 3
Question 3.
Themes
Sub-Themes
Present situation and the
requirements
Management
● need for field specialist/
human resources
● available semantic works
● organizational requirements
● hardware requirements
● competitive approach
Benefits
● internalization of artificial
intelligence
● central management
● new working areas
● offering new services
● competition
● Increase in service quality
● service production and sale
● service purchase/sale
● Timeliness
● content warning system
● production and design activities
● culture-appropriate design
Content
Support
services
● Training humans
● organization of universities
● central management artificial
intelligence
● coordination
● administrative activities
● Process analysis
● Technology forecasting
● software forecasting
● hardware forecasting
● system development
● technology recommendation
systems
● adaptation test to new technologies
● updating of processes
Technology
Management
Learning
Management
System
Recommendations
● learning and material
diversity
● learning analytics
● personalized structures
● culture-appropriate design
● the use of artificial neural network
● service purchase/sale
● feedback from the learner
Measurement
and
Evaluation
specialists, system administrators are required. In the light of the responses, it can be said that, as Tekin,
Burgess and Güleş (2000) stated; “the development of new products and processes, Öğüt (2001), linking
management and technical expertise, and the sustainability of management functions are also covered
by technology management” argument is valid.
It can be said that the establishment of such organizations, the planning, and implementation of
management functions, the establishment of expert staff and the formation of teams, the development
of processes for new technologies, the structuring and execution of researches can be realized through
technology-based universities.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
According to the findings obtained in the research; the managerial dimension in open and distance
learning institutions; program development, system management, management of management technologies, reporting, etc. will be provided with coordination with artificial intelligence applications to
save both human power and time. This help us to develop a technology drive-in international university.
In this process, a coordination conversation process will be established successfully. In this process, it
363
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Figure 11. The main themes
Figure 12. Repeated terms
364
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
is necessary to inform the existing human resources, employment of educated people, revision of the
existing processes, reports and processes with software and infrastructure organizations. Therefore, it is
possible to talk about the positive effects of this transformation in terms of system sustainability, learning satisfaction and corporate reputation.
For services offered to learners supported by technology in open and distance learning systems, creating new structures can be developed with artificial intelligence applications by using existing learning
analytics and large data; next generation decision support systems, smart contents, advanced learning
management systems, intelligent support services, suggestion systems, and new measurement evaluation
tools. Personalized services and technologies that the system will provide to learners by improving with
artificial intelligence applications can be considered as one of the consequences of this transformation
process.
Artificial intelligence applications can also be used for functions such as introduction of the system,
identification of new programs, and presentation of career support services for graduates.
REFERENCES
Akın, B. (1998). Küresel rekabet ortamında teknoloji yönetimi (Unpublished Doctorate Thesis). Konya,
Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
Akın, B. (2001). Yeni ekonomi, strateji, rekabet, teknoloji yönetimi. Konya: Çizgi.
Albert, M., & Hahnel, R. (1994). Geleceğe bakmak; 21. yüzyıl için katılımcı ekonomi. İstanbul: Ayrıntı.
Archibald, D. (1991). Authentic assessment: what it means and how it can help schools. Madison, WI:
National Center for Effective Schools Research and Development. University of Wisconsin.
Armstrong, M. (2006). A handbook of human resource management practice. London: Kogan Page.
Badaway, M. K. (1996). A new paradigm for understanding management technology: A research agenda
for ‘technologists’. International Journal of Technology Management, 12(5/6), 717–733.
Baker, R. S. J. d., & Yacef, K. (2009) The state of educational data mining in 2009: a review and future
visions. Journal of Educational Data Mining.
Balcı, B. (2010). E-öğrenme programı tasarım süreçleri. In G. Telli-Yamamoto, U. Demiray, & M. Kesim
(Eds.), Türkiye’de e-öğrenme: Gelişmeler ve Uygulamalar (pp. 3-110). Ankara: Cem.
Barutçugil, İ. (2004). Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi. İstanbul: Kariyer Yayıncılık İletişim.
Buzzetto-More, N., & Alade, A. (2006). Best practices in e-assessment. Journal of Information Technology Education, 5. Retrieved from: http://jite.org/documents/Vol5/v5p251 – 269Buzzetto152.pdf
Campbell, J. P., DeBlois, P. B., & Oblinger, D. G. (2007). Academic analytics: A new tool for a new
area. EDUCAUSE Review, 42(4), 40–57.
Carr, K. C., & Farley, C. L. (2003). Redesigning courses for the World Wide Web. Journal of Midwifery
& Women’s Health, 48(6), 407–417. doi:10.1016/S1526-9523(03)00306-4 PMID:14660946
365
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Çetindamar, D., Phaal, R., & Probert, D. (2010). Technology management activities and tools. PalgraveMacmillan.
Chanaron, J. J., & Grange, T. (2006). Towards a re-definition of technology management. In Management of innovation and technology, 2006 IEEE International Conference on (Vol. 2, pp. 955-959). IEEE.
10.1109/ICMIT.2006.262363
Conrad, R. M., & Donaldson, A. (2004). Engaging the Online Learner: Activities and Resources for
Creative Instruction. San Francisco: Jossey - Bass.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Research design. Qualitative and quantitative approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative data analysis: a user-friendly guide for social scientists. London: Routledge
Publications.
Elias, T. (2011). Learning analytics: Definitions, processes and potential. Received from: https://pdfs.
semanticscholar.org/732e/452659685fe3950b0e515a28ce89d9c5592a.pdf
Ertekin, Ö. (2013). Teknoloji yönetimi esasları. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299562555_TEKNOLOJI_YONETIMI_ESASLARI
Greasley, K., & Ashworth, P. (2007). The Phenomenology of “approach to studying”: The University Student’s Studies within the Lifework. British Educational Research Journal, 32(6), 819–843.
doi:10.1080/01411920701656977
Gregory, M. J. (1995). Technology Management: A Process Approach. Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, 209.
Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative
Methods, 3(1), 42-55. Retrieved from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/3_1/pdf/groenewald.pdf
Gülbahar, Y., & Ilgaz, H. (2014). Premise of Learning Analytics for Educational Context: Through
Concept to Practice. Bilişim Teknolojileri Dergisi, 7(3). Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/gazibtd/
issue/6632/88033
Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1985). Introduction to theories of personality. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Holmberg, B. (1977). Distance education: a survey and bibliography. London: Kogan.
Jin, J., & von Zedwitz, M. (2008). Technological capability development in China’s mobile phone industry. Technovation, 28(6), 327–334. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2007.06.003
Koçdar, S., Eby, G., & Karadağ, N., & Okur, M. R. (2015). TeSLA projesi: Öğrenme ortamları için
uyarlanabilen ve güvenilir bir e-değerlendirme sistemi. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları
Dergisi-AUAd, 2, 2–7.
Köse, U., & Koç, D. (Eds.). (2014). Artificial intelligence applications in distance education. IGI Global.
Leech, N. L., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2007). An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data
analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22(4), 557–584. doi:10.1037/1045-3830.22.4.557
366
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Lonn, S., & Teasley, S. D. (2009). Saving time or innovating practice: Investigating perceptions and
uses of Learning Management Systems. Computers & Education, 53(3), 686–694. doi:10.1016/j.
compedu.2009.04.008
Lynch, K., Goold, A., & Blain, J. (2004). Students’ pedagogical preferences in the delivery of IT capstone
courses. Journal of Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 1, 431–442. doi:10.28945/750
Martens, R., Bastiaens, T., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). New learning design in distance education: The impact
on student perception and motivation. Distance Education, 28(1), 81–93. doi:10.1080/01587910701305327
Menchaca, M. P., & Bekele, T. A. (2008). Learner and instructor identified success factors in distance
education. Distance Education, 29(3), 231–252. doi:10.1080/01587910802395771
Monger, R. F. (1988). Mastering technology: a management framework for getting results. New York,
NY: The Free.
Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–6.
doi:10.1080/08923648909526659
Moore, M. G. (1973). Toward a theory of independent learning and teaching. The Journal of Higher
Education, 44(9), 661–679. doi:10.2307/1980599
Mueller, J. (2005). The authentic assessment toolbox: enhancing student learning through online faculty
development. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 1-7. Retrieved from: http://jolt.
merlot.org/documents/vol1_no1_mueller_001.pdf
National Research Council. (1987). Management of technology: The hidden competitive advantage.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/18890
Öğüt, A. (2001). Bilgi çağında yönetim. Nobel, No:321, 1.Baskı, Ankara. Retrieved from http://dergipark.
gov.tr/tebd/issue/29870/321749
Pardo, A., & Teasley, S. (2014). Learning analytics research, theory and practice: Widening the discipline. Journal of Learning Analytics, 1(3), 4–6. doi:10.18608/jla.2014.13.2
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research. London: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Patton, M. Q. (2014). Nitel araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri. Translate Ed: Mesut Bütün ve Selçuk
Beşir Demir. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Paulson, F. L., Paulson, P. R., & Meyer, C. A. (1991). What makes a portfolio? Educational Leadership,
48(5), 60–69.
Peters, O. (1973). Die didaktische Struktur des Fernunterrichts: Untersuchungen zu einer industrialisierten Form des Lehrens and Lernens. Weinheim: Beltz.
Punch, K. F. (2011). Sosyal araştırmalara giriş: Nicel ve nitel yaklaşımlar. Z. Etöz (Çev.ed.). Ankara:
Siyasal.
367
Technology Management Through Artificial Intelligence in Open and Distance Learning
Rakes, G. (2008). Open book testing in online learning environments. Journal of Interactive Online
Learning, 7(1).1-9. Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/PDF/7.1.1.pdf
Sanders, P. (1982). Phenomenology: A new way of viewing organizational research. Academy of Management Review, 7(3), 353–360. doi:10.5465/amr.1982.4285315
Sart, G. (2015). Fenomenoloji ve yorumlayıcı fenomenolojik analiz (Nevra Seggie ve Yasemin Bayyurt).
İçinde Nitel araştırma yöntem, teknik, analiz ve yaklaşımları.
Siemens, G., & Baker, R. S. (2012). Learning analytics and educational data mining: towards communication and collaboration. In Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on learning analytics and
knowledge (pp. 252-254). ACM. 10.1145/2330601.2330661
Simons, R.-J., van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (2000). New learning. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic. doi:10.1007/0-306-47614-2
Smith, J. A., & Eatough, V. (2006). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In G. Breakwell, C. FifeSchaw, S. Hammond, & J. A. Smith (Eds.), Research Methods in Psychology (3rd ed.). London: Sage.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Tekin, M., Burgess, T., & Güleş, H. K. (2000). Değişen dünyada teknoloji yönetimi. Konya: Damla Ofset.
Thorpe, M. (1998). Assessment and ‘third generation’ distance education. Distance Education, 19(2),
265–286. doi:10.1080/0158791980190206
Tynjala, P. (1999). Towards expert knowledge? a comparison between a contructivist and a traditional
learning environment in university. International Journal of Educational Research, 31(5), 357–442.
doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00012-9
Uğur, S. (2018). Açık ve Uzaktan Öğrenme Süreçlerinin Bileşenleri. In The Foundations of Open and
Distance Learning. Academic Press.
van Manen, M. (1997). Phenomenological pedagogy and the question of meaning. In D. Vandenberg
(Ed.), Phenomenology & education discourse (pp. 41–68). Johannesburg, South Africa: Heinemann.
Watson, W., & Watson, S. L. (2007). An argument for clarity: What are learning management systems,
what are they not, and what should they become. TechTrends, 51(2), 28–34. doi:10.100711528-007-0023-y
Waxin, M. F., & Bateman, R. (2009). Public sector human resource management reform across countries: from performance appraisal to performance steering? European J. International Management,
3(4), 495-511.
Willis, B. (1992). Instructional development for distance education. ERIC Document Reproduction
Service. (ED 351 007)
368
369
Compilation of References
Abetti, P. A. (2004). Government- Supported incubators in the Helsinki region, Finland: Infrastructure, Results, Best
practices. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(1), 19–40. doi:10.1023/B:JOTT.0000011179.47666.55
Acs, Z. J., Audretche, D. B., Braunerhjeln, P., & Carlsson, B. (2004). The Missing link, The knowledge filter, and entrepreneurship in endogenous. Discussion Paper, No 4783. London, UK: Center for Economic Policy Research.
Adam, B., & Groves, C. (2007). Future matters: action, knowledge, ethics. Koninklijke Brill NV. doi:10.1163/
ej.9789004161771.i-218
Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Davis, A., Freeman, A., Hall Giesinger, C., & Ananthanarayanan, V. (2017). NMC
Horizon Report: 2017 Higher Education Edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Adams, J. (1982). How to solve Rubik’s Revenge: Full-color step-by-step instructions to solve the supercube. The Dial Press.
Aernoudt, R. (2004). Incubators: Tool for Entrepreneurship? Small Business Economics, 23, 127–135.
Aerts, K., Mattyssens, P., & Vandenbempt, K. (2007). Critical role and screening practices of European Business Incubators. Technovation, 27(5), 254–267. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2006.12.002
Ahern, T. C. (2016). A Waterfall Design Strategy for Using Social Media for Instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 44(3), 332–345. doi:10.1177/0047239515615853
Ahern, T. C., & Burgazzoli, J. Jr. (2017). Enrollment Management Strategies for Online Learning Environments. In
Handbook of Research on Technology-Centric Strategies for Higher Education Administration (pp. 17–36). IGI Global.
doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2548-6.ch002
Aichner, T. (2012). The Zero Moment of Truth in Mass Customization. International Journal of Industrial Engineering
and Management, 3(4), 173–178.
Akın, B. (1998). Küresel rekabet ortamında teknoloji yönetimi (Unpublished Doctorate Thesis). Konya, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
Akın, B. (2001). Yeni ekonomi, strateji, rekabet, teknoloji yönetimi. Konya: Çizgi.
Akpan, T. E. (2015). Blended Learning Opportunities and Challenges in Mathematics Education: Perspective in Higher
Education. South American Journal of Academic Research, 2(1), 1 - 10. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/281509699_BLENDED_LEARNING_OPPORTUNITIES_AND_CHALLENGES_IN_MATHEMATICS_EDUCATION_PERSPECTIVE_IN_HIGHER_EDUCATION
Akshylykov, J. J., & Nurmatov, N. A. (2016). Integration challenges of university and information management system
(UIMS) to Moodle. Integra Educativa, 20(2), 158–163. doi:10.15507/1991-9468.083.020.201602.158-163
Compilation of References
Al Shobaki, M. J., & Abu Naser, S. S. (2017). The Role of the Practice of Excellence Strategies in Education to Achieve
Sustainable Competitive Advantage to Institutions of Higher Education-Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology at Al-Azhar University in Gaza a Model. International Journal of Digital Publication Technology, 1(2), 135–157.
Aladejana, F. (2007). The Implications of ICT and NKS for Science Teaching: Whither Nigeria. Complex Systems,
17(1-2), 113 – 123.
Aladejana, F. O. (2018). The 21st Century Teacher and Pedagogical Shift in Basic and Secondary Education. In WAEC
Seminar Series. WAEC Press.
Aladejana, F. (2009). Blended Learning and Technology-Assisted Teaching of Biology in Nigerian Secondary Schools.
In S. Ao (Ed.), IAENG Transactions on Engineering Technologies (Vol. 2, pp. 133–140). Melville, NY: American Institute of Physics.
Aladejana, F. O. (2015). Teaching and Learning Science: Imperatives of Specialized Pedagogy in a Changing World. In
274th Inaugural Lecture Series (pp. 9–24). Obafemi Awolowo, Ile-Ife University Press.
Alarco, G. (2017). Free Trade, Growth and Potential Product in Chile, Mexico and Peru. Economía UNAM, 14(42),
24–46. doi:10.1016/j.eunam.2017.09.001
Alarcón, J. (2017). The rules of our game: Neoliberal privatization of education in Chile. Praxis Educativa (Santa Rosa),
12(3), 690–707. doi:10.5212/PraxEduc.v.12i3.001
Alberta Advanced Education and Manpower. (1975). Athabasca University: A proposed role and mandate. Edmonton,
Alberta: Queen’s Printer.
Albert, M., & Hahnel, R. (1994). Geleceğe bakmak; 21. yüzyıl için katılımcı ekonomi. İstanbul: Ayrıntı.
Alencar, E. M. L. S., Fleith, D. S., & Pereira, N. (2017). Creativity in Higher Education: Challenges and Facilitating
Factors. Trends in Psychology / Temas em Psicologia – Junho, 25(2), 553-561. Doi:10.9788/TP2017.2-09
Ali, A., Sheard, J., & Carbone, A. (2014). Blended learning in Higher Education: Three different Design Approaches.
Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286439617_Blended_learning_in_higher_education_Three_different_design_approaches
Aliu, J., & Aigbavboa, C. (2019). Upscaling construction education: The role of construction site experiential learning.
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 785, 472–479. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93882-0_45
Allen, A., Seaman, J., Lederman, D., & Jaschik, S. (2012). Conflicted: Faculty and Online education, 2012. Inside Higher
Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com /sites/default/server_files/survey/conflicted.html
Allen, D. N., & McCluckey, R. (1990). Structure, Policy, Services, and Performance in the Business Incubator Industry.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 15(2), 61–78. doi:10.1177/104225879101500207
Allen, E., & Seaman, J. (2010). Learning on demand: Online education in the United States 2009. Needham, MA: Sloan
Consortium.
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2016). Online report card: Tracking online education in the United States. Wellesley: Babson
Research Group.
Allen, T. J. (1995). Managing the Flow of Technology: Technology Transfer and the Dissemination of Technological
Information within the R&D Organization (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
370
Compilation of References
Al-Samarraie, H., & Saeed, N. (2018). A systematic review of cloud computing tools for collaborative learning: Opportunities and challenges to the blended-learning environment. Computers & Education, 124, 77–91. doi:10.1016/j.
compedu.2018.05.016
Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. Journal of
Studies in International Education, 11(3/4), 290–305. doi:10.1177/1028315307303542
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-336, 104 Stat. 328.
Amirault, R. J. (2015). Technology transience and the challenges it poses to higher education. Quarterly Review of
Distance Education, 16(2), 1–17,147. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/
docview/1705959064?accountid=14129
Amrien, H. M., & Mohammed, A. E. (2016). Implementation of Blended Learning in Higher Learning Institutions: A
Review of the Literature International Education Studies, 9(3).
Anderson, L. W. (Ed.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Anderson, S. J., Volker, J. X., & Phillips, M. D. (2010). Converse’s Breaking-Point Model Revised. Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 3, 1–10.
Andriotis, N. (2017). 5 Blended Learning Strategies That Actually Boost Engagement. Retrieved from https://www.
efrontlearning.com/blog/2017/02/blended-learning-strategies-that-work.html
Appiahsept, K. A. (2015, September 13). The college crossroads. New York Times Sunday Magazine, p. MM17.
Archibald, D. (1991). Authentic assessment: what it means and how it can help schools. Madison, WI: National Center
for Effective Schools Research and Development. University of Wisconsin.
Arkorful, V., & Abaidoo, N. (2015). The role of e-learning advantages and disadvantages of its adoption un higher
education. International Journal of Instructional technology and Distance Learning, 12(1), 29-42. Available in: http://
www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_15/Jan15.pdf
Armstrong, M. (2006). A handbook of human resource management practice. London: Kogan Page.
Arroyo, A. T. (2014). A Composite Theoretical Model Showing Potential Hidden Costs of Online Distance Education
at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: With Implications for Building Cost-Resistant Courses and Programs.
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 17(1).
Ashton, D., & Sung, J. (1997). Education, skill formation, and economic development: The Sinaporean approach. In A.
H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. Wells (Eds.), Education: Culture, economy, and society (pp. 207–223). Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press.
Askling, B., & Bauer, M. (1999). The role, function and impact of a national agency in the evaluation of a decentralised
higher education system. Department of Education and Didactics, Göteborg University: IPDreports, No 1999:01.
Athabasca University. (1979). Academic Calendar 1979/1980. Author.
Austin, G. A. (2010). Administrative challenges and rewards of online learning in a rural community college: Reflections of a distance learning administrator. New Directions for Community Colleges, 27(150), 27–36. doi:10.1002/cc.402
Badaway, M. K. (1996). A new paradigm for understanding management technology: A research agenda for ‘technologists’. International Journal of Technology Management, 12(5/6), 717–733.
371
Compilation of References
Baker, F. W., III, & Surry, D. (2013, March). Open education designs: A taxonomy for differentiating and classifying
open learning environments. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for information technology &
teacher education international conference (Vol. 2013, No. 1, pp. 189-194). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Baker, R. S. J. d., & Yacef, K. (2009) The state of educational data mining in 2009: a review and future visions. Journal
of Educational Data Mining.
Balcı, B. (2010). E-öğrenme programı tasarım süreçleri. In G. Telli-Yamamoto, U. Demiray, & M. Kesim (Eds.), Türkiye’de
e-öğrenme: Gelişmeler ve Uygulamalar (pp. 3-110). Ankara: Cem.
Baldwin, S., Ching, Y., & Hsu, Y. (2018). Online course design in higher education: A review of national and statewide
evaluation instruments. TechTrends, 62(1), 46–57. doi:10.100711528-017-0215-z
Bali, M. (2014). MOOC pedagogy: Gleaning good Practice from existing MOOCs. MERLOT. Journal of Online Teaching and Learning, 10(1), 44–55.
Bamidele, M., & Bamidele, A. (2013). Influence of Cognitive Performance on Mathematics Student’s Level of Achievement. Intestinal Research, 2(1), 142–150.
Banbury, B. (2017, September 8). Automate This! How AI technology could disrupt nearly half of all jobs — and international politics. In Day Six. Canadian Broadcast Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/episode354-miami-preps-for-irma-automating-your-job-the-safest-nfl-helmet-che-guevara-s-brother-and-more-1.4276099/
automate-this-how-ai-technology-could-disrupt-nearly-half-of-all-jobs-and-international-politics-1.4276126
Bandelow, C. (1982). Inside Rubik’s cube and beyond (J. Zehnder & L. Moser, Trans.). Birkhäuser Boston. doi:10.1007/9781-4684-7779-5
Barutçugil, İ. (2004). Stratejik İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi. İstanbul: Kariyer Yayıncılık İletişim.
Ba, S., & Nault, B. (2017). Emergent Themes in the Interface Between Economics of Information Systems and Management of Technology. Production and Operations Management, 26(4), 652–666. doi:10.1111/poms.12644
Bastedo, K., Sugar, A., Swenson, N., & Vargas, J. (2013). Programmatic, Systematic, Automatic: An Online Course
Accessibility Support Model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17(3), 87–102.
Bates, A. T. (2005). Technology, e-learning, and distance education. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203463772
Baumgartner, L. (2008). Andragogy: An introduction and implications for curriculum and instruction. In V. C. X. Wang
(Ed.), Strategic approaches towards curriculum development for adult learners in the global community (pp. 34–57).
Malabar, FL: Krieger.
BBC. (2017, November 29). Robot automation will ‘take 800 million jobs by 2030’. British Broadcast Corporation.
Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42170100
Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2013). Experiential learning: A handbook for education, training and coaching. London:
Kogan Page Publishers.
Beaven, T., Hauck, M., Comas-Quinn, A., Lewis, T., & de los Arcos, B. (2014). MOOCs: Striking the right balance
between facilitation and self-determination. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 31–43.
Becker, S. O., Fetzer, T., & Novy, D. (2017). Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level analysis. Economic
Policy, 32(92), 601–650. doi:10.1093/epolic/eix012
Bello, D. (2012). State/nation relationship, economic development model and party system in Chile: brief historical review
as an attempt to understand a change of time. Polis, 11(31), 39-55. Available in: http://journals.openedition.org/polis/3601
372
Compilation of References
Belvedere, V., Grando, A., & Bielli, P. (2013). A quantitative investigation of the role of information and communication
technologies in the implementation of a product-service system. International Journal of Production Research, 51(2),
410–426. doi:10.1080/00207543.2011.648278
Bergevin, P. A. (1967). A philosophy for adult education. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Berge, Z. L. (2007). Motivate and manage: Key activities of online instructors. In J. M. Spector (Ed.), Finding your
online voice: Stories told by experienced online educators (pp. 73–77). London, UK: Routledge.
Bersin., & Associates. (2003). 2003 E-Learning Year in Review. Retrieved from https://immagic.com
Bersin, J. (2016). Predictions for 2016: a bold new world of talent, learning, leadership, and HR technology ahead.
Deloitte Consulting LLP.
Bhatt, J., & Verma, H. K. (2015). Design and Development of Wired Building Automation Systems. Energy and Building, 103, 396–413. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.02.054
Bhowmick, B., & Ghosh, S. (2017). Innovation and Commercial Orientation: A Case of Premier Technology Institution
in India. In Handbook of Research on Technology-Centric Strategies for Higher Education Administration (pp. 275-294).
Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.igi-global.com/book/handbook-research-technology-centric-strategies/176902
Biggs, J. (1996). Western misconceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.),
The Chinese learner (pp. 46–47). Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Comparative Education Research Center.
Bisquerra, R. (2005). La educación emocional en la formación del profesorado. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación
del Profesorado, 54, 95–114.
Bissonnette, L. (2006). Meeting the evolving education needs of faculty in providing access for university students with
disabilities. Retrieved from http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/8741/1/NR16269.pdf
Bizzozero, L., & Pose, N. (2016). Higher education in globalization: Ideas and projection proposed by international
organizations. Seminar ‘A look towards the future of Higher Education’.
Blackboard News. (2017). Blackboard Delivers Worldwide Growth. Retrieved February 17, 2018, from http://press.
blackboard.com/2017-01-27-Blackboard-Delivers-Worldwide-Growth
Blended Learning. (2009). Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/blended_learning
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. London, UK: Longman.
Blow, C. A. (2012). Flight School in the Virtual Environment: Capabilities and Risks of Executing a Simulations-Based
Flight Training Program (No. ATZL-SWV). Army Command and General Staff Coll Fort Leavenworth KS School of
Advanced Military Studies.
Bluestone, B. (1977). Economic theory and the fate of the poor. In J. Karabel & A. H. Halsey (Eds.), Power and ideology
(pp. 337–338). New York: Oxford University Press.
Blumenthal, D., Eric, C., Mellissa, A., Nancyanne, C., & Karen, L. (1997). Withholding Research Results in Academic
Life Sciences. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 1224-28.
Bodily, R., Graham, C. R., & Bush, M. D. (2017). Online Learner Engagement: Opportunities and Challenges with Using
Data Analytics. Educational Technology, 57(1), 10–18.
Bøllingtoft & Ulhøi. (2005). The Business Incubator in a network perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 20,
265–290. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2003.12.005
373
Compilation of References
Bouras, C., & Tsiatsos, T. (2006). Educational virtual environments: Design rationale and architecture. Multimedia Tools
and Applications, 29(2), 153–173. doi:10.100711042-006-0005-7
Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching.
Brady, K. P., Holcomb, L. B., & Smith, B. V. (2010). The use of alternative social networking sites in higher educational
settings : A case study of the e-learning benefits of ning in education. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(2), 151–170.
Bright, S. (2015). 10 Benefits of Teaching in a Blended Learning Classroom. Retrieved from http://blog.whooosreading.
org/10-benefits-of-teaching-in-a-blended-learning-classroom/
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2017). What could be the effect of Brexit on the UK Education market? BBC Active. Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/ImpactofBrexitonFurtherEducation.aspx
Brookfield, S. D. (2013). A critical theory of adult and community education. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of
research for improving the 21st century workforce: Tools for lifelong learning (pp. 141-156). Hershey, PA: Information
Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2181-7.ch010
Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. (2005). Overcoming impostorship, cultural suicide, and lost innocence: Implications for teaching critical
thinking in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges, 130.
Brown, M., Dehoney, J., & Millichap, N. (2015). The next generation digital learning environment: A report on research.
EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative.
Brown-Martin, G. (2017). Education and the fourth industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://www.groupemediatfo.
org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/FINAL-Education-and-the-Fourth-Industrial-Revolution-1-1-1.pdf
Bruce, B. C. (1993). Innovation and social change. In B. C. Bruce, J. K. Peyton, & T. Batson (Eds.), Network-based
classrooms (pp. 9–32). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bruce, B. C., & Hogan, M. C. (1998). The disappearance of technology: Toward an ecological model of literacy. In D.
Reinking, M. McKenna, L. Labbo, & R. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a
post-typographic world (pp. 269–281). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brunner, J. J. (1986). From the university supervised to the university company. Higher education in Chile. Nueva Sociedad, (84), 140 - 146. Available in: http://nuso.org/media/articles/downloads/1419_1.pdf
Brunner, J. J. (2000). Globalization and the future of education: trends, challenges, strategies. Seminar on the Prospective of Education in the Latin America and the Caribbean Region. Available in: http://www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/
delphi/pdf/brunner.pdf
Bucich, M., & MacCann, C. (2019). Emotional Intelligence and Day-To-Day Emotion Regulation Processes: Examining
Motives for Social Sharing. Personality and Individual Differences, 137, 22–26. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.08.002
Buffalo University. (2016). Trends and the Future of Learning Management Systems (LMSs) in Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.buffalo.edu/content/dam/www/ubcei/reports/CEI Report - Trends and the Future of Learning
Management Systems in Higher Education.pdf
Burgess, S. (2017). What is the future of the corporate LMS? Retrieved May 25, 2018, from https://www.quora.com/
What-is-the-future-of-the-corporate-LMS
374
Compilation of References
Burgestahler, S. E. (2008). Universal design of technological environments. In S. Burgestahler & R. Cory (Eds.), Universal design in higher education: From guidelines to practice (pp. 213–224). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper Collins.
Burton, S., Bessette, D., Brown-Jackson, K., & Grimm, F. (2013). Transforming the mental paradigm on digital literacy
through understanding andragogy and maximizing continuous education. ICERI2013 6th International Conference of
Education, Research and Innovation.
Bussmann, S., Johnson, S. R., Oliver, R., Forsythe, K., Grandjean, M., Lebsock, M., & Luster, T. (2017). On the Recognition of Quality Online Course Design in Promotion and Tenure: A Survey of Higher Ed Institutions in the Western
United States. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 20(1), 1–14.
Buttrick, J. (1978, February). Let tuition fees rise to cover costs…. University Affairs, 19, 10.
Buzzetto-More, N., & Alade, A. (2006). Best practices in e-assessment. Journal of Information Technology Education,
5. Retrieved from: http://jite.org/documents/Vol5/v5p251 – 269Buzzetto152.pdf
Buzzetto-More, N. A., & Sweat-Guy, R. (2006). Incorporating the Hybrid Learning Model into Minority Education at
a Historically Black University. Journal of Information Technology Education, 5153–5164.
Bynum, S. L. (2011). Utilizing social media to increase student engagement: A study of Kern County public schools (Unpublished master’s thesis). California State University Department of Public Policy and Administration, Bakersfield, CA.
Byrd, T. A., & Turner, D. E. (2000). Measuring the Flexibility of Information Technology Infrastructure: Exploratory
Analysis of a Construct. Journal of Management Information Systems, 17(1), 167–208. doi:10.1080/07421222.2000.1
1045632
Cabero - Almenara. J. (2016). Distance Education as a strategy for social and educative inclusion. Revista mexicana de
bachillerato a distancia, 8(15), 1-6. Available in: http://revistas.unam.mx/index.php/rmbd/article/view/57384
CALED. (2018). CALED: What is your mission. Available in: www.caled-ead.org/cual-es-su-mision
California State University – Chico. (2015). Exemplary online instruction. Retrieved from http://csuchico.edu/eoi/
Calvo, X., & Salas, N. (2013). Need for unification of Pedagogical mediation’s quality criteria in online courses at the
Universidad Estatal a Distancia. Revista Postgrado y Sociedad, 13(1), 27–44. doi:10.22458/rpys.v13i1.384
Cambridge Dictionary. (2018). The industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/
english/industrial-revolution
Campbell, J. P., DeBlois, P. B., & Oblinger, D. G. (2007). Academic analytics: A new tool for a new area. EDUCAUSE
Review, 42(4), 40–57.
Caner, M. (2012). The Definition of Blended Learning in Higher Education. In P. S. Anastasiades (Ed.), Blended Learning
Environments for Adults: Evaluations and Frameworks (pp. 19–36). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-0939-6.ch002
Cankaya, S., Durak, G., & Yunkul, E. (2014). Using educational social networking sites in higher education: Edmodo
through the lenses of undergraduate students. European Journal of Education Technology, 1(1), 3–23.
Capaldi, E. D. (2011). Budget Cuts and Educational Quality. Academe, 97(6), 10–13.
Career, M. A., & Thurik, A. R. (2003). The impact of entrepreneurship on Economic Growth. In D. B. Audretsch & Z.
J. Acs (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurship research. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
375
Compilation of References
Carlson, D., Lavery, L., & Hughes, T. (2018). Should I Stay or Should I Go? Open Enrollment Decisions and Student
Achievement Trajectories. Social Science Quarterly, 99(3), 1089–1104. doi:10.1111squ.12478
Carr, K. C., & Farley, C. L. (2003). Redesigning courses for the World Wide Web. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s
Health, 48(6), 407–417. doi:10.1016/S1526-9523(03)00306-4 PMID:14660946
Case, D. E., & Davidson, R. C. (2011). Accessible online learning. New Directions for Student Services, 2011(134),
47–58. doi:10.1002s.394
CAST. (2011). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. Wakefield, MA: Author.
CAST. (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org
Castañeda, L., & Selwyn, N. (2018). More than tools? Making sense of the ongoing digitizations of higher education.
International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(22), 1–10.
Castells, M. (2001). Universities as dynamic systems of contradictory functions. In J. Muller, N. Cloete, & S. Badat
(Eds.), Challenges of globalisation: South African debates with Manuel Castells (pp. 206–223). Cape Town: Maskew
Miller Longman.
Castillo, S.M.& Gamboa, A.R. (2012). Challenges of education in today’s society. Revista electrónica Diálogos Educativos, 12(24), 55-69.
Catalano, A. (2014). Improving distance education for students with special needs: A qualitative Study of students’
experiences with an online library research course. Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning,
8(1/2), 17–31. doi:10.1080/1533290X.2014.902416
Cavanaugh, C. (2002). Distance education quality: Success factors for resources, practices and results. In R. Discenza,
C. D. Howard, & K. Schenk (Eds.), The design & management of effective distance learning programs (pp. 171–189).
Hershey, PA: Information Science; doi:10.4018/978-1-930708-20-4.ch011
Cavus, N., Uzunboylu, H., & Ibrahim, D. (2007). Assessing the success rate of students using a learning management
system together with a collaborative tool in web-based teaching of programming languages. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 36(3), 301–321. doi:10.2190/T728-G676-4N18-6871
Cejudo, J., & López-Delgado, M. L. (2017). Importancia de la inteligencia emocional en la práctica docente: Un estudio
con maestros. Psicología Educativa, 23(1), 29–36. doi:10.1016/j.pse.2016.11.001
Center for Digital Technology and Management. (2015). The future of education. Munich, Germany: Center for Digital
Technology and Management.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2018). The World Factbook. Available in: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/
Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal, 16(2),
137–159.
Çetindamar, D., Phaal, R., & Probert, D. (2010). Technology management activities and tools. Palgrave-Macmillan.
Chanaron, J. J., & Grange, T. (2006). Towards a re-definition of technology management. In Management of innovation
and technology, 2006 IEEE International Conference on (Vol. 2, pp. 955-959). IEEE. 10.1109/ICMIT.2006.262363
Chandra, A., & Chao, C. A. (2011). Growth and evolution of high-technology business incubation in China. Academic
Press.
376
Compilation of References
Chen, C. J. (2009). Theoretical Bases for Using Virtual Reality in Education. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 2, 71–90.
Chen, C. J., Toh, S. C., & Ismail, W. M. F. W. (2005). Are learning styles relevant to virtual reality? Journal of Research
on Technology in Education, 38(2), 123–141. doi:10.1080/15391523.2005.10782453
Chen, T. H. (1981). Chinese education since 1949: Academic and revolutionary models. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Cheon, J., Lee, S., Crooks, S. M., & Song, J. (2012). An investigation of mobile learning readiness in higher education
based on the theory of planned behavior. Computers & Education, 59(3), 1054–1064. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.04.015
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–7.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1996). Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever. AAHE Bulletin,
49(2), 3–7.
China sets direction for world class universities. (2015). Retrieved from Australian Government Department of Education and Training: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/News/Latest-News/Pages/China-sets-direction-for-world-classuniversities.aspx
Chua, A., & Lam, W. (2007). Quality assurance in online education: The Universitas 21 Global approach. British Journal
of Educational Technology, 38(1), 133–152. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00652.x
Cifuentes, L., Janney, A., Guerra, L., & Weir, J. (2016). A Working Model for Complying with Accessibility Guidelines
for Online Learning. TechTrends, 60(6), 557–564. doi:10.100711528-016-0086-8
Clarà, M., & Barberà, E. (2013). Learning online: Massive open online courses (MOOCs), connectivism, and cultural
psychology. Distance Education, 34(1), 129–136. doi:10.1080/01587919.2013.770428
Clark, B. (1998). Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation. New York: Pergamon Press.
Cohen, A. (2011). Higher education students’ perspectives of the relevance of the online social networking site Facebook to education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Walden University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education (5th ed.). London: Routledge Falmer.
Coleman, M. S., & Berge, Z. K. (2018). A Review of Accessibility in Online Higher Education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 21(1), 1–7.
Collins, J., & Porras, J. (1994). Built to last. New York: Harper Collins.
Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science, and Technology (National Science Board). (1982).
Educating Americans for the 21st century. Author.
Conrad, R. M., & Donaldson, A. (2004). Engaging the Online Learner: Activities and Resources for Creative Instruction. San Francisco: Jossey - Bass.
Conti, G. (1983). Principles of adult learning scale. Retrieved from http://www.okstate.edu/education/ses/hraepals.html
Conti, G. (1985). The relationship between teaching style and adult student learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 35(4),
220–228. doi:10.1177/0001848185035004004
Conti, G. (2004). Appendix B: principles of adult learning scale. In M. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult learning methods: A guide
for effective instruction (pp. 87–91). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
377
Compilation of References
Cooke, P., Boekholt, P., & Todtling, F. (2000). The governance of innovation in Europe. In Regional Perspectives on
Global Competitiveness. London Printer.
Courau, S. (1994). Les outils d’ excellence du formateur (2nd ed.). Paris: ESF.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Research design. Qualitative and quantitative approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (2016). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, And Evaluating Quantitative And Qualitative
Research. Athens: ION. (in Greek)
Crosnoe, R., Johnson, M. K., & Elder, G. H. (2004). School Size and the Interpersonal Side of Education: An Examination of Race/Ethnicity and Organizational Context. Social Science Quarterly, 85(5), 1259–1274. doi:10.1111/j.00384941.2004.00275.x
Cuadros, J., Valencia, J., & Valencia, A. (2012). Information technologies and communication in rural learning environments like social inclusion mechanisms. Actualidades Pedagógicas, (60), 101-120. . doi:10.19052/ap.1756
CUED. (2018). UNESCO Chair in Distance Education. Available in: https://www2.uned.es/catedraunesco-ead/
Cuffaro, H. K. (1995). Experimenting with the world: John Dewey and the early childhood classroom. New York:
Teachers College Press.
Dai, L. (2006). From conventional technology to carbon nanotechnology: The fourth industrial revolution and the discoveries
of C60 carbon nanotube and nanodiamond. In L. Dai (Ed.), Carbon Nanotechnology: Recent Developments in Chemistry,
Physics, Materials Science and Device Applications (pp. 3–11). Elsevier V.V. doi:10.1016/B978-044451855-2/50004-8
Dalmarco, G., Hulsink, W., & Blois, G. V. (2018). Creating entrepreneurial universities in an emerging economy:
Evidence from Brazil. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 135, 99–111. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2018.04.015
Daniel, J. (2012). Making sense of MOOCs: Musings in a maze of myth, paradox and possibility. Journal of Interactive
Media in Education, 3. Retrieved from http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/jime/article/viewArticle/2012-18/html/
Davies, J. (1962, February). Toward a theory of revolution. American Sociological Review, 27(1), 5–19. doi:10.2307/2089714
Davis, J. (2009). Historically Black colleges and university (HBCUs): How they can better infuse technology throughout their campuses and business curriculum. In First Annual General Business Conference Proceedings (pp. 100-112).
Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston State University.
Davis, T. M. (2003). Atlas of student mobility. New York, NY: Institute of International Education.
de Waard, I., Koutropoulos, A., Keskin, N., Abajian, S. C., Hogue, R., Rodriguez, O., & Gallagher, M. S. (2011). Exploring the MOOC format as a pedagogical approach for mLearning. Proceedings from mLearn. Retrieved from http://
mlearn.bnu.edu.cn/source/ten_outstanding_papers/Exploring%20the%20MOOC%20format%20as%20a%20pedagogical%20approach%20for%20mLearning.pdf
Dear, P. (2017). Brexit could ‘undermine’ UK’s elite education status. euobserver. Retrieved from https://euobserver.
com/education/138885
Dennis, M. (2016). Consider implications of Brexit for international student mobility. Enrollment Management Report:
Realities & Innovations, 20(6), 3-3. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.lib-e2.lib.ttu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/
pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=194c155a-2d18-4740-b994-ec7894bbf393%40sessionmgr104
378
Compilation of References
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Department of Education and Training. (2016). China - Outbound and inbound international students. Retrieved from
Rsearch snapshot: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/.../China_outbound%20and%20inbound%20terti
Department of Education and Training. (2017). China releases Thirteenth Five Year Plan for Education. Retrieved
from Australian Government, International Network: https://internationaleducation.gov.au/International-network/china/
PolicyUpdates-China/Pages/China-Releases-Thirteenth-Five-Year-Plan-for-Education-.aspx
Deutsch, J. (1967).. . University Affairs, 8, 2.
Dewald, N. H. (2003). Pedagogy and andragogy. In E. A. Dupuis (Ed.), Developing web-based instruction: Planning,
designing, managing, and evaluating for results (pp. 47–68). New York, NY: Neal-Schuman.
Dewey, J. (2007). Experience and education. Simon and Schuster.
Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative data analysis: a user-friendly guide for social scientists. London: Routledge Publications.
Diaz, V. (2010). Web 2.0 and emerging technologies in online learning. New Directions for Community Colleges,
2010(150), 57–66. doi:10.1002/cc.405
Dickson, B. (2017). How artificial intelligence is shaping the future of education? Retrieved from https://www.pcmag.
com/article/357483/how-artificial-intelligence-is-shaping-the-future-of-education
Djokovic, D., & Souitaris, V. (2008). Spinouts from academic institutions: A literature review with suggestions for further
research. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 33(3), 225–247. doi:10.100710961-006-9000-4
Dobre, I. (2015). Learning management systems for higher education - An overview of available options for higher
education organizations. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 180, 313–320. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.122
Docebo. (2016). Toronto, ON, Canada: Elearning Market Trends and Forecast.
Douglass, J. A. (2012). China futurisms: Research universities as leaders or followers? Social Research, 79(3), 639.
Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.fau.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA307077793&v=2.1&u=gale15691&
it=r&p=AONE&sw=w
Durak, G. (2017). Using social learning networks (SLNs) in higher education: Edmodo through the lenses of academics.
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(1), 84–109. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v18i1.2623
Ebardo, R. A., & Valderama, A. M. C. (2009). The effect of web-based learning management system on knowledge
acquisition of information technology students at Jose Rizal University. Proceeding of 6th International Conference on
E-learning for Knowledge-based Society.
Economic Council of Canada. (1971, October). Canadian higher education in the seventies. Proceedings of the seminar
at Montebello, 29-31.
Eddy, Nor-Aziah, & Jasmine. (2014). Implementation of Blended Learning in Higher Learning Institutions. Retrieved
from https://files.eric.ed.gov
Edmonds, L. J. (2012). What Internationalization should really be about? Retrieved from http://www.universityaffairs.
ca/what-internationalization-shouldreally-be-about.aspx
Education Commission of the States (1983) Action for excellence: A comprehensive plan to improve our nation’s schools.
Author.
379
Compilation of References
Edwards, F. R. (2018). The relationship between college student attitudes towards online learning based on reading
self-efficacy, ethnicity, and age (PhD dissertation). Liberty University.
Eggins, H. (2018). Leaders in the UK respond to the shock of Brexit. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from: https://www.
insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/leaders-uk-respond-shock-brexit
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2001). Critical thinking: Thinking with concepts. Journal of Developmental Education, 24(3), 42.
Elias, T. (2011). Learning analytics: Definitions, processes and potential. Received from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.
org/732e/452659685fe3950b0e515a28ce89d9c5592a.pdf
Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (1995). Philosophical foundations of adult education. Malabar, FL: Krieger.
e-Literate. (2016). European LMS Market Dynamics. Retrieved from https://mfeldstein.com/new-release-european-lmsmarket-report/
e-Literate. (2017). State of Higher Education LMS Market for US and Canada: Spring 2017 Edition. Retrieved from
https://mfeldstein.com/state-higher-ed-lms-market-spring-2016/
Ellis, S. R. (1995). Virtual environments and environmental instruments. In Simulated and virtual realities: Elements of
perception (pp. 85-101). Bristol, UK: Taylor & Francis Inc.
Emelyanova, N., & Voronina, E. (2014). Introducing a learning management system at a Russian university: Students’
and teachers’ perceptions. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(1). doi:10.19173/
irrodl.v15i1.1701
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Act of Union, 1707. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.
com/event/Act-of-Union-Great-Britain-1707
Endl, K. (1982a). Megaminx: The elementary strategy, with two types of operations only. Würfel-Verlag GmbH.
Endl, K. (1982b). Pyraminx cube: The elementary solution, with two types of operations only. Würfel-Verlag GmbH.
Engel, G. L. (1980). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 137(5),
535–544. doi:10.1176/ajp.137.5.535 PMID:7369396
Enriquez, M. A. S. (2014). Effectiveness of the use of edmodo as a supplementary tool for learning. In DLSU Research
Congress (pp. 6–11). Academic Press.
Ertekin, Ö. (2013). Teknoloji yönetimi esasları. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299562555_
TEKNOLOJI_YONETIMI_ESASLARI
Escandón, M. B., Silva, V. M., Ibarra, M., & Rodríguez, W. A. (2018). Colonization of the neoliberal model as organizational results in public servants and teachers in some human service. Tempus Psicológico, 1(1), 161–180. doi:10.30554/
tempuspsi.1.1.2339.2018
Espinoza, O. (2017). Privatization of higher education in Chile: consequences and lessons learned. EccoS – Revista
Científica, (44), 175-202. Doi:10.5585/eccos.n44.8070
Etzkowitz, H. (1998). The Norms of Entrepreneurial Science: Cognitive Effects of the New University-Industry Linkages. Research Policy, 27(8), 823–833. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(98)00093-6
European Commission. (2013). European higher education in the world. Brussels: Author.
European Commission. (2017). Horizon 2020 in full swing: Three years on, Facts and figures 2014-2016. Retrieved from
https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/sites/horizon2020/files/h2020_threeyearson_a4_horizontal_2018_web.pdf
380
Compilation of References
European Union – Foreign Relations. (2016). Brexit’s impact on higher education and research. Education Journal, 286, 17.
Fairweather, J. S. (1990). The university role in economic development—lessons for academic leaders. SRA— Journal
of the Society of Research Administrators, 22(3), 5–11.
Feng, W., Siu, K., & Gu, J. (2011). Exploring the position of technology education in China. In M. J. De Vries (Ed.),
Positioning technology education in the curriculum (pp. 227–242). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-675-5_17
FEUC. (1973). Unified National School, the control of consciences: critical report. Santiago de Chile: FEUC, Departamento de Estudios. Available in: http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0038837.pdf
Fidishun, D. (2000, April). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology.
In Proceedings of the 2000 Mid-South Instructional Technology Conference. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State
University. Retrieved from https://scholarsphere.psu.edu/concern/generic_works/8s45q881f
Figueiró, P. S., & Raufflet, E. (2015). Sustainability in higher education: A systematic review with focus on management
education. Journal of Cleaner Production, 106, 22–33. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.118
Filippidi, A., Tselios, N., & Komis, V. (2010). Impact of moodle usage practices onstudents’ performance in the context of a blended learning environment. In Proceedings of Social Applications for Lifelong Learning (pp. 1-6). Patras,
Greece: Academic Press.
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Firat, M. (2016). Determining the effects of LMS learning behaviors on academic achievement in a learning analytic
perspective. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 15, 75–87. doi:10.28945/3405
Fish, W. W., & Wickersham, L. E. (2009). Best Practices for Online Instructors: Reminders. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10(3), 279–284.
Flanagan, C., Modjtahedi, A., & Coe, I. (2017). Investigating the global FinTech talent shortage. Faculty of Science,
Ryerson University.
Forkosh-Baruch, A., & Hershkovitz, A. (2012). A case study of Israeli higher-education institutes sharing scholarly
information with the community via social networks. The Internet and Higher Education, 15(1), 58–68. doi:10.1016/j.
iheduc.2011.08.003
Formica, P. (2005). Knowledge transfer from universities to the SME sector. I-Manager’s Journal of Educational Technology, 2(2), 49-59. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1473900
467?accountid=14129
Formica, P. (2005). Knowledge transfer from universities to the SME sector. I-manager’s Journal of Educational Technology, 2(2), 49–59.
Forstenzer, J. (2017) We are losing sight of higher education’s true purpose. The Conversation (Canada). Retrieved from
https://theconversation.com/we-are-losing-sight-of-higher-educations-true-purpose-73637
Fossen, F. M. (2012). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Choice and Risk Aversion-A Decomposition based on a
Microeconometric Model. Applied Economics, 44(14), 1795–1812. doi:10.1080/00036846.2011.554377
Frazer, C., Sullivan, D. H., Weatherspoon, D., & Hussey, L. (2017). Faculty Perceptions of Online Teaching Effectiveness and Indicators of Quality. Nursing Research and Practice, 2017, 1–6. doi:10.1155/2017/9374189 PMID:28326195
381
Compilation of References
Fredericksen, E. E. (2017). A national study of online learning leaders in US higher education. Online Learning, 21(2).
doi:10.24059/olj.v21i2.1164
Freeman, R. B. (1976). The overeducated American. New York: Academic Press.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Frey, A. H., & Singmasters, D. (1981). Handbook of cubik math. Enslow Publishers.
Frey, C. A., & Osborne, M. A. (2015). Technology at work: The future of innovation and employment. Retrieved from
http://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/reports/Citi_GPS_Technology_Work.pdf
Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2013). The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Retrieved
from www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf
Friedman, J. (2018). 4 Expectations for online education in 2018. U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved from https://
www.usnews.com/higher-education/online-education/articles/2018-01-18/4-expectations-for-online-education-in-2018
Friedman, Z. (2017). Student loan debt in 2017: A $1.3 trillion crisis. Forbes.com. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.
com/sites/zackfriedman/2017/02/21/student-loan-debt-statistics-2017/#6f25ebfe5dab
García-Pérez, F. F., Moreno-Fernández, O., & Rodríguez-Marín, F. (2015). World problems and education: towards a
planetary citizenship. In B. Borghi, F. F. García-Pérez, & O. Moreno-Fernández (Eds.), Novi Cives. Cittadini dall’infanzia
in poi. Bologna: Pàtron Editore.
Gardiner, B. (2018). U.K. Universities face uncertainty as Brexit looms. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://
www.nytimes.com/2018/04/05/education/learning/uk-universities-brexit.html
Garrison, R.D. (1987). Self-directed learning: Facilitating self-directed learning beyond the institutional setting. International Journal of Lifelong learning, 6(4), 309-318.
Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18–33.
doi:10.1177/074171369704800103
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its Transformative Potential in Higher Education.
The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001
Gasman, M., Nguyen, T., Samayoa, A. C., Commodore, F., & Hyde-Carter, Y. (2013). The changing face of Historically
Black colleges and universities. Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
Geiger, R. L. (2015). The history of American higher education: learning and culture from the founding to world war
II. Princeton University Press.
Georgouli, K., Skalkidis, I., & Guerreiro, P. (2008). A framework for adopting LMS to introduce e-learning in a traditional course. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(2), 227–240.
Gerlich, R. N. (2005). Faculty Perceptions of Distance Learning. Distance Education Report, 9(17), 8.
Ghosh, S., & Bhowmick, B. (2015). Academic Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economy Context. In Competitive Strategies for Academic Entrepreneurship: Commercialization of Research-Based Products (pp. 29-50). IGI Global. Retrieved
from http://www.igi-global.com/book/competitive-strategies-academic-entrepreneurship/124015
Gibbons, Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of
science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage.
382
Compilation of References
Glance, D., Forsey, M., & Riley, M. (2013). The pedagogical foundations of massive open online courses. First Monday,
18(5). doi:10.5210/fm.v18i5.4350
Gleason, N. W. (Ed.). (2018). Higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0
Glover, I., & McDonald, K. (2018). Digital Places: Location-based Digital Practices in Higher Education using Bluetooth Beacons. EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2018, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Gnyawali, D. R., & Fogel, D. S. (1994). Environments for entrepreneurship development: Key dimensions and research
implications. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(4), 43–62. doi:10.1177/104225879401800403
Goffman, E. (1961). On the Characteristics of Total Institutions. In D. Cressey (Ed.), The Prison: Studies in Institutional
Organization and Change. New York, NY: Holt.
Golden, J. E. (2016). Supporting online faculty through communities of practice: Finding the faculty voice. Innovations
in Education and Teaching International, 53(1), 84–93. doi:10.1080/14703297.2014.910129
Gordon, D., Proctor, C. P., & Dalton, B. (2012). Reading strategy instruction, universal design for learning, and digital
texts: Examples of an integrated approach. In T. E. Hall, A. Meyer, & D. H. Rose (Eds.), Universal design for learning
in the classroom: Practical applications (pp. 25-37). New York: Guilford Press.
Gov.UK. (2017). Government confirms funding for EU students for 2018 to 2019. Gov.UK. Retrieved from https://www.
gov.uk/government/news/government-confirms-funding-for-eu-students-for-2018-to-2019
Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended Learning Systems: Defnition, Current Trends and Future Directions. In Handbook of
Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Greasley, K., & Ashworth, P. (2007). The Phenomenology of “approach to studying”: The University Student’s Studies
within the Lifework. British Educational Research Journal, 32(6), 819–843. doi:10.1080/01411920701656977
Green, R. (2015). Chinese schools get a lesson from Britain. Retrieved from D & T - the design and technology association: https://www.data.org.uk/blog/2015/january/12/chinese-schools-get-a-lesson-from-britain/
Gregory, M. J. (1995). Technology Management: A Process Approach. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, 209.
Griffin, J. (2006). Effective Elements of Designing Developing and Delivering Blended Learning, In Conference Proceedings, 1st International Conference on ICT for Development, Education and Training. ICWE, GmbH.
Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,
3(1), 42-55. Retrieved from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/3_1/pdf/groenewald.pdf
Grow, G. O. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125–149.
doi:10.1177/0001848191041003001
Guijosa, C. (2018). Qué motiva a los estudiantes a elegir su universidad? Observatorio ITESM. Tecnológico de Monterrey.
Gülbahar, Y., & Ilgaz, H. (2014). Premise of Learning Analytics for Educational Context: Through Concept to Practice.
Bilişim Teknolojileri Dergisi, 7(3). Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/gazibtd/issue/6632/88033
Gunthrie, D. (n.d.). The chronicle of higher education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Jump-Off-the-Coursera
Bandwagon/1363087/
383
Compilation of References
Gupta, P. (2016). Blended Learning and Its Impact on Higher Education. Retrieved from http://edtechreview.in/trendsinsights/insights/2438-blended-learning-in-higher-education
Hackett, S. M., & Dilts, D. M. (2004). A systematic review of business incubation research. The Journal of Technology
Transfer, 29(1), 55–82. doi:10.1023/B:JOTT.0000011181.11952.0f
Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1985). Introduction to theories of personality. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Hall, T. E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (2012). Universal design for learning in the classroom: Practical applications.
New York: Guilford Press.
Hambrick, D. C., & Lovelace, J. B. (2018). The Role of Executive Symbolism in Advancing New Strategic Themes in Organizations: A Social Influence Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 43(1), 110–131. doi:10.5465/amr.2015.0190
Hanham, A. A. (2017). England, Scotland, and the Treaty of Union, 1706-08. The History of Parliament: British Political, Social & Local History. Retrieved from: http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/england-scotland-and-treatyunion-1706-08
Hannafin, M., & Land, S. (1997). The foundations and assumptions of technology-enhanced student-centered learning
environments. Instructional Science, 25(3), 167–202. doi:10.1023/A:1002997414652
Harkness, S. J. (2015). How a Historically Black College University (HBCU) Established a Sustainable Online Learning
Program in Partnership with Quality Matters. American Journal of Distance Education, 29(3), 198–209. doi:10.1080/
08923647.2015.1057440
Hartmann, E. (2015). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Learners with Severe Support Needs. International
Journal of Whole Schooling, 11(1), 54–67.
Hase, S., & Ellis, A. (2001). Problems with online learning are systemic, not technical. Retrieved from https://epubs.
scu.edu.au/comm_pubs/51/
Haynie, D. (2015). Study shows sluggish online learning growth for second year. U. S. News and World Report. Retrieved
from http://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2015/02/05/study-shows-sluggish-online-learninggrowth-for-second-year
Hedberg, J. G. (2006). E-learning futures? Speculations for a time yet to come. Studies in Continuing Education, 28(2),
173–185. doi:10.1080/01580370600751187
HEFCE. (2010). The higher education workforce framework 2010: overview report. Retrieved from http://www.hefce.
ac.uk/media/hefce/content/pubs/2010/201005/10_05.pdf
Heyl, J. D., & Tullbane, J. (2012). Leadership in international higher education. In D. K. Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. D.
Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp. 113–130). Los Angeles, CA:
SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n7
Hitchcock, C. G., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2005). Equal access, participation, and progress in the general
education curriculum. In D. Rose, A. Meyer, & C. Hitchcock (Eds.), The universally designed classroom: Accessible
curriculum and digital technologies (pp. 37–68). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Hofstadter, D. R. (1986). Metamagical themas: Questing for the essence of mind and pattern. Bantam Books, Inc.
Holmberg, B. (1977). Distance education: a survey and bibliography. London: Kogan.
384
Compilation of References
Horvath, A., & Courtois, A. (2018). United Kingdom: The Impact of Brexit on UK Higher Education and Collaboration
with Europe. In A. Courtois (Ed.), Higher Education and Brexit: Current European Perspectives (pp. 159–184). London,
UK: Centre for Global Higher Education.
Hudo, M., Maseleno, A., Atmotiyoso, P., Siregar, M., & Ahmad, R. (2018). Big Data Emerging Technology: Insights into
Innovative Environment for Online Learning Resources. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning,
13(1), 23–36. doi:10.3991/ijet.v13i01.6990
Huisman, J., & van der Wnde, M. (Eds.). (2005). On cooperation and competition II: Institutional responses to internationalization, Europeanization, and globalization. Bonn, Germany: Lemmens Verlag.
Huneeus, C. (2000). Technocrats and Politicians in an Authoritarian Regime. The ODEPLAN Boys and the Gremialists
in Pinochet`s Chile. Journal of Latin American Studies, 32(2), 461-501. Available in: https://www.jstor.org/stable/158572
Hunt, J. B. (1984, April). Education for economic growth: A critical investment. Phi Delta Kappan, 65(8), 538-541.
Imel, S. (2001). Learning Technologies in Adult Education. Myths and Realities. Washington, DC: ERIC Publications.
Inaba, A., & Mizoguchi, R. (2004). Learners roles and predictable educational benefits in collaborative learning: an
ontological approach to support design and analysis of CSCL. In Seventh International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 285–294). Alagoas, Brazil: Academic Press. 10.1007/978-3-540-30139-4_27
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ecell.in/2018/ http://sineiitb.org/sine/home/
http://sineiitb.org/sine/nidhi-prayas-prayas-centre-program/
Indian Institute of technology Delhi. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://fitt-iitd.in/about-us/about-fitt/ http://www.edc-iitd.org/
about1.html http://weefoundation.org/index
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.step-iit.org/about_tiets.html https://www.
step-iit.org/ http://www.ecell-iitkgp.org/
Ingram, R., Lyons, B., Bowron, R., & Oliver, J. (2012). Higher Education Online Course Accessibility Issues: Universal
Design. Review of Higher Education and Self-Learning, 5(16), 143–154.
Insight, G. (2004). Venture Impact 2004: Venture capital benefits to the U.S economy. White paper prepared for the
national venture capital association, Arlington, VA.
Institute of Economics & Peace. (2018). Índice de Paz México 2018. Ciudad de México.
Ito, J., & Howe, J. (2016). Whiplash: how to survive our faster future. Grand Central Publishing.
Jack. (2017). Strong Structuration Theory and Management Accounting Research. Advances in Scientific and Applied
Accounting, 10(2), 211-223.
Jackson, P. (1986). The practice of teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Jacob, W. J., & Gokbel, V. (in press). Global higher education learning outcomes and financial trends: Comparative and
innovative approaches. International Journal of Educational Development. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.03.001
Jaggers, S. S., & Xi, D. (2016). How do online course design features influence student performance? Computers &
Education, 95, 270–284. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.01.014
James, C. (2016). Brexit: What now for study mobility between the UK and the EU? Pécs Journal of International and
European Law, 2016(2). Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/pjiel2016&id=84&co
llection=journals&index=
385
Compilation of References
Jarvis, P. (1985). The sociology of adult and continuing education. Beckenham, UK: Croom Helm.
Jarvis, P. (2002). The theory & practice of teaching. London, UK: Kogan Page.
Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult education and lifelong learning: Theory and practice. New York: Routledge.
doi:10.4324/9780203561560
Jegede, P. O. (2005). A Study of Teacher Educators’ Behaviour towards ICT in South Western Nigeria (Unpublished
PhD Dissertation). Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Jennings, D. F., Nagarathnam, B., & Lawrence, F. B. (2018). Insights into a Graduate Degree in Industrial Distribution
Offered by Distance Education. Universal Journal of Management, 6(3), 98–103. doi:10.13189/ujm.2018.060303
Jibeen, T., & Khan, M. A. (2015). Internationalization of Higher Education: Potential Benefits and Costs. International
Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 4(4), 196–199.
Jin, J., & von Zedwitz, M. (2008). Technological capability development in China’s mobile phone industry. Technovation, 28(6), 327–334. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2007.06.003
Jo, I. H., Yu, T., Lee, H., & Kim, Y. (2015). Relations between student online learning behavior and academic achievement in higher education: A learning analytics approach. In G. Chen, V. Kumar, Kinshuk, R. Huang, & S. C. Kong (Eds.),
Emerging Issues In Smart Learning (pp. 275-287). Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44188-6_38
Johnson, B. (2018). Kings and Queens of England & Britain. Historic UK: The history and heritage accommodation
guide. Retrieved from: https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/KingsQueensofBritain/
Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H. (2013). NMC horizon report:
2013 higher education edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
Jo, I. H., Kim, D., & Yoon, M. (2014). Analyzing the log patterns of adult learners in LMS using learning analytics. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Learning Analytics And Knowledge, 183-187. 10.1145/2567574.2567616
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophy paradigm? Educational
Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5–14. doi:10.1007/BF02296434
Jonassen, D. H., Beissner, K., & Yacci, M. (1993). Structural knowledge: Techniques for representing, conveying and
acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jonassen, D., & Land, S. (2012). Preface. In D. Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (2nd ed.; pp. vii–x). New York: Routledge.
Joshi, Y., Sharma, D., Gaur, U., Kumar, V., & Kalmady, R. (2017). Design of a Fault Tolerant Architecture for Private Cloud
Computing Infrastructure. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 10(4), 1–4. Doi:10.17485/ijst/2017/v10i4/110663
Junco, R. (2012). The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities, and student
engagement. Computers & Education, 58(1), 162–171. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.004
Jung, J., Horta, H., & Yonezawa, A. (2018). Researching higher education in Asia: history, development and future.
Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4989-7
Jurenas, A. (2014). Massive open online courses: An educational revolution. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of
research on education and technology in a changing society (pp. 38–51). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6046-5.ch002
386
Compilation of References
Kafyulilo, A., Fisser, P., Pieters, J., & Voogt, J. (2015). ICT Use in Science and Mathematics Teacher Education in
Tanzania: Developing Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
31(4), 381–399. doi:10.14742/ajet.1240
Kagermann, H., Wahlster, W., Helbig, J., & ACATECH. (2013). Securing the future of German manufacturing industry:
Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0: Communication Promoters Group of the
Industry-Science Research Alliance and National Academy of Science and Engineering. Retrieved from http://www.acatech.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Baumstruktur_nach_Website/Acatech/root/de/Material_fuer_Sonderseiten/Industrie_4.0/
Final_report__Industrie_4.0_accessible.pdf
Kaliisa & Picard. (2017). A Systematic Review on Mobile Learning in Higher Education: The African Perspective. The
Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1), 1–18.
Kane, G. C. (2017). The evolutionary implications of social media for organizational knowledge management. Information and Organization, 27(1), 37–46. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2017.01.001
Kaplan, F. M., Sobin, J. M., & Andors, S. (1979). Encyclopedia of china today. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers.
Karabel, J., & Halsey, A. H. (1977). Educational research: A review and interpretation. In Power and Ideology in Education (pp. 1–85). New York: Oxford University Press.
Karkkainen, T., Panos, G. A., Broby, D., & Bracciali, A. (2017). On the educational curriculum in finance and technology. SSRN Electronic Journal, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3121982
Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning in teacher education. Action in Teacher Education, 18(2),
40–50. doi:10.1080/01626620.1996.10462832
Kaur, H. (2015). Algorithms for solving the Rubik’s cube: A study of how to solve the Rubik’s cube using to famous approaches: The Thistlewaite’s algorithm and the IDA* algorithm (Unpublished Bachelor Thesis). KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
Kaur, M. (2013). Blended Learning - Its Challenges and Future. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 612–617.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.248
Kearns, L. R., & Mancilla, R. (2017). The Impact of Quality Matters Professional Development on Teaching across
Delivery Formats. American Journal of Distance Education, 31(3), 185–197. doi:10.1080/08923647.2017.1301145
Keeling, R. (2006). The Bologna Process and the Lisbon Research Agenda: The European Commission’s expanding role
in higher education discourse. European Journal of Education, 41(2), 203–223. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2006.00256.x
Ke, F., & Kwak, D. (2013). Online learning across ethnicity and age: A study on learning interaction participation,
perception, and learning satisfaction. Computers & Education, 61, 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.09.003
Kentnor, H. E. (2015). Distance Education and the evolution of online learning in the United States. Curriculum &
Teaching Dialogue, 17(1/2), 21-34.
Kenyon, M., Levine, A., Lounder, A., Meekins, M., O’Meara, K., & Waugaman, C. (2011). Following the cuts: How is
the recession affecting faculty work? Liberal Education, 97, 1.
Khosrow-Pour, M. (2018). Call for chapters: Handbook of research on challenges and opportunities in launching a
technology-driven university. Retrieved from https://www.igi-global.com/publish/call-for-papers/call-details/2913
Kim, M. (2002). Historically Black vs. White Institutions: Academic Development Among Black Students. The Review
of Higher Education, 25(4), 385–407. doi:10.1353/rhe.2002.0019
387
Compilation of References
Kim, M., & Conrad, C. (2006). The Impact of Historically Black Colleges and Universities on the Academic Success of
African-American Students. Research in Higher Education, 47(4), 399–427. doi:10.100711162-005-9001-4
King, K. P. (2000). Educational technology that transforms: Educators’ transformational learning experiences in professional development. In Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Adult Education Research Conference (pp. 1-5). University of
British Columbia.
King, K. P. (2004). Light through a crucible of tragedy: Collaborative transformative learning research yields social
action. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Adult Education Research Conference (pp. 309-314). University of Victoria.
King, K. P. (2009). Teachers of adults in the global community. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Strategic approaches towards
curriculum development for adult learners in the global community (pp. 91–119). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
King, K. P., & Gura, M. (2007). Podcasting for Teachers: Using a new technology to revolutionize teaching and learning. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
Kinstler, L. (2016). Brexit is jeopardizing Britain’s intellectual legacy. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/ImpactofBrexitonFurtherEducation.aspx
Klemz, J., Simon, G., & Kumar, A. (2003). IS Planning in non-profit organizations: An exploratory study. In Proceedings
of the 2003 International Association for Computer Information Systems Conference (pp. 216-222). Academic Press.
Knight, J. (2012). Concepts, rationales, and interpretive frameworks in the internationalization of higher education. In
D. K. Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. D. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp.
27–42). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n2
Knight, J., Quheng, D., & Shi, L. (2017). China’s expansion of higher education: The labour market consequences of a
supply shock. China Economic Review, 43, 127–141. doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2017.01.008
Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1977). Adult learning processes: Pedagogy and andragogy. Religious Education (Chicago, Ill.), 72(2),
202–211. doi:10.1080/0034408770720210
Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S. (1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S. (1995). Designs for adult learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F. III, & Swanson, A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier Butterworth
Heinemann. doi:10.4324/9780080481913
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and
human resource development (7th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Knowles, M. S., & Hulda, F. (1973). Introduction to group dynamics. Chicago, IL: Follett.
388
Compilation of References
Knowlton, L. W., & Phillips, C. C. (2013). The logic model guidebook: Better strategies for great results (2nd ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Sage.
Koçdar, S., Eby, G., & Karadağ, N., & Okur, M. R. (2015). TeSLA projesi: Öğrenme ortamları için uyarlanabilen ve
güvenilir bir e-değerlendirme sistemi. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi-AUAd, 2, 2–7.
Kodama, N., & Odaki, K. (2011). Gender difference in the probability of success in starting business turns negligible
when controlling for the managerial experience. Applied Economics Letters, 18(13), 1237–1241. doi:10.1080/135048
51.2010.532097
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing TPCK. In AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Ed.), The
handbook of technological pedagogical content knowledge for educators (pp. 3-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Koehler, J. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology &
Teacher Education, 9(1), 60–70.
Koellinger, P., Minniti, M., & Schade, C. (2013). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Propensity. Oxford Bulletin of
Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 213–234. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00689.x
Kogan, M., Bauer, M., Bleiklie, I., & Henkel, M. (Eds.). (2006). Transforming higher education: a comparative study
(2nd ed.; Vol. 13). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4657-5
Kokkos, A. (2005). Adult Education Methodology. Theoretical Frame and Learning Prerequisites. Patra: HOU. (in Greek)
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Kongchan, C. (2008). How a non-digital-native teacher makes use of edmodo. Proceedings of 5th Intenational Conference ICT for Language Learning.
Kop, R., Fournier, H., & Mak, J. S. F. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings?
Participant support on massive open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning,
12(7), 74–93. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i7.1041
Köse, U., & Koç, D. (Eds.). (2014). Artificial intelligence applications in distance education. IGI Global.
Kośniowski, C. (1981). Conquer that cube. Cambridge University Press.
Kotsiantis, S., Tselios, N., Filippidi, A., & Komis, V. (2013). Using learning analytics to identify successful learners in
a blended learning course. Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 5(2), 133–150. doi:10.1504/IJTEL.2013.059088
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
Kreber, C. (2009). Different Perspectives on Internationalization in Higher Education. New Directions for Teaching and
Learning, 118(118), 1–14. doi:10.1002/tl.348
Krueger, K. (2018). Back to the future: What the coming fourth industrial revolution means for education. T.H.E. Journal, 45(2), 24.
389
Compilation of References
Krummheuer, A. L., Rehm, M., Lund, M. K. L., Nielsen, K. N., & Rodil, K. (2018). Reflecting on co-creating a smart
learning ecosystem for adolescents with congenital brain damage. In O. Mealha, M. Divitini, & M. Rehm (Eds.), Citizen,
Territory and Technologies: Smart Learning Contexts and Practices: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Smart Learning Ecosystems and Regional Development (pp. 11-18). Academic Press. 10.1007/978-3-319-61322-2_2
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). How should the higher education workforce adapt to advancements in technology for teaching and learning? Internet and Higher Education, 15(4), 247–254. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.12.002
Kwun, O., Alijani, G. S., Mancuso, L. C., & Kevin Fulk, H. (2012). Student Perceptions Of Online Courses And Behavior In Historically Black Colleges And Universities (HBCU). Franklin Business & Law Journal, 2012(2), 99-120.
Lamprini, K., & Bröchler, R. (2018). How collaborative innovation and technology in educational ecosystem can meet
the challenges raised by the 4th industrial revolution. World Technopolis Review, 7, 2–14.
Land, S., Hannafin, M., & Oliver, K. (2012). Student-centered learning environments: Foundations, Assumptions and
Design. In D. Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203813799
Larreamendy-Joerns, J., & Leinhardt, G. (2006). Going the distance with online education. Review of Educational Research, 76(4), 567–605. doi:10.3102/00346543076004567
Laster, S. G. (2005). Redefining Blended Learning. Academic Press.
Lee, K. (2010). Philosopher or philistine? In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Assessing and evaluating adult learning in career and
technical education (pp. 27–52). Academic Press. doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-745-9.ch003
Leech, N. L., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2007). An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation. School Psychology Quarterly, 22(4), 557–584. doi:10.1037/1045-3830.22.4.557
Lee, H., & Miozzo, M. (2015). How does working on university-industry collaborative projects affect science and engineering doctorates’ careers? evidence from a UK research-based university. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 40(2),
293–317. doi:10.100710961-014-9340-4
Legon, R. (2009). The quality matters program. Baltimore, MD: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-198-8.ch252
Leinhardt, G., & Greeno, J. G. (1986). The cognitive skill of teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(2), 75–95.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.78.2.75
Lember, Surva, & Tõnurist. (2017). Towards passive co-production? The role of modern technologies in coproduction
(Lember, Surva, and Tönurist). 5th Annual Meeting of the IIAS Study Group of Coproduction of Public Services, 75-98.
Lepouras, G., Antoniou, A., Platis, N., & Charitos, D. (2015). Developing Virtual Reality Systems. Athens: Kallipos –
Hellenic Academic Ebook Publications. (in Greek)
Letseka, M., Letseka, M. M., & Pitsoe, V. (2018). The challenges of E-Learning in South Africa. In M. Sinecen (Ed.),
E-Learning. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech.
Levin, C. L. (2010). Top of the class. Foreign Affairs, 89(3), 63–75. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fau.edu/login?url=http://
search.proquest.com/docview/214294611?accountid=10902
Levy, Y., & Ramim, M. M. n.d. The E-Learning Skills Gap Study: Initial Results of Skills Desired for Persistence and
Success in Online Engineering and Computing Courses. In Proceedings of the 12th Chais Conference for the Study of
Innovation and Learning Technologies: Learning in the Technological Era. Raanana: The Open University of Israel.
390
Compilation of References
Lewis, L. H., & Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past and present. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 62, 5–16.
Leydesdorff, H., & Etzkowitz, H. (1997). A Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government relations. In The future
location of Research, Book of Abstracts. Science Policy Institute, State University of New York.
Leydesdorff, L. (2003). The mutual information of university-industry-government relations: An indicator of the triple
helix dynamics. Scientometrics, 58(2), 445–467. doi:10.1023/A:1026253130577
Leydesdorff, L. (2005). The triple helix model and the study of knowledge-based innovation systems. International
Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 42, 1–16.
Li, X. (2007). Characteristics of Minority-Serving Institutions and Minority Undergraduates Enrolled in These Institutions (NCES 2008-156). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of
Education.
Liao, Y., Deschamps, F., de Freitas Rocha Loures, E., & Ramos, L. F. P. (2017). Past, present and future of Industry
4.0 - a systematic literature review and research agenda proposal. International Journal of Production Research, 55(12),
3609–3629. doi:10.1080/00207543.2017.1308576
Liao, Y., Loures, E. R., Deschamps, F., Brezinski, G., & Venâncio, A. (2018). The impact of the fourth industrial revolution: A cross-country/region comparison. Production, 28(0), 1–18. doi:10.1590/0103-6513.20180061
Liebman, K. (2005). Blended Learning: Definition, Controversy and Commitment. Retrieved from http://gocertify.com/
article/blendedlearning.shtml
Li, H., Zhang, Y., & Chan, T.-S. (2005). Entrepreneurial strategy making and performance in China’s new technology
ventures – the contingency effect of environments and firm competences. The Journal of High Technology Management
Research, 16(1), 37–57. doi:10.1016/j.hitech.2005.06.003
Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Intention Levels:
A Role for Education. The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7(2), 195–218. doi:10.100711365010-0154-z
Lindeman, E. C. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York, NY: New Republic.
LIU. (2018). Walden University. Overview. Available in: https://www.laureate.net/OurNetwork/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates/WaldenUniversity#t1
Liu, O. (2012). Student Evaluation of Instruction: In the New Paradigm of Distance Education. Research in Higher
Education, 53(4), 471–486. doi:10.100711162-011-9236-1
Liu, Y., Li, H., & Carlsson, C. (2010). Factors driving the adoption of m-learning: An empirical study. Computers &
Education, 55(3), 1211–1219. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.018
Lonn, S., & Teasley, S. D. (2009). Saving time or innovating practice: Investigating perceptions and uses of Learning
Management Systems. Computers & Education, 53(3), 686–694. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.04.008
López Guerra, S., & Flores, M. (2006). Neo-Liberal Educational Reform in Latin America. Revista Electrónica de
Investigación Educativa, 8(1). Available in: https://redie.uabc.mx/redie/article/view/122/211
Lorenzetti, J. P. (2009). Attitudes toward Online Courses at HBCUs. Distance Education Report, 13(12), 3–8.
Loshin, D. (2013). Business intelligence: The savvy manager’s guide (2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann.
391
Compilation of References
Loughran, J. (2012). Introduction: The Challenges of Subject Teaching. In P. W. K. Chan (Ed.), Asia Pacific Education:
Diversity, Challenges and Changes (pp. 7–9). Monash University Publishing.
Lynch, K., Goold, A., & Blain, J. (2004). Students’ pedagogical preferences in the delivery of IT capstone courses.
Journal of Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 1, 431–442. doi:10.28945/750
Lynch, M. (2014). 5 Reasons HBCUs are Still Relevant. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 31(14), 38–43.
Lytle, R. (2012). College professors fearful of online growth. U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved from https://www.
usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2012/07/06/college-professors-fearful-of-online-education-growth
Maassen, P., & Stensaker, B. (2011). The knowledge triangle, European higher education policy logics and policy implications. Higher Education, 61(6), 757–769. doi:10.100710734-010-9360-4
Maasse, P., Nerland, M., & Yates, L. (2018). Reconfiguring knowledge in higher education. Springer International
Publishing AG, ISBN.
Macfadyen, L. P., & Dawson, S. (2010). Mining LMS data to develop an “early warning system” for educators: A proof
of concept. Computers & Education, 54(2), 588–599. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.09.008
Machado, M., & Tao, E. (2007, October). Blackboard vs. Moodle: Comparing user experience of learning management
systems. In Frontiers in education conference-global engineering: knowledge without borders, opportunities without
passports, 2007. FIE’07. 37th annual (pp. S4J-7). IEEE.
Macy, M. M., Macy, R., & Shaw, M. E. (2018). Bringing the Ivory Tower into Students’ Homes: Promoting Accessibility in Online Courses. Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal, 11(1), 13–21. doi:10.18848/1835-9795/CGP/
v11i01/13-21
Magzan, M., & Aleksic-Maslac, K. (2011). ICT as an Effective Tool for Internationalization of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.iiis.org/CDs2008/CD2009SCI/ag2009/PapersPdf/A054CA.pdf
Ma, J., & Wen, Q. (2018). Understanding international students’ in-class learning experiences in Chinese higher education institutions. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(6), 1186–1200. doi:10.1080/07294360.2018.1477740
Managing Online Education 2013: Practices in Ensuring Quality. (2013). Retrieved from https://wcet.wiche.edu/sites/
default/files/2013ManagingOnlineEducationSurveyExecutiveSummary.pdf
Mancuso, D. S., Chlup, D. T., & McWhorter, R. R. (2010). A study of adult learning in a virtual world. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 681–699. doi:10.1177/1523422310395368
Mandernach, B. J., Mason, T., Forrest, K. D., & Hackathorn, J. (2012). Faculty Views on the Appropriateness of Teaching
Undergraduate Psychology Courses Online. Teaching of Psychology, 39(3), 203–208. doi:10.1177/0098628312450437
Manganas, A. (2006). Blended Learning Approach to Health Emergency Training of First Responders and Citizens.
In Conference Proceedings, 12th International Conference on Technology Supported Learning and Training. Berlin,
Germany: ICWE, GmbH.
Manimala, M. J. (2009). Sustainable development through ICT: The need for entrepreneurial action. In Enterprise Support Systems: An international perspective. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
MarketsandMarkets. (2016). Learning management system market by application, delivery mode (distance learning
and instructor-led training), deployment (on-premises and cloud), user type (academic and corporate), vertical, and
region - global forecast to 2021. Hadapsar.
392
Compilation of References
Marshall, S. (2010). Change, technology and higher education: Are universities capable of organisational change? ALT-J.
Research in Learning Technology, 18(3), 179–192. doi:10.1080/09687769.2010.529107
Martens, R., Bastiaens, T., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). New learning design in distance education: The impact on student
perception and motivation. Distance Education, 28(1), 81–93. doi:10.1080/01587910701305327
Martin, B. R., & Etzkowitz, H. (2001). The origin and evolution of the university species. Journal for Science and
Technology Studies, 13, 9–34.
Maseleno, A., Sabani, N., Huda, M., Ahmad, R., Jasmi, K., & Basiron, B. (2018). Demystifying Learning Analytics in
Personalised Learning. IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(3), 1124–1129. doi:10.14419/
ijet.v7i3.9789
Mason, W. L. (1982). Rubik’s Revenge: The simplest solution. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Matsui, H., & Ahern, T. (2017). The effect of choice of instruction in personalized flipped learning. In P. Resta & S.
Smith (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp.
240-246). Austin, TX: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved January 25,
2018 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/177295/
Mayhew, K. (2017). UK Higher Education and Brexit. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 33(S1), S155–S161.
doi:10.1093/oxrep/grx012
Mayrose, J. (2012). Active Learning Through the Use of Virtual Environments. American Journal of Engineering
Education, 3(1), 13.
Mazali, T. (2018). From industry 4.0 to society 4.0, there and back. AI & Society, 33(3), 405–411. doi:10.100700146017-0792-6
McAleer, S., Agostinelli, F., Shmakov, A., & Baldi, P. (2018). Solving the Rubik’s Cube without human knowledge.
Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/pdf/1805.07470.pdf
McBride, J. (2017). What Brexit Means. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/
what-brexit-means?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI-_KVmfeK3AIVk7bACh3cwQLeEAAYASAAEgKENvD_BwE
McGraw-Hill Education. (2017). Blended Learning: Strategies for Implementation. Retrieved from https://medium.com/
inspired-ideas-prek-12/blended-learning-strategies-for-implementation-8e86e9349ac7
McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The Global Village. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
McNay, I. (2006). Beyond mass higher education: building on experience. The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Melguizo, T., Zamarro, G., Velasco, T., & Sanchez, F. J. (2017). The Methodological Challenges of Measuring Student
Learning, Degree Attainment, and Early Labor Market Outcomes in Higher Education. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 424–448. doi:10.1080/19345747.2016.1238985
Mellet-d’Huart, D. (2009). Virtual Reality for Training and Lifelong Learning. Themes in Science and Technology
Education, 185-224.
Menchaca, M. P., & Bekele, T. A. (2008). Learner and instructor identified success factors in distance education. Distance
Education, 29(3), 231–252. doi:10.1080/01587910802395771
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learners: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult
and Continuing Education, 89(89), 3–13. doi:10.1002/ace.3
393
Compilation of References
Merriam, S. B. (2004). The role of cognitive development in Mezirow’s transformational learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 55(1), 60–68. doi:10.1177/0741713604268891
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam-Webster. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.merriam- webster.com/
Mertens, D. M. (2003). The inclusive view of evaluation: Visions for the new millennium. In S. I. Donaldson & M.
Scriven (Eds.), Evaluating social programs and problems: Visions for the new millennium (pp. 91–108). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Meza, N. (2015). 18 de septiembre). Los ocho sismos más catastróficos en la historia de México. Forbes, 8.
Mezied, A. A. (2016). What roll will education play in the fourth industrial revolution? Retrieved from http://www.
weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/what-role-will-education-play-in-th-fourth-industrial-revolution/
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Ministry of Education - Chile. (2018). Law 21,091 ‘About Higher Education’. Available in: http://bcn.cl/25b7u
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2012). Internationalization of Universities and
Their Local Contribution. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab200801/detail/1292585.htm
Miranda, A. (2010). Distance Education in Ibero-America: XXX anniversary of the AIESAD. Revista Iberoamericana
de Educación a Distancia, 13(2), 13-36. Available in: http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/ried/article/view/13455
Mishra, A. (2014, February 7). Growing mismatch between graduate skills, market needs. University WorldNews. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140204171742828
Mishra, P., Spiro, R. J., & Feltovich, P. J. (1996). Technology, representation, and cognition: The prefiguring of knowledge in cognitive flexibility hypertexts. In H. van Oostendorp & A. del Mul (Eds.), Cognitive aspects of electronic text
processing (pp. 287-305). Academic Press.
Mitchell, L. D., Parlamis, J. D., & Claiborne, S. A. (2015). Overcoming Faculty Avoidance of Online Education: From Resistance to Support to Active Participation. Journal of Management Education, 39(3), 350–371.
doi:10.1177/1052562914547964
Mohasoa, I.P. (2018). Embracing diversity in pursuit of academic excellence. PowerPoint Presentation, UNISA.
Monger, R. F. (1988). Mastering technology: a management framework for getting results. New York, NY: The Free.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. Psychology Press.
Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–6.
doi:10.1080/08923648909526659
Moore, M. G. (1973). Toward a theory of independent learning and teaching. The Journal of Higher Education, 44(9),
661–679. doi:10.2307/1980599
394
Compilation of References
Moore, R. (2014). Importance of Developing Community in Distance Education Courses. TechTrends, 58(2), 20–24.
doi:10.100711528-014-0733-x
Mora-Soto, A., Sanchez-Segura, M. I., Medina-Dominguez, F., & Amescua, A. (2009). Collaborative learning experiences
using social networks. In 1st International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies, (pp. 4260-4270).
Barcelona: Academic Press.
Moro, J. (2018). The Emergence of Digital Course Materials in Higher Education and Their Effectiveness in Teaching
and Engaging Students. Publishing Research Quarterly, 34(3), 417–429. doi:10.100712109-018-9594-z
Morris, H., & Setser, B. (2015). Building a culture of innovation in higher education: design & practice for leaders.
2Revolutions & EDUCAUSE.
Morris, J. (2001). Social exclusion and young disabled people with high levels of support needs. Critical Social Policy
Ltd, 21(2), 161-183.
Mouza, C. M. (Ed.). (2017). Editorial: Strengthening the Impact, Novelty and Diversity of Research on Technology and
Teacher Education. Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 17(2), 154–159.
Mouzakis, Ch. (2006). Adult Education. New Information and Communication Technologies in Adult Education. Athens:
Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs. (in Greek)
Moxley, J. M. (1990). Publish don’t perish: The scholars guide to academic writing and publishing. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Mtebe, J.S. and Raphael, C. (2013). Students’ Experiences and Challenges of Blended Learning at The University of
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication
Technology, 9(3), 124-136.
Mueller, J. (2005). The authentic assessment toolbox: enhancing student learning through online faculty development. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 1-7. Retrieved from: http://jolt.merlot.org/documents/
vol1_no1_mueller_001.pdf
Mulgan, G., & Joshi, R. (2016). Clicks and mortarboards: how can higher education make the most of digital technology? Retrieved from https://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/higher_education_and_technology_nov16_.pdf
Muñoz, A., & Sobrero, V. (2006). Tuning Project in Chile: Analysis of processes of internationalization of higher education. Calidad en la Educación, (24): 249–271. doi:10.31619/caledu.n24.278
Munroe, M. (2018). The complicity of digital technologies in the marketisation of UK higher education: Exploring the
implications of a critical discourse analysis of thirteen national digital teaching and learning strategies. International
Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(11). doi:10.118641239-018-0093-2
Mwalumbwe, I., & Mtebe, J. S. (2017). ‘Using learning analytics to predict students’ performance in moodle learning
management systems: A case of mbeya university of science and technology. The Electronic Journal on Information
Systems in Developing Countries, 79(1), 1–13. doi:10.1002/j.1681-4835.2017.tb00577.x
Nage-Sibande, B., & Morolong, B. L. (2018). A trend analysis of opportunities and challenges of open and distance
learning provision in dual-mode institutions. Distance Education, 39(4), 495–510. doi:10.1080/01587919.2018.1457951
Nahal, A. (2009). Tending to Diversity at an HBCU. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 26(20), 24.
Naidoo, R. (2016, April 15). Higher education is trapped in competition fetish. University World News, 409.
Nair, S. C., & Patil, R. (2012). A Study on the impact of learning management systems on students of a university college in sultanate of oman. International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(2), 379.
395
Compilation of References
Najimi, A., Sharifirad, G., Amini, M. M., & Meftagh, S. D. (2013). Academic Failure and Students’ Viewpoint: The
Influence of Individual, Internal and External Organizational Factors. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 2(1),
22. doi:10.4103/2277-9531.112698 PMID:24083272
Namugenyi, C., Nimmagadda, S. L., & Mani, N. (2019). On a smart digital gender ecosystem for managing the socioeconomic development in the African contexts, Smart Innovation. Systems and Technologies, 97, 139–149.
National Accreditation Commission - Chile. (2018). Advanced Search for Accreditations. Available in: https://www.
cnachile.cl/Paginas/buscador-avanzado.aspx
National Accreditation Commission - Chile. (2018b). Virtual Training Criteria for Universities. Available in: https://
www.cnachile.cl/SiteAssets/Paginas/Acreditacion-institucional/Criterios%20de%20Formaci%c3%b3n%20Virtual%20
para%20Ues.pdf
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform.
National Council of Education. (2018). Database of undergraduate (2005-2018) and postgraduate (2005-2017) by
program. Available in: http://www.cned.cl/sites/default/files/base_indices_2005-2018_0.xlsx
National Research Council. (1987). Management of technology: The hidden competitive advantage. Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/18890
National Research Council. (2002). Preparing for the revolution: information technology and the future of the research
university. The National Academies Press.
Nativi, S., Mazzetti, P., & Craglia, M. (2017). A view based model of data cube to support big earth data systems interoperability. Big Earth Data, 1(1-2), 75–99. doi:10.1080/20964471.2017.1404232
NBIA. (2009). What is business incubation? Available at http://www.nbia.org/resource_library/what_is/
New York Times. (2017). Theresa May’s Letter Invoking Article 50. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/29/
world/europe/theresa-may-letter-article-50.html
Newbury House Dictionary of American English. (2013). Newbury house dictionary of American English. Retrieved
from http://nhd.heinle.com/Home.aspx
Newby, J., Eagleson, L., & Pfander, J. (2014). Quality Matters: New Roles for Librarians Using Standards for Online
Course Design. Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning, 8(1), 32–44. doi:10.1080/153329
0X.2014.916245
Newman, C. J. H. (1959). The idea of a university. Introduction by George Shuster. New York: Image Books. (Original
work published 1852)
Ng, W. (2015). New digital technology in education: conceptualizing professional learning for educators. Springer
International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05822-1
Niemiec, M., & Otte, G. (2010). An Administrator’s Guide to the Whys and Hows of Blended Learning. Journal of
Asynchronous Learning Networks, 14(1), 91–102.
Nikolopoulou, V., Leftheriotou, P., Pavlis-Korres, M., Papadantonakis, A., & Pavlakis, M. (2013). Training of Adults’
Educators. Educational Program Notes. Athens: Greek National Centre for Public Administration and Local Government
(E.K.D.D.A.). (in Greek)
Nissim, Y., & Weissblueth, E. (2017). Virtual Reality (VR) as a Source for Self-Efficacy in Teacher Training. International Education Studies, 10(8), 52. doi:10.5539/ies.v10n8p52
396
Compilation of References
Nokkala, T., & Bacevic, J. (2014). University autonomy, agenda setting and the construction of agency: The case of the
European University Association in the European Higher Education Area. European Educational Research Journal,
13(6), 669–714. doi:10.2304/eerj.2014.13.6.699
Nuckles, C. R. (2000). Student-centered teaching: Making it work. Adult Learning, 11(4), 5–6.
doi:10.1177/104515959901100403
Nybom, T. (2012). The disintegration of higher education in Europe, 1970-2010: a post-Humboldtian essay. In S. Rothblatt (Ed.), Clark Kerr’s World of Higher Education Reaches the 21st Century. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer
Science+Business Media.
O’Dowd, R. (2013). Telecollaborative networks in University Higher Education: Overcoming Barriers to Integration.
The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.02.001
Oblinger, D. G. (Ed.). (2012). Game changers: education and information technologies. EDUCAUSE.
Öğüt, A. (2001). Bilgi çağında yönetim. Nobel, No:321, 1.Baskı, Ankara. Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/tebd/
issue/29870/321749
Oh, E., & Park, S. (2009). How are universities involved in blended instruction? Journal of Educational Technology &
Society, 12(3), 327. Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1287037
690?accountid=14129
Olajide, S.O. & Aladejana, F.O. (2016). Effectiveness of ICT Application in the Learning of Basic Science and Technology
in Junior Secondary Schools in Ife East Local Government Area of Osun State. International Journal of Contemporary
and Applied Science, 3(3), 68-78.
Olatunji, S. O., Aghimien, D. O., Ayodeji, E., & Oke, E. O. (2016). Factors Affecting Performance of Undergraduate
Students in Construction Related Disciplines. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(13), 5–62.
Olelewe, C. J. (2014). Challenges facing Effective Utilization of Blended Learning Model in Teacher Education Programmes in Nigeria. Paper presented at 10th Annual National Conference of Qualitative Education in Nigeria (ASSEQEN)
with the Theme Reorienting and Alternative Education to Build a Better Future for All at the Benue State University
Markurdi. Retrieved from http://www.unn.edu.ng/publications/files/12302_Challenges_facing_Effective_Utilization_
of_Blended_Learning_Model_in_Teacher_Education_Programmes_in_Nigeria.pdf
Olguín, J. (2018). The Chilean right and the legitimizing principles of the pre and post 1973 coup d’état. Revista Izquierdas, (38), 141-163. Available in http://www.izquierdas.cl/images/pdf/2018/n38/art7.pdf
Online Degree Programs. (2013). The appeal of Black colleges online. OnlineDegreePrograms.com. Retrieved from
http://www.onlinedegreeprograms.com/blog/2013/the-appeal-of-black-colleges-online/
Orellana. V., Guzmán, C., Bellei, C., Gareca, B. y Torres, F. (2017). Elección de carrera y universidad en Chile: sentido
y utilidad de la acreditación. Santiago de Chile: Comisión Nacional de Acreditación.
Ortiz, E. M. (2018). Regional universities in Chile; tensions between the global and the local. Revista de Estudios y
Experiencias en Educación, 17(34), 149–156. doi:10.21703/rexe.20181734eortiz3
Osello, A., Rapetti, N., & Semeraro, F. (2017). BIM Methodology Approach to Infrastructure Design: Case Study of
Paniga Tunnel. IOP Conference Series. Materials Science and Engineering, 245(062052), 1–9. doi:10.1088/1757899X/245/6/062052
Oztemel, E., & Gursev, S. (in press). Literature review of Industry 4.0 and related technologies. Journal of Intelligent
Manufacturing. doi:10.100710845-018-1433-8
397
Compilation of References
Paine, L. (1992). Teaching and modernization in contemporary China. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education and modernization: The Chinese experience (pp. 183–209). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Palmer, M. M., Shaker, G., & Hoffmann-Longtin, K. (2014). Despite Faculty Skepticism: Lessons from a GraduateLevel Seminar in a Hybrid Course Environment. College Teaching, 62(3), 100106. doi:10.1080/87567555.2014.912608
Panda, S., & Mishra, S. (2007). E-Learning in a Mega Open University: Faculty attitude, barriers and motivators. Educational Media International, 44(4), 323–338. doi:10.1080/09523980701680854
Pan, S.-Y. (2013). China’s approach to the international market for higher education students: Strategies and implications.
Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 35(3), 249–263. doi:10.1080/1360080X.2013.786860
Pantelidis, V. S. (2009). Reasons to use virtual reality in education and training courses and a model to determine when
to use virtual reality. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 2, 59–70.
Panzaru, E. (2017). Academic Leave? The Impact of Brexit on British Higher Education. Policy Briefs Series, 3. Bucharest, Romania: European Institute of Romania.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers and powerful ideas. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Pardo, A., & Teasley, S. (2014). Learning analytics research, theory and practice: Widening the discipline. Journal of
Learning Analytics, 1(3), 4–6. doi:10.18608/jla.2014.13.2
Parra, J., Osanloo, A., Raynor, C., Hair, S., Korang, T., Padilla, C., & Chatterjee, S. (2018). Perspectives on a Graduate
Online Course that Modeled Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to Teach UDL. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 59–87.
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological
Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x PMID:26162104
Patterson, J. (2016). The 7 Most Important Benefits of Blended Learning. Retrieved from http://www.knowledgewave.
com/blog/benefits-of-blended-learning
Patton, M. Q. (2014). Nitel araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri. Translate Ed: Mesut Bütün ve Selçuk Beşir Demir.
Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research. London: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Paulson, F. L., Paulson, P. R., & Meyer, C. A. (1991). What makes a portfolio? Educational Leadership, 48(5), 60–69.
Pavlis-Korres, M., & Leftheriotou, P. (2016). Building Interaction in Adults’ Online Courses: A Case Study on Training
E-Educators of Adults. In L. Kyei-Blankson, J. Blankson, E. Ntuli, & C. Agyeman (Eds.), Handbook of Research on
Strategic Management of Interaction, Presence, and Participation in Online Courses (pp. 185–215). Hershey, PA: IGI
Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9582-5.ch008
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London, UK: Routledge.
Peters, M. (2009). Executing blended learning. Retrieved July 31, 2017 from clomedia.com
Peters, M. A. (2017). Technological unemployment: Educating for the fourth industrial revolution. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 49(1), 1–6. doi:10.1080/00131857.2016.1177412
398
Compilation of References
Peters, M. A., & Besley, T. (Eds.). (2013). The creative university: Vol. 1. Sense Publishers.
Peters, O. (1973). Die didaktische Struktur des Fernunterrichts: Untersuchungen zu einer industrialisierten Form des
Lehrens and Lernens. Weinheim: Beltz.
Piaget, J. (1967). The mental development of the child. In D. Elkind (Ed.), Six psychological studies by Piaget. New
York, NY: Random House.
Pino, R. (2013). Internet and social capital in isolated villages in Chile. Polis, 12(36), 197–221. doi:10.4067/S071865682013000300009
Poley, J. K. (2008). Asynchronous Learning Networks: Policy Implications for Minority Serving Institutions and for
Leaders Addressing Needs of Minority Learners. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12(2), 73–82.
Popescu, F., & Helsen, E. (2019). Comprehensive internationalization at HAN University of applied sciences. Curriculum,
co-curriculum, and learning outcomes. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 783, 36–45. doi:10.1007/9783-319-94709-9_4
Popescu, F., & Warmenhoven, R. (2009). Use of technology and virtual communication via global virtual teams at Arnhem
business school. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 783, 239–248. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94709-9_24
Porter, S. (2015). To MOOC or not to MOOC: how can online learning help to build the future of higher education?
Elsevier.
Porter, W. W., Graham, C. R., Spring, K. A., & Welch, K. R. (2014). Blended learning in Higher Education: Institutional
Adoption and Implementation. Computers & Education, 75, 185–195. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.02.011
Potkonjak, V., Gardner, M., Callaghan, V., Mattila, P., Guetl, C., Petrović, V. M., & Jovanović, K. (2016). Virtual
laboratories for education in science, technology, and engineering: A review. Computers & Education, 95, 309–327.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.02.002
Pratt, D. D. (1993). Andragogy after twenty-five years. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 57.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Price, D. M. (1999). Philosophy and the adult educator. Adult Learning, 11(2), 3–5. doi:10.1177/104515959901100202
Price, R. (1992). Moral-political education and modernization. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education and modernization: The
Chinese experience (pp. 211–237). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Pritchard, A. (2014). Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (3rd ed.). New York:
Routledge.
Punch, K. F. (2011). Sosyal araştırmalara giriş: Nicel ve nitel yaklaşımlar. Z. Etöz (Çev.ed.). Ankara: Siyasal.
Putnam, R. T., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher
learning? Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4–15. doi:10.3102/0013189X029001004
Qingnian, X., Duanhong, Z., & Hong, L. (2011). Governance Reform at China’s “985 Project” Universities. Chinese
Education & Society, 44(5), 31–40. doi:10.2753/CED1061-1932440503
Qi, W. (2011). A discussion on the 985 project from a comparative perspective. Chinese Education & Society, 44(5),
41–56. doi:10.2753/CED1061-1932440504
Quality Matters Program. (n.d.). Quality Matters, 2018. Available from https://www.qualitymatters.org/
399
Compilation of References
Quality Matters. (2014). The quality matters higher education rubric. Retrieved from https://www.qualitymatters.org/
qa-resources/rubric-standards
Rakes, G. (2008). Open book testing in online learning environments. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 7(1).1-9.
Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/PDF/7.1.1.pdf
Ramírez, B. (2017). Internationalize? Why? For what? Internationalization in Argentine universities. Debate Universitario, 5(10), 71-87. Available in: http://portalreviscien.uai.edu.ar/ojs/index.php/debate-universitario/article/view/111
Rao, S. L., & Bowondor, B. (2004). Management Education in India, its evolution and some contemporary issues. Research paper published by All India Management Education.
Rao, K., Edelen-Smith, P., & Wailehua, C. U. (2015). Universal design for online courses: Applying principles to pedagogy. Open Learning, 30(1), 35–52. doi:10.1080/02680513.2014.991300
Reddan, G., & Rauchle, M. (2016). Quality WIL + CDL = Employability. Australian Collaborative Education Network
(ACEN) National Conference 2016, Sydney, Australia.
Redden, E. (2017, June 14). Survey of more than 1,100 U.S. colleges looks at state of internationalization efforts. Inside
Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/06/14/survey-more-1100-us-colleges-looksstate-internationalization-efforts?width=775&height=500&iframe=true
Reinalda, B. (2008). The ongoing Bologna process and political science. European Political Science, 7(3), 389–393.
doi:10.1057/eps.2008.16
REUNA. (2018). REUNA: science and network education. Available in: http://www.reuna.cl/
Rice, M. P. (2002). Co-production of business Assistance in business incubators: An Exploratory Study. Journal of
Business Venturing, 17(2), 163–187. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(00)00055-0
Rizvi, I. A., & Popli, S. (2002). Models of Excellence in Business. Institute of Directors.
Roach, R. (2002). Going Online With V-HBCU. Black Issues in Higher Education, 19(5), 28.
Roberto, M., & Levesque, L. (2005). The art of making change initiatives stick. MIT Sloan Management Review, 46(4),
53–59.
Robertson, J. S., Grant, M. M., & Jackson, L. (2005). Is online instruction perceived as effective as campus instruction
by graduate students in education? The Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 73–86. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.12.004
Rodríguez, A., Nieto, M. J., & Santamaría, L. (2018). International collaboration and innovation in professional and technological knowledge-intensive services. Industry and Innovation, 25(4), 408–431. doi:10.1080/13662716.2017.1414752
Rodrik, D. (2018). Rescue the economy of neoliberalism. Letras Libres, (196), 12-17. Available in: https://www.letraslibres.com/espana-mexico/revista/rescatar-la-economia-del-neoliberalismo
Rogers, A. (1996). Teaching Adults (2nd ed.). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On become a person. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Rogers-Shaw, C., Carr-Chellman, D. J., & Choi, J. (2018). Universal Design for Learning: Guidelines for Accessible
Online Instruction. Adult Learning, 29(1), 20–31. doi:10.1177/1045159517735530
400
Compilation of References
Root-Bernstein, R. (2003). The art of innovation: Polymaths and universality of the creative process. In L. V. Shaavinina
(Ed.). International Handbook on Innovation (pp. 267-278). Academic Press.
Rose, D. H., Meyer, A., & Hitchcock, C. (Eds.). (2005). The universally designed classroom: Accessible curriculum and
digital technologies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Rossett, A., Douglas, F., & Frazer, R. V. (2003). Strategies for Building Blended Learning. Retrieved from http://www.
learningcircuits.org/2003/jul2003/rossett.htm
Ross, H. (1992). Foreign languages education as a barometer of modernization. In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education and
modernization: The Chinese experience (pp. 239–254). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Ross, J., Sinclair, C., Knox, J., Bayne, S., & Macleod, H. (2014). Teacher experiences and academic identity: The missing
components of MOOC pedagogy. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 10(1), 56–68.
Rostow, W. W. (1985). The developing world in the fifth Kondratieff upswing. The Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science, 420(1), 111–124. doi:10.1177/000271627542000110
Rothbard, M. N. (2015). Science, technology and government. Mises Institute.
Rubik, E. (1987). In play (D. Singmaster, Trans.). In E. Rubik, T. Varga, G. Kéri, G. Marx & T. Vekerdy (Eds.), Rubik’s
Cubic Compendium. Oxford University Press.
Rubik, E., Varga, T., Kéri, G., Marx, G., & Vekerdy, T. (1987). Rubik’s cubic compendium (D. Singmaster, Trans.).
Oxford University Press.
Rumbley, L. E., Altbach, P. G., & Reisberg, L. (2012). Internationalization within the higher education context. In D. K.
Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. D. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of international higher education (pp. 3–26).
Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781452218397.n1
Runté, R. (1981). The Emergence of the open university concept in Alberta (Unpublished Master’s thesis). University
of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Runté, M., & Runté, R. (2017). The rhetoric of higher education reform: The changing discourse of the purpose of
higher education. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Administration, Policy, and Leadership
in Higher Education (pp. 532–548). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch021
Runté, R., & Runté, M. (2007). Taylor-made for teachers: Deskilling through increased competencies. International
Journal of Humanization of Education, 1, 50–61.
Ryan, J., Kang, C., Mitchell, I., & Erickson, G. (2009). China’s basic education reform: An account of an international collaborative research and development project. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 29(4), 427–441.
doi:10.1080/02188790903308902
Ryle, G. (1949). Collected papers.: Vol. 2. Critical essays. London: Hutchinson.
Sabine, A. (2015). Why soft skills are just as important as academic ability in science graduates. Retrieved from SEEK
insights and resources: https://insightsresources.seek.com.au/soft-skills-just-important-academic-ability-science-graduates
Saito, W. H. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution. Rewriting the Rules of Business, Leadership, and Sovereignty. In
OECD NAEC (New Approaches of Economic Challenges) Seminar. Paris, France: OECD.
Salleh, M. S., & Omar, M. Z. (2013). University-industry collaboration models in Malaysia. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 102, 654–664. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.784
401
Compilation of References
Samayoa, A. C., Gasman, M., Abiola, U., Thai-Huy, N., & Commodore, F. (2016). Examining the potential of Massive
Open Online Courses (MOOCs) at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). The Journal of Negro Education, 85(4), 480–488. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.4.0480
Sanders, K. S. (2012). An examination of the academic networking site Edmodo on student engagement and responsible
learning (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of South Carolina College of Education.
Sanders, P. (1982). Phenomenology: A new way of viewing organizational research. Academy of Management Review,
7(3), 353–360. doi:10.5465/amr.1982.4285315
Sart, G. (2015). Fenomenoloji ve yorumlayıcı fenomenolojik analiz (Nevra Seggie ve Yasemin Bayyurt). İçinde Nitel
araştırma yöntem, teknik, analiz ve yaklaşımları.
Saucedo.Martínez, J. A., Pérez-Lara, M., Marmolejo-Saucedo, J. A., Salais-Fierro, T. E., & Vasant, P. (in press). Industry
4.0 framework for management and operations: A review. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing.
doi:10.100712652-017-0533-1
Savage, M. (2017). Fears grow over EU university funding as grants decline even before Brexit: Participation in Horizon
2020 project ‘already shows downward trend’. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/dec/03/eu-university-funding-grants-decline-brexit-horizon-2020
Schengen Area. (2017). List of Schengen Area Countries. Schengen Visa Information. Retrieved from: https://www.
schengenvisainfo.com/schengen-visa-countries-list/
Schmidt, M., & Stowell, N. (2017). Certifying Business Courses through Quality Matters. Journal of the Academy of
Business Education, 18, 122–142.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A., & Rein, M. (1995). Frame reflection: Toward the resolution of intractable policy controversies. New
York: Basic Books.
Schultze, U. (2017). What kind of world do we want to help make with our theories? Information and Organization,
27(1), 60–66. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2017.01.002
Schultz, T. (1977). Investment in human capital. In J. Karabel & A. H. Halsey (Eds.), Power and ideologyin Education.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Schwab, K. (2016). The fourth industrial revolution. New York: Crown Business.
Scott, P. (1995). The meanings of mass higher education. The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open
University Press.
Scott, P. (1998). Massification, internationalization and globalization. In P. Scot (Ed.), The globalization of higher
education (pp. 108–129). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press and Society for Research into Higher Education.
SDP Noticias. (2018, May 2). Mueren por contaminación 25 mil personas al año en México: OMS. SDPnoticias. Retrieved from www.sdpnoticias.com
Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Selwyn, N. (2017). Education and Technology: critical questions. In Education and Technology Critical Approaches.
Monash University.
402
Compilation of References
Shambaugh, R. N. (1995). The cognitive potentials of visual constructions. Journal of Visual Literacy, 15(1), 7–24. do
i:10.1080/23796529.1995.11687714
Shambaugh, R. N., & Magliaro, S. G. (1997). Mastering the possibilities: A process approach to instructional design.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management
Review, 25(1), 217–226.
Shattuck, K. (2010). Quality matters: A faculty-centered program to ensure quality in online course design. Collected
Essays on Teaching and Learning, 3, 49–53. doi:10.22329/celt.v3i0.3239
Shelton, K., & Saltsman, G. (2014). Quality scorecard 2014 handbook criteria for excellence in the administration of
online programs. Newburyport, MA: Online Learning Consortium.
Shibambu & Ditsa. (2017). Analysis of Information Technology Infrastructure Towards Improving Services in the Public
Sector. Journal of IT and Economic Development, 8(1), 33–44.
Shilton, K. (2017). Engaging Values Despite Neutrality: Challenges and Approaches to Values Reflection during the
Design of Internet Infrastructure. Science, Technology & Human Values, XX(X), 1–23.
Shinnar, R. S., Giacomin, O., & Janssen, F. (2012). Entrepreneurial Perceptions and Intentions: The Role of Gender and
Culture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 465–493. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00509.x
Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
doi:10.3102/0013189X015002004
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1),
1–22. doi:10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
Shuttler, R., & Burdick, J. (2006). Creating a unified system of assessment. In Online assessment and measurement:
Foundations and challenges (pp. 165–173). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Siemens, G. (2013). Massive open online courses: Innovation in education? Open Educational Resources: Innovation.
Research and Practice, 5, 5–15.
Siemens, G., & Baker, R. S. (2012). Learning analytics and educational data mining: towards communication and collaboration. In Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp. 252-254).
ACM. 10.1145/2330601.2330661
Sikka, P. (1997). Financing the development of indigenous technology in India. Current Science, 73, 40-48.
Silberman, M. L. (Ed.). (2007). The handbook of experiential learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Silva, M. A. M. (2012). Business incubation in Chile: Development, financing and Financial services. Journal of Technology Management and Innovation, 77(2), 1-12.
Silva, P. (1991). Technocrats and Politics in Chile: From the Chicago Boys to the CIEPLAN Monks. Journal of Latin
American Studies, 23(2), 385-410. Available in: https://www.jstor.org/stable/157030
Silvio, J. (2006). Towards quality virtual education, but with an emphasis on equity and relevance. RUSC. Universities
and Knowledge Society Journal, 3(1), 1–14. doi:10.7238/rusc.v3i1.269
Simons, R.-J., van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (2000). New learning. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
doi:10.1007/0-306-47614-2
403
Compilation of References
Singh, M., & Han, J. (2005). Globalizing flexible work in universities: Socio-technical dilemmas in internationalizing
education. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 6(1). Retrieved from http://proxy.stu.
edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1634502876?accountid=14129. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v6i1.218
Singmaster, D. (1981). Notes on Rubik’s Magic Cube. Enslow Publishers.
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Slocum, J., Singmaster, D., Huang, W.-H., Gebhardt, D., & Hellings, G. (2009). The cube: The ultimate guide to the
world’s bestselling puzzle. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc.
Smilor, R. W., & Gill, M. D. Jr. (1986). The New business incubator: linking talent, technology, capital and know how.
Lexington Books.
Smith, J. A., & Eatough, V. (2006). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In G. Breakwell, C. Fife-Schaw, S. Hammond, & J. A. Smith (Eds.), Research Methods in Psychology (3rd ed.). London: Sage.
Smith, J., & Hu, R. (2013). Rethinking teacher education: Synchronizing Eastern and Western views of teaching and
learning to promote 21st century skills and global perspectives. Education Research and Perspectives, 40, 86–108.
Smith, R. O. (2012). Fostering transformative learning online. In E. W. Taylor & P. Cranton (Eds.), The handbook of
transformative learning: Theory, research and practice (pp. 408–422). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, R. III. (2011). HBCUs Must Embrace Online Education. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 28(3), 25.
Snipes, V. T., Ellis, W., & Thomas, J. (2006). Are HBCUs up to speed technologically? One case study. Journal of Black
Studies, 36(3), 382–395. doi:10.1177/0021934705278782
Sonesson, L., Boffard, K., Lundberg, L., Rydmark, M., & Karlgren, K. (2017). The challenges of military medical
education and training for physicians and nurses in the Nordic countries – an interview study. Scandinavian Journal of
Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 25(38), 1–10. PMID:28399912
Song, L., & Hill, J. R. (2007). A conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online environments.
Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(1), 27–42.
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges. (2000). Best practices for electronically offered
degrees and certificate programs. Retrieved from http://www.sacscoc.org/pdf/081705/commadap.pdf
Spencer, T. (2002). The potential of the Internet for non-profit organizations. First Monday, 7(8). doi:10.5210/fm.v7i8.976
Spiro, R. J., & Jehng, J. Ch. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and
multidimensional traversal complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, education, and multimedia:
Exploring ideas in high technology (pp. 163–204). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Spring, J. (1984, April). Education and the sony war. Phi Delta Kappan, 65(8), 534–537.
Stapleton, K. (2017, April 13). Events: China now produces twice as many graduates a year as the US. Retrieved from
World Economic Forum: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/04/higher-education-in-china-has-boomed-in-the-lastdecade
Stat, B. (1982). Altogether fun and absolutely understanding Rubik’s Pocket CubeTM. Banbury Books, Inc.
Stearns, P. N. (2013). The industrial revolution in world history (4th ed.). Westview Press.
Stefanovic, M., Goran, D., & Milan, E. (2008). Incubators in Developing Countries: Developing Perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Research, 2(3), 157–163.
404
Compilation of References
Stephenson, J. (Ed.), Teaching & learning online: New pedagogies for new technologies. London, UK: Routledge.
Stewart, B. (2013). Massiveness+ openness= new literacies of participation. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and
Teaching, 9(2), 228–238.
Stokstad, E. (2016). Uncertainty reigns in Brexit Britain. Science, 353(6298), 437. doi:10.1126cience.353.6298.437
PMID:27471289
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1988). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stuart, R., & Yep, D. (2012). Survey: Nearly One in Four HBCUs Offer Full, Blended Online Degree Programs. Diverse
Issues in Higher Education, 29(15), 16.
Stuart, T., & Ding, W. (2004). When Do Scientists Become Entrepreneurs? The Social Structural Antecedents of Commercial Activity in the Academic Life Sciences. Columbia Business School, Columbia University.
Subsecretary of Telecommunications of Chile. (2017). IX Internet Access and Usage Survey. Government of Chile.
Such, B. B., Ritzhaupt, A. A., & Thompson, G. T. (2017). Migrating learning management systems: A case of a large
public university. Administrative Issues Journal: Education, Practice & Research, 7(2), 57–69. doi:10.5929/2017.7.2.6
Tannehill, D. B., Serapiglia, C. P., & Guiler, J. K. (2018). Administrative or Faculty Control of Online Course Development and Teaching: A Comparison of Three Institutions. Information Systems Education Journal, 16(3), 26–34.
Tapper, T., & Palfreyman, D. (Eds.). (2005). Understanding mass higher education: comparative perspective on access.
Routledge Falmer.
Taylor, J. A., & Newton, D. (2012). Beyond blended learning: A Case Study of Institutional Change at an Australian
Regional University. The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 54–60. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.10.003
Tekin, M., Burgess, T., & Güleş, H. K. (2000). Değişen dünyada teknoloji yönetimi. Konya: Damla Ofset.
TELEDUC. (2018). Teleduc. Distance Education. Available in: http://teleduc.uc.cl/
Texas. (2015). EIR Accessibility Policy. Retrieved January 24, 2017 from http://dir.texas.gov/View-About-DIR/Pages/
Content.aspx?id=19
Thai, M., & Taylor, H. (1982). The winning solution to Rubik’s Cube. Banbury Books, Inc.
Thai, M., Taylor, H., Black, M. R., & Golomb, S. W. (1982). The winning solution to Rubik’s Revenge. Banbury Books, Inc.
The Economist. (2008). The future of higher education: how technology will shape learning. The Economist Intelligence
Unit.
The Economist. (2011, October 15). Trouble in the middle. Author.
The Economist. (2017). Lifelong learning. The Economist, 422(9023), 9.
Thomas, J. J., Graham, C. C., & Piña, A. A. (2018). Current Practices of Online Instructor Evaluation in Higher Education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 21(2), 1–13.
Thorpe, M. (1998). Assessment and ‘third generation’ distance education. Distance Education, 19(2), 265–286.
doi:10.1080/0158791980190206
405
Compilation of References
Thouin, M. F., Hefley, W. E., & Raghunathan, S. (2018). Student Attitudes toward Information Systems Graduate Program Design and Delivery. Journal of Information Systems Education, 29(1), 25–36.
Times. (2018). World university rankings 2018. Times Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2018/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats
Tinmaz, H. (2013). Sosyal ag web siteleri ve sosyal aglarin egitimde kullanimi [The use of social networking sites and
social networks in education]. In K. Cagiltay & Y. Goktas (Eds.), Ogretim Teknolojilerinin Temelleri: Teoriler, Arastirmalar, Egilimler (pp. 615–630). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Tobin, T. J. (2013). Universal Design in Online Courses: Beyond Basics. Online Classroom, 13(12), 1–3.
Tobin, T. J. (2014). Increase Online Student Retention with Universal Design for Learning. Quarterly Review of Distance
Education, 15(3), 13–24.
Tomlinson, A. (Reporter). (2017, September 15). Fake degrees: Exposing Canadians with phoney credentials. In N.
Vellani (producer), Marketplace, Season 45. Canadian Broadcast Corporation.
TopUniversities.com. (2018). What does Brexit mean for students? Retrieved from https://www.topuniversities.com/
student-info/university-news/what-does-brexit-mean-students
Troisi, O., Grimaldi, M., Loia, F., & Maione, G. (2018). Big data and sentiment analysis to highlight decision behaviors:
A case study for student population. Behaviour & Information Technology, 37(10-11), 1111–1128. doi:10.1080/01449
29X.2018.1502355
Trow, M. A. (1974). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. In General report to the conference
on the structure of post-secondary education (pp. 55–101). Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Development and
Cooperation.
Tsiligiris, V., & de Ruyter, A. (2018). What the higher education Brexit debate has not covered. University World News,
525. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20180111085339886
Tune, J. D., Sturek, M., & Basile, D. P. (2013). Flipped classroom model improves graduate student performance in
cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal physiology. Advances in Physiology Education, 37(4), 316–320. doi:10.1152/
advan.00091.2013 PMID:24292907
Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Twentieth Century Fund. (1983). Making the grade: Report of the twentieth century fund task force on federal elementary
and secondary education policy. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Tynjala, P. (1999). Towards expert knowledge? a comparison between a contructivist and a traditional learning environment in university. International Journal of Educational Research, 31(5), 357–442. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00012-9
Tzy-Ling, C., & Tzu-Jung, C. (2006). Examination of attitudes towards teaching online courses based on theory of reasoned
action of university faculty in Taiwan. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(5), 683–693. doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2006.00590.x
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics, 2015
(2016-014), Chapter 3. Author.
UDI Online Project. (2010). Students with disabilities and online learning (Technical Brief #04). Retrieved from http://
www.udi.uconn.edu/
406
Compilation of References
Uğur, S. (2018). Açık ve Uzaktan Öğrenme Süreçlerinin Bileşenleri. In The Foundations of Open and Distance Learning. Academic Press.
Ulmer, L. W., Watson, L. W., & Derby, D. (2007). Perceptions of Higher Education Faculty Members on the Value of
Distance Education. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 8(1), 59–70.
UNAB. (2018). Universidad Andrés Bello. Mission, Vision, Values. Available in: https://www.unab.cl/nuestra-universidad/
universidad/mision-y-vision/
United Kingdom National Archives. (2018). United Kingdom Legislation. Union with Scotland Act 1706. Retrieved
from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/Ann/6/11
United States Access Board. (2018). Final regulatory impact analysis: Final rule to update the Section 508 standards
and Section 255 guidelines. Retrieved January 24, 2017 from https://www.access-board.gov/guidelines-and-standards/
communications-and-it/about-the-ict-refresh/final-regulatory-impact-analysis#_Toc471376817
Valencia, A. V., Cázares, M., & del Carmen, T. (2016). Academic and research networks management: Challenges for
higher education institutions in Mexico. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 13(7),
1–11. doi:10.118641239-016-0013-2
Valentino, K., Christian, K., & Joelianto, E. (2017). Virtual Reality Flight Simulator (Vol. 9). Internetworking Indonesia
Journal.
Valenzuela, J. M., Labarrera, P., & Rodríguez, P. (2008). Education in Chile: Between continuity and ruptures. Main
milestones of the Educational Policies. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, (48), 129 - 145. Available in: https://
rieoei.org/historico/documentos/rie48a06.pdf
van der Zwaan, B. (2017). Higher education in 2040: a global approach (V. Collingwood, Trans.). Amsterdam University
Press. doi:10.26530/OAPEN_625978
van Manen, M. (1997). Phenomenological pedagogy and the question of meaning. In D. Vandenberg (Ed.), Phenomenology & education discourse (pp. 41–68). Johannesburg, South Africa: Heinemann.
Varasano, J. (1981). Jeff conquers the cube in 45 seconds* And you can, too. Scarborough House.
Vásquez-Colina, M. D., Russo, M. R., Lieberman, M., & Morris, J. D. (2017). A case study of using peer feedback in
face-to-face and distance learning classes among pre-service teachers. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41(4),
504–515. doi:10.1080/0309877X.2015.1135884
Vaughan, N. (2007). Perspectives on Blended Learning in Higher Education. International Journal on E-Learning, 6(1),
81-94. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/6310/
Vega, A., Martínez, C., & Morales, C. (2017). Social movement and inequity in access to Higher Education in Chile: the
difficult path towards structural reform. In A. Vega & P. Andreucci (Eds.), From Social Conflict to Global Indignation.
Santiago de Chile: RIL Editores.
Vera, J. P. (2012). The Unified National School as a representation of the political - ideological struggle during the Unidad
Popular. Revista Divergencia, 1(1), 73-94. Available in: http://www.revistadivergencia.cl/docs/ediciones/01/05_la_enu_
como_representacion_de_la_lucha.pdf
Viberg, O., & Grönlund, Å. (2017). Understanding students’ learning practices: Challenges for design and integration
of mobile technology into distance education. Learning, Media and Technology, 42(3), 357–377. doi:10.1080/174398
84.2016.1088869
407
Compilation of References
Wang, V. (2005). Instructor survey instruments: Adult teaching methods. Retrieved from http://134.139.176.33/surveys/
adult_teaching_ methods-survey_instruments.htm
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. P. (2006). Understanding Mezirow’s theory of reflectivity from Confucian perspectives: A
model and perspective. Retrieved from http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue8_1/wang.html
Wang, J. L., & Colletta, N. (1991). Chinese education problems, policies, and prospects. In I. Epstein (Ed.), Chinese
education problems, policies, and prospects (pp. 145–162). New York, NY: Garland Publishing, INC.
Wang, V. (2004-2005). Adult education reality: three generations, different transformation the impact of social context:
three generations of Chinese adult learners. The New York Journal of Adult Learning, 3(1), 17–32.
Wang, V. (2005). Perceptions of teaching preferences of online instructors. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching,
16(3), 33–54.
Wang, V. C. X. (2007). How contextually adapted philosophies and the situational role of adult educators affect learners’
transformation and emancipation. In K. P. King & V. C. X. Wang (Eds.), Comparative adult education around the globe:
International portraits and readings of the history, practice philosophy, and theories of adult learning (pp. 139–150).
Hangzhou, China: Zhejiang University Press.
Wang, V. C. X., & Cranton, P. A. (2011). Transformative learning. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education
and Technology, 2(4), 58–66. doi:10.4018/javet.2011100105
Wang, V. C. X., & Cranton, P. A. (2012). Promoting and implementing self-directed learning (SDL): An effective adult
education model. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3(3), 16–25. doi:10.4018/
javet.2012070102
Wang, V. C. X., & Farmer, L. (2008). Adult learning methods in China and Bloom’s taxonomy. International Journal
for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 1–15. doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2008.020213
Wang, V., & Bott, P. A. (2004). Modes of teaching of Chinese adult educators. The New York Journal of Adult Learning, 2(2), 32–51.
Wang, V., & Sarbo, L. (2004). Philosophy, role of adult educators, and learning How contextually adapted philosophies
and the situational role of adult educators affect learners’ transformation and emancipation. Journal of Transformative
Education, 2(3), 204–214. doi:10.1177/1541344604265105
Watson, W., & Watson, S. L. (2007). An argument for clarity: What are learning management systems, what are they
not, and what should they become. TechTrends, 51(2), 28–34. doi:10.100711528-007-0023-y
Waxin, M. F., & Bateman, R. (2009). Public sector human resource management reform across countries: from performance appraisal to performance steering? European J. International Management, 3(4), 495-511.
WCA. (2018). About the WCA: World Cube Association. Retrieved from https://www.worldcubeassociation.org/about
Weed, J. (2016). Sub-optimal multi-phase path planning: A method for solving Rubik’s Revenge. Retrieved from https://
arxiv.org/pdf/1601.05744
Weimer, M. (2012). Learner-centered teaching and transformative learning. In E. W. Taylor & P. Cranton (Eds.), The
handbook of transformative learning: Theory, research and practice (pp. 439–454). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
West, K. (2018). Three truths for gearing up to the fourth industrial revolution. Retrieved from https://www.fin24.com/
Opinion/three-truths-for-gearing-up-to-the-fourth-industrial-revolution-20180301
Wexler, S. (2008). E-learning Guild’s Research Report. Synchronous Learning Systems.
408
Compilation of References
Whitmer, J. (2012). Logging on to improve achievement: evaluating the relationship between use of the learning management system, student characteristics, and academic achievement in a hybrid large enrollment undergraduate course
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of California.
Wilcox, C., Wells, J., Haddad, G., & Wilcox, J. K. (2014). The Changing Democratic Functions of Historically Black
Colleges and Universities. New Political Science, 36(4), 556–572. doi:10.1080/07393148.2014.954793
Wille, C., Century, J., & Pike, M. (2017). Exploratory Research to Expand Opportunities in Computer Science for
Students with Learning Differences. Computing in Science & Engineering, 19(40), 40–50. doi:10.1109/MCSE.2017.43
Willis, B. (1992). Instructional development for distance education. ERIC Document Reproduction Service. (ED 351 007)
Will, M. (2015). A Historically Black University Embraces an International Future. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 3.
Wolf, M. M., Wolf, M., Frawley, T., Torres, A., & Wolf, S. (2012). Using social media to enhance learning through collaboration in higher education: a case study. In Agricultural Economics Association 2012 Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.
Wolny, J., & Charoensuksai, N. (2014). Mapping customer journeys in multichannel decision-making, Journal of Direct.
Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 15(4), 317–326. doi:10.1057/dddmp.2014.24
Wong, C.-S., Wong, P.-M., & Peng, K. Z. (2010). Effect of Middle-level Leader and Teacher Emotional Intelligence on
School Teachers’ Job Satisfaction. The Case of Hong Kong. Educational Management Administration & Leadership,
38(1), 59–70. doi:10.1177/1741143209351831
World Economic Forum. (2017). Realizing human potential in the fourth industrial revolution: an agenda for leaders to
shape the future of education, gender and work. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_EGW_Whitepaper.pdf
Wright, J. (2017). The university as a total institution. Quillette.com. Retrieved from http://quillette.com/2017/01/02/
the-university-as-a-total-institution/
Wright, C. R., Montgomerie, T. C., Reju, S. A., & Schmoller, S. (2014). Selecting a learning management system :
Advice from an academic perspective. EDUCAUSE Review.
Wu, T., Terpenny, J., & Schaefer, D. (2017). Digital design and manufacturing on the cloud: A review of software and
services. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing, 31(01), 104–118. doi:10.1017/
S0890060416000305
Wu, W., & Zhou, Y. (2012). The third mission stalled? Universities in China’s technological progress. The Journal of
Technology Transfer, 37(6), 812–827. doi:10.100710961-011-9233-8
Xing, B. (2015). Massive online open course assisted mechatronics learning: a hybrid approach. In A. Mesquita & P. Peres
(Eds.), Furthering Higher Education Possibilities through Massive Open Online Courses. IGI Global. doi:10.4018/9781-4666-8279-5.ch012
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2017). Implications of the fourth industrial age for higher education. The Thinker: For the
Thought Leaders, 73, 10-15.
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2018o). Smart computing applications in crowdfunding. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
doi:10.1201/b22523
Xing, B., & Marwala, T. (2018p). Introduction to smart computing—approximate reasoning. In B. Xing & T. Marwala
(Eds.), Smart Computing Applications in Crowdfunding. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
409
Compilation of References
Xing, B., Marwala, L., & Marwala, T. (2018). Adopt fast, adapt quick: Adaptive approaches in the South African Context. In N. W. Gleason (Ed.), Higher Education in the Era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (pp. 171–206). Singapore:
Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0_8
Yang, R. (2015). Reassessing China’s higher education development: A focus on academic culture. Asia Pacific Education Review, 16(4), 527–535. doi:10.100712564-015-9397-2
Yew, T. M., Dawood, F. K., Jen, L. S., & Hoay, K. C. (2016). Stimulating Deep Learning Using Active Learning Techniques. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(3), 49–57.
Yu, T., & Jo, I. (2014). Educational technology approach toward learning analytics: relationship between student online
behavior and learning performance in higher education. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (pp. 269-270). Indianapolis, IN: Academic Press. 10.1145/2567574.2567594
Yuan, L., Powell, S., & Cetis, J. (2013). MOOCs and open education: Implications for higher education. Cetis White
Paper. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UK. Retrieved from http://publications.cetis.ac.uk/2013/667
Zellmer, W. A. (2017). Introduction: A Foundation for Strategic Planning in Health-System Pharmacy. American Journal
of Health-System Pharmacy, 74(2), 28–53.
Zhao, L. (2011). A blueprint for the future: China’s plan for education reform and development 2010-2020. EAI Background Brief No 616 East Asian Institute, National University of Singapore. Retrieved from http://www.eai.nus.edu.sg/
BB616.pdf
Zion Market Reasearch. (2017). Learning management system market (distance learning, instructor-led trainings, and
others) for performance management, content management, communication & collaboration and others applications:
global industry perspective, comprehensive analysis and fore. Author.
Zong, C. (2006). Cube: A window to convex and discrete geometry. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/
CBO9780511543173
Zucker, L. G., Darby, M. R., & Torero, M. (2002). Labor Mobility from Academe to Commerce. Journal of Labor
Economics, 20(3), 629–660. doi:10.1086/339613
Zunino, H. (2014). Neoliberal penetration in Chile: Possibilities and Restrictions to Civic Participation. Revista de Geografía Espacios, 4(7), 71-81. Available in: http://www.revistaespacios.cl/pdf/n7/07_zunino4.pdf
Zurita, F. (2015). The university system in contemporary Chile. Educação em Revista, 31(2), 329–343. doi:10.1590/01024698138059
410
411
About the Contributors
Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A., received his Doctorate in Business Administration from the Nova
Southeastern University (Florida, USA). Dr. Khosrow-Pour taught undergraduate and graduate information system courses at the Pennsylvania State University – Harrisburg (USA) for almost 20 years. He is
currently Executive Editor at IGI Global (www.igi-global.com). He also serves as Executive Director of
the Information Resources Management Association (IRMA) (www.irma-international.org) and Executive
Director of the World Forgotten Children Foundation (WFCF) (www.world-forgotten-children.org). He
is the author/editor of more than 100 books in information technology management. He is also currently
the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Mobile Devices, Wearable Technology, and Flexible
Electronics (IJMDWTFE) and the International Journal of End-User Computing and Development
(IJEUCD), and is also the founding Editor-in-Chief of the Information Resources Management Journal
(IRMJ), Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations (JECO), Journal of Cases on Information
Technology (JCIT), and the Journal of Information Technology Research (JITR), and has authored more
than 50 articles published in various conference proceedings and scholarly journals.
***
Terence C. Ahern is an Associate Professor in Instructional Design and Technology in the College
of Education and Human Resources at West Virginia University. He coordinates the doctoral program
in Instructional Design and Technology. His research interests are in the use of instructional technology
in the classroom. He has published extensively in the areas of distance education and social network
media. Currently he is using his expertise in instructional design and programming to create game-based
learning environments for the middle school classroom.
Francisca Aladejana is a Professor of Science Education and educational consultant. She is currently
a member of the University governing Council, former Director, Institute of Education, Vice-Dean,
Faculty of Education Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. She has published over 70 articles,
co-authored and edited books in her field. Her research interests include science education, specialised
pedagogy and gender studies.
Anisah Bagasra is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Kennesaw State University. She founded
the psychology major at Claflin University, led the initiative to launch online degree programs, and
developed the online psychology program at Claflin. She teaches a wide range of psychology courses
and conducts research on topics related to mental health disparities.
About the Contributors
Bhaskar Bhowmick currently working as an Assistant Professor in Rajendra Mishra School of Engineering Entrepreneurship, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. His Primary focus of research is
on understanding and disintegrating environmental developments and identifying strategic responses by
the firms, relating to micro-foundations of Capability, with role of leaders in sustaining firms through
the learning and unlearning processes. Research area includes Firm Environment, Strategic Responses,
and Dynamic Capabilities. The innovation and entrepreneurship research includes the domain of innovation ecosystem in an emerging country context. Present research initiatives include conceptualizing
of Environment Education- Entrepreneurship- Enterprise in emerging country context (5E) model in
converging the academia- industry research in dealing with developmental issues.
Serkan Cankaya is an Asst.Prof.Dr. at Necatibey Faculty of Education, Balikesir University. Dr.
Cankaya received M.S. degree in Computer Education & Instructional Technology Department at
Balıkesir University. He gained his Ph.D. in Computer Education & Instructional Technology Department at Anadolu University at June, 2013. His academic interest areas are social learning networks,
educational multimedia, open and distance learning, online learning and special educational technology.
He has journal articles published in international indexes, papers submitted to international meetings.
Mónica Cruz-Tapia has a Master in Higher Education at Universidad de Ciencias de la Informática,
Chile, Foreign Language Teaching (English) Degree at Universidad Diego Portales, Chile, and Primary
Education Teacher at Universidad Pedro de Valdivia, Chile. She is English Teacher at Instituto Profesional de Chile. She currently is researching about Dropout in Higher Education.
Gurhan Durak is Assistant Professor of Computer Education and Instructional Technology at Balikesir
University. Dr. Durak gained his Ph.D. in Distance Education at Anadolu University at December, 2013.
His academic interest areas are open and distance learning, social learning networks, support services
in distance education, online learning and administration of distance education He has over than 20
journal articles published in international indexes, 1 international book chapter and other national and
international articles, papers submitted to international meetings.
William Evans is a Professor of Teacher Education at the University of West Florida. Dr. Evans has
an extensive history of teaching and consulting with students, parents and teachers. He is the author of
numerous textbooks, chapters and articles. He was a former President of the Council for Children with
Behavioral Disorders and a Senior Fulbright Specialist. He consults with schools and governmental
agencies throughout the world on assessment, behavior management and policy issues.
Kim K. Floyd is an Associate Professor of Special Education. She developed and coordinates the Collaborative Assistive Technology Education (CATE) lab in the College of Education and Human Services
at West Virginia University. She has been a Faculty Associate for the Teaching and Learning Commons
at WVU, which supports enhanced teaching and technology integration throughout the university. Dr.
Floyd has twice been awarded the Teaching Award for the College.
Robert A. Gable is the Constance F. and Colgate W. Darden Professor at Old Dominion University
(ODU). He earned his PhD from George Peabody college of Vanderbilt University, Nashville TN. Bob
taught students with autism, emotional disabilities, learning disabilities, and intellectual disabilities. He
412
About the Contributors
also served as principal at three educational programs at residential facilities. Before coming to ODU he
was on the faculty at Peabody/Vanderbilt University and the University of Pittsburgh. He has published
300 peer-refereed articles, books, book chapters, and monographs. Individually and in collaboration with
colleagues, he has received some 40 million dollars of external funding to support research and service.
He was a Senior Fulbright Specialist and taught special education courses at Hanoi National University
of Education (HNUE). Finally, Bob is a former President of the Council for Children with Behavioral
Disorders (CCBD) and was on the Executive Board of the International Association of Special Education.
Aisha Haynes is the Assistant Director at the Center for Teaching Excellence: University of South
Carolina – Columbia. She oversees the design, creation, delivery and ongoing improvement of distributed learning (online and blended) delivery methods. Dr. Haynes is a certified Quality Matters Peer and
Master Reviewer and has earned Online Teaching certifications from the Online Learning Consortium.
She has been designing online courses for more than nine years. Dr. Haynes teaches technology courses
online at USC-Columbia and Palmetto College. She also teaches a Dissertation Preparation course for
the Curriculum and Instruction (Curriculum Studies) program at USC-Columbia. Her research interests
include: instructional design in online learning environments, online course accessibility, Universal Design
for Learning (UDL), learning styles, and collaboration and engagement in online learning environments.
Andrew S. Herridge is a Ph.D. candidate in Higher Education Research at Texas Tech University.
His research interests include access and equity in higher education, policy, and international education.
He earned a Bachelor’s of Arts in Psychology and English from the Florida State University. He earned
a Master’s of Education from the University of West Florida in College Student Affairs Administration.
Garry Hornby worked as a mainstream and special education teacher and as an educational psychologist before lecturing in special education at teachers’ colleges and universities in England, Barbados and
New Zealand. His research interests include special and inclusive education, educational psychology
and parental involvement. He has published over 150 journal articles and book chapters, and thirteen
books, the most recent being on ‘Parental involvement in childhood education (2011)’ and ‘Inclusive
special education (2014)’.
Oscar Alberto Hoyos-Villa is a proactive strategist with work and academic experience in management, marketing, international business and Internationalization. Doctor in Business Sciences from
Nebrija University (Spain), Diploma of Advanced Studies in International Business Management from
Nebrija University (Spain), Master in Business Administration from the National University of Colombia. Research professor in the Business Research Group of the Autonoma University of Manizales
(Colombia), undergraduate and postgraduate teacher. Business Consultant.
Lisa J. James serves as unit manager in the TTU Ethics Center. In her role, Lisa coordinates the
Center’s core programs; the Southwest Regional Consortium for Academic Integrity (SWRCAI), Global
Ethics Day an annual event partnering with Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, and TTU
Ethics Workshops. Lisa offers in-class presentations to undergraduate students and student organizations
focusing on academic integrity and other ethical topics. Her areas of research interest are access and
equity focusing on underrepresented student populations.
413
About the Contributors
Gulsun Kurubacak is a professor in Distance Education at the College of Open Education of
Anadolu University. Dr. Kurubacak undertook graduate studies at Anadolu University, Turkey (MA.
Educational Technology) and the University of Cincinnati, USA (Ed.D. Curriculum & Instruction), and
also has worked a post-doctoral fellow at the College of Education at New Mexico State University,
USA (2001-2002). Dr. Kurubacak earned her B.S. degree in Computer Engineering from the College
of Informatics Technologies and Engineering of Hoca Ahmet Yesevi International Turk-Kazakhstani
University in the year 2012-2013. Also, she is currently a graduate student in the Department of Computer and Instructional Technologies. Dr. Kurubacak has over twenty-seven year experience in focusing
on the egalitarian and ecological aspects of distance education; finding new answers, viewpoints and
explanations to online communication problems through critical pedagogy; and improving learner critical
thinking skills through project-based online learning. She continues to manage and provide pedagogical
support for distance learning programs.
Ioannis Lignos is a Flight Instructor in the Hellenic Air Force flying the T-6A training aircraft. He
has served for six years as a Fighter Pilot flying the RF-4E aircraft. He received his Bachelor degree
in Aviation Science from the Hellenic Air Force Academy in 2006. He holds a Master degree in Adult
Education from the Hellenic Open University (2018). His main interests include education enhancement through new technologies, cognitive science and artificial intelligence applications for educational
purposes.
Vimbi Mahlangu holds a B.A.Ed. (Vista University); B.Ed.; MEd; & Ph.D. degrees from the University of Pretoria. He is an Associate Professor at the University of South Africa, Department of Educational Leadership & Management. He is responsible for teaching and research. He presented papers at
national and international conferences. He is a recipient of Dean’s Award for Excellence in Teaching in
the Faculty of Education (2011) at the University of Pretoria. He has published extensively in accredited
journals and contributed a book, book chapters and edited a book.
Simeon Olaynka is a lecturer in Science Education in the Institute of Education at the Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. He has published in many national and international papers. His research
interests include pedagogy of science education.
Maria Pavlis-Korres obtained a university degree in Political Science in Athens (1981). From 1983
until 2018 she worked on Adult Education in the Greek Ministry of Education. She has participated as
an expert in the first research on Roma Education conducted by the Commission of European Communities (1984-1985) and she has participated in educational and research projects on Roma Education
implemented by the EU, the General Secretariat for Lifelong Learning in Greece, the University of
Ioannina and the University of Athens. In 2016 she collaborated with the Center of Educational Policy
Development (KANEP/GSEE) in a research project on main requirements for the social integration of
Neets. From 1989 to 2000 she was working as an automotive journalist for magazines (4Wheels, Marie
Claire), newspapers (Kerdos) and TV broadcasts (Mega channel, ET2, Alter). She has created educational material (videos, leaflets, special issues, posters etc.) on road safety for children and adults. Since
2005 her research interests are focused on e-learning and she became a PhD student in the University
of Alcalá, Spain. In 2008 she obtained her Advance Studies Degree from the Computer Science Department of the University of Alcalá and in 2010 she obtained her PhD with honors. The subject of her
414
About the Contributors
PhD is “Development of an e-education framework for the education of educators of special groups in
order to improve their compatibility with their learners”. Since 2012 she is a member of the scientific
staff of Hellenic Open University and teaches in “Adult Education” and “Education Science” postgraduate programs. In June 2017 she has been elected Associate Professor in the Pedagogical Sector of the
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki to teach “Lifelong Learning and non-Formal Education”. She has
published several articles, chapters and books on Roma, adult education and e-learning. Her current
interests are focused on design, development and evaluation of educational projects for adults, face to
face and e-learning, as well as the group dynamics in an online environment and the appropriate use of
communication tools in order to promote interaction in an online environment.
Mary Runté, PhD, is Chair of Policy & Strategy, Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge.
Her research interests include the intersection of work/nonwork domains, stakeholder engagement,corporate
social responsibility (CSR), nonprofit management, applied ethics, and higher education policy management. Her current research grant is a management study of the patient perspective in medical settings
and medical research.
Robert Runté, PhD, took early retirement from the Faculty of Education at the University of Lethbridge to become Senior Editor at Five Rivers Publishing and at EssentialEdits.ca. He remains active in
the field of higher education policy research with a special interest in institutional support for completion
of theses and dissertations and other assessment policies.
Rosalin Sahoo currently working as a research scholar at Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur.
Her primary area of focus is on academic entrepreneurship, technology value chain, and sustainability.
Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez has a Ph.D. in Economics and Business Administration from the Autonomous University of Madrid (Spain) and a Ph.D. in Sociology from the Pontifical University of Salamanca
(Spain). He is a GIEE faculty-researcher at EGADE Business School-Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico,
Visiting Professor at The Catholic University of Santiago de Guayaquil (Ecuador), Autonomous University of Manizales (Colombia), and St. Francis Xavier University of Chuquisaca (Bolivia), and positively
accredited by the National Agency for the Evaluation of Quality and Accreditation (Spain) and by the
National System of Researchers (Mexico). He is a member of dozens of Scientific Committees in highreputed international journals. He is at the ‘Who’s Who in the World’ from 2011.
Kamaljeet Sandhu teaching and research expertise are in Information Systems Adoption, Management Accounting and Corporate Governance Adoption, Digital Learning, and E-Learning Analytics at
Universities.
Neal Shambaugh is Professor Emeritus of Learning Sciences and Human Development. He is a former Associate Dean of Academic Affairs and a Graduate Programs Coordinator of Instructional Design
and Technology (IDT) in the College of Education and Human Services at West Virginia University.
The master’s IDT program has been 100% online delivered since 2010, and he taught courses in IDT
and Educational Psychology.
415
About the Contributors
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele Entering academia from a background in secondary school teaching and
in instructional design of digital learning materials, Geraldine Torrisi-Steele has a strong interest in
higher education learning and teaching, and in the field of human computer interaction. Current focus
areas include the use of ICT for learning, the development of self-regulation and higher order thinking
skills in university students, usability of digital resources and the user experience in digital interactions.
Serap Uğur graduated from an undergraduate program in “Computer Education and Instructional
Technology” at Anadolu University and the master degree of the same program. Since 2002, she has
been working as a lecturer at the Distance Education Department of Open Education Faculty. She works
research and development activities and projects in fields such as e-learning content types, digital storytelling, animation, game-based learning, gamification, instructional design, cross-cultural aspects, artificial
intelligence, individual differences and human-computer interaction. She interested in technological
singularity and transhumanism. She have been studying doctorate in Distance Learning.
Michel Valdes-Montecinos is a PhD Student in Policies and Management Educational at Universidad
de Playa Ancha de Ciencias de la Educación, Chile, Master in Educación at Universidad de Santiago
de Chile, Chile and Education Degree at Universidad Arturo Prat, Chile. Also, he is qualified in Quality Assessment of distance education programs at Online Learning Consortium and Latin American
and Caribbean Institute of Quality in Distance Higher Education, Strategic Planning and University
Management at IEDE Business School, and Leadership in Distance Education at Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México. He is Head of Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Postgraduate, and Academic
Coordinator of Postgraduate Programs with Virtual Modality of Learning in the Area of Education of
the Universidad Arturo Prat – Santiago HQ.
Alejandro Vega-Muñoz has a PhD in Business Studies at Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Spain,
Master in Industrial Engineering at Universidad de Concepción, Chile and Port Engineer at Universidad
Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile. His research interests are focused on R+D+i Management,
Higher Education Management & Policy, and Science & Technology Policy. He currently works as a
Researcher of the PIIE Corporation (Chile), Foundation Escuela de Asuntos Internacionales (Chile) and
the Universidad Nacional de La Patagonia (Argentina), ‘Teaching in Chile Program’ at the Universidad
Autonóma de Chile, Member of SOCHIGEO (Sociedad Chilena de Ciencias Geográficas), Professor
at Universities in Chile, Spain, Argentina, and Peru. ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-2044
Victor C. X. Wang is a Professor and Dissertation Chair/Member who graduated in 2002 from the
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville where Malcolm Knowles worked till his death. Thus far, Dr. Wang
has published more than 230 refereed books, book chapters, and journal articles. These publications
address andragogy and pedagogy, which can be considered as the umbrella under which such areas as
andragogical curriculum and program development, management, human performance technology, social
justice, global education, diversity and E-learning are addressed. Currently, Dr. Wang is co-editing the
International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology with Columbia University Professor, Dr. Lyle Yorks, and a doctoral student of Malcolm Knowles, Dr. John A. Henschke. Dr. Wang has
won many academic achievement awards, including the Distinguished Faculty Scholarly & Creative
Achievement Award and 2016 American Association for Adult and Continuing Education Presidential
Award. He has had extensive experience in chairing and mentoring doctoral dissertations (including dis416
About the Contributors
sertations from University of Auckland, New Zealand). Some of his books have been adopted as required
textbooks by major universities in the United States, and in China. In addition, numerous universities
worldwide including some Ivy League Universities have cataloged his books and journal articles. Dr.
Wang’ teaching (including teaching via technology) has reached many states in the United States and
China. Please visit his website: http://victorcxwangassociates.org/.
Bo Xing, DIng, is an Associate Professor at the Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Prior to this, he was an Associate Professor at the Department of Computer
Science, School of Mathematical and Computer Science, University of Limpopo, South Africa. He
served as a senior lecturer under the division of Center for Asset Integrity Management (C-AIM) at the
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment
and Information Technology, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Dr. Xing earned his DIng degree
(Doctorate in Engineering with a focus on soft computing and remanufacturing) in early 2013 from the
University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He also obtained his BSc and MSc degree both in Mechanical
Engineering from the Tianjin University of Science and Technology, P.R. China, and the University of
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, respectively. He was a scientific researcher at the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa. He has published 4 books, over 60 research papers in the
form of international journals, and international conference proceedings. His current research interests lie
in applying various nature-inspired computational intelligence methodologies towards big data analysis,
miniature robot design and analysis, advanced mechatronics system, and e-maintenance.
417
418
Index
21st Century Capabilities 138, 156
A
Academic Entrepreneurship 321-326, 331, 333-335
Access to Education 34
Accessibility 63-64, 69-70, 72-73, 75-76, 78-79, 81,
88, 90, 98, 180-182, 184, 194, 282, 301
Accessible 11, 21, 25, 27-28, 33, 63, 70-74, 78, 81,
164, 167, 179-181, 183, 185-186, 194, 257, 272,
282, 310, 344
Accreditation 21-22, 26, 32, 37-38, 40-45, 49, 58, 65,
200, 214, 343
Active Learning 71, 200, 219, 271, 280, 286
Adult Learner 137, 143, 149-150, 255, 258
Air Force 215-216, 223-226, 232
Alberta 17-18, 22
Andragogy 131-136, 139, 147-149, 156-157, 255,
261-262, 265-270, 277
Artificial Intelligence 25, 28, 110-111, 184, 188, 232,
316, 338-339, 342, 350-358, 360-363, 365
Assistive Technology 90, 184, 186, 188, 191, 194
Attraction 195, 197, 199, 204-206, 209, 211
B
Behaviorism 254, 257, 262, 267-268, 270-271, 277
Blackboard Learn 165, 304, 306, 312-313, 315
Brexit 198-199, 237-239, 244-250
C
Canada 14, 16-18, 238, 242, 304-305, 316
Canvas 299, 304-305, 311-316
Chile 31-33, 35-38, 40-43, 45
Cloud-computing 92
competition 14, 20, 26-27, 37, 53, 60, 143, 150, 196,
258, 333, 339-340, 361-362
Constructive Learning 215-216, 219-221, 232
Consumerism 13, 18-21, 26, 28
Course Design 52, 54, 58, 60, 70, 72, 74, 77-78, 81-82,
88, 166, 182, 283
Curriculum 16, 34, 37, 40, 52, 61, 70, 73, 78, 90, 96, 99,
139-140, 180-181, 183-184, 186-189, 191, 223,
233, 238, 240, 242-244, 254, 259-260, 271-272,
280, 283-285, 293, 298
D
Decision-Making 5, 92, 98, 180, 188, 190, 196, 203,
216, 235, 340, 358
Deep Learning 219, 235
Digital World 37, 49
Digitalization 107, 200-201
Disabilities 63-64, 69-70, 72-74, 81, 88, 95, 181-182,
194
Disability 33, 63-64, 73-74, 76, 79, 81, 87, 90
Distance 32-34, 37-38, 40, 42-45, 49, 54, 56, 59, 69,
74, 91-102, 141, 167-168, 180, 182-183, 206,
209, 214, 231, 270-271, 278, 280, 283, 286, 300,
338-339, 341-343, 346-358, 360-363, 365
Distance Education 32-34, 37-38, 42, 44-45, 49, 56,
92, 94, 101, 141, 167-168, 182-183, 270-271,
300, 343, 348, 351, 354, 357
Distance learning system 92-96, 342, 350, 357, 360-361
Distance Matrix 209, 214
Distributed Learning 74, 78-79, 90, 92, 271
Distributed Learning Quality Review 74, 78
Diversity 52, 55, 69, 78, 95, 100-102, 180, 189, 244, 272
Dual-mode institutions 91
E
Edmodo 299, 301-302, 305-306, 309-311, 313-316
Educational Quality 196, 200, 205
Educational Technology 164
Index
Enlightenment Discourse 13, 16, 19, 21-24, 26, 28
Enrollment 15, 36, 38, 40, 43, 52, 57-58, 64-65, 87, 132133, 166-167, 172, 205, 214, 246-247, 258, 338
Entrepreneurial University 321
European Higher Education 237-242, 248, 250
European University Association 242
Experiential Learning 135, 196, 217-221, 230, 266
F
Flexible curriculum 180, 183-184, 187-188
Flight Simulator 221, 225-227, 229-232
flipped classroom 167, 291, 293
FMOT 195-197, 201-204, 211, 214
Foreign students 40-44, 200, 211, 243, 246-247
Frame reflection 189
G
Global University 214
Globalization 31, 34-35, 131, 156, 197, 214, 242
Glocalization 203, 214
H
HEI 195-197, 200, 202-205, 209, 211, 324
HEIs 195-205, 211, 214, 321-322, 324, 331-332
Heuratogy 277
Higher Education 1-2, 11-13, 15-17, 19-20, 22-23,
25, 27-28, 31-38, 40-42, 44-45, 53-55, 69-70,
72, 91-96, 99-100, 102, 107-108, 111-113, 118,
123-124, 131-134, 138, 140, 148, 150-151, 167168, 182, 184, 195, 197, 237-246, 248-250, 253,
256, 258-260, 269, 271, 279-281, 283-286, 293,
298, 300, 305, 321-324, 331, 334
Human Capital 13-19, 22-28, 240, 332
Humanism 149, 261, 268, 271, 278
I
Inclusion 32, 39, 72, 78, 83
Infrastructure 13, 24, 28, 33, 52-58, 64, 92-93, 97-101,
107, 121, 124, 180, 280-281, 283, 285, 300, 314,
325, 327-328, 333, 344, 346, 356, 360, 362, 365
instructional design 52, 77-78, 163-165, 167, 169, 182,
190, 254-255, 260, 270, 282, 285
Intelligent Tutoring System 235
Intelligent Tutoring Systems 216, 232
International Faculty 151, 237-238
International Higher Education 249
Internationalization 32, 40-42, 44-45, 55, 133, 196,
211, 240, 242-244, 280, 284-285, 298
Internationalization of Higher Education 41, 240, 242243, 280, 284-285, 298
Internet 6, 19, 32, 49, 55-56, 90, 94, 96-97, 101, 110,
162, 166, 181, 195-197, 200-204, 211, 214,
257-260, 281, 283-284, 287-288, 292, 294, 302,
315-316, 344, 351, 361
L
Learning Community 342
Learning Environment 59, 100, 162, 164, 169, 176177, 187, 220, 255-256, 265-266, 271, 280-283,
298, 300-302, 307, 309, 316, 342
Learning Management System 52, 57, 75, 99, 164166, 169, 171, 176, 283, 299-300, 303, 307, 312,
344-346, 358
Learning Management System Market 303
Learning management systems 57, 62, 99, 162, 165166, 183-184, 188, 299, 312, 344, 346, 354,
358, 365
Life-Long Learning 139, 157, 299-300
Logic Models 194
M
Manpower 12-28, 355-356
Marketing 52, 57, 65, 195, 201, 203, 205, 211, 255,
330, 335
marketization 27
Minority Students 52, 54-56
Mobile technology 91-92, 99
MOOCS 54, 253-254, 256-260, 264, 269-272, 278, 300
Moodle 166-167, 169, 171, 299, 301, 304-305, 307309, 311-316
N
Neo-Liberal Educational 49
Neoliberalism 35, 37
O
Online Learning 51-52, 54-57, 59, 62, 71-74, 78, 90,
94, 102, 162, 165, 168, 182, 184, 255-256, 258259, 265, 271, 281, 307, 309, 316
open and distance learning 338-339, 341-343, 346358, 360-363, 365
419
Index
P
T
Participatory Literacy 269, 278
Pedagogy 36, 52, 56, 78, 132-136, 147-149, 157, 255,
257, 259, 262, 269-270, 278, 280, 298, 308
Performance 27, 35, 45, 93, 95-96, 107, 135-136, 144146, 186-188, 194, 223, 242-243, 263-264, 280,
282, 286, 298, 301, 309, 346-348, 350
Perspective 34, 75, 131-132, 151, 189, 191, 195-196,
258, 262, 266, 282, 284, 290, 298, 300, 302-303,
339, 345, 357
Professional writing 1-4, 9-10
Project-Based Learning 187, 194, 290, 293
Task Prioritization 215-216, 235
Teacher-Centered 134-135, 142, 151, 157, 254-255,
262, 270, 280, 298
Teaching Methods 131-142, 148-152, 157, 184, 262,
280, 285
Technology infrastructure 54-56, 58, 93, 100, 180
technology tools for writing and research 8
The Mochilazo 36, 49
The Penguin Revolution 36, 49
Theodore Schultz 13
Traditional Method 282, 298
Transformation 2, 36-37, 109-110, 123-124, 131, 133135, 139-140, 148-149, 151, 157, 163, 188-189,
202, 217, 266, 300, 339, 365
Transformational 134, 179-183, 188, 190-191, 194, 282
Transformational Leaders 194
Transformative Paradigm 194
Triple Accreditation 214
typology 11-12
Q
Quality 1, 4, 10, 24, 32, 34-38, 40-42, 44-45, 49, 51,
53-54, 57, 59-62, 64-65, 69-72, 74-75, 77-81, 88,
95, 132-134, 162-163, 176, 180, 182, 187, 196197, 200, 203-205, 211, 214, 224, 240-243, 258,
261-262, 266, 280, 284-285, 301, 316, 326, 333,
339-341, 345, 348, 350, 358, 360-361
Quality Assurance 49, 69, 72, 74, 78, 80, 240-242, 285
Quality Matters 61-62, 72, 74, 78, 182
R
Research Funding 237-238, 240, 245
S
Self-Reflection 149, 174, 215-216, 235
Self-regulation 49, 187-190
Service 2, 26, 34, 52, 55, 57-58, 61-63, 96, 99-101,
107, 121, 124, 141, 165-166, 180, 195-196,
202-204, 214, 312-314, 325, 327-328, 342, 344,
346, 349-350
Smart Learning Ecosystem 194
SMOT 195-197, 201-204, 211, 214
Spatial Perception 220, 235
Student 12, 14, 18-19, 22, 24-27, 36, 49, 52, 54-65,
70-71, 73-74, 77-79, 81, 83, 86, 94, 97-98, 101102, 112, 134-135, 137, 139, 141, 143-144, 146,
148, 151, 156, 163-164, 166-169, 171-174, 176,
180-189, 194-197, 199, 202-205, 209, 211, 240,
246-247, 249, 254, 258, 264, 266, 269-270, 282,
284-285, 288, 293-294, 310, 313, 316, 327-328,
330, 358
420
U
UDL 69-70, 72-74, 76, 78-81, 88, 179, 181-185, 187189, 191, 194
UK 15, 27, 197-199, 237-239, 244-245, 247-249
Unified National School 35, 49
Universal Design (UD) 182, 194
Universal Design for Learning 69-70, 73, 78, 81, 88,
90, 179, 181-182, 191, 194
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 69-70, 73, 81,
179, 181-182, 191, 194
Usability 72, 74, 78, 81, 88, 90, 97, 182-183, 204,
301, 309
W
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 181,
194
Z
ZMOT 195-197, 201-204, 211, 214